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Cnrpclopatfria 3Brttaniuca
OR, A
DICTIONARY
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ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
jdustrateD toitj) nearlg sir DunDreD aEngratitngst.
VOL. IX.
INDOCTI DISCANT; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.
EDINBURGH:
Printed at the Encyclopaedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK.
1815.
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FOR
Tordycc. ^ ^ORDYCE, David, an elegant and learned wri-
ter, was born at Aberdeen in the year 1711. leav¬
ing received the early part of his -education at the gram¬
mar fchoel, at the age of 13 he was entered at the Greek
clafs in Marifehal college, Aberdeen j in 1728 he took
, the degree of A. M. and was afterwards, in I742> a<^'
mitted profeffor of philofophy in the fame college. He
was originally defigned for the minittry •, to prepare
himfelf for which was the whole objeft of his ambition,
and for a courfe of years the whole purpofe of his Ru¬
dies. How well he was qualified to appear in that cha¬
racter, appears from his “ Theodoras, a dialogue con¬
cerning the art of preaching.” Having finhhed this
Work, he went abroad in 17 on his travels, in order
to obtain frelh ftores of knowledge : but after a fuccels-
ful tour througli fevcral parts of Europe, he was, on
-his return home, unfortunately call away in a llorm on
the coall of Holland, in the 41ft year of his age. Bo¬
lides the above work, he wrote Dialogues on Educa¬
tion, 8vo, and a Treatife of Moral Philofophy, pub-
lilhed in the Preceptor. The third edition of his
Theodoras was publilhed in London, in 1751, after his
death, by his brother James, the fubject of the following
article.
Fordyce, James, a Scotch divine, juftly elleemed
for his piety and ingenuity, as well as for his pulpit
eloquence, was born at Aberdeen in the year 1720.
He received his clafTical education at the public gram¬
mar fchool, and went afterwards to the Marifchal col¬
lege, where he went through the ufual courfe of Rudies
neceifary for a minifter of the gofpel. His natural abi¬
lities were excellent, and he improved to the utmoll the
favourable opportunities he enjoyed at the univerlity,
which made him be confidered as well qualified for a
preacher of the gofpel at an early period of life. His
firlt appointment was that of fecond minifier in the
‘ church of Brechin in the county of Angus, after which
he accepted of a call to Alloa near Stirling. The peo¬
ple of that parifh were prepoiVefled in favour of another,
and prejudiced againft Mr Fordyce, which could not
fail to be a mofh unpleafant circumilance ; yet by his
xmprefiive delivery, and indefatigable attention to every
part of his miniiierial duty, he foon changed their pre¬
judice into efteem, and their efteem into admiration.
During his tefidence at Alloa, he drew on him the
(notice of the public by three excellent fermons 5 the firll
on the eloquence of the pulpit, the fecond on the me¬
thod of promoting edification by public inflitutions, and
Vol. IX. Part I.
F O 11
the third ‘on the dclufive and bloody fpirit of popery, ^ Fordy
preached before the fynod of Perth and Stirling. But
Hill greater wonder and afionifiiment were excited by
his inimitable fermon on the folly, infamy, and mifery
of unlawful pleafure, preached before the general af-
fembly of the church of Scotland in 1760. It contains
fucli malierly compofition with refpeil to deferipti' u,
fpirit, and elegance, and was delivered with fuch un¬
common folemnity, animation, and pathos, that it filled
his learned fathers and brethren with aftonifhment, and
juftly railed him to unrivalled eminence among his cle¬
rical cotemporaries. About this time lie was compli¬
mented with a degree of doflor in divinity by the uni-
verfity of Glafgow, probably on account of the fame he
acquired by this extraordinary fermon.
The friends of Dr Fordyce being moftly in London,
he was invited to that metropolis to be the colleague of
Dr Lawrence, minifter of a refpeftable congregation in
Monkwell-ftreet, on whole death, which happened a
few months after, Dr Fordyce became once more fa¬
mous for his pulpit eloquence, always preaching t(*
overflowing audiences. This popularity he juftly de-
ferved, whether with refpedl to the elegance of his com-
pofitions, or their happy tendency to imprefs the heart
with the love of virtue and religion. Yet even Dr For¬
dyce lived to fee his popularity on the decline ; for
fuch as attend a place of worlhip from mere motives of
curiofity mull have fickle and unftable minds, changing
their preachers as they do their drefs, loving to be
where others are, of doing what others do, and of ad¬
miring what others admire, for they have no tafte of
their own.
His pews were thinned from another caufe, which
was the- failure of a younger brother, an extenfive bank¬
er, which ruined many of the doflor’s conftant hear¬
ers and moil liberal fupporters. Although the doclor
could not be reafonably blamed for the failure of his
brother, yet it is certain that it brought a degree of
■odium on the whole family. Another caufe of the di¬
minution of his hearers was an unhappy difference be¬
tween him and Mr Toller his colleague, which hap¬
pened in the year 1755, and which ended in a divifion
of the congregation, many refpeclable families follow -
ing Mr Toller to another place of worlhip. Soon af¬
ter this he declined officiating as a minifter, the impair¬
ed Hate of his health rendering fuch a Hep necefiary.
The bell fpecimen of pulpit eloquence which perhaps
ever came from his pen, was delivered at the ordina-
A tion
FOR [2
tion or his fucceffor Mr James Lindfay, and highly me-
riting the attentive perufal of every elergyman. The
remainder of his valuable life he fpent chiefly at a re¬
tirement in Hampfhire in the vicinity of the earl of
Bute, with whom he lived in the greatefl: intimacy,
and to whofe valuable library he had unlimited accefs.
He afterwards went to Bath, where he luffered much
from an afthmatic affedHon, but bore it with the heroic
fortitude of a Chriftian, and expired without a groan on
the firtt of Qdtober 1796, in the 76th year of his
age.
The doctor’s writings difeover much genius and ima¬
gination, a corredl talte, extenfive knorvledge of' the
world, and a happy method of engaging the attention ;
full of ardent piety, and a zeal for the interefts of ge¬
nuine virtue. His religious fentiments were manly and
rational 5 in private life he wras highly amiable, and de-
fervedly beloved by all who knew him. He was au¬
thor of Sermons to Young Women, in twm volumes
i2mo, which have been tranflated into feveral Euro¬
pean languages; A Sermon on the Character and
Conduct of the Female Sex ; Addreflesto Young Men,
in twro volumes 12mo ; Addreffes to the Deity •, A vo¬
lume of Poems; A difeourfe on Pain, and Additions
to his brother’s Temple of Virtue.
Fordyce, George, a writer and lecturer on medi¬
cine, was born in the year and ftudied at the
univerfity of Aberdeen, where he obtained the literary
degree of M. A. at the early age of 14, perhaps not
altogether owing to the fuperior cait of Ids genius, or
the extent of his acquirements, which could not be ex¬
traordinary in a boy of his years. He became appren¬
tice to an uncle who praclifed furgery at Uppingham in
Rutlandlhire, when he was only 15, and afterwards
went to the univerfity of Edinburgh, where his dili¬
gence and progrefs attracted the attention of Dr Cullen,
at that time profeffor of chemiftry, who very generoufly
promoted his improvement. He graduated in 175^
when only 22 years of age *, after which he refided one
winter at Leyden. The greater part of his patrimony be¬
ing fpent on his education, he refolved to try his for¬
tune in London, where he fettled in the year 1759*
Fie commenced with a courfe of lectures on chemillry }
and although his encouragement at fir ft was by no means
flattering, yet he fteadily and diligently perfevered, not-
withftanding fuch unfavourable appearances, till his li¬
terary merit began gradually to be difeovered and pro¬
perly appreciated. A number of young men wdio came
to ftudy in London did not think that their medical
eourfe was complete, without availing themfelves of the
benefit of his courfe of lectures.
In the year 1768, he publiflied his Elements of the
Pradlice of Phyfic, which formed the text book of his
medical courfe, and wTere much read as a valuable epi¬
tome of medicine. His private practice was very ie-
fpe&able 5 and in the year 1770 his medical reputation
was fo great, that he was chofen phyfieian to the hofpi-
tal of St Thomas, although he had to contend againft
a gentleman with very powerful intereft •, and his merit
as a man of fcience made him a member of the Royal
Society in 1776. He was chofen in 1787 a fellow of
the College of Phyficiansy and his chemical knowledge
was of Angular importance to that body for a new edi¬
tion of their Pharmacopoeia. By the influence of his
i'onneflions, but probably more fo by his literary repu-
] FOB.
tation, he was appointed to furnifli the navy with four- ForJycer
krout, which we believe he executed with advantage 1)
both to himfelf and the public. ■ *
His conftitution difeovered fymptoms of premature
decay, yet he continued to difeharge his profetiional du¬
ties till he fell a vicTim to an irregular gout, and a w;a-
ter in his cheft, on the 25th of June 1802, in the 66th
year of his age. If his lectures wanted the charms of
an eloquent delivery, he made ample compenfation by
the originality of his ideas and his fcientific informa¬
tion, and by a memory, which was uncommonly reten¬
tive. His works are, Elements of Agriculture and
Vegetation ; Of the Praftice of Phyfic 5 A Treatife on
the Digeftion of Food ; and Four Diflertations on Fe¬
ver.
FORE, applied to a ftiip, denotes all that part of a
ftup’s frame and machinery which lies near the Item.
FoJiE and aft, is ufed for the whole Ihip’s length, or
from end to end.
FORECASTLE of a Ship, that part where the
foremaft ftands. It is divided from the reft by a bulk¬
head .
FOREIGN, fomething extraneous, or that comes
from abroad. The word is formed from the Latin
fores, “ doors}” or foris, “ out of doors }” or forum,
“ market,” &c.
Foreign minifter, foreign prince, foreign goods, &c.
are thofe belonging to other nations. See Minister,
&c.
Foreign to the purpofe, fignifies a thing remote or
impertinent.
Foreign, in the Eng/ijh Law, is ufed in various fig-
nifications. Thus,
Foreign Attachment, is an attachment of the goods
of foreigners found within a city or liberty, for the fa-
tisfadlion of fome citizen to whom the foreigner is in¬
debted ; or it fignifies an attachment of a foreigner’s
money in the hands ol another perfon.
FOREIGN Kingdom, a kingdom under the dominion
of a foreign prince.
At the inftance of an ambafiador or conful, any of¬
fender againft the laws here may be font for hither irom
a foreign kingdom to which ho hath fled. And,
where a ftranger of Holland, or any foreign coun¬
try, buys goods at London, for inftance, and there
gives a "note under his hand for payment, and then
o-oes array privately into Holland j in that cafe, the
feller may have a certificate from the lord mayor, on
the proof of the fale and delivery of fuch goods,, where¬
upon a procefs will be executed on the party in Flol-
land.
Foreign Qppofer, or Appofer, an officer in the ex¬
chequer that oppofes or makes a charge on all fheriffs,
&c. of their green vrax } that is to fay, fines, ifiues,
amerciaments, recognizances, &.c.
Foreign Plea, fignifies an obje&ion to the judge of
the court, by refufing him as incompetent, becaufe the
matter in queftion is not within his jurifdiftion.
FOREIGN Seamen, ferving two years on board Bri-
tifli fliips, whether of war, trade, or privateers, du¬
ring the time of war, ftrall be deemed natural-born fub-
jedts.
FOREIGNER, the natural-born fubject to fome fo-
reign prince.
Foreigners, though made denizens, or naturalized,
are
FOR [
Foreigner arc difabled to bear any office in government, to be of
M the privy council, or members of parliament, &c.—
*^°rL ^°Ci'S‘ I'h*8 by the afts of the fettlement of the crown.—
Such perfons as are not freemen of a city or corporation,
are alfo called foreigners, to diftinguifh them from the
members of thfe fame.
FOREJUDGE!!, in Law, fignifics a judgment
whereby one is deprived or put by a thing in queition.
To be forejudged the court, is where an officer or At¬
torney of any court is expelled the fame for malprac-
- tice, or for not appearing to an aflion on a bill hied
againfl him, &c. And where an attorney of the com¬
mon-pleas is fued, the plaintiff’s attorney delivers the
bill to one of the criers of the court, who calls the at¬
torney defendant, and folemnly proclaims aloud, that,
if he does not appear thereto, he will be forejudged :
like wife a rule is given by the fecondary for his appear¬
ance ; and if the attorney appears not in four days, then
the clerk of the warrants ffrikes fuch an attorney oft' the
roll of attorneys ; after which he becomes liable to be
arrefted like any other perfon j but where an attorney
is forejudged, he may be reftored on clearing himfelf
from his contumacy, and making fatisfatlion to the
plaintiff, &c.
FOREL AND, or Foreness, in Navigation, a point
of land jutting out into the fea.
North FORELAND, in the ifle of Thanet, Kent, of
which it is the N. E. point, is the promontory afeer-
tained by act of parliament to be the moft fouthern
part of the port of London, which is thereby extended
N. in a right line to the point called the Nafe on the
eoaft of Effex, and forms what is properly called the
Mouth of the Thames. A fea-mark was erected here
by the Trinity-houfe corporation at the public expence,
which is a round brick tovrer, near 80 feet high. The
ffia gains fo much upon the land here by the winds at
S. W. that within the memory of fome that are living
about 30 acres of land have been loft in one place. All
veffels that pafs on the fouth fide of this head-land are
faid to enter the Channel, which is the name for the
narrow fea between England and France •, and all the
towns or harbours between London and this place, whe¬
ther on the Kentiffi or Effex ffiore, arc called members
of the port of London.
South FORELAND, in Kent, a head-land forming the
eaft point of the Kentifh ffiore ; and called South, in
refpeft to its bearing from the other Foreland, which is
about fix miles to the north. Its fituation is of great
fecurity to the Downs, the road between both, which
■would be a very dangerous road for fhip<q did not this
point break the fea off, that would otherwife come
rolling up from the weft to the Flats or banks of fand,
which for three leagues together, and at about a league
or a league and a half from the ffiore, run parallel with
it, and are dry at low water 5 fo that thefe two capes
breaking all the force of the fea on the S. E. and
S. W. make the Downs accounted a good road, except
when the wind blows exceffively hard from S. E. E. by
N. or E, N. E. when (hips in the Downs are driven
from their anchors, and ofen run affiore, or are
forced on the fands, or into Sandwich bay or Ramfgate
pier.
FORE-LOCKS, in the fea language, little flat
wedges made of iron, ufed at the end of bolts, to keep
them from flying out of their holes.
3 ] FOR
FOREMAST of a Ship, a large round piece of Foremaft,
timber, placed in her fore part or fore-caftle, and carry- Cmit.
ing the fore-fail and fore-top-fail yards. Its length is n ”v
ufually f- of the main mail, and the fore-top-gallant-maft
is 4 the length of the fore-top.
FOREMAW Men, are thole on board a ffiip that take
in the top-fails, fling the yards, furl the fails, bowfe,
trice, and take their turn at the helm, &c.
FOREST, in Geography, a huge wood \ or, a large
extent of ground covered with trees. The word is form¬
ed of the Latin forefa, which firft occms in the capi¬
tulars of Charlemagne, and which itfelf is derived from
the German frof, lignifying the fame thing. Spelman
derives it from the Latin juris ref at, by reafon forefts
are out of towns. Others derive forefa from feris, q. d.
Forefa, quod ft tuta fatio ferarum, as being a fafe Ra¬
tion or abode for wild beafts.
The Caledonian and Htrcynian forefts are famous
in hiftory. The firrt was a celebrated retreat of the
ancient Pifls and Scots : The latter anciently occupied
the greateft part of Europe •, particularly Germany,
Poland, Hungary, &c. In Caefar’s time it extended
from the borders of Alfatia and Switzerland to Tran-
fylvania 5 and was computed 60 days journey long, and
9 broad : fome parts or cantons thereof are ftill remain-
in?\
The ancients adored forefts, and imagined a great
part of their gods to refide therein : temples were fre¬
quently built in the thickeft forefts 5 the gloom and
filence whereof naturally infpire fentiments of devotion,
and turn men’s thoughts within themfelves.
For the like reafon, the Druids made forefts the place
of their refidence, performed their facrifiees, inftrufted
their youth, and gave laws therein.
Forest, in Law, is defined, by Manwood, a certain,
territory of woody grounds and fruitful paftures, pri¬
vileged for wild beafts and fowls of foreft, chafe, and
warren, to reft and abide under the protedtion of the
king, for his princely delight; bounded with unremove¬
able marks and meres, either known by matter of record
or prefeription ', repleniflied with wild beafts of venery
or chafe, with great coverts of vert for the faid beafts ;
for prefervation and continuance whereof, the vert and
venifon, there are certain particular laws, privileges, and
officers.
Forefts are of fuch antiquity in England, that,, ex¬
cepting the New Foreft in Hampffiire, eredled by Wil¬
liam the Conqueror, and Hampton Court, eroded by
Henry VIII. it is faid, that there is no record or hi¬
ftory which makes any certain mention of their erec¬
tion, though they are mentioned by feveral writers and
in feveral of our laws and ftatutes. Ancient hiftoriam
tell us, “ that New foreft was raifed by the deftrudion
of 22 pariffi churches, and many villages, chapels, and
manors, for the fpace of 30 miles together, which was
attended with divers judgments on the pofterity of Wil¬
liam I. who eroded it : for William Rufus was there
ftiot with an arrow, and before him Richard the bro¬
ther of Henry I. 5 and Henry nephew to Robert, the
eldeft fon of the Conqueror, did hang by the hair of the
head in the boughs of the foreft, like unto Abfalom.”
B/ount. #
Befides the New foreft, there are 68 other forefts in
England, 13 chafes, and more than 700 parks: the
four principal forefts are New foreft on the fea, Shire-
A 2 woo4
FOR [ .
Eorcft. wood foreft on the Trent, Dean foreft on the Severn,
‘ and Windfor foreft on the Thames.
A foreft in the hands of a ihbjecl is properly the
fame thing with a Chase 5 being fubject to the common
law, and not to the foreft laws. But a chafe differs
from a foreft in that it is not enclofed : and likewife,
that a man may have a chafe in another man’s ground
as well as his own j being indeed the liberty of keeping
beafts of chafe, or royal game therein, protedled even
from the owner of the land, with a power of hunting
them thereon. See Park.
The manner of erefting a foreft is thus: Certain com-
miflioners are appointed under the great feal, who view
the ground intended for a foreft, and fence it round ;
this com million being returned into chancery, the king
caufeth it to be proclaimed throughout the county
where the land lieth, that it is a foreft *, and prohibits
all perfons from hunting there, without his leave.
Though the king may creel a foreft on his own ground
and wafte, he may not do it on the ground of other
perfons without their eonfent; and agreements with
them for that purpofe ought to be confirmed by par¬
liament.
A foreft, ftri&ly taken, cannot be in the hands of
any but the king •, for no perfon but the king has power
to grant a commiftion to be juftice in eyre of the foreft :
yet, if he grants a foreft to a fubjeft, and that on requert
made in the chancery, that fubjec! and his heirs ftiall
have jufticcs of the foreft, in which cafe the fubjeft has
a foreft in law.
A fecond property of a foreft is, the courts thereof.
See Forest Courts, infra.
A third property is the officers belonging to it, as
the juftiees, warden, verderer, forefter, argiftor, regar-
der, keeper, bailiff, beadle, &c. See the articles Agi¬
stor, Bailiff, Forester, &c.
By the laws of the foreft, the receivers of trefpaffes
in hunting, or killing of the deer, if they know them
to be the king’s property, are principal trefpaffers.
Likewife, if a trefpafs be committed in a foreft, and
the trefpaffer dies, after his death it may be punithed
in the lifetime of the heir, contrary to common law.
Our Norman kings punilhed fueh as killed deer in any
pf their for ells with great feverity 3 alfo in various man¬
ners 3 as by hanging, lofs of limbs, gelding,. and putting
out eyes. By magna charta de forejia, it is ordain¬
ed, that no perfon (hall lofe life or member for killing
the king’s deer in forefts, but (hall be fined 3 and if the
offender has nothing to pay the fine, he {hall be impri-
foned a year and a day, and then be delivered, if he can
rive fecurity not to offend for the future, &c. 9 Hen.
III. c. 1.
Before this ftatute, it was felony to hunt the king’s
deer 3 and by a late a cl, perfons armed and difguifed,
appearing in any foreft, &c. if they hunt, kill, or
fteal any deer, &c. are guilty of felony. 9 Geo. I. c.
22>
He who has any licenfe to hunt in a foreft or chafe,
&c. is to take care that he does not exceed his autho¬
rity 3 otherwife he fhall be deemed a trefpaffer from the
beginning, and be punilhed -for that fact, as if he had
no licenfe. See further, the articles G ame, and Game-
Law.
Beafts of the foreft are, the hart, hind, buck, doe,
tear, wolf, fox, hare, &c. The feafons for hunting
5
] FOR
whereof are as follow, viz. that of the hart and buck Fore!!,
begins at the feaft of St John Baptift, and ends at Holy- v~*“
rood-day 3 of the hind and doe, begins at Holy-rood,
and continues till Candlemas 3 of the boar, from Chrift-
mas to Candlemas-3 of the fox, begins at Chriftmas, and
continues till Lady-day 3 of the hare at Michaelmas,
and lafls till Candlemas.
FOREST-Courts, courts inftituted for the government
of the king’s forefts in different parts of the kingdom,
and for the puniftunent of all injuries done to the king’s
deer or venifon, to the vert or greenfwerd, and to the
covert in which fueh deer are lodged. \ hefe are the
courts of Attachments, of Regard, of Swein-
mote, and of Justice-seat. i. The court of attach¬
ments, woodmote, or forty days court, is to be held be¬
fore the verderers of the foreft once in every forty days 3
and is inftituted to inquire into all offenders againft vert
and venifon : who may be attached by their bodies,
if taken with the mainour (or mainceuvre, a manu) that
is, in the very a£t of killing venifon, or ftealing wood,
or in the preparing fo to do, or by frefli and immediate
purfuit after the aft is done 3 elfe they muft be attach¬
ed by their goods. And in this forty-days court the
forefters or keepers are to bring in their attachments, or
prefentments de vifidi et venatiorie ; and the verderers.
are to receive the fame, and to enrol them, and to
certify them under their foals to the court of juftice-
feat or fweinmote : for this court can only inquire of,
but not convift, offenders. 2. The court of regard,
or furvey of dogs, is to be bclden every third year- for
the' lawing or expeditation of maftifis 3 which is done
by cuLiing off the claws of the fore feet, to prevent
them from running after deer. No other dogs but
maftiffs are to be thus lawed or expeditated, for none
other were permitted to be kept within the precinfts-
of the foreft 3 it being fuppofed that the keeping of
thefe, and thefe only, was neeeffary for the defence of
a man’s houfe. 3. The court of fweinmote is to be
holden before the verderers, as judges, by the fteward
of the fwelnmcte, thrice in every year ; the fweins or
freeholders within the foreft compofing the jury. The
principal jurifdiftion of this court is, firft, to inquire
into the oppreffionS and grievances committed by the
officers of the foreft 3 “ de fuper-oncrationeforef ariorurn,
et aliorumminijlrortim forefee ; et de eoriim dpprejjionibus
populo regts illatis and, feeondly, to receive and try
prefentments certified from the court of attachments
againft offences in vert and venifon. And this court
may not only inquire, but convift alfo 3 which eon-
viftion fhall be certified to the court of juftice-feat un¬
der the feals of the jury, for this court cannot proceed
to judgment. But the principal court is, 4. 1 he court
of juftice-feat, which is held before the chief juftice in
eyre, or chief itinerant judge, capitalis juficiarius in iti-
nere, or his deputy 3 to hear and determine all trefpaf¬
fes within the foreft, and all claims of franchifes, liber¬
ties, and privileges, and all pleas and caufes whatfoever
therein arifing. It may alfo proceed to try prefent¬
ments in the inferior courts of the forefts, and to give
judgment upon conviftion of the fweinmote. And
the chief juftice may therefore, after prefentment
made or indiftment found, but not before, iffue his
warrant to the officers of the foreft to apprehend the
offenders. It may be held every third year 3 and 40
days notice ought to be given of its fitting. This court
may
FOR [5
Forcft, may fine and Imprifon for offences within the foreft, it
Fore-ftaff. being a court of record : and therefore a writ of error
* v ' lies from hence to the court of king’s bencn, to rectify
and redrefs any mal-adminittrations of juitice } or the
chief juttice in eyre may adjourn any matter of law into
the court of king’s bench.
FOR EST-Laws, are peculiar laws, different from the
common law of England. Before the making of C/iarta
de Forejla, in the time of King John and his ton Henry
III. confirmed in parliament by 9 Henry III.-offences
committed therein were punished at the plealure of the
king in the fevereft manner. By this charter, many
forelts were difafforefted and ft ripped of their oppretlive
privileges, and regulations were made for the govern¬
ment of thofe that remained •, particularly, killing the
king’s deer was made no longer a capital offence, but
only punished by fine, impriibnment, or abjuration of
the realm: yet even in the charter there were feme
grievous articles, which the clemency of later princes
has fince by ftatute thought fit to alter per a/Jifas
for eft a;. And to this day, in trefpaffes relating to the
foreft:, voluntas veputabitur pro jaclo ; fo that it a man
be taken hunting a deer, he may be arretted as if he
had taken a deer.
FOREST-Towns, in Geography, certain towns of
Suabia in Germany, lying along the Rhine, and the
confines of Switzerland, and fubjeeff to the houfe of
Auftria. Their names are Rhinefeld, Sechngen, Luu-
fenburg, and Waldjhut.
FORE STAFF, an inftrument ufed at fea for taking
the altitudes of heavenly bodies. The fore-ftaff, called
alfo crofs-fajft, takes its denomination hence, that the
obferver, in ufing it, turns his face towards the object: $
in oppofition to the back-ftaff, where he turns his back
to the object.
The fore or crofs-ftaff, confifts of a ftraight fquare
fluff, graduated like a line of tangents, and four croffes
or vanes, which Hide on it. The firft: and (horteft of
thefe vanes, is called the ten crofs, or vane, and belongs
to that fide of the inflrument on which the divifions
begin at three degrees and end at ten. The next
longer vane, is called the thirty crofs, belonging to that
fide of the itaff in which the divifions begin at ten de¬
grees and end at thirty, called the thirty feale. The
next vane is called the Jixty crofs, and belongs to the
fide where the divifions begin at twenty degrees and
end at fixty. The laft and longeft, called the ninety
crofs, belongs to the fide where the divilions begin at
thirty degrees and end at ninety.
The ufe of this inftrument is to take the height of
the fun and ftars, or the diftanee of two liars : and
the ten, thirty, fixty, or ninety croffes, are to be ufed
according as the altitude is greater or lefs that is, if
the altitude be lefs than ten degrees, the ten 6rofs is to
be ufed 5 if above ten, but lefs than thirty, the thirty
crofs is to be ufed, &c. Note, For altitudes greater
than thirty degrees, this inftrument is not fo convenient
as a quadrant or femicircle.
To obferve an Altitude by this injlrument.—Apply
the flat end of the fluff to your eye, and look at the
upper end of the crofs for the centre of the fun or liar,
and at tire lower end for the horizon. If you fee the Iky
inftead of the horizon, Aide the crofs a little nearer the
eye 5 and if you fee the fea inftead of the horizon, Aide
the crofs farther from the eye j and thus continue moving
] FOR
till you fee exa&ly the fun or ftar’s centre by the top of Fore-ftaff
the crofs, and the horizon by the bottom thereof. Then yj' ,..
the degrees and minutes, cut by the inner edge of the ,
crofs upon the lide of the fluff peculiar to the crofs you
ufe, give the altitude of the fun or liar.
If it be the meridian altitude you want, continue
your obfervation as long as you find the altitude in-
creafe, Hill moving the erofs nearer to the eye. By
fubftrafting the meridian altitude thus found from 90
degrees, you will have the zenith diftance. To work
accurately, an allowance mult be made for the height
of the eye above the furface of the fea, viz. for one
Engliih foot, 1 minute; for 5 feet, ; for ten feet, 3-'-;
for 20 feet, 5 ; for 40 feet, 7, Sec. Thefe minutes
fubtrafted from the altitude obferved, and added to the
zenith diftance obferved, give the true altitude and
zenith diltanee.
To obferve the difiance of two furs, or the moon's
dijlance from a flat', by the fore-fluff.— Apply the in-
ftrument to the eye, and looking to both ends of the
crofs, move it nearer or farther from the eye till you fee
tire two liars, the one on the one end, and the other on
the other end of the crofs; then the degrees and minutes
cut by tire crofs on the fide proper to the vane in ufe
give the liars diftance.
FORESTALLER, a perfon who is guilty of fore-
llalling. See the next article.
FORESTALLING, in Law, buying or bargaining
for any corn, cattle, victuals, or merchandife, in the
way as they come to fairs or markets to be fold, before
they get thither, with an intent to fell the fame again
at a higher price.
The punifhment for this offence, upon convi£Hon at
the quarter feiliorrs by two or more witneffes, is, for
t’ne Aril time, two months imprifonment and the lofs
of the goods, or the value ; for the fecond offence the
offender llxall be imprifoned fix months, and lore double
the value of the goods ; for the the third offence helhall
fuffer imprifonment during the king’s pleafure, forfeit
all his goods and chattels, and ftand on the pillory : but
the ftatute does not extend to malt iters buying barley,
or to badgers licenfed.
FORESTER, a fworn officer of the foreft, ap¬
pointed by the king’s letters patent, to walk the foreft:
at all hours, and watch over tlie vert and venifon ; alfo
to make attachments and true prefentments of all tref¬
paffes committed within the fbreit.
If a man comes into a foreft in tlie night, a forefter
cannot lawfully beat him before he makes force refin¬
ance but in cafe fuch a perfon refills the forefter, he
may juftify a battery. And a forefter ihall not be
queftioned for killing a trefpaffer that, after the peace
cried to him, will not furrender himfelf, if it be not
done on any former malice; though, Avhcre trefpaflers
in a foreft, &c. do kill a perfon that oppofes them, it
is murder in all, beeaufe they were engaged in an un¬
lawful aft, and therefore maliee is implied to the perfon
killed.
FORETHOUGHT FELONY, in Scots Law, figni-
fies premeditated murder. See Murder.
FORFAR, a town of Scotland, and capital of the
county of that name, fituated in N. Eat. 56. 37.
W. Long. 2. 55. This town, with Dundee, Cupar,
Perth, and St Andrew’s, jointly fend one member
to the Britilh parliament. It Hands in the great
F OK [6
lorfar. valley of Strathmore that runs from Perth north-eaft
“’“'v to the fea> almoft in a ftraxght line, about 50 miles
long and betwixt four and five miles broad, bounded
on the fouth fide by gentle hills, and on the north by
, the Grampian mountains.
Forfar is a very ancient town, and was once a royal
refidence. Here Malcolm Canmore held his firff par¬
liament in 1057. ^ ^ie rui118 of his palace are ftill to
be feen on the top of an artificial mount of a circular
form, refting upon a bafe of about three acres of ground,
and riling 50 feet high above jhe plain. The lake of
Forfar, ifretching two miles in length from call to weft,
and half a mile in breadth, and covering the palace on
the north, afforded not only a plentiful fupply of water
for every purpofe, but alfo added to the ftrength of the
place. This lake which abounds with trout, pike,
perch, and eel, has been greatly reduced by draining •,
and fine marl has been found in ftrata from two to fix
and eight feet deep, with mofs below ten feet deep.
Within this lake were formerly two illands raifed
by art, with buildings on each } to which Margaret,
Malcolm Canmore’s queen, retired after the deceafe of
her hufband. Part of the ruins of thefe edifices are
ft ill to be feen.
Little is known of Forfar till the middle of the 17th
century, except an a£t paffed in the 13th parliament of
James VI. 21ft July, 1593, in the following words,
which affords a fpecimen of the manners and language
of the times : “ Our foveraine Lorde, underftanding
that be a die and ordinance maid anent obfervation
of the Sabbath dale within this realme, the mercatte-
daie of the burgh of Forfare, being the head burgh of
the fchire, quhilk was Sundaie, is taken from them 5
and his hieneffe not willing that they in onie waies
fuld be prejudged hereby, therefore his hieneffe, Avith
advife of the eftaites of this prefent parliament, alteris
and changis their faid mercatte-daie from Sundaie to
Fridaie, and willis the famen Fridaie oukly to be their
mercatte-daie to them in all times hereafter 5 and the
famin to ftande rvith the like priveleges and freedomes
as the Sundaie did of before.” The market day has
been long held on Saturday.
During the ufurpation of Oliver Cromwell, a de¬
tachment. of his forces, after backing Dundee, came to
Forfar and burnt all the public records of the place ;
and the only charter the town now has is one granted
by Charles II. after his reftoration, confirming all its
ancient rights and privileges.
As an evidence of the ignorance and barbarity of
the times, it appears from the records of the trials kept
in the charter-cheft of Forfar, that nine perfons were
condemned and burnt here for witchcraft betwixt the
years i6so and 1662. Thefe innocent people were
all tried by a fpecial commiftion from the lords of the
privv council at Edinburgh -7 and although the com-
miftion exprefsly difeharged torturing them on purpofe
to extort a confeftion of their guilt, yet, as it was
then thought meritorious to obtain confeflion of guilt
bv whatever means, many inhuman cruelties were ex-
ercifed upon the unfortunate objeffs ; particularly, an
iron boot was drawn upon one of their legs, and a
wedge driven with great force between it and the leg.
Another inftrument, ftill carefully preferved here, was
likewife ufed, and is (Jailed the witch bridle. It is made
of iron in the Ihape of a dog’s collar, with two pikes
] r o R
on the infide, about four inches diftant and two and a Forfar-
half long. Thefe pikes were put into the mouth, and | ^irc*
the collar afterwards buckled ftrait on the back of the 1 v
head, to which was affixed an iron chain, whereby the
condemned perfons were led to the place of execution
called the ¥ lay-field, about a quarter of a mile to the
northward of the town.
The ftreets of Forfar are rather irregular 5 but many
of the houfes are neat and well built. Ofnaburgs and
coarfe linens are manufactured here •, and many of
the inhabitants are employed in making a coarfe kind
of flioes.
FOBFAR-Shire, a county of Scotland, of which For¬
far is the capital. Including Angus, Glenila, Glcnefk,
and Glenproffin, it extends between 40 and 50 miles
from eaft to weft, and 16 where broadeft, though in feme
places the breadth does not exceed five miles. On the
north it is divided from the Brae of Mar by a ridge of
the Binchinnan mountains ; it is bounded on the fouth
by the frith of Tay and the Britifh ocean, on the eaft
by Mearns, and on the weft by Perthlhire. Part of
the Grampian mountains runs through this county,
which is agreeably diverfified with hill and dale. It
produces fome lead and iron, together with freeftene,
flate, and limeftone. Coarfe linens and fail cloth are
the chief manufactures of the county. It is well
watered with lakes, rivers, rivulets, and fountains,
ffiaded with large forefts, roughened with brown moun¬
tains, and waved with green hills interfperfed with fields
and meadows, and adorned with fine feats and planta¬
tions. Their heaths and woods abound with hart, hind,
roebuck, and moor game •, their ftreams are flocked
with trout and falmon. Their hills are covered with
flocks of flieep, and their fields afford plentiful harvefts
of wheat and all forts of grain. The mountains to the
weft and north are inhabited by Highlanders : but the
Lowlanders poffefs the towms and champaign coun¬
try, and are remarkable for their politenefs and hofpi-
tality.
The population of this county in 1801 amounted to
97,778. But in the following table is exhibited a view
of its population, at two different periods.
Parijhes.
I Aberbrothwick
Aberlemno
Airly
Arbirlot
5 Auchtcrhoufe
Barry
Brechin
Carmylie
Carraldftone
10 Cortachy
Crain
Dun
Dundee
Dunnichen
15 Edzell
Effie and Nevay
Fearn
P ern ell
Forfar
20 Glammis
Population
in 'TSS-
2098
943
3013
865
600
689
3181
745
269
1 233
935
657
12,477
<>53
862
500
coo
799
2450
1780
Population in
170c—179S.
4676
IG33
865
io55
600
796
5o°o
700
260
1020
I3I4
5o°
23,500
872
963
630
490
620
4756
2040
Glenitla
FOR I. 7 3 FOR
Ferfar-
iTiire,
Forfeiture.
25
Tarijhef.
Glenifla
Gutht'ic
Innerarity
Inverkeilor
Kettins
Kxngoldrum
Kinnell
K innettles
Kirkden
30 Kirrymuir
Lentrathen
Lethnot
Liff
Loclilee
35 L°gle Pert
Lunan
Mains
Maryton
Menmuir
Moneikie
Monifeith
Montrofe
Muirhoufe
Newtyle
Oathlaw
Panbride
Reicobie
Ruthven
St Vigeans
S trathmartine
Strickathro
Tannadyce
Tealino
40
45
5o
53
Population
in ^SS-
lSf2
584
996
1286
I475
780
761
616
585
3409
1165
635
131 I
686
696
208
7°9
633
743
1345
1421
4150
623
913
435
j259
798
280
1592
368
529-
I47°
755
Population in
xypo—1798.
IOl8
571
929
1747
11OO
600
83°
621
727
4358
900
5°5
I79°
608
999
291
876
529
900
1278
1218
6194
462
594
43°
1460
934
220
3336
34°
672
1470
802
68,297
91,001
68,297
Increafe, 22,704.
FORFEITURE, originally fignifies a tranfgref-
iion or offence againfl fome penal law. The word is
formed of the bale Latin forisfaciura; whence far-
faitura and forfaiclura, and the French forfait. Forts-
fuciura comes of forisficere ; which, according to Ili-
dore, fignines to “ hurt or offend,” facere contra ra-
tioncm; and which is not improbably derived of for is,
“ out,” and facere, “ to do,” q. d. an aclion out of
rule or contrary to the rules. Borel will have forfait
derived from the ufing of force or violence : Lobineau,
in his gloffary, will \\71ve fonsfa&a properly to fignify a
mule! or amend, .not a forfeit; which latter he derives
from the Bas-Breton forfed, “ a penalty.”
But, with us, it is now more frequently ufed for the
effect of fuch tranfgreffion ; or the lofing fome right,
privilege, eftate, honour, office, or effects, in confequence
thereof-, than for the tranfgreffion itfelf.
Forfeiture differs from confifcation, in that the former
is more general while confifcation is particularly ap¬
plied to fuch things as become forfeited to the king’s
exchequer ; and goods confifcated are faid to be fuch as
nobody claims.
Forfeitures may be either in ewi/ or criminal cafes.
I. .With refpeft to the fir ft, a man that hath an
eftate for life or years, may forfeit it many ways, as well Forfeiture,
as by reafpn of felony; fuch as alienation, claiming a v *
greater eftate than he hath, or affirming the reverfion
to be in a itranger, &c. When a tenant in tail makes
leafes not warranted by the ftatute; a copyholder
commits wafte, refufes to pay his rent, or do fuit of
court and where an eftate is granted upon condition,
on non-performance thereof, &c. they will make a for¬
feiture.
Entry for a forfeiture ought to be by him who is
next in reverfion, or remainder, after the eftate for¬
feited. As if a tenant for life or years commits a forfei¬
ture, he who has the immediate reverfion or remainder
ought to enter, though he has the fee, or only an eftate-
tail.
II. Forfeiture in criminal cafes is twofold; of real,
and perlbnal eftates.
1. As to real eftates by Attainder in high trea-
fon, a man forfeits to the king all his lands and tene¬
ments of inheritance, whether fee-fimple or fec-lail j
and all his rights of entry on lands and tenements,
which he had at the time of the offence committed, or
at any time afterwards, to be for ever vetted in the
crown \ and alfo the profits of all lands and tenements,
which he had in his own right for life or years, fo long
as fuch intereft lhall fublift. This forfeiture relatesBlacffone’
backwards to the time of the treafon committed 5 fo as Comment.
to avoid all intermediate fales and encumbrances, but
not thofe before the fad! : and therefore a.wife’s join¬
ture is not forfeitable for the treafon of her hulband j
becaufe fettled upon her previous to the treafon com¬
mitted. But her dower is forfeited, by the exprefs
proviiion of ftatute 5 and 6 Edw VI. c. 11. And yet
the hufband lhall be tenant by courtefy of the wife’s
lands, if the wife be attainted of treafon ; for that is
not prohibited by the ftatute. But, though after at¬
tainder the forfeiture relates back to the time of the
treafon committed, yet it does not take effec! unlefs an
attainder be had, of which it is one of the fruits 5 and
therefore, if a traitor dies before judgment pronounced^
or. is killed in open rebellion, or is hanged by martial
law, it works no forfeiture of his lands : for he never
was attainted of treafon. But if the chief jultice of the
king’s bench (the fupreme coroner of all England) in
perlon, upon the view of the body of him killed in open
rebellion, records it and returns the record into his own
court, both lands and goods fliall be forfeited.
The natural juftice of the forfeiture or confifcation of
property, for treafon, is founded on this confideration : - *
That he who hath thus violated the fundamental prin¬
ciples of government, and broken his part of the ori¬
ginal contra# between king and people, hath abandon¬
ed his connexions with fociety, and hath no longer
any right to thofe advantages which before belonged
to him purely as a member of the community among
which facial advantages, the right of transferring or
tranfmitting property to others is one of the chief.
Such forfeitures, moreover, whereby his pofterity muff;
fuffer as well as himfelf, will help to reftrain a man,
not only by the fenfe of his duty, and dread of perfonal
punifhment, but alfo by his paffions and natural affec¬
tions ; and will intereft every dependent and relation
he has to keep him from offending: according to that
beautiful fentiment of Cicero, “ nec vero me fug it quam -
fit acerbutrt, parentum federa flicrum pcenis lui; fed hoc
pcrtc/atx.
FOB. [ t
Forfeiture', pr^dcre legibus comparatum ejl, ut caritas liberorum
v" amictores parentes I'eipublicce redderet.'" And therefore
Aldus Cafcellius, a Homan lawyer in the time of the
triumvirate, ufed to boait that he had two reafons for
defpifing the power of the tyrants his old age and
his want of children ; for children are pledges to the
prince of the father’s obedience. Yet many nations
have thought, that this poll humous punilhment favours
of hardlhip to the innocent 5 efpecially for crimes that
do not ilrike at the very root and foundation of fo-
ciety, as treafon againft the government exprefsly does.
And therefore, although confifeations were very fre¬
quent in the times of the earlier emperors, yet Area-
dius and Honorius, in every other inftance but that of
treafon, thought it more juft, ibi effe peenamy ubi et noxa
ej} ; and ordered, that “ peccata fuos te tie ant au cl ores, ncc
ulterins prog.-ediatur met us, quam reperiatur deliElwn
and Juftinian alfo made a law toreftrain the punilhment
of relations 5 which direfts the forfeiture to go, except
in the cafe of crimen majejlatis, to the next of kin to the
delinquent. On the other hand, the Macedonian laws
extended even the capital punilhment of treafon, not
only to the children, but to all the relations of the de¬
linquent ; and of courfe their eftates muft be alfo for¬
feited, as no man was left to inherit them. And in
Germany, by the famous golden bull (copied ahnoft
verbatim from Juftinian’s code), the lives of the fons of
fueh as confpire to kill an eledior are fpared, as it is ex-
preffed by the emperor’s particular bounty. But they
are deprived of all their effedls and rights of fucceflion,
and are rendered incapable of any honour ecclefiaftieal.
and civil : to the end, that being always poor and ne-
eelTitous, they may for ever be accompanied by the in¬
famy of their father 5 may languilh in continual indi¬
gence } and may find (fays this mercilefs edict) their
punilhment in living, and their relief in dying.”
In England, forfeiture of lands and tenements to
the crown for treafon is by no means derived from the
feodal policy, but was antecedent to the eftablilhment
of that fyftem in this illand 5 being tranfmitted from
our Saxon anceftors, and forming a part of the ancient
Scandinavian conftitution. But in certain treafons relat¬
ing to the coin {which feem rather a fpecies of the
crimen fa/Ji than the crimen Iccfcc majejlatis'), it is pro¬
vided by fome of the modern ftatutes which conftitute
the offence, that it fhall work no forfeiture of lands,
fave only for the life of the offenders and by all, that
it lhall not deprive the wife of her dower. And, in
order to abolilh fuch hereditary punilhment entirely, it
was enacted by ftatute 7 Ann. c. 21. that, after the
deceafe of the late pretender, no attainder for treafon
fnould extend to the difinheriting of any heir, nor to
the prejudice of any perfon, other than the traitor him-
felf. By which the law of forfeitures for high trea¬
fon would by this time have been at an end, had not a
fubfequent ftatute intervened to give them a longer du¬
ration. The hiftory of this matter is fomewhat lin¬
gular, and worthy of obfervation. At the time of the
union, the crime of trealhn in Scotland was, by the
Scots law, in many refpecls different from that of trea¬
fon in England ; and particularly in its confequence
of forfeitures of entailed eftates, which was more pe¬
culiarly Englilh 5 yet it feemed neceffary, that a crime
fo nearly afi’ecling government Ihould, both in its ef-
Icnce and confequences, be put upon the fame footing
] FOR
in both parts of the united kingdoms. In new mc~ Forfeiture,
delling thefe laws, the Scots nation and the Englilh v—
houfe of commons ftrugglcd hard, partly to maintain,
and partly to acquire, a total immunity from forfeiture
and corruption of blood which the houfe of lords as
firmly refilled. At length a compromife was agreed
to, which is eftablilhed by this ftatute, viz. that the
fame crimes, and no other, Ihould be treafon in Scot¬
land that are fo in England ; and that the Engliih for¬
feitures and corruption of blood Ihould take place in
Scotland till the death of the then pretender, and then
ceafe throup-hout the whole of Great Britain : the lords
O
artfully propofing this temporary claufe, in hopes (it
is faid) that the prudence of fuccceding parliament
would make it perpetual. This has partly been done
by the ftatute 17 Geo. II. c. 39. made in the year pre¬
ceding the late rebellion), the operation of thefe in¬
demnifying claufes being thereby Hill farther impend¬
ed till the death of the Ions of the pretender.
In petit treafon and felony, the oft'ender alfo for¬
feits all his chattel intcrefts abfolutely, and the profit#
of all freehold eftates during life ; and after his death
all his lands and tenements in fee fimple (but not thole
in tail) to the crown, for a very Ihort period of time :
for the king lhall have them for a year and a day, and
may commit therein what wafte he pleafes 5 which is
called the king’s year, day, and wafte. Formerly the
king had only a liberty of committing wafte on the
lands of felons, by pulling down their houfes, extir¬
pating their gardens, ploughing their meadows, and
cutting down their woods. And a punilhment of a
fimilar fpirit appears to have obtained in the oriental
countries, from the decrees of Nebuchadnezzar and
Cyrus in the books of Daniel and Ezra; which, bo¬
lides the pain of death infiicled on the delinquents
there fpecified, ordain, “ that their houfes lhall be made
a dunghill.” But this tending greatly to the prejudice
of the public, it was agreed in the reign of Henry 1.
of England, that the king Ihould have the profits of
the land for one year and a day in lieu of the deftruc-
tion lie was otherwife at liberty to commit: and there¬
fore rnagna charta provides, that the king lhall only hold
fueh lands for a year and a day, and then reltore them
to the lord of the fee, without any mention made of
wafte. But the ftatute 17 Edward II. de prerogativa
regis, feems to fuppofe, that the king {hall have his year,
day, and wafte 5 and not the year and day injlead oj
wafte : which Sir Edward Coke (and the author of the
Mirror before him) very juftly look upon as an en¬
croachment, though a very ancient one, of the royal
prerogative. This year, day, and wafte, are now u-
fually compounded for 5 but otherwife they regularly
belong to the crown: and after their expiration the
land would naturally have defeended to the heir (as in
gavelkind tenure it ftill does) did not its feudal quality
intercept fuch defeent, and give it by way of efehcat
to the lord. Thefe forfeitures for felony do alio arife
only upon attainder $ and therefore a fe/o de fe forfeits
no lands of inheritance or freehold, for he never is at¬
tainted as a felon. They likewife relate back to the
time the offence was committed as well as forfeitures
for treafon, fo as to avoid all intermediate charges and
con\reyances. T his may be bard upon fuch as have
unwarily engaged with the offender •, but the cruelty
and reproach muft; lie on the part, not of the law, but
FOR [ 9 ] FOR
’Forfeiture
of the criminal : who has thus knowingly and difhoneitly
involved others in his own calamities.
2. The forfeiture of goods and chattels accrues in
every one of the high kinds of offence ; in high treafon,
or mifprifion thereof, petit treafon, felonies of all forts
whether clergyable or not, felf murder or felony <lcJe,
petty larceny, Handing mute, &c. For flight alfo, on
an accufation of treafon, felony, or even petit larceny,
whether the party be found guilty or acquitted, if the
jury find the flight, the party lhall forfeit his goods
and chattels: for the very flight is an offence, carrying
with it a ftrong prefumption of guilt, and is at leaft an
endeavour to elude and to ftiffe the courfe of juffice
preferibed by the law. But the jury very feldom find
the flight: forfeiture being looked upon, fince the vaft
increafe of perfonal property of late years, as too large a
penalty for an offence to which a man is prompted by
the natural love of liberty.
There is a remarkable difference between the
forfeiture of lands and of goods and chattels. (i.)
Lands are forfeited upon attainder, and not before ;
goods and chattels are forfeited by convi&ion. Be-
caufe in many of the cafes Avhere goods are forfeited,
there never is any attainder ; which happens only Avhere
judgment of death or outlawry is given : therefore, in
thofe cafes, the forfeiture muff be upon conviction, or
not at all; and, being neceffarily upon conviction in
thofe, it is fo ordered in all other cafes, for the laAV
loves uniformity. (2.) The forfeiture of lands has
relation to the time the faff Avas committed, fo as to
avoid all fubfequent fales and encumbrances: but the
forfeiture of goods and chattels has no relation back-
Arards *, fo that thofe only Avhich a man has at the time
of conviffion fliall be forfeited. Therefore a traitor
or felon may bona fide fell any of his chattels, real or
perfonal, for the fuftenance of himfelf and family be-
tAveen the faff and conviffion ; for perfonal property
is of fo fluffuating a nature, that it paffes through
many hands in a ffiort time 5 and no buyer could be
fafe, if he Arc re liable to return the goods Avhich he
had fairly bought, provided any of the prior venders
had committed a treafon or felony. Yet if they be
collufively and not bona fide parted Avith, merely to
defraud the croAvn, the laAV (and particularly the ftatute
13 Eliz. c. 5.) Avill reach them 5 for they are all the
Avhile truly and fubftantially the goods of the offender :
and as he, if acquitted, might recover them himfelf, as
not parted Avith for a good confideration; fo, in cafe he
happens to be conviffed, the laAV Avill recover them for
the king.
FORFEX, in Roman antiquity, Avas a Aray of drawing
up an army in the form of a pair of flieers. It was
intended to receive the cuneus or Avedge, if the enemy
fliould make ufe of that figure. For Avhen the forfex
opened to admit the AAredge, they had an opportunity of
defeating their defign, and cutting them in pieces.
FORFICUL A, the Earavig, a genus of infeffs be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera. See Entomology
Index.
FORGE, properly fignifies a little furnace, Avherein
fmiths and other artificers of iron or fteel, &e. heat
their metals red hot, in order to foften them and render
them more malleable and manageable on the anvil.
An ordinary forge is nothing but a pair of belloAVs,
the nozzle of which is direffed upon a fmooth area,
Vol. IX. Part L
on Avhich coals are placed. The nozzle of a pair of ' Forge
belloAvs may be alfo direffed to the bottom of any fur- i!
nace, to excite the combuftion of the coals placed , "01 ‘
there, by Avhich a kind of forge is lormed. In labo¬
ratories, there is generally a fmall furnace confifting
of one cylindrical piece, open at top, Avhich has at its
loAver fide a hole for reeemng the nozzle of a double
belloAvs. This kind of forge furnace is very conveni¬
ent for fufions, as the operation is quickly performed^
and Avith fetv coals. In its lower part, tAvo inches
above the hole for receiving the nozzle of the belloAvs,
may be placed an iron plate of the fame diameter, fup-
ported upon tAvo horizontal bars, and pierced near its
circumference with four holes diametrically oppofite to
each other. By this difpofition, the wind of the bel-
Ioavs, pnfined forcibly under this plate, enters at thefe
four holesand thus the heat of the fire is equally dif-
tributed, and the crucible in the furnace is equally fur-
rounded by it. This contrivance is ufed in the forge-
furnaces for melting copper, Avith this difference only,
that thefe furnaces are fquare, Avhich is a matter of no
confequence.
As the Avind of belloAvs ftrongly and rapidly excites
the affion of the fire, a forge is very convenient Avhen
a great heat is to be applied quickly : but it is not
fuitable Avhen the heat is to be gradually increafed.
The forge, or blaft of bellows, is ufed in feveral ope¬
rations in fmall 5 as to fufe falts, metals, ores, &c. It
is alfo much ufed in Avorks in the great, Avhich require
ftrong heat, Avithout much management; and chiefly in
the fmelting of ores, and fufion of metallic matters.
Forge is Alfo ufed for a large furnace, Avherein iron
ore, taken out of the mine, is melted doAvn : or it is
more properly applied to another kind of furnace,
wherein the iron-ore, melted doAvn and feparated in a
former furnace, and then call into foAvs and pigs, is
heated and fufed over again, and beaten aftenvards Avith
large hammers, and thus rendered more foft, pure,
duffile, and fit for ufc.
Forge, in the train of artillery, is generally called
a travelling forge, and may not be improperly called
a portable fmith’s (hop: at this forge all manner of
fmith’s Avork is made, and it can be ufed upon a march
as well as in camp. Formerly they were very ill con¬
trived, with tAvo avheels only, and wooden fupporters to
prop the forge for Avorking AA'hen in the park. Of late
years they are made with four Avheels, Avhich anfwers
their purpofe much better.
Forge for red-hot Balls, is a place Avhere the balls
are made red hot before they are fired off: it is built
about five or fix feet belovv the furface of the ground,
of ftrong brick-AVork, and an iron grate, upon which the
balls are laid, Avith a large fire under them.
FORGER, in Law, one guilty of forgery.
FORGERY, (from the French forger, i. e. accudare,
fabricare, “ to beat on an anvil, forge, or form,”) may
be defined at common larv, to be “ the fraudulent
making or alteration of a Avriting, to the prejudice of
another man’s rightfor Avhich the offender may fuf-
fer fine, imprifonment, and pillory. And alfo, by a
variety of ftatutes, a more fevere punifhmcnt is infliffed
on the offender in. many particular cafes, Avhich are fo
multiplied of late as almoft to become general. We (hall
mention the principal inftances.
By ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 14. to forge or make, or knows
B ingly
Tcrgery.
F O U [ io ] F O R
ingly to publilh or give in evidence, any gorged deed,
court-roll, or will, with intent to aftedt the right of real
property, either freehold or copyhold, is punifhed by
a forfeiture to the party grieved of double coils and
damages y by Handing in the pillory, and having both
his ears cut oft’, and his noftrils Hit and feared ; by
forfeiture to the crown of the profits of his lands, and
by perpetual imprifonment. For airy forgery relating
to a term of years or annuity, bond, obligation, ac¬
quittance, releafe, or difeharge of any debt or demand
of any perfonal chattels, the fame forfeiture is given to
the party grieved ; and on the offender is inftidled the
pillory, lols of one. of his ears, and half a year’s im¬
prifonment : the fecond offence, in both cafes, being
felony without benefit of clergy.
Befides this general aft, a multitude of others, fmee
the Revolution (when paper credit was firft eftablilhed),
have inflifted capital punifhment on the forging, al¬
tering, or uttering as true when forged, of any bank
bills or notes, or other fecurities ; of bills of credit
iffued from the exchequer y of South Sea bonds, &c. ;
of lottery tickets or orders} of army or navy deben¬
tures', of Eaft India bonds y of writings under-feal of
the London or royal exchange affurance ; of the hand
of the receiver of the pre-fines, or of the accountant-
general and certain other officers of the court of chan¬
cery y of a letter of attorney or other power to receive
or transfer ftock or annuities y and on the perfonating
h proprietor thereof, to receive or transfer fuch annui¬
ties, ftock or dividends : alfo on the. perfonating, or
procuring to be perfonated, any feamen or other per-
fon, entitled to wages or other naval emoluments, or
any of his perfonal reprefentatives •, and the taking, or
procuring to be taken, any falfe oath in order to ob¬
tain a probate or letters of ad mini ftr at ion, in order to
receive fuch payments •, and the forging, or procuring
to be forged, and likewife the uttering or publiftiing,
as true, of any counterfeited feaman’s will or power y
to which may be added, though not ftriftly reducible
to this head, the counterfeiting of Mediterranean paf-
fes under the hands of the lords of the admiralty, to
proteft one from the piratical ftates of Barbary the
forging or imitating of any ftamps to defraud the
public revenue •, and the forging of any marriage re-
gifter or licenfe : all which are, by diftinft acts of par¬
liament, made felonies without benefit of clergy. By
ftatutes 13 Geo. III. c. 52. and 59. forging or counter¬
feiting any ftamp or mark to denote the ftandard of
gold and tilver plate, and certain other offences of the
like tendency, are pumfhed with tranfportation for 14
years. By ftatute 12 Geo. III. c. 48. certain frauds
on the ftamp-duties, therein deferibed, principally by
ufing the fame ftamps more than once, are made fingle
felony, and liable to tranfportation for feven years.
And the fame punifhment is inftifted by ftatute 13
Geo. III. c.. 38. on fuch as counterfeit the common
feal of the corporation for manufafturing plate glafs
(thereby erefted), or knowingly demand money of the
company by virtue of any writing under fuch counter¬
feit feal.
There are alfo two other general laws with regard
to forgery y the one 2 Geo. II. c. 25. whereby the firft
offence in forging or procuring to be forged, afting or
affifting therein, or uttering or publiftiing as true, any
forged deed, will, bond, writing obligatory, bill of ex¬
5
change, promiffory note, indorfement or aflignment Forgery
thereof, or any acquittance or receipt for money or ^
goods, -with intention to defraud any perfon (or cor- ,
poration), is made felony without benefit of clergy.
And by ftatute 7 Geo. II. c. 22. it is equally penal to
forge, or caufe to be forged, or utter as true, a coun¬
terfeit acceptance of a bill of exchange, or the number
of any accountable receipt for any note, bill, or any
other fecurity for money, or any warrant or order for
the payment of money, or delivery of goods. So that,
through the number of thefe general and fpeeial pro-
vifions, there is now hardly a cafe poffible to be con¬
ceived, wherein forgery, that tends to defraud, whether
in the name of a real or fiftitious perfon, is not made
a capital crime.
Forging, in Law, the aft of Forgery.
Forging, in fmithery, the beating or hammering
iron on the anvil,, after having firft made it red hot in
the forge, in order to extend it into various forms, and
faftiion it into various works. See Forge.
There are two ways of forging and hammering iron.
One is by the force of the hand, in w hich there are
uftially feveral perfons employed, one of them turning
the iron and hammering likewife, and the reft only
hammering. The other way is by the force of a wra-
ter-mill, which raifes and works feveral huge hammers
beyond the force of man •, under the ftrokes w hereof
the workmen prefent large lumps or pieces of iron,
which are fuftained at one end by the anvils, and at
the other by iron chains faftqned to the ceiling of the
forge. See Mill.
This laft way of forging is only ufed in the largeft
works, as anchors for flops, &c. which ufually weigh
feveral thoufand pounds.. For the lighter works, a
fingle man ferves to hold, heat, and turn with one hand,
while he hammers with the other.
Each purpofe the work is defigned for requires its
proper heat •, for if it be too cold, it will not feel the
weight of the hammer, as the fmiths call it when it
will not batter under the hammer y and if it be too hot,
it will red fear, that is, break or crack under the ham¬
mer.
The feveral degrees of heat the fmiths give their
irons, are, firft, a blood-red heat y feeondly, a white-
flame heat •, and thirdly, a fparkling or welding heat.
FORISFAMILIATION, in Law. W hen a child,
upon receiving a portion from his father, or otherwife,
renounces his legal title to any further (hare of his fa¬
ther’s fucceffion, he is faid to be forisfamiliated.
FORK, a well known inftriiment, conftfting of a
handle and blade, divided at the end into two or more
points or prongs.
The pitchfork is a large utenfil of this conftruftion,
employed in hay-making, &c.
The table fork, an inftrument now fo indifpenfable,
did not come into ufe in England till the reign of
James I. as we learn from a remarkable paffage in Co-
ryat. The reader will probably fmile at the folemn man¬
ner in which this important difeovery or innovation is
related : “ Here I will mention a thing that might have
been fpoken of before in difeourfe of the firft Italian
townes. I obferved a cuftom in all. thofe Italian cities
and townes through the which I pafled, that is not’
ufed in any other country that I law in my travels,,
neither do I thinke that any other nation of Chriften-
FOR [i
Fork dome doth ufe it, but only Italy. The Italians and al¬
ii fo mod Grangers that are commorant in Italy, doe al-
J0™' , ways at their meals ufe a little forke when they eat
* their meate ; for while with their knife which they
hold in one hand they cut the meate out of the dilh,
they fatten the forke which they hold in the other
hand upon the fame dilh, fo that whatfoever he be
that fitting in the company of any others at meale
lhall unadvifedly touch the difh of meat with his lin¬
gers from which all the table doe cut, he will give oc-
cafion of offence unto the company as having tranf-
greffed the lawes of good manners, infomuch that
for his error he {hall be at leaft brow-beaten if not re¬
prehended in wordes. This form of feeding I under-
Itand is generally ufed in all parts of Italy, their forkes
for the moft part being made of yronn, fleele, and
fome of filver, but thofe are ufed only by gentlemen.
The reafon of this their curiofity is, becauie the Ita¬
lian cannot by any means indure to have his dilh touch¬
ed with fingers, feeing all men’s fingers are not alike
cleane. Hereupon I myfelf thought good to imitate
the Italian faftiion by this forked cutting of meate,
not only while I was in Italy, but alfo in Germany,
and often times in England fince I came home : be¬
ing once quipped for that frequently ufing my forke, by
a certain learned gentleman, a familiar friend of mine,
Mr Lawrence Whitaker 5 w’ho in his merry humour
doubted not to call me a table furcifer, only for uling a
forke at feeding, but for no other caufe.”
FORLI, an ancient and confiderable town of Italy,
and capital of a territory of the fame name, in Ro¬
magna, with a bifhop’s fee. The public ftrudtures are
very handfome •, and it is feated in a fertile, healthy,
and pleafant country, 10 miles fouth-eatt of Faenza,
and 4 9 north-eaft of Florence. E. Long. 12. 1. N.
Lat. 44. 28.
FORLORN-HOPK, in the military art, fignifies men
detached from feveral regiments, or otherwife appoint¬
ed, to make the firft attack in day of battle ; or, at a
iiege, to ftorm the counterfcarp, mount the breach, or
the like. They are fo called from the great danger
they are unavoidably expofed to ; but the word is old,
and begins to be obfolete.
FORM, in Phi/Jics, denotes the manner of being pe¬
culiar to each body 5 or that which conftitutes it fuch
a particular body, and diftinguifhes it from every
other.
Mr Harris ufes the term farm likewife in another
fenfe, as an efficient animating principle *, to which he
fuppofes Ovid to refer in the firft lines of his Metamor-
phofes.
In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas,
Corpora. 
Thefe animating forms are of themfelves no objects
either of the ear or of the eye; but their nature or
character is underftood in this, that were they never to
exert their proper energies on their proper fubiedts,
the marble on which the fculptor exercifes his art
would remain for ever ftiapelefs, and the harp from
which the harper calls forth founds would remain for
ever filent.
Thus, alfo, the animating form of a natural body
is neither its organization nor its figure, nor any other
«f thofe inferior forms which make up the fyftem of
i ] FOR
its vifible qualities: but it is the power, which is yet
able to produce, preferve, and employ thefe. It is the
power, which firft moves, and then conducts that la¬
tent procefs, by which the acorn becomes an oak, and
the embryo becomes a man $ by which digeftion is
performed in plants and animals, and, which depart¬
ing, the body ceafes to live, and its members putrefy ;
and by which every being produces another like itfelf,
and every fpecies is continued. In animals, it is that
higher faculty, which by employing the organs of
fenfe, peculiar to them as animals, diftinguiftics them
as fenfitive beings from vegetables j and it is alfo that
more noble faculty, which by its own divine vigour*
unaftifted perhaps with organs, makes and denominates
him a being intelledlive and rational. So that Mr
Harris reckons two forts of forms, thofe which are
pafiive elements, and thofe w'hich are efficient ckufes.
And all of them agree in this, that they give to every
being its peculiar and diftinclive character : and on the
w hole he concludes, that form appears in part, to be an
element, and in part an efficient caufe, i. e. a caufe
which aflociates the conftituent elements of natural
fubftances, and which employs them, when affociated,
according to their various and peculiar charadters.
The philofophers generally allow two principles of
bodies : matter, as the common bafis or fubftratum of
all *, and form, as that which fpecifies and diftinguifhes
each } and which added to a quantity of common maN
ter, determines or denominates it this or that; wood, or
fire, or afhes, &c.
Subftantial forms feem to have been firft broached by
the followers of Ariftotle, wTho thought matter, under
different modes or modifications, not liifficient to con-
ftitute different bodies j but that fomething fubftantial
was neceffary to fet them at a greater diftance : and
thus introduced fubftantial forms, on the footing of
fouls, which fpecify and diftinguiih animals. What
led to this erroneous notion were the circumftances of
life and death : For obferving, that, as foon as the
foul was departed out of a man, all motion, refpira-
tion, nutrition, &c. immediately ceafed, they conclud¬
ed, that all thefe functions depended on the foul,
and confequently that the foul was tl>e form of the
animal body, or that wdiich conftituted it fuch : that
the foul was a fubftance, independent of matter, no
body doubted; and hence the forms of other bodies
were concluded equally fubftantial. But to this it is
anfwered, that though the foul be that by which a
man is man, and confequently is the form of the hu¬
man body, as human'', yet it does not follow, that it
is properly the form of this body of ours, as it is
a body 5 nor of the feveral parts thereof, confidered as
diftinft from each other: For thofe feveral parts have
their proper forms fo clofely connected with their mat¬
ter, that it remains infeparable therefrom long after
the foul has quitted the body \ thus flefh has the form
of ilefti, bone of bone, &c. long after the foul is re¬
moved as w7ell as before. The truth is, the body does
not become incapable of performing its accuftomed
functions becaufe the foul has deferted it; but the foul
takes its leave, becaufe the body is not in a condition to
perform its functions.
The ancient and modern corpufcular philofophers,
therefore, with the Cartefians, exclude the notion of
•fubftantial forms 3 and {how, by many arguments, that
B 2 tl*e
Form.
F O Ft
r 12
the form is only the modus or manner of the body it is
inherent in. And as there are only three primary
modes of matter, viz. figure, reft, or motion, with
two others ariiing therefrom, viz. magnitude and fitua-
tion, the form of all bodies they hold to confift there¬
in } and fuppofe the variations thefe modes are capable
of, fufficient to prefent all the variety obfervable in
bodies.
Forms are ufually diftinguiftied into cjfential and ac-
cidental.
EJfential. Though the five modes above mentioned,
generally taken, be adventitious •, yet to this or that
body, e. gr. to fire or water, they are effential : thus,
it is accidental to iron, to have this or that magnitude,
figure, or fituation, fince it might exift in different
ones *, yet to a knife or hammer, the figure, magni¬
tude, and pofition of parts, which conilitute it a ham¬
mer or knife, are efiential •, and they cannot exift or
be conceived without them. Hence it is inferred,
that though there be no fubftantial, there are effen¬
tial, forms, whereby the feveral fpecies of bodies be¬
come what they are, and are diftinguiftied from all
»thers.
Accidental forms, are thofe really inherent in bodies,
but in fuch manner as that the body may exift in all
its perfection without them. Such as whitenefs in a
wall, heat in water, a figure of a man in wax, &c.
Form is alfo ufed, in a moral fenfe, for the manner
»f being or doing a thing according to rules : thus
we fay, a form of government, a form of argument,
See.
Form, in the rules eftablifhed and requifite to
be obferved in legal proceedings.—The formal part of
the law, or method of proceeding, cannot be altered
but by parliament; for if once thefe outworks were
demolilhed, there -would be an inlet to all manner of in¬
novation in the body of the law itfelf.
Form, in carpentry, is ufed to denote the long feats
or benches in the choirs of churches or in fchools, for
the priefts, prebends, religious, or fcholars,to fit on. Du
Cange takes the name to be derived from hence, that
the backs of the feats were anciently enriched with
figures of painting and fculpture, called in Latin fornue
ct tijpi. In the life of St William of Rofcbild, we
meet with forma as fignifying a feat for an ecclefiaftic,
or religious, in a choir ; and in that of St Lupicin, we
have formula in the fame fenfe. In the rule of the
monaftery of St Csefarea, the man who prefides over the
choir is called primiceria, vel formari.
At fchools, the word form is frequently applied to
what is other-wife termed a clafs. See Class.
Form alfo denotes the external appearance or furface
of a body, or the difpofition of its parts as to the length,
breadth, and thicknefs.
Form is alfo ufed among mechanics, for a fort of
mould wherein any thing is faflnoned or wrought.
Printers FORM, an afferablage of letters, words, and
line1-, ranged in order, and fo difpofed into pages by the
compofitor •, from which, by means of ink and a prefs,
the printed (beets are drawn.
Every form is enclofed in an iron chefs, wherein it
is firmly locked by a number of pieces of wood 5 feme
long and narrow, and others of the form of wedges.
'Jbeie are two forms required for every (heet, one for
] FOR
each fide ; and each form confifts of more or fewer pages
according to the fize of the book.
Hatter's FORM, is a large block or piece of wood, of i.
a cylindrical figure j the top thereof rounded, and the
bottom quite fiat. Its ufe is, to mould or falhion the
crown of the hat, after the matter thereof has been
beaten and fulled.
Papermaker's FORM, is the frame or mould wherein
the (beets are fafhioned. See Paper.
FORMA pauperis, in Law, is when a perfon has
juft caufe of fuit, but is fo poor that he cannot de¬
fray the ufual charges of fuing at law or in equity ; in
which cafe, on making oath that he is not rvorth 5I.
in the world, on all his debts being paid, and produ¬
cing a certificate from fome lawyer that he has good
cauie of (bit, the judge will admit him to fue in jorma
pauperis ; that is, without paying any fee to counfel-
lors, attorneys, or clerk: the ftatute 11 Hen. VII.
c. 1 2. having enabled, that counfel and attorneys, &e.
(hall be afligned to fuch poor perfons gratis. Where
it appears that any pauper has fold or contrabfed for
the benefit of his fuit whilft it is depending in court,
fuch eaufe (hall be thenceforth totally difmiffed ; and a
perfon fuing in forma pauperis (hall not have a new trial
granted him, but is to acquiefce in the judgment of the
court.
FORMAL, fomething belonging to or conftituting
the form of a thing. See Form.
FORMALITY, the quality of a form, or formula \
or that which conftitutes and denominates them fuch.
Formality, as defined in the fchools, is any manner
wherein a thing is conceived ; or a manner in any ob-
jebl, importing a relation to the under (landing-, whereby
it may be diftinguiftied from another objebt. Thus,
animality and rationality are formalities. The Scottifts
made great ufe of formalities, in oppofition to the vir¬
tualities of the Thomifts.
Formalities, in matters of law, are frequently
ufed for the formulas themfelves, or the rules preferib-
ed for judiciary proceedings. In contracts of drift
law, all the formalities muft be ftriftly obferved : an
omiftion of the lead formality may ruin the whole con¬
vention.
The term is alfo ufed for a certain order or decorum
to be obferved.
FORMAN, Andrew, arehbiftiop of St Andrew’s,
earl of Pittenweem, and of Cottingham in England,
one of the lords of the regency appointed by the (fates
during the minority of King James \. of Scotland,
legate a latere, primate of all the kingdom of Scot¬
land, and archbiftiop of Eourges in France, was de-
feended from the family of the Formans of Hutton in
the (hire of Berwick, and is confidered to have been
one of the beft ftatefmen of the age in which he lived.
He was employed in 1 i;oi, along with Robert Black-
ader, archbiftiop of Glafgow, and Patrick earl of Both-
well, to negotiate a match between Ja. IV. of Scotland
and Margaret eldeft daughter of Hen. VII. of England,
which next year w as ratified by the Scottifti ambafladors.
He was afterwards frequently employed as Scots am-
baffador to Rome, England, and France, upon the mod
important occafions. In 1514, he was tranfiated from
the fee of Moray, to which he had been appointed in
1502, to that of St Andrew’s. During the time of
hi1?
Form
Forman,
FOR [ i
Forman, his poffefTing the former, he was employed as mediator
   betwixt Pope Julius II. and Louis XII. of France, who
were at that time at variance; and he happily iucceed-
ed in conciliating the difference. Having taken leave
of the Pope, he paffed through France on his return
home, where he was kindly received by the king and
queen, who bellowed upon him the bilhopric of Lour-
ges in France, which annually brought him in 400
tons of wine, 10,000 francs of gold, and other fmaller
articles. Belides all this, he was moil lioerally rewarded
by Pope Julius, who promoted him to the archbilhopric
of St Andrew’s, as has been already mentioned ; con¬
ferred on him the two rich abbeys of Dunfermline and
Aberbrothic 5 and made him his legate a latere. At
that time, however, there were two other candidates
for the archiepifcopal fee. The learned Gavin Dou¬
glas, biflrop of Dunkeld, having been nominated by
the queen, had actually taken poffeffion of it ; but
John Hepburn, a bold and factious man, having
been preferred by the monks, drove out the officers
of Gavin Douglas, and placed a llrong garrifon
in the caftle. So great wras the power of this man,
that when Forman was nominated by the Pope, no
perfon could be found who, durft proclaim the bulls
for his election. At laft Lord Home, at that time the
molt powerful nobleman in Scotland, was induced, by
large promifes, belides fome gifts of great confequence,
among which was the donation of the abbacy of Cold-
ingham to his youngelt brother David, to undertake
the talk. It was executed at Edinburgh and St An¬
drew’s ; to which places Lord Home’s brother went
with 10,000 men j though the doing of it, contrary
to Forman’s inclination, proved a fource of much
trouble to that nobleman afterwards. The quarrel be¬
twixt Hepburn and Forman, however, was at laft; ter¬
minated by the latter furrendering the bilhopric of
Moray, as well as fome years revenue of the archbi-
ftiopric itfelf j paying Hepburn alfo 3000 French
crowms annually out of his ecclefiaftical revenues. On
the appointment of the duke of Albany to the regen¬
cy, Hepburn endeavoured to undtimine the primate’s
credit with that nobleman, by reprefenting him as one
who had in a manner colledled all the money in the
country, and who confequently might endanger the
tranquillity of the kingdom, Thefe infthuations, how¬
ever, were but little regarded by the regent •, and For¬
man had the good fortune afterwards to make up a
difference between him and the nobility, which was
likely to be attended with much bloodfhed. In 1517;
the archbilhop was appointed by the ftates one of the
lords of the regency, on occalion of the duke of Al-
banv’s going to France. We have already mentioned
his embaffy to Pope Julius II. In M‘Kenzie’s Lives
wre are informed, that in the colleftion of the Letters
of the Scottilh Kings from the year 1505 till the year
1626, in the lawryers library, there is a letter from that
pope to King James IV. wherein he not only highly
commends Forman, but likewife promifes that at the
firft creation of cardinals he fhould be made one. This
letter is dated the 6th of May 15x 1 : but the pope
died before he had an opportunity of performing his
promile. In the fame collection there is a letter from
the duke of Albany to Leo X. Julius’s fucceffor,
wherein he preffes the pope to advance him to the dig-
i«ty of a cardinal promifed him by his predeceffor,
3 1 FOR
and to continue him his legate a latere. Archbiffnop
Forman died in 1521, and was buried at Dunfermline.
Dempfter fays that he wrote a book againft Luther, a u
book concerning the Stoic Philofophy, and a Collection
out of the Decretals.
FOPiMATlON, in Pkilofophy, an aeft whereby
fomething is formed or produced. For the formation
of the foetus in the womb, lee Anatomy, N° 109,
no.
Formation of Stones. See Stone.
FORMATION of Metals and Minerals. See Metal
and Mineral.
Formation, in Grammar, lignifies the manner of
forming one word from another 5 thus accountantjhip is
formed from accountant, and this laft from account.
FORMEDON, inLrtW, (breve d-eforma donatibnis),
a writ that lies for a perfon who has a right to lands or
tenements, by virtue of any entail, arifmg from the fta-
tute of Weltm. 2. Ch. II.
This writ is of three kinds, viz. a defeender, remain¬
der, and reverter. Formedon in defeender, lies where a
tenant in tail infeoffs a ftranger, or is difleifed and dies,
and the heir may bring this writ to recover the lands.
Formedon in remainder, lies where a man gives lands,
&c. to a perfon in tail, and for the default of iffue of
his body, the remainder to another in tail: here if the
tenant in tail die without iffue, and a ftranger abates
and enters into the land, he in remainder lhall have
this writ. Formedon in reverter, lies where lands are
entailed on certain perfons and their iffue, with re¬
mainder over for want of iffue ; and, on that remain¬
der failing, then to revert to the donor and his heirs :
in this cafe, if the tenant in tail dies without iffue,
and alfo he in remainder, the donor and his heirs,
to whom the reverlion returns, may have this writ for
the recovery of the eftate, though the fame be aliena¬
ted, &c.
FORMIAl, or Formia, in Ancient Geography, a
maritime town of the Adjefted or New Latium, to tho
fouth-eaft of Cajeta; built by the Lacedaemonians,
(Strabo) 5 called originally Hor mice, on account of its
commodious harbour. An ancient munieipium. For-
miani, the people ; who were admitted to the liberty of
the city the very year in which Alexandria was built j
but not to the right of fuffrage till a long time after the
fecond Punic war, (Livy). Formice at this day lies in
ruins, near a place now called Mo/a.
FORMICA, the Ant, a genus of infefls belonging
to the order of hymenoptera.. See Entomology
Index.
The infefls called white ants, which abound in Afri¬
ca and the Faff: Indies, belong to the genus termes,
which fee in Entomology Index.
FORMICA Leo, the Ant lion,- fo called from its de¬
vouring great numbers of ants. It is the caterpillar or.
worm of a fly much refembling the libelke or dragon
flies ; and feeds chiefly upon ants.
FORMING is uled for the a£l of giving being or
birth to any thing.
The word is alfo limply ufed for giving the figure
to any thing. The potter forms his veffels as he
pleafes. Geometry teaches how to form all kinds of
figures.
It is likewife ufed for the producing of a thing : thus;,
the lineaments of the face began to be funned.
FORMING;
Forman
!!.
Forming.
~ y——*
J.-
FOR [ T4
forming, FORMING of a Siege, is the making lines of circum-
Fonnola. ^ y^llation to fortify the camp, and diipofing things for
v the attack of a place in form.
They alfo fay, to form a fqyadron or battalion ;
meaning to range the foldiers in form of a fquadron,
&c.
Forming the Line, is drawing up infantry, cavalry,
and artillery, into line of battle. See Line.
Forming is alfo ufed in grammar, in fpeaking of
certain tenfes of verbs, which arc made from others by
a change of certain letters. The prefent tenfe is formed
from tire infinitive. Compound and derivative words
alfo, and even all that have any eytomology, are faid to
be formed.
FORMOSA, an ifland in the Pacific ocean, be¬
tween 1190 and 1220 of E. Long, and 220 and 250
N. Lat. about 100 miles eaft of Canton in China. It
is fubject to the Chinefe; who, however, notwitbHand¬
ing its vicinity, did not know of its exiftence until the
year 1430. It is about 85 leagues in length, and 25
in breadth. A long chain of mountains, which runs
from north to fouth, divides it into two parts, the
eaftern and weftern. The Dutch formed an eftablilh-
ment in the weftern part in 1634, and built the fort
of Zealand, which fecured to them the principal port
of the iftand •, but they were driven from thence in
1659 or 1661 by a celebrated Chinefe pirate, who made
himfelf mafter of all the weftern part, which afterwards
fubmitted in 1682 to the authority of Kang-he emperor
of China.
This weftern part of Formofa is divided into three
diftinct govemments, all fubordinate to the governor of
Tai-ouan, the capital of the iftand, who is himfelf fub-
je£f to the viceroy of the province of Fokien.
This ifland prefents extenfive and fertile plains, wa¬
tered by a great number of rivulets that fall from the
eaftern mountains. Its air is pure and wholefome *, and
the earth produces in abundance, corn, rice, and the
greater part of other grains. Moft of the Indian fruits
are found here, fuch as oranges, bananas, pine-apples,
guavas, papaws, cocoa nuts j and part of thofe of Eu¬
rope, particularly peaches, apricots, figs, raifins, chef-
nuts, pomegranates, water melons, &c. Tobacco, fu-
gar, pepper, camphire, and cinnamon, are alfo common.
Horfes, flieep, and goats, are very rare in this ifland :
there are even few hogs, although thefe animals
abound in China. Domeftic poultry, fuch as fowls,
geefe, and ducks, are exceedingly plenty •, pheafants
alfo are fometimes feen 5 and monkeys and flags have
multiplied fo much, that they wander through the coun¬
try in large flocks.
The inhabitants of Formofa rear a great number of
oxen, which they ufe for riding, from a want of horfes
and mules. 'J’tmy accuftom them ear1y to this kind
of fervice, and by daily exercife train them to go as
well and as expeditioufly as the beft horfes. Thefe
oxen were furnifhed with a bridle, faddle, and crupper.
A Chinefe looks as big and proud when mounted in
this manner, as if he were carried by the fineft Barbary
courfer.
Wholefome water fit for drinking is the only thing
wanting in the ifland of Formofa. It is very extraor¬
dinary, that e\rery kind of water in it is a deadly poi-
fbn to ftrangers, fur which no remedy has hitherto
been found. “ One of the governor’s fervants,” fays
1 FOR
Father de Mailla, “ w;hom I had in my train (a ftrong _ Formofa.
and robuft man), trufting too much to the force of his" ' J v
conftitution, would not believe what had been told
him concerning this water : he drank feme of it j and
died in lefs than five days, after every medicine and
antidote had been adminiftered without iuccefs. T here
is none but the water of the capital which can be
drunk : the mandarins of the place therefore always
took care to tranfport a fuffieiency of it in carts for
our ufe.” Our author adds, that at the bottom of a
mountain a league diitant from Fong-kan-hit n there is
a fpring that produces a ftream, the water of which is of
a whitith blue colour, and fo noxious, that no one can
approach it.
There are few mulberry trees in Formofa, confe-
quently little fflk is made in the country. Numerous /
manufactures, however, would foon be introduced in¬
to it, wrere the Chinefe permitted indiferiminately to
tranfport themfelves thither, and to form eftablifhments
in the ifland. Thofe w ho go to it muft be protected
by pafiports from the Chinefe mandarins, and thefe
paffports are fold at a dear rate ; fecurities are befides
required. This is not all: when they arrive, money
muft be given to the mandarins who arc appointed to
examine thofe who enter or quit the ifland, and who
generally difeharge this duty with the moft rigid feve-
rity. If they give no prefent, or offer only a trifle,
they meet w itli little mercy j and are fure to be fent
back, whatever paffport they may have. The Chinefe,
through policy, connive at thefe exactions, to prevent
too great a number of people from emigrating to this
ifland, which is rendered a place of great importance
by its proximity to China. They fear, and with great
reafon (efpecially fince Tartar emperors have been on
the throne), that if any revolt fhould happen in For¬
mofa, its influence might fprea^ and occafion great dif-
turbance in the whole empire. On this account, the
Tartars keep a garriion there of 10,000 men: which
they take care to change every three years, or even
oftener if they judge it neceflary.
Befides the capital, the Chinefe have alfo two other
cities, and fome villages, where they inhabit alone j
for they do not permit the Indians, who are their fub-
jeCts, to live among them •, they fuffer none to remain
but thofe who are either their flaves or domeftics.—
Thefe Indians are united into 45 villages ; 36 of which
lie to the north, and 9 towards the fouth. I he nor¬
thern villages are very populous, and the houfes are
built almoft after the Chinefe manner. ’Ihe habita¬
tions of the fouthern iflanders are only heaps of huts
or cottages of earth. In thefe huts they have neither
chairs, benches, tables, beds, nor any piece of furni¬
ture ; the middle part is occupied by a kind of hearth
or chimney, raifed two feet high, and conftruCtcd of
earth, upon which they drefs their victuals. 1 heir
ordinary food is rice, other fmall grain, and the game
which they catch by courfing or kill with their arms.
Thefe iflanders run with fuch furprifing fwiftnefs, that
they can almoft. outftrip the fleeteft greyhound. 1 he
Chinefe attribute this agility to the precaution they
take of confining their knees and reins by a clofe ban¬
dage until the age of 14 or 15. R heir favourite arms are
lances, wrhich they dart to the diftance of 60 or 80 feet
with the greateft dexterity and precifion. I hey ufe
bow's and arrows, and can kill a pheafant on wing with
as
Formofa.
FOR [ i
as much certainty as an European fportfman could with
a fufee. Thefe people are very dirty in their manner
of eating. They have neither plates, difhes, nor fpoons,
nor even the fmall fticks ufed in China. Whatever
they drefs is placed on a plain board or mat, and
they make uie of their fingers for conveying it to their
mouths. They eat fleili half raw ; and provided it
has been only prefented to the fire, it appears to
them excellent. Their beds are formed of frelh ga¬
thered leaves. They go almoft naked, and wear only
a piece of cloth which hangs from their girdle to their
knees. Thofe among them, who, according to the
judgment of the chiefs of the village, have borne away
the prize for agility in running, or dexterity in the
chafe, obtain the honourable privilege of making on
their Ikin, by a very painful operation, feveral fantaili-
cal figures of flowers, trees, and animals. All have
the right of blackening their teeth, and of wearing or¬
naments of bracelets and crowns made of iheils and
cryltal.
The iflanders who inhabit the northern part, where
the climate is fomething colder, clothe themfelves with
the Ikins of the flags which they kill in hunting. They
make a kind of drefs of them without fleeves, that
pretty much refembles a dalmatic, or veftment worn
at the altar by the Roman clergy. They rvear on
their heads caps in the form of a cylinder, made of
palm leaves, and ornamented with feveral crowns
placed one above another, on the top of which they
fix plumes compofed of the feathers of a cock or
pheafant.
The marriage ceremonies of the inhabitants of For¬
mofa approach near to the Ample laws of nature. They
neither purchafe, as in China, the women whom they
efpoufe, nor does interefl: ever prefide over their unions.
Fathers and mothers are fcarcely ever confulted. If a
young man has a mind to marry, and has fixed his
affeflion on a young girl, he appears for feveral days
following near the place where the lives with a mufical
inflrument in his hand. If the young woman is fatis-
fied with the figure of her gallant, flie comes forth and',
joins him: they then agree and fettle the marriage
contrafl. After this they give notice to their parents,
who prepare a wedding dinner, which is always given
in the houfe where the young woman refides, and where
the bridegroom remains without returning again to his
father. The young man afterwards confiders the houfe
of his father-in-law as his own. He becomes the
whole fupport of it, and he has no farther connection
with that of his father ; like married women in Eu¬
rope, v who generally quit their paternal home in order
to live with their hufbands. Thefe iflanders there¬
fore feldom offer up vows for obtaining male chil¬
dren : they prefer daughters, becaufe they procure
them fons-in-law, who become the fupports of their old
age.
Although the Formofans are entirely fubiected to
the Chinefe, they Hill preferve fome remains of their
ancient government. Each village choofes three or
four old men from among thofe who have the greatefl:
reputation for probity. By this choice they become
the rulers and judges of the reft of the hamlet. They
have the power of finally determining all differences ;
and if any one ftiould refufe to abide by their iudg-
ment, he would be immediately banilhed from the vil-
5 ] FOR
lage, without hopes of ever being able to re-enter it, Formofa. ^
and none of the inhabitants would afterwards dare to ' y
receive him.
The natives pay in grain the tribute impofed on
them by the Chinefe. To regulate every thing that
concerns the laying on and collefling of this impoft,
government has eitablifhed a Chinefe in every village,
who is obliged to learn the language and a£l as inter¬
preter to the mandarins. Thele interpreters are moft
cruel extortioners to the miferable people, whom they
ought rather to protect : they are fuch infatiable
leeches that they can fcarcely ever be fatisfied. 1 his
daily and domeftie tyranny has already eaufed the de-
fedlion of three villages in the fouthern part of the
ifland, where formerly there were twelve. The inha¬
bitants of thefe villages revolted, expelled their inter¬
preters, refufed to pay tribute any longer to the Chinefe,
and have united themfelves to the independent nation
in the eaftern part of the ifland.
It was in the ifland of Formofa that John Struys
affirms to have feen with his own eyes a man who had
a tail more than a foot in length, covered with red
hair, and greatly refembling that of an ox. This man.
with a tail faid, that his deformity, if it was one, pro¬
ceeded from the climate, and that all thofe of the
fouthern part of the ifland were born with tails like
his.—But John Struys is the only author who attefts
the exiftence of this extraordinary race of men; no
other writer who has fpoken of Formofa makes the
leaft mention of them. Anotlier circumftance, no lefs-
fingular, and which appears to be little better authen¬
ticated, is, that in this ifland women are not permit¬
ted to bring forth children before they are 35, although
they are at liberty to marry long before that age.
Rechteren * thus expreffes himfelf concerning this # Tivtrh
ftrange cuftom,. Eaji India
“ When women are firft married, they bring no chil- Company
dren into the world : they mull, before that is permit-^vfpl’pfi*.
ted, have attained the age of 35 or 37; When they
are big with child, their prieftelies pay them a vilit,
and tread on their bellies with their feet, if it be necef-
fary, and make them mifearry, with perhaps greater
pains than they would have in being brought to bed.
It would be not only a ftiame, but an enormous crime,
to bring forth a child before the time preferibed. I
have feen fome females who had already deftroyed the
fruit of their womb 1 ^ or 16 times, and who were big
for the 17th when it was lawful for them to bring-forth
a living child.”
To our defeription of Formofa we {hall add the fol¬
lowing account of a dreadful difafter that befel this un¬
happy ifland. The details were conveyed by a letter
from Peking, addreffed. to M. Bertin, and dated the
14th of July 1782.
“ The waters of the ocean have well nigh deprived
China of one of its moft valuable maritime poifeilions..
The ifland of Tay-ouan, known in Europe by the
name of Formofa, has been almoft fwallowed up by
them. It has been reported here, that part of thi
mountain which divides the ifland has funk and difap-
peared *, that the reft has been overturned ; and that
the greater part of the inhabitants have perilhed. Such
have been for fome days the popular reports in this ca¬
pital. Government, however, has put a ftbp to them,
by informing the public of the real truth 5 fuch as it is
F O Ti [ i
Tannofa. been announced to the emperor by the officers who
-y—}iave this {hiall portion of his territories under their ju-
rifdi6Hon. I cannot do better than tranferibe what
they have written. The difpatches of the Chincfe of¬
ficers, addrefl’ed to the emperor, run thus :
“ Bechen, governor-general of the provinces of Fo-
kien and Tche-Kyang-ya, viceroy of Fokien, and
others, make known to your majefty the dilafter
that has lately befallen the ifiand of Tay-ouan. Mon-
ha-hon, and other principal officers of this itland, have
acquainted us, that on the 21ft of the fourth moon
(May 22. 1782), a moft furious wind, accompanied
with heavy rain and a A veil of the fea greater than ever
remembered, had kept them under continual apprehen-
fion of being fwallowed up by the waves, or buried in
the bowels of the earth, from the hour of yn until the
hour ouei (a). This dreadful tempeft feemed to blow
at the fame time from the four cardinal points of the
compafs, and continued with equal violence during the
above-mentioned time. The buildings where the tri¬
bunals were held, the public granaries, the barracks,
fait warehoufes, and works, have been totally deftroy-
ed, and every thing they contained is loft ; warehoufes
and work fliops, as well as private houfes, for the moft
part, prefent nothing but ruins and heaps of rubbiffi.
Of 27 ffiips of war which were in the harbour, 12 have
difappeared •, two others have been dallied to pieces,
and 10 are ftiattered in fuch a manner that they are
rendered entirely unfit for fervice } other fmaller vef-
fels of different fizes, above 100 in number, have
fhared the fame fate *, eighty have been fw allow ed up }
five others, w'hich had juft taken in a lading of rice
for Fokien, have funk, and their cargoes, which
amounted to 100,000 buffiels, are wholly loft. With
regard to other veffels, whether fmall or great, which
had not entered the harbour, 10 or 12 of the largeft
are reckoned to have been fw allowed up ; thofe of in¬
ferior fize, as well as a prodigious number of barks,
boats, and other fmall veffels of different kinds, have
difappeared, without leaving the leaft piece of wreck
behind them. As the -whole illand has been covered
with water, the provifions have been either fwept
away, or fpoilt fo as to render them prejudicial to the
health of thofe who ufc them in their prefent ftate.
The crops are entirely loll. When avc ftiall have
been informed of particulars, avc fliall not fail to give
your majefty the earliefl: intelligence of them.—After
having received this letter from Mon-ha-hon, and the
other principal officers refiding at Tay-ouan, I em¬
ployed the utmoft: diligence to give every affiftance
in my power to this unfortunate iftand 5 and I or¬
dered the travelling commiffary, and Trey-ouer, ge¬
neral of the province, to get particular information
of the number of thofe Avho have perifhed, of the
houfes deftroyed, and of the quantity of fait and other
provifions that has been loft : I have likeAvife enjoined
them to rebuild Avith the utmoft expedition the tribu¬
nals, granaries, and other public edifices •, to difpatclx
proper perfons to fearch for the veffels and ffiips that
have difappeared j to repair thofe which are not altoge-
6 1 FOR
ther unfit for fcrvice, and to fend immediately to the Fomiofit,
neighbouring countries for fait and other necelfary pro- , Formula.
vifions : but above all, to afeertain in the moft accurate v
manner the different Ioffes fuftained by the inhabitants,
and the precife number of people that have periihed, in
order that I may be able to give the fulleft information
to your majefty.”
‘ The emperor of China caufed a particular detail of
thefe Ioffes to be publiffied, together Avith the folloAving
letter:
“ Tchang-yu, &c. Tchem-hoei-Thon-Tfong-tou of
Fokien, and others, have informed me of the difmal
event that hath taken place in the ifland of Tay-ouan,
Avhich is a diftrict of the province of Fokicn. They
have Avritten to me, that on the 21ft of the fourth
moon—[Here the emperor repeats Avhat is contained
in the preceding letter, and continues thus]. I com¬
mand Tfong-tou to get the beft information he can of
the different Ioffes fuftained by the inhabitants of the
ifland, and to tranfmit the particulars to me, in order
that I may give them every affiftance to repair them.
My intention is, that all the houfes Avhich have been
throAvn doAvn (hall be rebuilt entirely at my expence j
that thofe be repawed Avhich are only damaged j and
that provifions, and every thing which the people
ftand in immediate Avant of, be fupplied them. I
fhould feel much pain, were even one among them to
be neglected : I therefore recommend the utmoft di¬
ligence and ftricteft inquiry, as I am defirous that none
of my fubjefts ffiould entertain the leaft doubt of the
tender affeflion Avhich I have for them; and that thev
ftiouid knoAV that they are all under my eyes, and
that I myfelf Avill provide for their Avants. With
regard to my ft lips of war, tribunals, and public edi¬
fices, let them be reftored to their former ftate Avith k
money taken from the public treafury, and let the
general account of the Avhole expence be laid before
me.”
The miffionary Avho fent this account farther fays,
From thefe letters it evidently appears, that this dif-
after happened in confequence of an earthquake ; but
he adds, that the volcano Avhich occafioned it muft be
at a prodigious depth beloAV the fea. He does not pre¬
tend to give an explanation of it j he is contented Avith
obferving, that the fame feene feems to have paffed on
the ifiand of Formofa as at Lima and Lifbon.
FORMULA, or Formulary, a rule or model, or
certain terms preferibed or decreed by authority, for
the form and manner of an aft, inftrument, proceeding,
or the like.
Formula, in Chtrch-Hiflory and Theology, fignifies
a profeffion of faith.
Formula, in Medicine, imports the conftitution of
medicines, either fimple or compound, both Avith re-
fpeft to their prefeription and confiftence.
Formula, a theorem or general rule, or expreffion,
for folving certain particular cafes of fome problem, &.c.
fo — r-]-- d is a general formula for the greater of
2 2.
two
(a) The hours of the Chinefe are double ours : the hour yn begins at three in the morning and ends at five £
mei begins at three in the afternoon and ends at five.
FOR [
Formula two quantities whofe fum is j-, and difference d; and
II. j r
Forntca- _J.__—// tke formula, or general value, for the, left
tion. 2 2 6 ’
i quantity, Alfo d x—x1, is the formula, or general
value, of the ordinate to a circle, whofe diameter is d,
and abfeift x.
FORMULARY, a writing, containing the form or
formula of an oath, declaration, atteftation, or abjUra-
tion, &c. to be made on certain occahons.
. 'f'here are alfo formularies of devotion, of prayers,
&.e. Liturgies are formularies of the public fervice in
molt churches.
F O RN A C ALI A, or Fornicalia., in Roman an¬
tiquity, a fellival inftituted by Numa, in honour
of Fornax, the goddeft of ovens *, wherein certain
cakes were made, and offered in facrifice before the
ovens.
FORNICATION (Fornicatio, from the for nice’; in
Rome, where the lewd women proftituted themfelves
for money), is whoredom, or the adt of incontinency,
between fmgle perfons 5 for if either of the parties is
married, it is adultery. Formerly court leets had power
to inquire of and puniih fornication and adultery in
which courts the king had a fine affeffed on the offend¬
ers, as appears by the book of Domefday.
In the year 1650, when the ruling powders found it
for their intereft to put on the femblance of a very ex¬
traordinary ftriclnefs and purity of morals, not only
inceft and wilful adultery were mads capital crimes,
but alfo the repeated aft of keeping a brothel, or com¬
mitting fornication, was, upon a fecond conviclion,
made felony without benefit of clergy. But, at the
Reftoration, when men, from an abhorrence of the
hypocrify of the late times, fell into a contrary extreme
of licentioufnefs, it was not thought proper to renew
a law of fuch unfafhionable rigour. And thefe offen¬
ces have been ever fince left to the feeble coercion of
the fpiritual court, according to the rules of the canon
law •, a law which has treated the offence of inconti¬
nence, nay, even adultery itfelf, with a great degree of
tenderneft and lenity ; owing perhaps to the conllrain-
ed celibacy of its firft compilers. The temporal courts
therefore take no cognizance even of the crime of adul¬
tery otherwife than as a private injury. See Adul¬
tery.
The evils of fornication, which too many wife to
eonfider as no fin, may be judged of from the following
particulars. &
1. 1 he malignity and moral quality of each crime is
not to be eftimated by the particular effedl of one
offence, or of one perfon’s offending, but by the general
tendency and confequence of crimes of the fame nature.
In the prefent cafe, let the libertine confider and fay,
what would be the confequence, if the fame licentiouf¬
nefs in which he indulges were univerfal ? or what
feould hinder its becoming univerfal, if it be innocent
or allowable in him”?
, 2.. Fornication fuppofes proftitution ; and by pro-
fHtution the victims of it are brought to almoft cer¬
tain mifery. It is no fmall quantity of mifery in the
aggregate, which, between want, difeafe, and infult,
is fuffered by thofe outcafts of human fociety who in-
feft populous cities ; the whole of which is a general
vonfequence of fornication, and to the increafe and
Vol. IX. Part I.
7 ] FOR
continuance of which every aft and inffance of form- Fomie*.
cation contributes, t10^
3. Fornication produces habits of ungovernable lewd-
nefs, which introduce the more aggravated crimes of
feduftion, adultery, violation, &c. The criminal in¬
dulgences between the fexes prepare an eafy admiffion
for every fin that feeks it : they are, in low life, ufual-
ly the firit Itage in men’s progreft to the molt defperate
villanies 5 and in high life, to that lamented dlffolute-
nefe of principle, which manifefts itfelf in a profligacy
of public conduft, and a contempt of the obligations of
religion and moral probity.
4. Fornication perpetuates a difeafe, which may b*
accounted one of the forclt maladies of human nature,
and the effefls of which are faid to vifit the conlfitutiun
of even diftant generations.
The paflion being natural, proves that it was in¬
tended to be gratified •, but under what reftriflions, or
whether without any, muft be collected from different
confiderations.
In the Scriptures, fornication is abfolutely and pe¬
remptorily condemned. ‘ Out of the heart proceed
evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornication, thefts,
falfe witnefs, blafphetnies 5 thefe are the things which
defile a man.’ Thefe are Chrift’s own words ; and one
word from him upon the fubjeft is final. The apoffles
are more full upon this topic. One well-known paf-
fage in the Epillle to the Hebrew's may Hand in the
place of all others ; becaufe, admitting the authority
by which the apoftles of Chrift fpake and wrote, it is
decifive. * Marriage and the bed undefiled is honour¬
able amongft all men, but whoremongers and adulter¬
ers God will judge which was a great deal to fay, at
a time when it was not agreed even amongft philofo-
phers that fornication was a crime.
Upon this fubjcct Mr Paley adds the following ob-
fervations*. * Moral
“ The Scriptures give no fandlien to thofe aufterities and Politic
which have been fince impofed upon the world \xr\AerC!l1
the name of Chrift’s religion, as the celibacy of the^^'^
clergy, the praife of perpetual virginity, the prokibitioP ^
concubitus cum gravida uxore; but with a juft know¬
ledge of, and regard to the condition and intereft of the
human fpecies, have provided in the marriage of one
man with one woman an adequate gratification for the
propenfities of their nature, and have reftrained them
to that gratification.
“ The avowed toleration, and in feme countries the
licenfing, taxing, and regulating of public brothels, has
appeared to the people an authorizing of fornication,
and has contributed, with other caufes, fo far to vitiate
the public opinion, that there is no pra&ice of which
the immorality is fo little thought of or acknowledged,
although there are few' in wfeiqh it can more plainly
be made out. The legiflators who have patronized re¬
ceptacles of proftitution ought to have forefeen this
effect, as well as confidered, that wdiatever facilitates
fornication, diminifees marriages. And as to the ufual
apology for this relaxed difeipline, the danger of great¬
er enormities if accefs to proftitutes were too ftrictly
watched and prohibited ; it will be time enough to look
to that, after the laws and the magiftrates have done
their utmoft. The greateft vigilance of both will do
no more, than oppofe feme bounds and feme difficul¬
ties to this intercourfe. And after all, thefe pretended
C fears
Forres.
FOR [
Fornication fears are "without foundation in experience. The men
are in all refpccts the moft virtuous in countries where
the women are molt cliafte.
“If fornication be criminal, all thofe incentives
which lead to it are accciTaxies to the crime : as lafci-
vious converfation, whether exprefled in obfcene or
difguifcd under model! phrafesj alfo wanton fongs,
piidurcs, books j the writing, publilhing, and circula¬
ting of which, whether out of frolic or for loralfe pitiful
profit, is productive of fo exteniive a mifchief from fo
mean a temptation, that few crimes within- the reach
of private wickednefs have more to anfvver for, or lefs
to plead in their excufe.
“ Indecent converfation, and by parity of reafon all
the reft, are forbidden by St Paul, Eph. iv. 29. ‘ Let
no corrupt communication proceed out of your mouth j’
and again, Col. iii. 8. ‘Put filthy communication out
of your mouth.’
“ The invitation or voluntary admiflion of impure
thoughts, or the differing them to get poffeflion of the
imagination, falls within the fame defcription, and is
condemned by Chrift, Matt. v. 28. ‘ Whofoever look-
eth on a woman to lull after her, hath committed a-
dultery with her already in his heart.’ Chrift, by thus
enjoining a regulation of the thought, ftrikes at the root
of the evil.”
FORNIX, in Anatomy, is part of the corpus callo-
fum in the brain 5 fo called, on account of a diftant re-
femblance to the arches of ancient vaults when viewed
in a particular manner.
FORRAGE, in the military art, denotes hay, oats,
barley, wheat, grafs, clover, &c. brought into the
camp by the troopers, for the fuftenance of their
horfes.
It is the bufmefs of the quartermafter general to
appoint the method of forrage, and poll proper guards
for the fecurity of the forragers.
FO!\RES, a borough town of Scotland in the
county of Murray, elaffing with Invernefs, Fortrofe,
and Nairn. It is a fmall well built town, pleafantly
fftuated on an eminence near the river Findhorn. The
country about it has a cheerful appearance, having a
few gentlemen’s feats, with fome plantations about
them. On a hill weft of the town are the remains of
a caftle •, and a melancholy view of a number of fand-
hills, that now cover that traft of land which was
formerly the eftate of a Mr Cowben in the parifh of
Dyke. This inundation, was occafioned by the influx
of the fea and the violence of the wind.. It had been
the cuftom to pull up the bent, a long fpiry grafs near
the ftiore, for litter for horfes, by which means the fand
-was loofened, and gave way to the violence of the fea
and wind, winch carried it over feveral thoufand acres
of land.. The people having been prevented from pul¬
ling up any more of the grafs, the progrefs of the fand
is now nearly flopped, and the. fea has retired •, but the
wind has blown fome of the fand from the hills over
Colonel Grant’s land, and deftroyed near 100 acres.
A fand bank, which is all dry at low water, runs out
from this place for feveral miles into the Murray Frith.
Some of the land, which has been long forfaken by
the water, is now beginning to be ufeful again, and is
turned into grazing land. At Forres, coarfe linen and
Ewing thread are made. Eaft from the town, and on
the left hand fide of the road, is a remarkable cbe-
18 ] F O li
lilk, which is faid to be the moft ftately monument of
the kind to be feen in Europe. It has been the fub-
je£t of many able pens; but totally overlooked by
Dr Johnfon, who fays, “ At Forres we found good
accommodation, but nothing worthy of particular re¬
mark.”—It is thus deferibed by Mr Cordiner, in a let¬
ter to Mr Pennant: “ In the firft divilion, underneath
the Gothic ornaments at the top, are nine hories with
their riders marching forth in order : in the next is a
line of warriors on foot, brandiftiing their weapons,
and appear to be fhouting for the battle. i he import
of the attitudes in the third divifion is very dubious,
their expreflion indefinite. The figures which form a
fquare in the middle of the column are pretty complex
but diftind! 3 four ferjeants with their halberts guard a
canopy, under which are placed feveral human heads,
which have belonged to the dead bodies piled up at
the left of the divifion 3 one appears in the character o£
executioner fevering the head from another body 3 be¬
hind him are three trumpeters founding their trum¬
pets, and before him two pair of combatants fighting
with fword and target. A troop of horfe nejet ap¬
pears, put to flight by infantry, whofe firft line have
bows and arrows 3 the three following, fwords and tar¬
gets. In the lowermoft divifion now vifible, the horfes
feem to be feized by the victorious party, their riders,
beheaded, and the head of their chief hung in chains
or placed in a frame 3 the others being thrown toge¬
ther befidfe the dead bodies under an arched cover.
The greateft part of the other fide of the obelilk,
occupied by a fumptuous erofs, is covered over with
an uniform figure, elaborately railed, and interwoven
with great mathematical exaflnefs. Under the crola
are two auguft perfonages, with fome attendants, much
obliterated, but evidently in an attitude of reconcilia¬
tion 3 and if the monument was erected in memory of
the peace concluded between Malcolm and Canute,
upon the final retreat of the Danes, thefe large figures
may reprelent the reconciled monarchs. On the edge
below the fretwork are fome rows of figures joined
hand in hand, which may alfo imply the new degree
of confidence and fecurity which took place, after the
feuds were compofed, which arc characterized on the
front of the pillar. But to whatever particular tranf-
aCtion it may allude, it can hardly be imagined, that
in fo early an age of the arts in Scotland as it muft
have been railed, fo elaborate a performance would
have been undertaken but in confequence of an event
of the moft general importance 3 it is therefore fur-
prifing, that no diftinCter traditions of it arrived at the
era when letters were known. I he height of this
monument ('called King Sueno's Jlone) above the ground
is 23 feet 3. befides 12 or 15 feet under ground. Its
breadth is 3 feet 10 inches by I foot 3 inches in
thicknefs.” f
FORSKOHLEA, a genus of plants belonging to
the deeandria clafs. See Botany Index.
FORSTER A, a genus of plants belonging to the
gvnandria clafs. See Botany Index.
FORT, in the military art, a fmall fortified place,
environed on all fides with a moat, rampart, and para¬
pet. Its ufe is to fecure fome high ground, or the paf-
fage of a river, to make good an advantageous poll, to
defend the lines and quarters of a fiege, &c.
Forts are made of different figures and extents* ac¬
cording.
Forres
If
lort.
/
Fort
F O R [
cording as the ground requires. Some are fortified witii
battions, others with demibaftions. Some again are in
form of a fquare, others of a pentagon. A fort differs
from a citadel, as this laft is built to command feme
town.
Royal FORT, is one whole line of defence is at Icafl
26 fathoms long.
Star FORT, is a fconce or redoubt, conlfituted by re¬
entering and falient angles, having commonly from five
to eight points, and the iides flanking each other.
Vitrified FORTS, a very Angular kind of ilruclures
found in the highlands and northern parts of Scotland,
in which the walls have the appearance of being melted
into a folid mafs, fo as to referable the lava of a volcano,
for which indeed they have been taken by feveral per-
fons who. have vifited them.
Thefe walls Avere taken notice of by Mr Williams
an engineer, who wrote a treatife upon the fubjecl,
and Avas the firit who fuppofed them to be Avorks
of art *, other naturalifts having attributed them to a
volcanic origin. Thefe works are commonly fifuated
-on the tops of fmall hills, commanding an extenfive
view of the adjacent valley or low country. The area
on the fummit, varying, as is fuppofed, according to
the number of cattle the proprietor had to protect, or
the dependents he Avas obliged to accommodate, is fur-
rounded with a high and flrong wall, of Avhich the
Hones are melted, moft of them entirely ; while others,
in Avhich the fufipn has not been fo complete, are funk
in the vitrified matter/in fuch a manner as to be quite
enclofed Avith it ; and in fome places the fufion has
been fo perfect, that the ruins appear like maffes of
coarfe glars. Mr Williams has not only abfolutely de¬
termined the walls in queflion to be the works of art,
but has even hazarded a conjeflure as to the manner
in which they Avere conftrufled, and which, according
to him, Avas as folioavs. Two parallel dikes of earth
or fod being raifed, in the dire&ion of the intended
wall, Avith a fpace between them fuflicient for its thick-
nefs, the fuel Avas put in, and fet on fire. The Hones
beil adapted for the purpofe, called the plum-pudding
Jlone, are everywhere to be found in the neighbour¬
hood. Thefe Avere laid on the fuel, and when melted,
were kept by the frame of earth from running off; and
by repeating the operation, the Avail was raifed to a
fufficient height. This opinion of the Hones being
thrown in Avithout any order, is thought to be con¬
firmed by the circumffance of there not being any¬
where a large one to be feen, nor a Hone laid in any
particular direftion, nor one piece Avhich has not in
fome degree been affefted by the fire. Mr Williams
mentions a faiH tending to confirm his hvpothefis,
viz. of a brick kiln fituated on the declivity of an emi¬
nence, fo as to be expofed to the wind, Avhich happen¬
ing to rife brifldy one time Avhen the kiln was burning,
fo increafed the heat, that the bricks Avere melted,
and ran, like a lava, for a confidcrable AAray doAvn the
hill.
The opinion of Mr Williams has been embraced by
feveral other authors •, particularly Mr Frecbairn and
Dr Andcrfon, the latter having publifhed two treatifes
upon thefe buildings in the Archceologia. In the fame
work, however, avc meet Avith a paper by the Hon.
Daines Barrington, in Avhich the author expreffes quite
different fentiments. He obferves, that Mr Williams,
19 ] F O ft
and the other antiquaries, who fuppofo the Avails in Vitrified
queflion to be works of art, imagine that the reafon Forts•
of their being conilrucled in this manner Avas the
ignorance of cement, which in thefe remote ages pre¬
vailed in Scotland : but with refpeft to this circum-
Hance, he fays, that if one fide of the wall only Avas
heated, and that to any conliderable height, the
matter in fufion Avould in all likelihood drop down te
the bottom, without operating as any cement to the
loofe Hones throAvn in amongil it. This circumflance
of the Avails being vitrified only on one fide, is'indeed
remarkable, and takes place in mofl of the forts ol this
kind to be met Avith at prefent: but Avith regard to
it, Mr Barrington obferves, that he himfelf has been
tAvice in the Highlands of Scotland, and has found
very Fcav hills of any height Avhich Avere clothed Avith
Avood j the trouble therefore of carrying it up to the
top of fuch a mountain AvouJd be very ccnfidcrable*
But to this it might eaiily be replied, that avc cannot
by any means argue from the prefent Hate of the hills
in the Highlands to their Hate in a very remote period,
of antiquity. At that time, it is neither impoflible,
nor in the Icafl improbable, that mofl of the hills in
Scotland Avere oAxrgroAvn Avith Avood j or at any rate,
there undoubtedly Avas plenty of peat, which is Hill
ufed as fuel in Scotland, and Avhich affords fuch a flrong
heat as to be advantageouily employed in fmelting
iron, as we are informed by M. Magellan. A third
particular mentioned by Mr Williams is, that thefe en-
clofures Avere intended as places of defence 5 and iw
fupport of this opinion he alleges, that there are dried
Avells found Avithin mofl of them. But on this Mr
Barrington obferves, that flieltcr from the weather Avas
alfo neceffary, “ upon the top of a bleak Scotch hill,
Avhilfl Avhilky (or a fucccdancum for it) Avould be often
in greater requefl than the bare element of water.’*
This objeftion, however, as Avell as the lafl, is evidently
very frivolous j for thefe buildings might have roofs as
Avell as any other ; and whatever necelfity there might
be for Avhifky occafionaily, water was certainly an in .
difpenfable requifite.
Mr Barrington having thus given his reafons for
diffenting from the opinion of Mr Williams and the
antiquaries jufl mentioned, proceeds to Hate his oaviv.
He tells us, that having travelled for 21 years the mofl
mountainous circuit in Wales, he lias frequently ob-
ferved enclofures of dry ftones, particularly a long traft
in the weflern part of Merioneth (hire, called in the-
language of the country Duffryn, i. tx the va/e. On
firft viewing thefe fmall enclofures made with walls
of thick ftones, he was at a lofs to imagine how it
could be Avorth Avhile to conftruft fuch ftrong fences
for fo inconliderable a piece of ground as they enclofed -j
but, on examining the 'adjacent country, he found it
almoft entirely covered Avith ftones of a fimilar kind j
and, of confequence, the fmallcr the fpace to be cleared,
the lefs expenfive would be the removal. “ For tlu>
fame reafon (fays he), fuch dry walls are often of a
great thicknefs, and fometimes the comers of the en¬
clofures are filled Avith ftones to a great width, this
being the only poflible means of procuring pafture.”
To -a praiftice of the fame kind our author Avould aferibc
the origin of the works in queftion : but the objection
occurs very ftrongly, that the Avails in Scotland are
vitrified, and it is not to be fuppofed that fuch trouble
C 2 would
F O Pi [ 20 ] F O R
VrtriB'ed irould be taken iviih fences made in fucli a fortuitous
lovts. manner. This objeftion, our author owns, would indeed
v be unanfwerable, on the fuppofition that the vitrification
was made on purpofe to ftrengthen the walls or the
fortrefs j but (fays he) may not the vitrification have
been occalioned by volcanoes,, or by what are called
bloomeries ? The fame effe£t may be produced like-
wife on dry walls of done by lightning palling along
them. The loofe ftones in either cafe would not be
rejected becaufe they were glafly, and would be piled
up in the fence of the enelofure : as the great point
upon thefe occafions is to clear the ground, and remove
the encumbering ftones to the fmalleft diftanee. One
of the advocates for the defigned and not fortuitous
vitrification, fays, that the pieces he had procured did
not refemble what is called lava. But every volcano
is not neceffarily an Etna or a \ efuvius } and confe-
qucntly the matter difgorged from the crater muft per¬
petually vary both in fubftance and form. Vitrified
maffus, larger or fmaller, will likewife be produced by
the fame means. It may be contended, indeed, that
pafture thus procured, by clearing the ground, w ould
be more convenient at the bottom or on the fides, than
on the top of the hill : but to this I anfwer, that in
rocky countries you muft get what pittance you can of
foil, and often it will happen that the only detached and
removeable ftones are on the fummit. When Inch en-
clofures have been made, they became very convenient
for putting cattle into *, and hence perhaps feme of the
wells which Mr Williams hath mentioned.”
Our author concludes his differtation on this fubjeft
by obferving, # that if vitrification anfwered the purpofe
of cement, it is very extraordinary that the ancient in,
habitants of Scotland did not apply it to the houfes
or huts in which they conftantly lived, but referved
this troublefome and expenfive procefs merely for a
fortification, which might not perhaps be ufed in half
a century againft an enemy. On this it is almoft fu-
perfluous to obferve, that in the ages of barbarity and
bloodfhed, in which thefe enclofures, whether natural
®r artificial, were fuppofed to be ufed as fortreffes,
•war was fo frequent, that a defence againft an enemy
might feem to be neceftary every day, inftead of once
in half a century. Before we proceed further in the
argument, however, it Avill be neceflary to give fome
account of the fituation and appearance of thefe for-
treffes.
According to Mr Cardonnel, the largeft of them
is fituated on the hill of Knockfarrill, to the fouth of
the valley of Strathpeffer, two miles Aveft from Ding¬
wall in Rofsfhire. The enelofure is I 20 feet long and
40 broad Avithin the Avails ; ftrengthened on the out-
fiide Avith Avorks at each end. A range of habitations
feems to have been ere&cd againft, or under, the {hade
of the outAvard Avail ; of Avhich thofe on the fouth fide
feem to have been higher and larger than thofe on the
north. There are two Avells in the middle, Avhich,
®n being cleared out, filled Avith Avater. On the
fkirts of the hill to the fouth are many detached build¬
ings ; Avhich, from the ftratum of dung found on re¬
moving the ruins, appear plainly to have been ufed for
fecuring the catt1e. This place feems to have been
anciently of confequence, and the refidence of fome
poAverful chief, from a road Avhieh leads through the
.kills to the north-weft fea. To the eaft of the works
are a number of vitrified ruins, extending for a confider- Vitrified
able way along the ridge of the hill, ihe end next lens,
the fort feems to have joined the outer Avail, and con- * *
lifted either of two parallel Avails, doled above, Avith a
paffage between them under cover, or a high Avail broad
enough to walk on. In this Avail there is the vellige of
a break about the middle, over Avhich a bridge has been
laid, to be draAvn up or removed as occahon might re¬
quire.
The fort next in eonfequence to that of Knock-
farril is fituated on the hill ox Craig-Phadrick near In-
verntfs, “ which (fays Mr Cardonnel) has this pecu¬
liar circumftance, that there appears to have been tAvo
vitrified walls quite round the area. 1 he inner one
feems to have been \7ery high and ftrong j the outer-
Avall but Ioav : probably the fpace between Avas intend¬
ed for feeuring their cattle, as there are no remains of
dry-ftone buildings, fueh as are found near the reft..
Several parts of this outer wall appear quite entire,
fticking to the firm bare rock, where it Avas firft run.
The area within the inner Avail is near 80 paces long
and 27 broad.” Ot this we have an account * by *^in.PhiL
Alexander Frafer-Tytler, Efq. profeflbr of civil hiftory TranfaEl.
in the univerfity of Edinburgh, Avho vifited it in the Vol II.
year 1782. The hill itfdf is a {'mail conical eminence,
forming the eaftern extremity of that ridge of moun¬
tains which bounds Loch Nefs on the north-weft fide.
It is fituated about a mile to the north of Invernefs,
and is acceflible on tAvo different quarters, viz. the
A\7eft and fouth-eaft ; the former affording entrance by
a narrow level ridge ioining the hills on Loch Nefs,
and the latter by an eafy afeent from the high ground
above Invernefs. On approaching the hill from the
Aveft, avc firft meet with a road cut through the rock
from the bottom to the top, in moft places 10 feet
broad and nearly as deep *, Avinding, for about 70 feet,
Avith an eafy ferpentine direbfion, by Avhich we gain
an afeent over a fteep rock otherwife quite inacceflible
from that quarter. This road, in our author’s opi¬
nion, is undoubtedly the Avork of art, and the vitrified
matter on the top is the only thing which indicates
the effe£I of fire ; there being neither an appearance
of pumice-ftone, lava, nor bafaltes, about the hill other-
Avife. There is indeed plenty of pkim-puddir.g ftone j
Avhich fome have fuppofed to be of the nature of vol¬
canic tufa \ but this opinion is rejected by our author
as erroneous. “ But the circumftance (fays he)
•which in my apprehenfion evinces, in the molt latis-
fadtory manner, that thefe appearances of the effedt
of fire on the fummit of this hill are not the opera¬
tion of nature but of art, is the regular order and dif-
pofition of thofe materials, - the form of the ground,
and the various traces of Ikill and contrivance which
are yet difcernible, though confiderably defaced either
by external violence or the obliterating hand of time.”
To inveftigate this matter regularly, he begins Avith the
Avinding road already mentioned, and Avhieh is evi¬
dently cut through the rock for the purpofe of gain¬
ing an eafy afeent from the level ridge to the fmnmit,
which Avould othenvife have been impradficable. In
afeending by this road, thtre appears, toAvards the
middle, on the right hand, a fmall platform overhang- •
ing the paffage, and inclining by a very gentle declivity
to the very edge of the rock. Four enormous ftones
are placed upon the platform, and on the edge and
sjetremity
FOR [2
Vitrified extremity of it, which have evidently been guided by
Forts. art illt0 that petition •, it being impoflible that they
couici have rcfted there, had they been rolled down
from the higher parts. The obvious reafon for placing
them in fuch a pofition has been, that on an alarm of
danger they might be proje&ed into the path below,
which could be done by the efforts of a very few men:
and when this was done, the paffage would be entirely
obftru&ed, or at leaff rendered fo difficult that it could
be defended by a few againft any number of affailants.
Some other large ftones are placed on an eminence to
the left, probably with a view to block up a hollow
channel, by which an enemy might have attempted to
afeend. When we come to the top of the hiH> a few
feet below the rampart which crowns the whole, there
appears an outward wall, approaching on the tides of
the hill fo near the upper rampart, as to have only a
trench of 10 or 12 feet wade between them. This
outward wall is in fome places fo low as to be almoft
level with the rock, though in other places it riles
to the height of two or three feet 5 but even where
loweft, it may be traced by a line of vitrified matter
flicking faft to the rock all along, and nearly of the
fame breadth, which is about nine feet. The remains
of this wall are ftrongly vitrified, except in one place
on the north fide, where, for about 70 yards, the
rampart is formed only of dry ftones and earth. At
the eaft fide, where the hill is more accefiible, there
is a prodigious mound of vitrified matter, extending
itfelf to the thicknefs of above 40 feet. At the fouth-
eaft corner, and adjoining to this immenfe mound,
is an outwork, confifting of two femicircular vitrified
walls, with a narrow pals cut through them in the
midd1e ; which appears to have been another, and per¬
haps the principal entry to the fort.
The inner wall, furrounding the fummit of the hill,
enclofes an oblong level area of about 75 yards long
and 30 broad, rounded at each of the ends like the
outward wall. It is of confiderable height, and near¬
ly of the lame thicknefs with the outward one.-—It
has fome appearance of having been defended with
four turrets or baftions: but the traces are fo imper-
feiff, that Mr Tytler does not lay much ftrefs on his
obfervations in this refpeft; a number of fmall tumuli
of earth, with a ftone in the centre, were more dif-
eernible. On the eaft fide a portion of the internal
fpace appears feparated from the reft by two ranges of
ftones fixed ftrongly in the earth, and forming a right-
angled parallelogram. “ This feparation (fays our
author) is immediately difeernibie by the eye, from
this circumftance, that the whole of the enclofed fum-
mit has been moft carefully cleared from ftones, of
which there is not one to be feen, unlefs thofe that
form this divifion, and the fingle one in the middle
of the circle of tumuli above mentioned. What has
been the defign of this feparated fpace, it is difficult to
conjecture. It might perhaps have marked the refi-
dence of thofe of a higher rank, or ferved as a temple
for the purpofes of devotion.” On the eaft end of
the large area on the fummit is a well of about fix
feet in diameter, which has orobablv been funk very
deep in the rock, though now it is filled up with rub-
biffi to within a vard of the top.
The other fortified hills mentioned by Mr Cardon-
ael are thofe of Dun-Evan in the fhire of Nairn 3 Tor-
x j FOR
dun caftle, near Fort Auguftus 3 and another on the (Vitrified
W'eft fide of Gleneves in Lochaber, three miles to the *ort!;-
fouth of Fort William. The Caftle hill of Finhaven, 1 v
in the county of Angus, has likewife fome confiderable
ruins of the fame kind.
Dun-Evan and the hill of Finhaven have like wife
been viftted by Mr Tytler, who gives an account of
them in the paper already quoted 3 of which the fol¬
lowing is an abftradt. “ On the fummit of the hill
of Dun-Evan, wffiofe name implies that it had been
originally a place of defence, are the remains of two
walls furrounding an oblong fpace like that of Craig
Phadrick already deferibed, but fomewhat fmaller in
ftze. [Mr Cardonnel fays that it is about 70 paces
long and 30 broad]. There are likewife the traces
of a well in the enclofed area; and at the eaft end art*
the remains of a prodigious mafs of building, much
more exteniive than that on Craig Phadrick.” Here,
how'ever, our author could not perceive any marks of
fire 3 and Mr Williams owns that the vitrified ruins
here are more w'afted than on Knockfarril or Craig
Phadrick. But with regard to the vitrifications here,
our author is inclined to luppofe Mr Williams to have
been entirely in a miftake. On the Caftle hill of
Finhaven, however, the vitrified remains are very
vifible all round the fummit, which is cleared of ftones
and levelled, unlefs at one end, where there is a great
hollow fpace feparated from the reft of the area, and
probably deitined exclufively for the keeping of cattle.
The enclofed area is about 140 yards long, and upwards
of 40 broad.
Befides thefe fortifications, the hill of Noth affords
a remarkable appearance of the fame kind : of which
Mr Cordiner gives the following defeription, not from
his own obfervation, but thofe of a gentleman of cre¬
dit Avho vifited the place. “ On the top of the hill
there is an oblong hollow, as I could guefs, of about
an Engliffi acre, covered with a fine fward of grafs :
in the middle toward the eaft end of this hollow is a-
large and deep well. The hollow is furrounded on all
fides with a thick rampart of ftones. On three fides
of this rampart, from 8 to 12 feet thick, is one com-
padt bod^ of ftones and minerals which have been in a.
ftate of fufion, refembling a mixture of ftone and
iron-ore, all vitrified, calcined, and incorporated. On
the north fide the rampart confifts -of broken pieces of
rock, which have the appearance of having been torn
to pieces by fome extraordinary violence. If the cal¬
cined compadt Avail exifts under them, it is not at pre-
fent vifible.”
Such are the deferiptions of the moft remarkable of
thefe curious fortifications, Avhich of late feem to have
engaged the attention of the learned in a confiderable
degree. We have already taken notice, that by fome
they are firppofed to be the works of art, by others
the predudHons of a Amlcano. Mr Cardonnel adopts
the opinion of Mr Williams as the moft probable, both
with refpedl to their ufe and manner of conftrudiion.
Mr TvtTer takes notice of the remarkable difference
of opinion among thofe who have vieAved the places
in queftion. w It is curious to remark (fays he)
hoAv the fame appearances, to different obfervers, lead
to the moft oppofite opinions and conclufions. The
two gentlemen above mentioned (Mr Williams and
Dr Anderfon) feexn not to have entertained tire fmall-
efl
FOR [ 22 ] FOR
Vitrifiecl
Forts,
eft doubt, that the vitrified materials on the tops of
thefe hills were the veftiges of works of art, and the
remains of itruclures reared for the purpofes of fecu-
rity and defence. The hilltop of Derry, when on a
tour to the north of Scotland, vifited the hill of Craig
Phadrick near Inverncfs, and expreffed his opinion,
that the mounds of vitrified matter were not the re¬
mains of any artificial work, but the traces of an an¬
cient volcano. In the Phil. Tranf. of the Royal So¬
ciety of London for 1777, Part II. N° 20. is an account
of Creek Fatcrich, there termed a Volcanic hill near In¬
ver nefs, in a letter from Thomas Weil, Efq. to Mr
Law, F. R. S. in which the writer does not hefitate
to pronounce this hill an extinguilhed volcano; and
having fent fpecimens of the burnt matter for the in-
fpeffion of the Royal Society, the fecretary fubjoins
a note to the paper, intimating, that thefe fpecimens
having been examined by fome of the members well
acquainted with volcanic produftions, were by them
judged to be real lava. Such was likewife the opinion
of the late Andrew Crofhie, Efq. who, in an account
which he gave to the Philofophical Society of Edin¬
burgh in 1780, offered fome very curious conjedlures
with regard to the procefs of nature, by which lie fup-
pofed the whole of this hill to have been thrown up
from the bottom of the fea by the operation of inteftine
fire.
Mr Tytler agrees with thofe who think the vitrified
ftru&ures to be artificial works: but he differs from
Mr Williams and others, who think that they were
vitrified on purpofe for cementing the materials toge¬
ther. His reafon for this is, that the number of forts
that fliow marks of vitrification, is confiderable when
compared with thofe that do not. He therefore con-
fiders the vitrification as accidental; and that it mull have
been accomplifhed in the following manner. In the rude
Hate in which we mull fuppofe Scotland to have been
in early times, it is very probable that their buildings,
both for habitation and defence, would be frequently
conftrudted of loofe Hones of an irregular fliape ; of
which, by themfelves, it would fcarce be poffible to fa¬
bricate a wall of any tolerable flrength. Hence it
became needfary to ufe wood as well as Hone in their
confiruflion. This kind of building, then, in our au¬
thor’s opinion, was begun by railing a double row of
pallifades or Hrong Hakes in the form of the intended
firufeure, in the fame way as in that ancient mode of
building deferibed by Palladio under the name of riem-
piuta a caff'a, or coffer-work. Thefe Hakes were pro¬
bably warped acrofs by boughs of trees laid very clofe-
ly together, fo as to form two fences running parallel
to each other at the diflance of fome feet, and fo clofe
as to confine all the materials of whatever fize that
were thrown in between them. Into this intermediate
fpace Mr Tytler fuppofes were thrown boughs and
trunks of trees, earth and Hones of all fizes, large or
fmall as they could quarry or colled them. Very little
care would be neceffary in the difpofition of thefe ma¬
terials, as the outward fence would keep the mound
in form. In this way it is eafy to conceive that a very
Hrong bulwark might be reared with great difpateh ;
which, joined to the natural advantage of a very inac-
ceffible fituation, and that improved by artful contri¬
vances for increafing the difficulty of accefs, would
form a flrudure capable of anfwering every purpofe of
fecurity or defence. The mofl formidable attack a-
gainit fuch a building wTould be fire, which would
no doubt be always attempted, and often with fuccefs,
by an enemy who undertook the fiege. If the befiegers
prevailed in gaining an approach to the ramparts, and,
furrounding the external wail, fet fire to it in feveral
places, the conflagration mult fpeedily have become
univerfal, and the effect may be eafily imagined. If
there happened to be any wind at the time to increafe
the heat, the ffony parts could not fail to come into
fufion; and as the wood burnt away, finking by their
own weight into a folid mafs, there would remain a
wreck of vitrified matter tracking the fpot where the
ancient rampart had flood ; irregular, and of unequal
height, from the fortuitous and unequal diflribution
of the flony materials of which it had been compofed.
Tliis conjecture appears very probable from their ap¬
pearance at this day. They do not feem to have ever
been much higher than they are at prefent, as the-
fragments that have fallen from them, even where the
wall is lowefl, are very inconfiderable. The durable
nature of the materials would prevent them from fuf-
fering any changes by time ; though from the gradual
increafe of the foil, they muff in fome places have loff
confiderably of their apparent height, and in others
been quite covered. Mr Williams, in making a cut
through the ramparts at Knockfarril, found in many
places the vitrified matter covered w ith peat mofs half
a foot thick.
In confirmation of this opinion, our author likewif®
urges that in the fortification on Craig Phadrick, a
large portion of the outward rampart bears no marks
of vitrification. The reafon of this feems to be, that the
fleepnefs of the hill on that fide renders a lowr fence of
Hones and turf fufficient; and no wood had probably
been employed in its conftruclion. “ It appears there¬
fore highly probable (concludes our author), that the
effect of fire upon thefe hill fortifications has been en¬
tirely accidental ; or to fpeak more properly, that fire
has been employed not in the conitruflion, but to--
wards the demolition of fuch buildings : and for the
latter purpofe it would certainly prove much more ef¬
ficacious than for the former. It is much to be doubt¬
ed, whether it wrould be at all poffible, even in the pre¬
fent day, by the utmoft combination of labour and of
Ikill, to furround a large fpacc of ground wdth a double
rampart of Hones compared by fire, of fuch height
and folidity as to anfwer any purpofe of fecurity or de¬
fence againff an enemy. Any Hruflure of this kind
muff have been irregular, low, fragile, eafily fealed,
and quite infecure ; a much W’eaker rampart, in fliort,
than a fimple Avail of turf or wooden pallifade. The
veffiges yet remaining, as I have already obferved, give
no room to fuppofe that the vitrified mound has ever
been much more entire than it is at prefent. The ef¬
fect of fire upon ffruclures reared in the manner I have
fuppofed them to have been, will account mofl per¬
fectly for their prefent appearance. It was from ne-
ceffity that the builders of thefe fortifications betook
themfelves to a mode of HruCture fo liable to be de-
Hroyed by fire. In thofe parts where Hones could be
eafily quarried, of fuch fize and form as to rear a ram¬
part by themfelves of fufficient flrength and folidity,
there was no occafion to employ wood or turf in its
conflruClion 5 and it was therefore proof againff all af-
faultS
VitrukJ
Forts.
*V itrlfifS
Forts.
FOR r 23 ] FOR
faults by fire. Such ate the ramparts tv Inch appear on
the hill of Dun-Jardel, Dun-Evan, and many others, on
which there is not the fmalleft appearance of vitrifica¬
tion. But on Craig- Phadrick, and the other hills, above
deferibed,' where, from the nature of the rock, the (tones
could be procured only in irregular and generally fmall
fragments, it was neceffary to employ feme fuch mode
of conftruction as I have fuppofed •, and thefe ramparts,
though folid and well calculated for defence againft
every attack by force or llratagcm, were not proof
againlt an affault by fire.”
Mr Cordiner is of opinion, that the vitrifications in
queftion cannot have been the works of art, and ridi¬
cules the contrary hypothefis *, though without adducing
any argument againlt it. The hill of Noth is by him
fuppofed to have been a volcano. He deferibes it as
w a molt majeltic mountain, in general brown, with
mol's and heath, interl'perfed with bare rock, in many
places crumbling down. The highell part of it is a
circular hill, whofe verdure, as well as height, dillin-
guifiies it from the relt of the mountain. This is called
the Top of Noth ; and bears the Itrongeft refemblancs
to every defeription of a volcanic mount. At the
diflance of many miles, one can diitinguifh thofe ridges
which are the boundaries of the crater, indicating the
hollow in the top.” The gentleman from whom Mr
Cordiner received the account of the vitrifications on
the fummit, informs us, that on firft feeing fpecimens
of them, he imagined that they had been pieces of
Bone calcined by the burning down of a callle ; as he
had found fomething very like them on the caftle-hill
at Cullen, in parts where the fward of grafs wras broken \
but on reaching the top, and viewing the appearances
on it already deferibed, he altered his opinion. “ That
men hardly befet (fays he) might climb up with fome
provifions to this as a place of refuge, is probable :
but that, on a barren mountain top, far from cultivated
ground, half a day’s journey from the plain \ that
there, in any period of fociety, man fhould have been
tempted to build that amazing rampart, is not to be
imagined : they have found it a natural and extenfive
fortrefs, and in critical circumftances have made ufe
of it accordingly. That it has been occupied as a
place of ftrength and of refuge, is very evident ; for,
fome hundred yards lower down on the hill, there are
the remains of another rampart or Avail, confiding of
loofe dones piled together without any cement, carried
quite round the hill. This lad has been built for an
additional defence to thofe Avho made their abode on
the top. The top of Nolh, for two-thirds downwards!,
is covered Avith a green fward 5 beloAV that, it is broAvn
with heath : this is the very reverfe of the adjacent
mountains ; and the greater verdure of the upper part
I imputed to a neAv foil created by the afhes of the
volcano. The opening, called a we//, I fuppofe to
have been the lated crater. About a mile foutb,
doAvn towards the loAver grounds of the Cahrock, there
is a very pretty regular green hill, Avhich I aferibe
to a later eruption than thofe Avhich may have formed
the contiguous hills noAv covered with heath. There
is an extraordinary luxuriant fpring of Avater ruflies
out at once from the fide of the hill of Noth ; Avhich
is likeAvife fome confirmation of the opinion that a
volcano has fome time exided there which has
eccafioned great hollows and refervoirs of water in the
heart of the mountain. And the wild irregularities of Vitrified
nature through all the Cabrock, the hideous and drange Forts-
projection of rocks from the fides of the hills, would y
teem to indicate fome vad convulfions which the earth
mud have fuffered in thefe parts.
“ The traces of ancient volcanoes (fays Mr Cor¬
diner) are far from being unfrequent in Scotland,
The hill of Finhaven is one indance 5 and not only
abundant in this fpecies of lava, but with turrets, or
the pulvis puteolanus, an amalgama, as Condamine calls
it, of calcined dones mixed with fcorias and iron rud
reduced to poAvder, The hill of Beregonium, near
Dundadhage cadle, is another yielding vail quantities,
of pumice or fcoria of different kinds ; many of which,
are of the fame fpecies with thofe of the volcanic Ice¬
land. The noble aflemblage of bafaltic columns at
Siada, thofe in the iile of Sky, and the rock Humble,,
are but fo many evidences of the ancient volcanoes of
this country. And finally, the immenie (IraLum of pu-
mex vitreus or Iceland agate, on the hill of Dun-fuin
in Arran, is the lad proof I (hall bring in fupport of th'i-
quedion.”
On this difpute avc can only obferve, that whatever
fide we embrace, the difficulties feem to be very greatK
nay almod infurmountable. When avc eonfider the
great thicknefs of the Avall^ on the top of Noth, from
8 to 12 feet, and the vad mound of vitrified matter, no
lefs than 40 feet in breadth, mentioned by Mr Tytler,.
avc can fcarce conceive it poffible that lels than a vol~
canic fire could be able to form them. We may cafily
alloAV, that, in the Avay this gentleman mentions, there
might be conliderable vitrifications formed 5 but that
fuch immenfe maffes ihould be brought into perfeft fu-
fion by the fmall quantity of fuel Avhich could be pet
round them in pallifades, or intermixed with the mate¬
rials themfelves, will be incredible to every one ac¬
quainted with, the extreme difficulty with Avhich dones
of any magnitude are brought into complete fufion. We
fee even in the infides of furnaces, though fometimes-
built of no more infufible materials than common
brick, no fueh effiefts follow. There is a (light vitri¬
fication indeed, but it fcarcely ever penetrates to the.
depth of an inch or two, though very violent fires are
kept up for a much longer time than we could fuppofe
the Avood furrounding thofe walls to require for its be¬
ing confumed. In conflagrations, Avhere houfes are
confumed, Avhiich are the only fimilar examples we
have, no fuch efTecl is perceived. Even in the great'
fire at London in 1666, where fo many buildings Avere
dedroyed, we do not hear of their walls being vitri¬
fied, though the materials of many of them Avere un¬
doubtedly as fufible as the rocks and dones of Craig
Phadrick, or the Top of Noth. If, on the other
hand, we rejeid this, and adhere to the volcanic hypo¬
thefis, our difficulties are equally great. For where
diall avc find, in any other part of the Avorld, an ex¬
ample of volcanoes ejecting lava in the form of Avails
enclofing a regular area ? This would be attributing
fuch a fingularity to the volcanoes of Scotland as the
mod extravagant imagination cannot admit. We mud
therefore conclude, that though thefe ruins are cer¬
tainly the works of art, we have not yet fufficient data
to decide the quedion with refpeft to their condruc-
tion, but that the fubjeft requires a farther inveftiga-
tion,
/
FOR C H 3 FOR
Vitrified In the paper already quoted, Mr Tytler obfcrves,
F°|'ts that “ thefe ancient fortifications prefent a more curious
Fortdcue an<^ i^terciting object of fpeculation, than thofe uncer-
' ^ ' tain and indeed fruitlefs conjedtures as to the mode in ..
which they have been reared.” This, he juitly obferves,
muft have been before the ufe of mortar was known 3
for as the country abounded in lime done, and the
builders certainly would exert all their powers in
giving them a proper degree of ftrength, it w'ould
undoubtedly have been uted. Hence we are led to
aferibe to thefe a very confiderable degree of antiquity 3
for as the Britons were taught the ufe of mortar by the
Romans, it is probable that we muft date the origin of
the ftrudlures in queftion before the time of the invaiion
of that people, or at leaft foon after it 3 fo that vTe muft:
look upon them to be more than 1650 years old 3 but how
far beyond that period we are to fearch for their origin,
does not appear. “ All that we can conclude with
certainty (fays our author) is, that they belong to a
period of extreme barbarifm. I hey muft have been
conftrudled by a people fcarcely removed from the (late
of favages, who lived under no impreflion of fixed or
regulated property in land 3 whofe only appropriated
goods were their cattle 3 and whofe foie fecurity, in a
life of conftant depredation, was the retreat to the
fummits of thofe hills of difficult accefs, which they had
fortified in the beft manner they could. As the fpace
enclofed was incapable of containing a great number of
men, efpecially if occupied in part by cattle, it is
prefumed, that thefe retreats were formed chiefly for the
fecurity of the women and children of the canton, and
of their herds. They could be defended by a few men,
while the reft of the tribe W'ere engaged with their
enemies in the field.”
Our author concludes his diflertation with a conjec¬
ture, that the forts in queftion wrere conftrufted, not only
before the Roman invafion, but before the introdu&ion
of the rites of the Druids into Britain.
FORT A LICE, in Scots Law, fignified anciently a
fmall place of ftrength, originally built for the defence
of the country 5 and which on that account was formerly
reckoned inter regalia, and did not along with the
lands upon which it was fituated without a fpecia1 grant
from the crown. Now, fortalices are carried by a
general grant of the lands 3 and the -word is become
fynonymous with manor-place, meffuage, &c.
FORT AVENTURA, one of the Canary iflands,
qo miles long, and from 8 to 24 broad, fertile in corn
and excellent fruits 3 and remarkable for its numerous
breed of goats and prodigious quantity of goat-milk
cheefe. The number of inhabitants amounts to 10,000.
W. Long. 14. 32. N. Lat. 28. 4.
FORTESCUE, Sir .Tony, lord chief juftice of
the King’s Bench, and lord high chancellor of England,
in the reign of King Henry VI. was defeended from
the ancient family of Fortefcue, in tlie county of Devon.
He ftudied the municipal laws of England in Lincoln’s
Inn, of which he was made one of the governors in the
fourth and feventh years of the reign of King Henry VI.
In 1430, he was called to the degree of a ferjeant at
law, and in 1441 was conftituted the king’s ferjeant.
The following year he was made lord chief juftiee of
the King’s Bench 3 in which honourable Ration he
•continued till near the end of that king’s reign, who
5
(bowed him many particular marks of his favour, and Fortefcue,
advanced him to the poll of lord high chancellor of, T'ou--- i
England. During the reign of King Edward IV. he
followed the fortunes of the houie of Lancafter, and
was many years in exile with Queen Margaret and
Prince Edward her fon. At length they having a prof-
pe& of retrieving their defperate fortunes, the queen and
prince returned to England, and Sir John Fortefcue,
with many others, accompanied them 3 but foon after
the decifive battle of Tewkelbury, he was thrown into
prifon and atiainted, with other Lancaftrians 3 but
found means to procure his pardon from Edward IV. He
wrote, 1. A learned commentary on the politic laws of
England, for the ule of Prince Ed w ard 3 to one
edition of which Mr Selden wrote notes. 2. The
difference between an abfolute and limited monarchy,
as it more particularly regards the Englifti conftitution
(which was publilhed, with feme remarks, by John
Fortefcue, afterwards Lord Fortefcue, in 8vo, in 17143
and a fecond edition was publiftred with amendnrents,
in 1719) : And fevtral works, which ftill remain
in manufeript. He died near 90 years of age 3 and
was buried in the parifh church of Ebburton, where a
monument was erefted to his memory, in 1677, by one
of his defeendants.
FORTH, one of the moft noble and commodious
rivers in Scotland. It takes its rife near the bottom
of Ben-Lomond 3 and running from weft to eaft, receives
in its paffage many confiderable ftreams, deriving their
waters from the eminences in the midland counties of
North Britain. Between Stirling and Alloa, the Forth
w inds in a moft beautiful and furprifing manner ; fo
that, though it is but 4 miles by land, it is 24 by
water between thofe two places. Below Alloa the
river expands itfelf to a great breadth between the
counties of Lothian and Fife, till at Qocensferry it
is contracled by promontories (hooting into it from both
coafts 3 fo that, from being four or five, there it is not
above two miles broad. In the middle of the channel
lies a fmall ifland called Inchgarvy, which has a fpring
of freih water : upon the ifland there is an ancient fort,
which has been lately repaired 3 and if there were
either forts or blockhoufes on the oppofite promontories,
that part of the river which lies between Alloa and
Queensferry would be as fecure and convenient a har¬
bour as could be defired. A little below this, near the
north (bore, lies Inchcclm, on which are the remains
of an ancient monaftery of confiderable extent 3 and
oppofite to Leith (lands the ifland of Inchkeith, for¬
merly fortified, but now furniftied with a light-houfe.
Below Queensferry the north and fouth (hores receding,
the body of the water gradually enlarges till it be¬
comes twro or three leagues broad, affording feveral
fafe harbours on both fides, and excellent roads through¬
out, unembarrafled with latent rocks, flioals, or fands 3
and allowing fecure anchorage to the larged (hips with¬
in a league of the coaft in almoft any part of the
Frith, and to veflels of a fmaller fize within a mile or
lefs. The Firth, or (as it is commonly written) the
Frith, of Forth, is, at the mouth of it, from North
Berwick to Fifenefs, full five leagues broad 3 having the
little ifland of May (on which there is a light-houfe,
and there might alfo be a fort) in the middle of it, and
to the weft of this the rocky ifland of Bafs 3 notwith-
ftanding
F O r. [ 25 } FOR
Forth {landing which, the 1 argali deet may enter and fail up
—v—-J it many miles with the utmoft facility and in the great-
eft fafety. In 1781, Admiral Parker’s fleet lay feme
weeks oppolite to Edinburgh, accompanied by 500 fail
of merchantmen, the whole in full view of the city and
cattle.
The Forth was known to the ancients by the name
of Bodotrin, or (as Ptolemy calls it) Boderia, and has
been ever famous for the number of its havens : fome
of which are, indeed, in their prefent condition, fcarce
Worthy of that name. It is navigable for merchantmen
as high as Alloa, 50 miles from the fea *, and for coaft¬
ers as far as Stirling, 24 miles further by water, though
only four by land in a direct line, as already obferved.
The tide flows only a full mile above Stirling to a
place called Graigforth, where the proprietor intercepts
the paflage of the falmon by a cruive or wear, very in¬
jurious to the large trafl of country which ft retches
as far as Lomond weft ward. The river from Stir¬
ling to the bridge of Aberfoil, at the entrance into the
Weft Highlands, is only paffable for man or horfe at
few places, and thefe in dry feafons. It- glides gently
through a dead flat, from Gartmore eaftward ; “ and
* View of on thefe accounts (fays Mr Knox*) it might be made
the Eritijh navigable for barges,-at a trifling expence to the pro-
Emprre, prietors of the lands, an improvement much wanted in
-)0lciS 3 r^ch, extenfive, and populous valley, without market
,i' *’1 * towns, coal and lime. Suppofing this Work to be ex¬
ecuted, of which there is fom’e probability, the whole
extent of navigation on the Forth, will, including all
its windings, exceed 200 miles, through a coaft of
nearly 100 miles j fertile, populous, induftrious •, and
from Stirling eaftward, almoft lined with towns, an¬
ciently the feats of commerce and navigation, till they
Were ruined by the Englifti depredationsy in which
miferable ftate fome of them ilill remain, while others
begin to refume the appearance of buftnefs. The prin¬
cipal object of thefe towns was the fiftieries j which
they profecuted with great vigour as far as Iceland,
till the time of the Union, from which period the eaft-
ern fifheries gradually dwindled away 5 and the poor
fiftiermen, unable to fubfift themfelves upon air and
water, took up the trade of fmuggling •, but fo foon
as the fiftiery laws {hall be amended, the fait duties
abolished, and an adequate bounty extended to boats
as well -as buffes, thefe people will readily fall into the
track of their anceftors, live by honeft induftry, and
add new vigour to our naval ftrength. Many of the
ports are nearly choked up, others want repairs,
which neither the individuals nor the corporations of
thofe decayed places can accomplifti. Though the
harbours on the Forth are in general fmall, the depth
of water might be made fufticient for veflels of 200
tons burden, wThieh fully atifwer the purpofes of theit
coafting and Baltic trade j but to obtain this, or even
a lefs depth of water, an aid of 50,000!. would be re-
quiftte.”
By this river and the Clyde, Scotland is almoft di¬
vided into two parts. The Forth falls into the eaft fea
below Edinburgh, and has an eafy communication with
the whole eaftern coaft of Great Britain ; with France,
Oftend, Holland, Hamburgh, Pruflia, Dantzic, Ruflia,
Sweden, Denmark,Norway,and Greenland. The Clyde
falls into the Atlantic ocean below Glafgow, and com¬
municates with the weftern coaft of Great Britain j with
Ireland, the fouth of France, Portugal, Spain, the Me¬
diterranean, America, and the Weft Indies. Thefe
two rivers, thus falling in oppofite directions into the
two feas which environ our ifland, and the neck of
land between them amounting fcarcely to 24 miles,
gave rife to the idea of a junction, fo as to open a
communication acrofs the kingdom, and thereby cut
off the long dangerous navigation by the Land’s End
and the Pentland Frith : an objeCl of vaft utility, and
which has been happily accomplilhed. See Canal.
Forth.
FORTIFICATION 5
THffE art of fortifying a town, or other place j or
of putting it in fuch a pofture of defence, that
every one of its parts defends, and is defended by, fome
other parts, by means of ramparts, parapets, moats, and
other bulwarks j to the end that a fmall number of men
within may be able to defend themfelves for a confider-
able time againft the affaults of a numerous army with¬
out, fo that the enemy in attacking them muft of ne-
■ceflity fuffer great lofs.
The origin and rife of fortification is undoubtedly
owing to the degeneracy of mankind. In the firft ages
of the world, men were difperfed up and down the
countries in feparate families, as we are told in the hi-
ftories of the Jews and Scythians, who wandered from
one place to another, for the fake of finding palture
for their cattle. Thefe families became in time fo nu¬
merous as to form large communities, which fettled all
together in a place ; from whence villages and’ towns
had their origin and rife ^ but they found it was ne-
ceffary, for the common fecurity, to fur round thofe
towns with walls and ditches, to prevent all violences
VOL. IX. Part I.
V
from, their neighbours, andfudden furprijes. This was
fufticient for fome time, till offenfive weapons were in¬
vented, and conquering became a fafhion. Then walls
with loop holes were made at proper diftances, in or¬
der to fereen the defenders againft the arrows of the
affailants : but finding that, as foon as the enemy got
once clofe to the walls, they could fiom no part be
difeovered or repuifed 5 for this realon they added fquare
towers at proper diftances from each other, fo that
every part of the wall might be defended, by the adja¬
cent fides of the towers. This manner of enclofing
towns, however, was found to be imperfedl, becaufe
there remained ftill 'one of the faces of the towers
which fronted the field that could not be feen from any
other point, and therefore could not be defended. To
remedy this, they made the towers round inftead of
fquare, imagining this figure to be rtrongeft to re¬
fill the battering engines, as likewife to be better de¬
fended from the other parts of the wall.
Notwilhftanding the fuperiority of this method a-
bdve the former, there remained yet a part of thefe
D tower*
26 F O R T I F I
Vauban’s towers unfeen and incapable of being defended j v. o-cn
^ Methoma(je them change the figure of the towers again ;
that is, they made them fquare as before ; but, inftead
ot prefenting a face to the field as formerly, they pre¬
fen ted an angle ; by this means they effectually found
out fueh a difpofition of their works that no part could
be attacked without being feen or defended by fome
other part.
This laft method wras long in ufe ; and would in all
probability have continued to this day, if gunpowder
bad not been found out 5 but the violence of the guns
and mortars foon convinced the world, that fuch towers
and walls were but a weak defence again ft thefe thun¬
dering engines j and betides, as the nature of the at¬
tack was entirely changed, it was alfo neceffary to
change that of fortifying likewife.
From that time ramparts were added to the walls,
the towers enlarged into bartions, and all forts of out¬
works have been added, fuch as ravelins, counter¬
guards, horn and crown works, and others of the like
nature, in order to render the defence in fome meafure
equivalent to the attack.
Notwithftanding all the improvements which have
been made in the art of fortifying fince the invention
of gunpowder, that of attacking is ftill fuperior to it *,
engineers have tried in vain to render the advantages of
a fortification equal to thofe of the attack ; the fupe-
riority of the befiegers fire, together with the greater
number of men, obliges generally, fooner or later, the
befieged to fubmit.
The greateft improvement made in the art of at¬
tacking happened in the year 1697, when M. Yauban
made firft ufe of ricochet firing at the fiege of Ath,
whereby the befieged placed behind the parapets were
as much expofed to the fire of the befiegers as if there
had been none j whereas, before, they had been fe-
cure as long as the parapet was not demolifhed 5 and
the worft is, that there can be no remedy found to
prevent this enfilading, without falling into inconve¬
niences almoft as bad as thofe which we endeavour to
avoid.
Fortification is either regular or irregular. Re¬
gular fortification, is that built in a regular polygon,
the fides and angles of which are all equal, being com¬
monly about a mufket fhot from each other. Irregular
fortification, on the contrary, is that where the fides
and angles are not uniform, equidiftant, or equal;
which is owing to the irregularity of the ground, val¬
leys, rivers, hills, and the like.
Sect. I. Of Regular Fortification.
Although authors agree as to the general form in
the prefent manner of fortifying, yet they moftly differ
in particular conftruftions of the parts. As it would
be both needlefs and fuperftuous to treat of all the dif¬
ferent methods hitherto propofed, we fhall content
ourfelves with explaining thofe only which are moft
efteemed by the belt judges, and have been moftly put
in praftice.
ConJlruElion of M. VAUBAN'S Method.
This method is divided into little, mean, and great •,
the little is chiefly ufed in the conftru&ion of citadels.
CATION. ' Setf. 1.
1 he mean in that ox ad forts of towns, and the great in Vauban’s
particular cafes only. , V *uhod. ^
We ihall give the conftruftion of the mean, as being v
moft ufeful ; and refer the reader to the table hereaf¬
ter, for thofe dimenfions which are different in thefe fe-
veral fortifications. plat*
Infcribe in the circle a polygon of as many fides as COXXL
the fortification is defigned to have fronts; let AB fig. 1.
(fig. 1.) be one of the fides of half an hexagon, which
bifeft by the perpendicular CD ; divide half AC of it
into nine equal parts, and one of thefe into ten others j
then thefe divifions will ferve as a fcale to conftruft all
the parts of the fortification, and each of them is lup-
pofed to be a toife or fathom, that is, fix French feet j
and therefore the whole fide AB is fuppofed to be 180
toifes.
As the dividing a line into fo many equal parts is
troublefome and tedious, it is more convenient to have
a fcale of equal parts by which the works may be con-
ftructed.
If therefore, in this cafe, the radius is taken equal
to 180 toifes, and the circle deferibed with that radius
being divided into fix equal parts, or the radius being
carried fix times round, you will have a hexagon in-
feribed ; AB being bifedled by the perpendicular CD
as before, fet off 30 toifes from C to D, and draw the
indefinite lines ADG, BDF 5 in which take the parts
AE, BH, each equal to 50 toifes : from the cen¬
tre E deferibe an arc through the point H, meeting
AD in G, and from the centre H deferibe an are
through the point E, meeting BD in F ^ or which is
the fame, make each of the lines EG, HF_ equal to
the diftance EH •, then the lines joining the points
A, E, F, G, H, B, ivill be the principal or outline of
the front.
If the fame conftrudlion be performed on the other
fides of the polygon, you will have the principal or
outline of the whole fortification.
If, with a radius of 20 toifes, there be deferibed
circular arcs, from the angular points B, A, M, T,
and lines are drawm from the oppofite angles, E, H,
&c. fo as to touch thefe arcs, their parts, a b, b c, &c.
together with thefe arcs, will reprefent the outline of
the ditch.
Definitions.
1. The part FEALN, is called the baft ion.
2. AE, AL, the faces of the baftion.
3. EF, LN, the flanks.
4. FG, the curtain.
if. FN, the gorge of the baftion.
6. AG, BF, the lines of defence.
7. AB, the exterior fide of the polygon.
8. CD, the perpendicular.
9. Any line which divides a work into two equal
parts, is called the capital of that ivork.
xo. a b c, the counterfcarp of the ditch.
11. A, M, the flanked angles.
1 2. H, E, L, the angles of the ftiouider, or fnoul-
der only.
13. G, F, N, the angles of the flank.
14. Any angle whofe point turns from the place is
called a falient angle, fuch as A, M , and any angle
whofs
Sea. I. FORTIFICATION.
Of 'whofe point turns towards the place, a re-entering angle,
Orillons. ^ as
I 5. If there be drawn two lines parallel to the prin-
CCXXI. cipal or outline, the one at 3 toiles diftance, and the
other at 8 from it; then the fpace y x included between
the principal one and that fartheft diftant, is called the
rampart.
And the fpace xx, contained by the principal line,
and that near to it, and which is generally ftained black,
is called the parapet.
16. There is a fine line drawn within four feet of the
parapet, which exprefies a flep called banquette.
N. B. All works have a parapet of three toifes
thick, and a rampart of 8 to 10, befides their dopes.
The rampart is elevated more or lefs above the level
of the place from 10 to 20 feet, according to the na¬
ture of the ground and the particular conftrudlions of
engineers.
The parapet is a part of the rampart elevated from
6 to 74- feet above the reft, in order to cover the troops
which are drawn up there from the fire of the enemy in
a fiege; and the banquette is two or three feet higher
than the rampart, or about four feet lower than the
parapet; fo that when the troops ft and upon it they
may juft be able to fire over the parapet.
17. The body of the place, is all that which is con¬
tained within this firft rampart: for which reafon it is
often faid to conftruft the body of the place ; which
means properly, the conftru£lion of the baftions and
curtains.
18. All the works which are conftrufted beyond the
ditch before the body of the place are called outworks.
27
Of
R:-- 1ms.
Plate
GvJXXI.
1
TABLE.
Forts.
Side of Polyg.
Perpendicul.
Faces baft.
Cape of ravel.
80
22
25
90
25
28
100
28
30
no
I4
3°
120 130
Little Fortif.
140
*51
33
351
38
35
40
20
40
54
*5°
21
42
co
160
23
45
5°
170
25
Mean. 1
180 TOO I'OO 260
3*1
47 5°
53 55
52 ' 55 1 55 I 60
22
60
In the firft vertical column are the numbers ex-
preffing the lengths of the exterior fides from 80 to 260.
In the fecond, the perpendiculars anfwering to thefe
fides. In the third, the lengths of the faces of baftions :
and in the fourth, the lengths of the capitals of the ra¬
velins.
The forts are moftly, if not alwrays, fquares: for
which reafon, the perpendiculars are made one-eighth
of the exterior fides 5 becaufe if they were more, the
gorges of the baftions would become too narrow.
The little fortification is chiefly defigned for citadels,
and are commonly pentagons; the perpendiculars are
made one-feventh of the exterior fide: the mean is
ufed in all kinds of fortifications from an hexagon up¬
wards to any number of fides *, and the great is feldom
ufed but in an irregular fortification, •where there are
fome fides that cannot be made lefs without much ex¬
pence or in a town which lies near a great river, where
the fide next the river is made from 200 to 260 toifes j
and as that fide is lefs expofed to be attacked than any
other, the perpendicular is made fhorter, which faves
much expence.
The faces of the baftions are all 4ths of the exterior
fides, or nearly fo, becaufe the fraftions are reglefted.
It may be obferved in general, that in all fquares the
perpendicular is 4th of the exterior fide, and all penta¬
gons ith, and in all the reft upward £th.
1. ConJlruElion of Orillons and retired Flanks.
Defcribe the- front MPORST as before, and di¬
vide the flank into three equal parts, of which fuppofe
S r to be one : from the oppofite flanked angle M draw
a line M r, in which take the part r of 5 toifes ; take
likewife R « m the line of defence MR, produced,
equal to 5 toifes, and join n m, upon which as a bafe
defcribe the equilateral triangle n p tn, and from the
angle p, oppofite to the bafe as centre, is deferibed the
circular flank n m.
And if 8 r be bifefled by the perpendicular 1, 2, and
another be erected upon the face ST, at S ; the inter-
feftion 2 of thefe two perpendiculars will be the centre
of the arc which forms the orillon.
The orillons are very ufeful in covering the retired
flanks, which cannot be feen but diredtly in the front j
and as thefe orillons are round, they cannot be fo eafily
deftroyed as they would be if they were of any other
figure.
2. Conjlru&ion of Ravelins or Half-moons.
Fig. 2. Set off 55 toifes, from the re-entering angle Fig. a,
O of the counterfcarp, on the capital OL or on the per¬
pendicular produced, and from the point L draw lines
to the fhoulders AB 5 whofe parts LM, LN, terminat¬
ed by the counterfcarp, will be the faces, and MO,
ON, the femi-gorges, of the ravelin required.
This is M. Vauban’s method of conftruding ravelins,
according to fome authors : and others will have the
faces of the ravelin to terminate on thofe of the baftioni
within 3 toifes of the fhoulders; -which feems to be the
beft way, for thefe ravelins cover the flanks much better
than the others.
The ditch before the ravelin is 12 toifes, its counter¬
fcarp parallel to the faces of the ravelins •, and it is made
in a circular arc, before the falient angle; as likewife
all ditches are in general.
When the ravelins are made with flanks, as in fig. 3. j--,r ,
the faces fhould terminate on thofe of the baftions, at 0
leaft 5 toifes from the fhoulders.
The flanks are made by fetting off 10 toifes from the
extremities of the faces, from f to h, and from m to l;
and from the points h, /, the flanks h, k, /, p, are drawn
parallel to the capital LO of the ravelin.
D 2
There
28
of
Tcnailles.
Flats
CCXXI.
rig. 4.
rig- 5.
Fig. 6.
FORTIFICATION.
Se6t. I.
There are fomethnes redoubts made in the ravelin,
fuch as in fig. 2. which is done by fetting oft 16 toifes
from the extremities of the faces on the femi-gorges
from N to Z>, and from M to a; and from the points b,
a, the faces are drawn parallel to thofe of the ravelin :
the ditch before the redoubt is 6 toifes, and its coun-
terfearp parallel to the faces.
3. Conjlruttion of Tenailles.
A tenaille is a work made in. the ditch before the
curtains, the parapet of which is only 2 or 3 feet
higher than the level ground of the ravelin. There
are three different forts : the firft are thofe as in fig. 4.
which are made in the direction of the lines of defence,
leaving a pafiage of 3 toifes between their extremities
and the flanks of the baftions, as like wife another of 2
in the middle for a bridge of communication to the
ravelin.
The fecond fort are thofe as in fig. 5. Their faces
are in the lines of defence, and 16 toifes long, befides
the paffage of 3 toifes between them and the flanks
of the baftions ; their flanks are found by deferibing.
arcs from one {boulder of the tenaille as centre through
the other, on which arc fet off 10. toifes for the flanks
deftred.
And the third' fort are thofe as in fig. 6. Their faces
are 16 toifes, as in the fecond fort, and the flanks are
parallel to thofe of the baftions.
The ufe in general of tenailles is to defend the bot¬
tom of the ditch by a grazing fire, as likewife the level
ground of the ravelin, and efpecially the ditch before
the redoubt within the ravelin, which can be defended
from nowhere elfe fo well as from them.
The firft fort do not defend the ditch fo well as the
others, as being, too oblique a defence j but as they are
not fubjeft to be enfiladed, M. Vauban has generally
preferred them in the fortifying of places, as may be
feen in the citadel of Lille,, at Landau, New Erifac,
and in a great many other places.
The fecond fort defend the ditch much better than
the firft, and add a low flank to thofe of the baftion :
but as thefe flanks are liable to be enfiladed, they have
not been much jmt in practice. 1 his defect might
however be remedied, by making them fo as to be
covered by the extremities of the parapets of the oppo-
fite ravelins, or by fome other work.
As to the third fort, they have the fame advan¬
tage as the fecond, and are likewife liable to the fame
objections ; for which reafon, they may be ufed. with
the fame precautions which have been mentioned in the
fecond.
Tenailles are efteemed fo neceflary, that there is
hardly any place fortified without them : and it is not
without reafon. Tor when the ditch is dry, the part
behind the tenailles ferves as a place of arms, from
which the troops may fally, deftroy the works of the
enemy in the ditch, oppofe their defeent, and rethe
with fafety *, and tire communication from the body of
the place to the ravelin becomes eafy and fecure r
which is a great advantage 5 for by that means the
ravelin mav be a much belter defence, as it can be
fupplied with troops and neceftaries at any time. And
if the ditch is wet, they ferve as harbours for boats,
which may carry out armed men to oppofe the paf¬
fage over the ditch whenever they pleafe ; and the Oi
communication from the tcnailles to the ravelin be- ^u^|,tes’
comes likewile much eafier than it would be without 1 ,. ^. _ j
them. Plate
CCXXI*
4. CoiiflruBion of Lunettes.
Tig. 7. Lunettes are placed on both fides of the ra-Fig. 7.
velin, fuch as B, to increafe the ftrenglh of a place :
they are conftrufted, by bifefling the faces of the ra¬
velin with the perpendicular LN j on which is fet off
30 toifes from the counterfcarp of the ditch, for one of
its faces; the other face, PN, is found by making the
femi-gorge TP of 25 toifes j the ditch before the lu¬
nettes is 12 toifes, the parapet 3, and the rampart 8,
There is fometimes another work made to cover the
falient angle of the ravelin, fuch as A, called bonnetr
whafe faces are parallel to thofe of the ravelin, and
when produced bifeT thofe of the lunettes ; the ditch,
before it is 10 toifes.
There are likewile lunettes, fuch as D in fig. 8.p;g ^
wfliofe faces are drawn perpendicular to thofe of the
ravelin, within a third part from the falient angle 5 and
their femi-gorges are only 20 toites.
Thefe kinds of works may make a good defence,,
and coft no very great expence j for as they are fo near
the ravelin, the communication with it is very eafy, and
one cannot well be maintained till they are all three
taken.
5. ConfruBion of Tennillons.
Fig. 9. Produce the faces of the ravelin beyond the Fig. 9.
counterfcarp of the ditch, at a diftance MN of 30
toifes, and take on the counterfcarp of the great ditch
15 toifes from the re-entering angle p to y, and draw
N ^ ; then q NM p will be the tenailles required j its
ditch is 12 toifes, that is, the fame as that of the rave¬
lin. Sometimes there is made a retired battery in the
front of the tenaillons, as in B ; this battery is 1 o
toifes from the front to which it is parallel, and 15
toifes long.
There are commonly retrenchments made in the
tenaillons, fuch as O ; their parapets are parallel to the
fronts MN, and bifeit the fide q N ; the ditch before
this retrenchment is 3 toifes \ and there is a banquette
before the parapet next to the ditch of about 8 feet,
called berm ; which ferves to prevent the earth of the
parapet (which feldom has any revetment) from falling
into the ditch.
It is to be obferved, that the ravelin, before which
tenaillons are conftrufted, muft have its falient angles
much greater than the former conftruction makes them •,
otherwife the falient angles of the tenaillons become
too acute ; for which reafon we made the capital cf
this ravelin 45 toifes, and the faces terminate within 3
toifes of the fhoulders.
6. ConfruEiion of Counterguards.
Fig. 10, II. When the counterguard is placed be-Fig. ic.
fore the ravelin, fet off 40 toifes on the capital of the and 11«
ravelin from the fklient angle A to the falient angle B,
of the counterguard 5 and 10 from C to D, on the
counterfcarp of the ditch.
When the counterguard is before the baftion, fuch as
rig. 12.
$e£t. I.
Of in fig. 2- its falient angle F is 50 toifes from the falient
:Horn works, angie ]? 0£ the baition, and the breadth near the ditch
&LC' of the ravelin 10 toifes as before.
t_' The ditch before the counterguards is 12 toifes, and
CCXXI. its counterfcarp parallel to the laces.
Counterguards are made before the ravelin on fome
particular occafions only } but are frequently conftruct-
ed before the baltions, as covering the flanks wonder¬
fully well. Some authors, as Mr Blondel and Mr
Coehorn, will have them much narrower than they are
here.
7. ConJlruBion of Hornworks.
Fig. 12. Produce the capital of the ravelin be¬
yond the falient angle A, at a diilance AB ol about
80 toifes j draw DBE at right angles to AB •, in
which take BD, BE, each equal to 55 toifes and
on the exterior fide DE, trace a front of a polygon
in the fame manner as that of the body of the place,
making the perpendicular BE 10 toifes, and the
faces 30.
The branches D a, E b, of the horn work, when pro¬
duced, terminate on the faces of the baflions, with¬
in 5 toifes of the (boulders. The ditch of the horn-
work is 12 toifes, and its counterfcarp parallel to the
branches •, and in the front terminates at the flioul-
ders, in the fame manner as the great ditch before the
baftions.
The capital of the ravelin before the front of the horn-
work is 35 toifjs, and the faces terminate on the (boul¬
ders, or rather 2 or 3 toifes beyond them : and the ditch
before the ravelin is 8 toifes.
There are fometimes retrenchments made within the
hornwork, fuch as S, S ; which are conftrudled by
erecting perpendiculars to the faces of the ravelins,
within 25 toifes of their extremities. This retrench¬
ment, like all others, has a parapet turfed only with a
berm of 8 feet before it y as likewife a ditch from 3 to
5 toifes broad.
I;j, Fig. 13. When a hornwork is made before the ba-
(lion, the diltance DL of the front from the falient
angle of the baflion is 100 toifes, and the branches
terminate on the faces of the adjacent ravelins within
5 toifes from their extremities ; all the reft is the fame
as before.
8-. ConJiruBion of Crownworis.
Plate From the falient angle, A (fig. 14.) of the ravelin,
CCXXII. as a centre, deferibe an arc of a circle with a radius of
rig. 14. about 120 toifes, cutting the capital of the ravelin
produced at C ; from the point C, fet off the cords
CB, CF, each of them equal to no toifes; and on
each of which, as an exterior fide, conftruct a front of
a polygon of the fame dimenfions as in the hornwork ;
that is, the perpendicular fhould be 18 toifes, the faces
30, and the branches terminate on the faces of the ba¬
ftions within 25 toifes of the ihoulders.
The ditch is 12 toifes, the capital of the ravelin 3.5,
and its ditch 8 ; that is, the fame as in the horn¬
work.
Sometimes the crownwork is made before the ba-
Fig. 15. ftion, as in fig. 15. The arc is delcribed from the fa¬
lient angle A of the baftion, with a radius of 120 toifes,
as before ; and the branches terminate on the faces of
the adjacent ravelins within 25 toifes of their extremi¬
FORTIFICATION.
, the reft of the dimenfions and conflruclions are
Fig-
ties
the fame as before. w &c
Hornworks, as well as crownworks, are never made I' A.
but when a large fpot of ground falls beyond the forti- piatc
fication, which might be advantageous to an enemy CCXXII.
in a fiege, or to cover fome gate or entrance into a
town.
9. Conjlru&ion of Covert-ways and Glacis.
Although we have not hitherto mentioned the co¬
vert-way, neverthelefs all fortifications whatfoever have
one ; for they are efteemed to be one of the moft effen-
tial parts of a modern fortification; and it is certain,
the taking the covert-way, when it is in a good condi¬
tion and well defended, is generally the moft bloody
action of the fiege.
After having conftructed the body of the place, and
all the outworks which are thought necefiary, lines are
drawn parallel to the outmoft counterfcarp of the ditches,
at 6 toifes diftant from it; and the face mn, tnn, in¬
cluded between that line and the counterfcarp, will be
the covert-way required.
Fig. 16. There is in every re-entering angle of the Fig. itf.
counterfcarp a place of arms m ; which is found by fet-
ting off 20 toifes from the re-entering angle o, on both
fides from a to b, and from a to c ; and from the points
b, c, as centres, arcs are deferibed with a radius of 2 >
toifes, fo as to interfecl each other in d ; then the lints
drawn from this interlcclion to the points b, c, will be
the faces of the places of arms.
If lines are drawn parallel to the lines which termi¬
nate the covert-way, and the places of arms at 20
toifes diftant from them, the fpace x,.r,x, between thefe
lines and thofe which terminate the covert-way will be
the glacis.
At the extremities of the places of arms, are traverfes
made, fuch as v,v, which ferve to enclofe them ; thefe
traverfes are 3 toifes thick, and as long as the covert-
way is broad ; and a paffage is cut in the glacis round
them, of about 6-or 8 feet, in order to have a free com¬
munication with the reft of the covert-way.
There are alfo traverfes of the fame dimenfions be¬
fore every falient angle of the baftion and outworks,
and are in the fame direftion as the faces of thofe works
produced ; and the thicknefs lies at the fame fide as the
parapets.
The paffages round thefe laft traverfes are likewife
from 6 to 8 feet wide.
In each place of arms are twro fally ports zz, which
are 10 or 12 feet wide, for the troops to fally out;
in time of a fiege they are (hut up with barriers or
gates.
10. Corfruclion of Arrows and Detached Redoubts.
An arrow is a work made before the falient angles of
the glacis, fuch as A, fig. 16. It is compofed of a
parapet of 3 toifes thick, and 40 long ; and the ditch
before it 5 to^fes, terminating in a Hope at both ends-
The communication from the covert-wray into thefe-
arrows is 4 or 5 toifes wide ; and there is a traverfe, r,
at the entrance, of 3 toifes thick, with a paffage of 6 or
8 feet round it.
A detached redoubt is a kind of work much like a
ravelin, with flanks placed beyond the glacis; fuch as
B; they- are made in order to occupy fome fpot of
ground-
30
Of "round which might be advantageous to the befiegers ;
Co'1 like wife to oblige the enemy to open their trenches far-
> _SJ ther off than they would do other wife.
Plate 1 heir diilance from the covert-way ought not to ex-
CCXXII. ceed i 20 toifes, that it may be defended by mulket ftiot
from thence.
1'he gorge « £ is 40 toifes 5 the flanks a c, bf, which
are perpendicular to the gorge, 10 j and the faces c d,
f d, 30: the ditch before it is 6 tofles, ending in flopes
at both ends j the covert-way 4 } tlie brandies of the
covert-way are 42 toifes long, or thereabouts ; the faces
of the places of arms y, y, which are perpendicular to
the branches, 10 j and the other, which is parallel to
them, 14.
The communication from the covert-way into the re¬
doubt, is 5 or 6 toifes wide*, and there is atraverfe made
jurt at the entrance, and another in the middle when it
is pretty long. The parapets of this communication
terminate in a Hope or glacis.
If thefe redoubts are above 50 toifes diffant from the
covert-way, the befiegers carry their trenches round, and
enter through the gorge ; by which the troops that are
in them are made prifoners of war, if they do not retire
betimes j to prevent which, fome other outworks fliould
be made to fupport them.
II. ConJlruRion of Second Ditches and Covert-U'ays.
Fig. 17. Fig. 17. When the ground is low, and water to be
found, there is often a ditch about 10 or 12 toifes
made round the glacis j and oppofite to the places of
arms arc conftrufted lunettes, beyond the ditch : fuch
as D, whofe breadth on the counterfcarp of the ditch
is 10 toifes, from b to a, and from c \.o d; and the
faces « L, </ L, are parallel to thofe of the places of
arms j the ditch before them is from 8 to 10 toifes
wide.
The fecond covert-way is 4 toifes, the femi-gorges of
the places of arms, /w, about 15, and the faces perpen¬
dicular to the counterfcarp j the fecond glacis is from 15
ito 18 toifes broad.
This fecond covert-way has traverfes everywhere, in
the fame manner as the fir ft.
I 2. ConftruHion of Prof/es.
A profile is the reprefentation of a vertical feftion of
•a work ; it ferves to (how thofe dimenfions which can¬
not be reprefented in plans, and is neceflary in the build¬
ing of a fortification. Profiles are generally conftrufted
upon a fcale of 30 feet to an inch. It would be endlefs
to deferibe all their particular dimenfions; we ffiall
therefore lay down the principal rules only, given by
M. Vauban, on this fubje£t.
1. Every work ought to be at leaft 6 feet higher
than that before it, fo that it may command thofe be¬
fore it : that is, that the garrifon may fire from all the
works at the fame time, with great and fmall arms, at
the befiegers in their approaches. Notwithftanding this
fpecious pretence, there are feveral authors who objedt
againft it. For, fav they, if you can difeover the ene¬
my from all the works, they can difeover, by the fan e
reafon, all the works from their batteries j fo that they
may deftroy them without being obliged to change their
fituatxon, and thereby difmount all the guns of the place
“before they come near it.
But if all the wrorks were of the fame height, thofe
Se£L I.
within cannot be deftroyed, till fuch time as thofe be- Of
fore them are taken : guns might be placed in the co- Prc^es-
vert-way and outworks to obftruct the enemy’s approach j '~J
and when they come near the place, they might be tran- CCXXIT.
fported into the inner works: and as the body of the
place would be much lower, the expence would be con-
nderably diminilhed.
But when works are low, they are eafily enfiladed by
the ricochet batteries, which is a kind of firing with a
fmall quantity of powder, by giving the gun an eleva¬
tion of 10 or 12 degrees : this might however be partly
prevented, by making the parapets near the falient angles,
for the fpace of 8 toifes on each fide, 5 or 6 feet higher
than the reft of the works.
2. The covert-way Ihould be lower than the level
ground, otherwife the body of the place muft be raifed
very high, efpecially where there are feveral outworks :
this is to be underftood only when the works exceed
each other in height, otherwife it need not be below the
level.
3. The bafesof all inrvard flopes of earth fhould be at
leaft equal to the height, if not more.
4. The bafes of all outward flopes of earth, two-
thirds of their heights.
5. The flopes of all walls, or revetments, fhould be
one-fifth of their height j or one-fixth might perhaps be
fufficient: the height of a wall is eftimated from the
bottom of the ditch, and not from the beginning of its
foundation.
6. The flopes of all parapets and traverfes are one-
fixth of their breadth j that is, 3 feet toxvards the field >
or the infide, where the banquettes fhould be 3 feet
higher than the outfide.
7. When the revetment of a rampart goes quite up
to the top, 4 feet of the upper part is a vertical wall of
3 feet thick, with a fquare ftone at the top of it projeft-
ing 6 inches ; and a circular one below, or where the
Hope begins, of 8 or 10 inches diameter : they go quite
round the rampart, and the circular projection is called
the cordon.
Where the ftraight part of the Avail ends and the
Hope begins, the wall is always made 5 feet thick j and
the counterforts or buttreiles reach no higher than that
place.
8. When the rampart is partly walled and partly
turfed, then one-fifth of the height which is turfed
muft be added to 5 feet, to get the thicknefs of the wall
above.
And having the thicknefs of any wall above, by add¬
ing one-fifth of its height from the bottom of the ditch,
the fum will be the thicknefs of the wall at the bottom;
but if a fixth part is only taken for the llope, then a
fixth part muft be added.
For inftanee, fuppofe a rampart of 30 feet high from
the bottom of the ditch, and that 10 of which are to
be turfed ; then the fifth part of 10, which is 2, added
to 5, gives 7 for the wall above ; and as this Avail is 20
feet high, the fifth of which is 4, and 4 added to the
thicknefs 7 above, gives 11 for the thicknefs near the
foundation.
Fig. 18. Reprefents (in military perfpedive) the pro- p^te
files of the body of a place, the ravelin, and covert-Avay; CCXXIIIi
which gives a clear idea of Avhat is meant by a profile, ^g- I8-
and from which thofe of all other xvorks may be eafily
conceived.
FORTIFICATION.
Sect,
II. FORTIFICATION.
Of
rortlii'T Sect. II. Of Irregular Fortification.
■_ * ' ' The moil eilential principle in fortification confifts
Plate iii making all the fronts of a place equally ilrong, fo
CCXXIII. that the enemy may find no advantage in attacking
either of the iides. This can happen no otherwife in
a regular fortification fituated in a plain or even ground :
but as there are but few places which are not irregular
either in their works or fituations, and the nature of
the ground may be fuch as makes it impraflicable to
build them regular without too great expence } it is fo
much the more necefl’ary to fhow in what confilts the
llrength or weaknefs of a town irregularly fortified, fo
that the weakeft part may be made ftronger by addi¬
tional outworks ; as likewife, if fuch a place is to be
attacked, to know which is the llrongell or weakell
part. .
I. CotiflruBion of an Irregular F lace Jituated in an open
country.
If the place to be fortified is an old town cnclofed by
a wall or rampart, as it moll frequently happens, the
engineer is to cpnfider well all tire different cireum-
flances of the figure, fituation, and nature of the ground j
and to regulate his plan accordingly, fo as to avoid the
difad vantages, and gain all the advantages poffible:
he ftiould examine, whether by cutting off fome parts
of the old wall or rampart, and taking in fome ground,
the place can be reduced into a regular figure, or
nearly fo-, for if that can be done without increafing
the expence confiderably, it fhould by no means be
omitted. Old towns have often towers placed from
dillance tp diftance, as Douay, Tournay, and many
other places, which' are generally made ufe of, and
mended when it may be done. If there is a rampart
without ballions or towers, it mull be well confidered
whether ballions may not be added, or if it is not bet¬
ter to make only fome outworks : if the ditch about
this rampart is not too wide and deep, it would be ad¬
vantageous to make detached baftions ; otherwife rave¬
lins and counterguards muff be conllrufled. Special
care muff be taken to make all the fides of the polygon
as nearly equal as poffible, and that the length of the
lines of defence do not exceed the reach of mufket-lhot;
but if that cannot be done, thofe fides which are on
the narrow-eft part ftiould be made the longeft.
If it fhould happen' that fome of the fides are inae-
ceflible or of very difficult approach, either on account
of fome precipice, marftiy ground, or inundation, they
may be made much longer than the others which are
of cafy accefs, and the flanks need not be fo l^rge as
the reft y by doing fo, there will be fome expences fa-
ved, which may be ufed in making the other fides
ftronger by adding more outw-orks.
There are few fituatioas but what are more advan¬
tageous in fome parts than in others; it is therefore
the bufmefs of an engineer to diftinguiih them, and to
render thofe fides ftrong by art which arc not fo by
nature.
If the fituation is kw and watery, lunettes or tenail-
lons, and fuch other fmall outworks, fhould be conftruc-
ted ; becaufe they are not of any great expence, and
may make a very good defence. But if one fide of the
place only is low-, and running water is to be had, a fe-
cond ditch and covert-w-ay with lunettes may be made,
by obferving, that if the firlt glacis is made to Hope,
fo as to become even with the level of the water in the
fecond ditch ; or if the water can be fuelled by means
of dikes or iluices, fo as to overflow the belt part of
. the firft glacis, it Ihould be done : for by fo doing
thefe works will be able to make a very good defence,
fince the befiegers will find it a diflicult matter to lodge
themfelves upon this glacis ; which cannot be done but
within a few toifes of the firft covert-way, where the
befieged are ready to receive them, and to deltroy their
works with great advantage ; whereas the enemv can¬
not fupport their workmen but from the fecond covert-
Avay, w hich is too far off to be of any great fervice to
them.
But if the fituation is of a dry nature, without any
w-ater upon it, caponiers fl^ould be made in the great
ditch, from the curtains to the ravelin, and batteries
raifed in the entrance of the ditch before the ravelin,
whofe parapet mutt Hope oft" into a glacis fo as to af¬
ford no cover for the enemy behind them. Arrow s and
detached redoubts are likewife /very proper to be uled
in fuch a cafe ; and fometimes horn or crownworks, if
it Ihould be thought convenient: but thele works
Ihould never be conftru6ted without an ablblute necef-
fity, either to occupy a fpot of ground which might
be advantageous to the enemy, or to cover lome gate
or entrance into the town ; for they are of great ex¬
pence, and their defence feeras not to be anfwerable
to it.
Moft of the places in Flanders are fortified with
hornworks, fuch as Ypres, Tournay, Lille, and o-
thers.
If the place to be fortified is'new, and the fitualion
will not admit of a regular eonltruclion, particular
care muft be taken in c hoofing fuch a Ipot of ground as
is moft advantageous, and leatt liable to any difadvan-
tages either in the building or in the maintaining of it.
All hills or rifing grounds ihould be avoided, which
might command any part of the works ; marlhy grounds,
becaufe fuch fituations are unwholefome ; or lakes and
Handing waters for the fame reafon, excepting a lake
is or may be made navigable. Good water Ihould be
had either within the place or near it, for it is abfolute-
ly neceffary for men and cattle : the air Ihould be
wholefome ; otherwife the continual ficknefs that may
reign in fuch a place might prevent people to come and
live in it, and the garrifon would not be in a condition
to defend themfelves as they ought to do. In ftiort, all
the different circumftances attending fuch an undertak¬
ing fliould be matun ly confidered before a refolution is
taken to fortify any place.
When a fituation is fixed upon, the next thing to be
confidered is the bignefs of the town and the number
of. its outworks ; which muft abfolutely depend upon
the confequence fuch a place is of to a nation. If it is
only to guard a pafs or entrance into a country, it
need not be fo large : but if it is to be a place either to
promote or to proteft trade, it Ihould be large and com¬
modious ; the ftreets ftiould be wide, and the buildings
regular and convenient. As to what regards the forti¬
fication, its conftrudion fhould depend on the nature
of the fituation, and the number of works, on the funds
or expence a prince or a nation will be at; which,
however, ought to be according to the benefit arifing
from
3X
Of
Irregular
Fori if ca¬
tion.
‘»
Plate
CCXXIII.
FORTIFICA i iuin.
S3
Of from fuck a place •, for as fuck undertakings are of very
Irregular gTea^ expence, an engineer cannot be too fparing in
non 'l' works j on tke contrary, the greatell economy
«  v - ' fhould be ufed both in regard to the number of works
Plate and to their conftruddion. The body of the place may
tCXXIII. foaye (a) revetments quite up to the top, or only in
part and the reft turfed ; but as to tire outworks, they
fhould have half revetments, or they may be made
with turf only j as being not fo neceffary to prevent
the place from being furpriied, which may neverthelefs
make a good defence.
Fig. ip. Fig. 19. is the plan of an oclagon, one half of which
is fimilar and equal to the other half; it being fuppof-
ed, that the fituation would not admit of a fortification
quite regular. The exterior fides are each 180 toifes,
and the works are conftrufted according to our me¬
thod : but becaufe the fides AB, EF, are weaker than
the reft, as has been proved before, we have added te-
nailles, redoubts in the ravelins, and lunettes, to ren¬
der them nearly equal in ftrength with the others ; and
if counterguards were made before the baftions A and
B, it would effectually fecure that front. Inftead of
lunettes, any other works may be made, as may be
thought convenient and according to the nature of the
ground. If it fhould be judged neceffary to add other
outworks to the ravelins all around the place, care muft
be taken to add like wife more to the fronts AB, EF,
in order to render the advantages and difadvantages of
attacking on either fide equal.
2. ConJlruSiion of an Irregular Place fituated on a lull
or rock.
In the conftfu&km of fuch places, care muft be ta¬
ken that no neighbouring hill commands any part of
the works. The town fhould always be built on the
higheft part j but if it fhould be .thought more conve¬
nient to place it lower, then the upper part muft be for¬
tified with a fort. The fituation fhould be made level
as near as poffible, by removing the earth from fome
places to fill up others \ and if it cannot wrell be level¬
led without extraordinary expence, works muft be made
on the higheft part, fo as to command and protecl the
lower. The "works ought to occupy all the upper part
of the hill 5 but if it 'Should be too extenfive to be all
eUclofed, or fo irregular as not to be fortified without
great inconvenience, the parts which fall without fhould
be fortified with fome detached works, and a com¬
munication with the place muft be made either above
or under ground. There fhould be no cavity or hollow
roads within cannon Shot round about the place, where
the enemy might be able to approach under cover. If
there fhould happen to be a fpring near the top of the
hill, it fhould be enclofed in the fortification, or, if that
cannot be done, by fome work or other ; for there is
nothing more neceffary, and at the fame time fcarcer,
in fuch fituations, than Water; for which reafon there
cannot be too much care in providing it : feveral cif-
terns are to be made to receive the rain water, and
to preferve it wells fhould be dug likewife, though
ever fo deep, the water of which will ferve for com¬
mon ufe.
Places built on hills or rocks fhould never be large ;
for their ufe is generally to guard paffi s or inlets into
a country, and are feldom uleful in trafnc ; and it is a
difficult matter to provide for a large garrifon in fuch
fituations ; neither fhould any fuch place be built with¬
out fome very material reafens ; but w hen it is abfo-
luiely neceffary, great care and precaution fhould be
taken to render the works as perfect as the fituation
will admit of, and at the fame time to be as frugal in
the expence as poffible.
3. Conjlru&ion of Irregular Fortifcntitns fituated near
rivers, lakes, or the fea.
As the intent of building thefe kind of places is
chiefly to facilitate and protedl trade, they are of more
importance than any other kind, especially in mari¬
time countries, where the principal ftrength and power
depends on them : for which reafon, we Shall treat of
this conftruftion more largely than of any other.
The firft thing to be considered is their fituation,
"which ought to be fuch as to afford a good harbour
for fhipping, or a fafe and eafy entrance in ftormy
weather j but as it is hardly poffible to'find any where
Ships may go in and lie fecure with all winds, care
fhould be taken to make them fafe to enter with thofe
Winds which are moft dangerous ; but it is not fuffi-
cient that the harbour is fafe againft ftormy weather,
it fhould likewife be fo againft an enemy both by
land and water, for it often happens, that Ships are de-
ftroyed where it was imagined they wTere fecure, which
is of too great confequence not to be provided againft
for which reafon, forts or batteries muft be built in the
moft convenient places, to prevent the enemy’s Ships
from coming too near, fo as to be able to cannonade
thofe in the harbour, or fling Shells amongft them ; and
if there is any danger of an enemy’s approach by land,
high ramparts and edifices muft be built, fo as to cover
them.
When a river is pretty large, and it is not convenient
for making a harbour without great expence, the Ships
may ride along the Shore : which for that reafon, muft
be made accefiible for fliips of burden : this may be
done by advancing the quay into the river if the water
is too Shallow, or by digging the river Sufficiently deep
for that purpofe.
And to prevent an enemy from coming up the river,
forts muft be built on both fides, efpecially "when there
are any turnings or windings. Antwerp is fuch a
place •, for the Scheldt is fufficiently deep to carry ftiips
of great, burden, which may come quite near the town-
wall ; and feveral forts are built below7 it on both fides,
fo that it would not be an eafy matter for an enemy to
come up the river.
When the river is but fmall, fo that no- fliips of bur¬
den can come through it, it is fufficicnt to make it run
through fome of the works, where proper landing-places
are contrived, from whence the goods may be carried
into
Of
Irregular
Plate
CCXXIH.
(a) Revetments are chiefly made to prevent a place from being furprifed : outworks do not want to be made
fo ; the taking them by furprife is of no great confequence, except in a fiege, when other precautions are ufed to
prevent it.
FORTIFICATION.
Fig. /O.
W- An~/i zia/c/ etc.
Fig. //•
Fig . /3.
Fig. /2.
Fortification .
PLATE CCXXII
a . /Jj..
■ X/ /6.
. /.5.
id>a/i/ Jhi/p A
■ I
Sea. II. FORTH'
Of into the place as at Sarrclouis, where a hornwork is
built beyond the Sarre, in the gorge of which the goods
are landed.
If the breadth of the river does not exceed 200
yards, it commonly paffes through the middle of the
town,, and proper quays are made on each fide-, in
fuch a cafe, the fortification is fo contrived, as that the
river pa lies through the curtain, in order to have a
baftion on each fide to defend the coming in and going
I
Irregular
Fortifica¬
tion.
Plate
CCXXIII
out.
When M. Vauban fortified near rivers, he made
always the exterior fide near the water much longer than
any of the others; fuch as Hunninghen on the Rhine,
and Sarrelouis on the Sarre; but for what reafon he
fortified thefe places in that manner, has not been told
by any author.
But it is plain that the fides which terminate at the
river are the weakeft -, becaufe the befiegers trenches
being fecured by the river, they may draw moll of their
troops off, and acf therefore with more vigour and
flrength on the other fide : befides, as the ftrength of
a fide increafes in proportion as the angle of the polygon
is greater, by making the fide next the river longer, the
angles at the extremities become wider, and confequently
the adjacent fides ftronger.
There are other advantages, befides thofe mentioned
already, which arife from the lengthening that fide : for
if the river is pretty deep, fo as not to be fordable, that
fide is not liable to be attacked; and by increafing its
length, t}ie capacity of the place increafes much more in
proportion to the expence, than if more fides were
made } the centre of the place will be likewife nearer
the river, which makes it more convenient for tranf-
porting the goods from the water fide to any part of the
town.
Fig. 20. To illuftrate this method of M. Vauban’g we fhall
give the plan of Hunninghen : this place was built for
the fake of having a bridge over the Rhine, for which
reafon, he made it only a pentagon j the fide A B next
to the river is 200 toifes, and each of the others but
180.
About the fpace a b c, which lies before the front
CATION.
AB, is a ftone wall; and the paffages x x are Unit Up
with fluices, to retain the water in the ditches in dry
feafons : and to prevent an enemy from deftroying the
fluice near the point c, whereby the water would run
out and leave the ditches dry, the redoubt y was built
in the little ifiand hard by, in order to cover that lluice 5
without which precaution the place might be infulated
from the river fide, where the water is lhallow in dry
feafons.
The hornwork K beyond the Rhine was built to cover
the bridge ; but as this work cannot be well defended
acrofs the river, the hornwofk H was made to fupport
the other.
Before finilhing the defeription of this plan, we ftiaU.
fhow how to find the long fide AB.
After having inferibed the two fides GE, GF, in a
circle, draw the diameter CD, fo as to be equally diftant
from the line joining the points EF that is parallel to
it. On this diameter fet off 100 toifes on each fide
of the centre 5 from thefe points draw two indefinite
perpendiculars to the diameter 5 then if from the points
EF, as centres, two arcs are deferibed with a radius
of 180 toifes, their interfeftions A and B, with the
faid perpendiculars, will determine the long fide AB,
as likewife the other two FB and EA. In like man¬
ner may be found the long or ftiort fide of any polygon
what foe ver.
When a place near a river is to be fortified for the
fafety of commerce, particular care fhould be taken in
leaving a good fpace between the houfes and the water
fide, to have a quay or landing place for goods brought
by water 5 it fhould alfo be contrived to have proper
places for lliips and boats to lie fecure in ftormy weather,
and in time of a fiege ; and as water-carriage is very
advantageous for tranfporting goods from one place to
another, as likewife for bringing the neceffary materials,
not only for building the fortifications, but alfo the
place itfelf, the expences will be leffened confiderably
when this convenience can be had ; for which reafon,
places fhould never be built anywhere elfe but near
rivers, lakes, or the fea j excepting in extraordinary
cafes, where it cannot be avoided.
33
Of
Irregular
Fortifica-.
tion.
Plate
CCXXIIL
FOR
F O R
Fortin
, ]i
Fortitude.
FORTIN, Forteler, or Field-fort, a fconce, of
little fort, whofe flanked angles are generally 120 fa¬
thoms diftant from one another.
The extent and figure offortins are different, according
to the fituation and nature of the ground -, fome of them
having whole baftions, and others demi-baftions. They
are made ufe of only for a time, either to defend the lines
of circumvallation, or to guard fome paffage or dangerous
port.
FORTISSIMO, in Mufic, fometimes denoted by
FFF, or fff fignifies, to ling or play very loud or
ftrong.
FORTITUDE, a virtue or quality of the mind,
generally confidered as the fame with Courage 5 though
in a more accurate fenfe they feem to be diftinguifhable.
Courage may be a virtue or a vice, according to
iVt>L. IX. Part I.
cir cum fiances ; fortitude is always a virtue : wre fpeak Fortitude,
of defperate courage, but not of defperate fortitude. '—v~~*
A contempt or negledl of danger, without regard to
confequences, may be called courage; and this fome
brutes have as well as we : in them it is the effedl
of natural inftinfl chiefly'; in man it depends partly
on habit, partly on ftrength of nerve's, and partly on
want of confideration. But fortitude is the virtue of
a rational and confiderate mind, and is founded in a
fenfe of honour and a regard to duty. There may be
courage in fighting a duel, though that folly is more
frequently the effe6l of cowardice ; there may be cou¬
rage in an aft of piracy or robbery : but there can be
no fortitude in perpetrating a crime. Fortitude implies
a love of equity and of public good ; for, as Plato and
Cicero obferve, courage exerted for a felfifh purpdfe, or
E without.
F O li
[ 34- 1
FOR
Fortitude, without a regard to juflice, ought to be called audacity
» rather than fortitude.
This virtue takes different names, according as it
afts in oppolition to different forts of evil } but fome
of thofe names are applied with confiderable latitude.
With refpecl tt) danger in general, fortitude may be
termed intrepidity ; tvith refpc£l to the dangers of Avar,
valour y Avith reipecl to pain of body or diitrefs of mind,
patience ; with refpeT to labour, activity ; Avith refpedf
to iniury, forbearance / with refpetl to our condition in
general, magnanimity.
Fortitude is very becoming in both fexes j but cou¬
rage is not fo iuitable to the female character j for in
women, on ordinary occaffons of danger, a certain de¬
gree of timidity is not unfeemly, becaufe it betokens
gentlenefs of difpofition. Yet from thofe of very high
rank, from a queen or an emprefs, courage in emer-
oencies of great public danger Avould be expefted, and
the Avant of it blamed j we Ihould oArerlook the fex,
and confider the duties of the ftation. In general,
however, mafeuline boldnefs in a Avoman is difagree-
« able •, the term virago conveys an offenfive idea. The
female warriors of antiquity, whether real or faoulous,
Camilla, Thaleitris, and the Avhole community of Ama¬
zons, Avere unamiable perfonages. But female cou-
ra'm exerted in defence of a child, a hufband, or a near
relation, Avould be true fortitude, and deferve the high-
eft encomiums. y
The motives to fortitude are many and poAverful.
This virtue tends greatly to the happinefs of the in-
dividual, by giving compofure and prefence of mind,
and keeping the other paffions in due fubordination.
To public good it is effential; for without it, the in¬
dependence and liberty of nations Avould be impoffible.
It gives to a character that elevation Avhich poets, ora¬
tors, and hiftorians, have in all ages vied Avith one an¬
other to celebrate. Nothing fo effectually infpires it
as rational piety ; the fear of God is the beft fecurity
againft every other fear. A true eftimate of human
life •, its ftiortnefs and uncertainty 5 the numberlefs
evils and temptations to Avhich by a long continuance
in this Avorld avc muff; unavoidably be expofed ; ought
by no means to difeourage or to throAV any gloom on
our future profpecls: they fhould teach us, that many
things are more formidable than death *, and that no¬
thing is loft, but much gained, Avhen, by the appoint¬
ment of Providence, a avcII fpent life is brought to a
conclufion.
Let it be confidered too, that pufillanimity and fear-
fulnefs can never avail us any thing. On the contrary,
they debafe our nature, poifon all our comforts, and
make us defpicable in the eyes of others ; they darken
our reafon, difconcert our fchemes, enfeeble our efforts,
extinguifti our hopes, and add tenfold poignancy to
all the evils of life. In battle, the brave foldier is in
lefs danger than the coAvard •, in lefs danger even of
death and Avounds, becaufe better prepared todefend him-
felf •, in far lefs danger of infelicity ; and has before him
the animating hope of victory and honour. So in life,
the man of true fortitude is in lefs danger of difappoint-
ment than others are, becaufe his underftanding is clear,
and his mind difencumbered ; he is prepared to meet
calamity Avithout the fear of finking under it: and he
has before him the near profpefl of another life, in
which they Avho pioufly bear the evils of this Avill obtain Fortitude
a glorious reward. , Fortune
FORTUNA, a goddefs Avorflupped Avith great
devotion by the ancient Greeks and Romans \ Avho
believed her to prefide over human affairs, and to diftri-
bute Avealth and honour at her pleafure. See For-
TUNE.
FORTUNATE ISLANDS, in Ancient Geography,
certain iflands (concerning the fituation of Avhich authors
are not agreed), famous for the golden apples of the
Hesperides.—The common opinion is, that they are
the CANAR r IJlands.
FORTUNE (Tvz»), a name which among the an¬
cients feems to have denoted a principle 01 fortuity,
whereby things came to pafs, Avithout being neceffi-
tated thereto : but Avhat and whence that principle
is, they do not feem to have ever precifely thought.
Hence their philofophers are often intimating,_ that
men only framed the phantom Fortune to hide their ig¬
norance ; and that they call Fortune Avhatever befals a
man without his knoiving for Avhat purpofe. Hence
Juvenal (fat. x. \nw. 366.) affirms, they were men who
made a deity of fortune.
Nullum nnmen ahejl, ft fit prudentia ; fed te
Nos facimus, For tuna, deam, cceloque locamus..
The ingenious Ivlr Spence gives another reading of this-
paffage: r»
Nullum numen hales, fit fit prudentia ; fed te
Nos facimus, Fortuna, deam, cceloque locamus.
This reading, he thinks agrees beft with the context ;
Juvenal fays, ver. 356, that the Iavo things Ave ihould
pray for are good health and good fenfe ■, that Ave
might be the authors of our oaaua happinefs if Ave plea-
fed, ver. 363. j that virtue is the only way to true hap¬
pinefs, ver. 364. 5 that if we ourfelves are prudent, For-,
tune has no potver over us *, and that, in truth, Ihe is
no goddefs at all, and has only ufurped a feat in heaven
from the folly of mankind, ver. 366. Fortune Avas not
confidered as a deity by the old Romans, but was mad^
fo by the devotion and folly of the vulgar j and Mr
Spence fays, that he has feen an ancient gem, in Avhich
Cybele, the mother of the gods, is reprefented .as turn¬
ing aivay her head from Fortune, in an attitude of
dilowning and reje&ing her 5 (Polymetis, p. 150, 154,
&c.).
According to the opinion of the heathens, therefore,
fortune in reality Avas only the arrAul of things in a
fudden and unexpefted manner, without any apparent
caufe of reafon: fo that the philofophical fenfe of the
word coincides with Avhat is vulgarly called chance.
But in religion it had a farther force *, altars and
temples in great numbers Avere confecrated to this For¬
tune, as a deity. This intimates, that the heathens
had perfonified, and even deified, their chance *, and
conceived her as a fort of goddefs, who difpofed of the
fate of men at her pleafure. Hence that invocation
of Horace, 0 diva, gratum quee regis Antium, in the
35th ode of the firft book, Avhere he recommends
Auguftus, then preparing for a vifit to Britain, to her
protection. From thefe different fentiments it may
be inferred, that the ancients at one time took For¬
tune for a peremptory caufe, bent upon doing good to
fome».
FOR [
Fortune, feme, and perfecuting others } and fometimes for a
Forty' blind inconitant caufe, without any view or determina-
tion at all.
If then the word fortune had no certain idea in the
mouth of thofe who erefted altars to her, much lefs can
it be afeertained what it denotes in the mind of thofe
who now ufe the word in their writings. They who
would fubftitute the name Providence in lieu of that of
Fortune, cannot give any tolerable fenfe to half the
phrafes wherein the word occurs.
Horace paints the goddefs, preceded by Neceflity,
holding naus and wedges in her hands, with a cramp-
iron, and melted lead to fallen it j rarely accompanied
with Fidelity, unlefs when Ihe abandons a family ; for
in that cafe Fidelity never fails to depart with her, as
well as friends.
She is difrefpeftfully fpoken of by molt of the Ro¬
man writers, and reprefented as blind, inconitant, unjuft,
and delighting in mifehief, {Ovid, ad Liv. ver. 52, ver,
374. (Hor. lib. i. od. 34. ver. 26. lib. iii. od. 29.
ver. 15. Statius, Theb. xii. ver 505.). However they
had a good as well as a bad Fortune, a conftant and
inconftant Fortune ; the latter of which was reprefent¬
ed with wings, and a wheel by her, (Hor. lib. iii. od.
29. ver. 56.). Juvenal alludes to a ftatue of Fortune,
which exhibited her under a very good character, as the
patronefs of the poor infants that were expofed by their
parents in the ftreets, (Sat. vi. ver. 605.).
The painters reprefent her in a woman’s habit, with
a bandage before her eyes, to Ihow that Ihe acts with¬
out difeernment; and Handing on a wheel, to exprefs
her inftability. The Romans, fays L act an tins, repre¬
fented her with a cornucopia, and the helm of a Ihip,
to ftiow that Ihe diftributee riches, and directs the af¬
fairs of the world. In effect, it is with fuch characters
that avc fee her reprefented on fo many medals, with
the infeription, fortvna avg. fortuna redvx, for-
tvNjE avg. or redvcis, &c. Sometimes flie is feen
pointing at a globe before her feet, with a feeptre in one
hand, and holding the cornucopia in the other.
The Romans had a virile as Avell as a muliebrian
Fortune, for the objeCts of their adoration : the Fortuna
viri/is Avas honoured by the men, and the Fortuna mu-
liebris by the Avomen. They honoured Fortune alfo
under a variety of other appellations.
The Romans derived the Avorftiip of Fortune from
the Greeks, under the reign of Semus Tullius, who
dedicated the firft temple to her in the public market.
Nero alfo built a temple to Fortune. The Fortune
Avor(hipped at Antium Vas probably of the moil ex¬
alted character of any among the Romans ; if we may
judge by the account Avhich Horace gives us of the
great folcmn proceffions that AA'ere made to her, (Flor.
lib. i. od. 35. ver. 22.). Eutthe moft celebrated tem¬
ple of Fortune Avas at Prsencfte. Statius fpeaks of fe-
veral Fortunes there, and calls them the Prcenejlince fu¬
rores, (lib. i. Sylv. iii. ver. 80.).
For TUNE -Tellers. Perfons pretending to tell fortunes
are to be puniftied Avith a year’s imprifonment, and
(landing four times on the pillory. Stat. ix. Geo. II.
c. 5.
FORTY days Court, the court of attachment or
woodmote, held before the verderors of the foreft once
every forty days, to inquire concerning all offenders
againft vert and venifon. See Attachment.
35 ] T © R
FORUM, in Roman antiquity, a public Handing
place within the city of Rome, where caufes were judi¬
cially tried, and orations delivered to the people.
Forum was alfo ufed for a place of traffic, anfwering
to our market-place. Thefe were generally called
fora venalia ; in eontradiftinction to the former, which
Avere called fora civiiia.
The fora civiiia Avere public courts of juftice, very
magnificent in themfelves, and furrounded Avith porti¬
coes and (lately edifices} of thefe there Avere fix very
remarkable: 1. Forum Romanum. 2. Julianum. 3. Au~
gufutn. 4. Palladium. 5. Forum Trajani. 6. Forum Sa-
lufii. The Forum Romanum Avas the moft noted, and
is often called (imply Forum, by Avay of eminence.
Here Avas the pleading place called Rqjlra, the Comi-
tium, the fanctuary of Saturn, temple of Cafor, &c.
See Rostra, Comitium, &c.
The fora venalia, or market-places, Avere very nume¬
rous. The chief of them Avere the forum boarium for
oxen or beef j fuarium for fwine \ piftorium for bread 5
cupedinarium for dainties j olitorium for garden (tuff.
The Grecian exactly correfpond with the Ro¬
man fora, being places Avhere courts and markets Avere
held. At Athens they had many fora, but the chief
of them Avere the old and the new.
FORUM In die ere, was the a£t of the praetor appointing
the place in Rome where caufes Avere to be tried. Agere
forum denoted the bringing on caufes out of Rome, in a
Roman province (Cicero, Suetonius) j the fame Avith
agere conventual (Florus).
The terra forum added to a proper name, denoted
fome market toAvn or borough ; as,
FORUM Allieni, a place mentioned only by Tacitus )
and, from Avhat he fays of it, thought to be Ferrara,
capital of the duchy of that name in Italy. E. Long.
12. 5. N. Lat. 44. 46.
FORUM Appii (Cicero, Luke) 5 a toAvn of the Volfci,
in Latium, on the Via Appia, a little beyond the Tres
Tabernte 5 fet down in the Jerufalem Itinerary as li-
tuated near the river Nymphceus : now entirely ex¬
tinct.
FORUM Cornelii, a toAvn of the Cifpadana, built
by Sylla: Now Imola, a city in Romagna, and
territory of the Pope. E. Long. 12. 12. N. Lat. 44.
Forum
3°*
FORUM Domitti, a t0Avn of Gallia Narbonenfis *, pro¬
bably built by Domitius Ahenobarbus, Avho command¬
ed in thofe parts : Now Frontignan, or Frontigniac, in
Languedoc, near the Mediterranean. E. Long. 3. 301
N. Lat. 43. 30, _
FORUM Fulvii, a t0A\rn of Liguria, furnamed Valen-
tinum : from Avhich it is conjeftured that it is noAV
Va/en-za, in the duchy of Milan ; Avhich is confirm •
ed by Peutinger’s diftances. E. Long. 90. N. Lat.
45°‘
FORUM Gallonim, a fmall town of the Cifpadana, on
the Via /Emilia, eight miles from Mutina, beyond the
river Scultenna. Here Antony defeated Panfa, and
Avas in his turn defeated by Hirtius : Noav Cafe/franco,
in the territory of Bologna.-^—Another Forum Gallorum,
a town of the Vafcones in the Hither Spain : Now
Gurrea, a fmall toAvn of Arragon.
FORUM Julium. There are feveral toAvns of this
name •, as a Forum Julium of Gallia Narbonenfis ; or
Forojulium: Noav Frejus, or Frejules, in Provence, at
E 2 the
Folfarii.
F O ' S [3
For.um the moutli of the Argens. Forum Julium Carnorum, to
the north of Aquileia, in the Tranfpadana Now Civi-
i dal di Friuli, formerly Cividal d' Aujlna, in the terri¬
tory of Venice.
FORUM Jutuntorum, a town of the Infubres, in the
Tranfpadana : Now Cretna, capital of the Cremafco, in
the territory of Venice. E. Long. 10. 15* N. Lat. 45.
FORUM Livii, a town of the Semnones, in the Cif-
padana : Now Forh, in Romagna. E. Long. 1^. 45*
N. Lat. 44. 25.
FORUM Segujianorum, fituatcd on the eaft fide 01 the
Liger, in Gallia Celtica: now Feurs, on the Loire, in
the Lyonnois, capital of the territory of Forez. E.
Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 45. 44.
FORUM Tiberii, a town of the Pagus Figurmus, in
Belgica, on the left or fouth fide of the Rhine : . Now
Kayferjlulli literally the tribunal of Tiberius, which he
held there when commander in the Rhetian war.
FORUM Volcani (Strabo)1, the Campi Phlegrcei of
Pliny ; a place in Campania encompafled with rocky
eminences, near Puteoli, and diftant from it two miles
towards Naples, emitting fmoke, and in lome places
tlame, like a large extenfive furnace, and yielding ful-
phur : Now called Solfatara, in the Terra di Lavoro.
Forum is alfo ufed, among cafuifts, &c. for jurifdic-
tion •, thus they fay, In foro leg is, &c.
FOSS, or Fosse, in Fortification, &c. a ditch or
moat. The word is French, formed of the Latin par¬
ticiple fojfum, of the vtPafodio, “ I dig.”
Foss, Fojfa, in Anatomy, a kind of cavity in a bone,
with a large aperture, but no exit or perforation. When
the aperture is very narrow, it is called tifinus.
Foss is particularly ufed for the cavity or denture in
the back part of the neck.
FOSSA MAGNA, or Navicuearis, is an oblong ca¬
vity, forming the infi.de of the pudendum muhebre, and
which prefents itfelf upon opening the labia ; and in
the middle w hereof are the carunculce myrt formes. See
Anatomy.
Fossa, in our ancient cuftoms, wTas a ditch full of
water, where women committing felony were drowned*,
as men were hanged : Nam et ipji in omnibus, tenementis
fids omnem ab antiquo legalem habuere jujlitiam, videlicet
ferrum, fojfam, furcas, et fimiha. In another fenfe it is
taken for a grave, as appears by thefe old verfes 1
Hicjacent in fojfa Bedce venerabilis ojfa :
Flic ef fojfatus, qui bis erat hie cathedratus.
FOSS Way was anciently one of the four great Ro¬
man highways of England: fo called, according to
Camden, becaufe it was ditched on both fides, which
was the Roman method of making highways.
FOSSARII, in antiquity, a kind of officers in
the eaftern church, whofe bufinefs was to inter the
dead.
v Ciaconius relates, that Conftantine created 950 fof-
faries, whom he took out of the divers colleges or com¬
panies of tradefmen : he adds, that they were exempted
from taxes, fervices, burdenfome offices, &c.
F. Goar, in his notes on the Greek Euchologion,
infmuates that the foffarii were eftabliffied in the times
®f the apoftles *, and that the young men, wffio carried
eff the body of Ananias, and thofe perfons full of the
5
6 ] F O S
fear of G od who interred St Stephen, were of the mim-
ber.
St Jerome affures us, that the rank of foffarii held the _
firft place among the clerks*, but he is to be underftood
of thofe clerks only who had the direction and mtend-
ance of the interment of the devout. . _ .
FOSSE, the Roman military way in South Britain,
begins at Totnefs, and paffes through Exeter, Ivel-
chefter, Shepton Mallet, Bath, Cirencefter, Leicetter^
the Vale of Belvoir, Newark, Lincoln, to Barton up¬
on the Humber, being itill vifible in feveral parts,
though of 1400 years Handing. It had the name from
the ffiffes or ditches made by the Tides of it.
FOSSIL, \\\ Natural FUJI ory, denotes, m general,
every thing dug out of the earth, whether it be a na¬
tive thereof, as metals, Hones, falts, earths, and other
minerals ; or extraneous, repofited in the bowels of the
earth by fome extraordinary means, as earthquakes, the
deluge, &c.
Native foffils are fubflances found m the earth, or on
its furface, of a Ample Hruclure, exhibiting no appear¬
ances of organization j and thele are included under the
general names of Ample and compound, earthy or me¬
tallic minerals. See Mineralogy.
Extraneous foffils are bodies of the vegetable or ani¬
mal kingdoms accidentally buried in the earth. Of tlie
vegetable kingdom, there are principally three kinds •,
trees or parts of them, herbaceous plants, and corals .
and of the animal kingdom there are four kinds 5 fea
(hells, the teeth or bony palates and bones of Allies,
complete filhes, and the bones of laud animals. See
Geology.
Thefe adventitious or extraneous foffils, thus found
buried in great abundance in divers parts of the earth,
have employed the curioAty of feveral of our lateH na-
turaliHs, who have each their feveral fyltem to account
for the furprifing appearances of petrified fea fiffies,^
in places far remote from the fea, and on the tops of
mountains ; (hells in the middle of quarries of Hone 5
and of elephants teeth, and bones of divers animals, pe¬
culiar to the fouthern climates, and plants only growing
in the eafl, found foffil in our northern and weffern
parts.
Some wall have thefe (hells, &c. to be real Hones,
and Hone plants, formed after the ufual manner of other
figured Hones ; of which opinion is the learned Dr
LiHer.
Another opinion is, that thefe foffil fliells, with all
the foreign bodies found within the earth, as bones,
trees, plants, &c. were buried therein at the time of
the univerfal deluge *, and that, having been penetrat¬
ed either by the bituminous matter abounding chiefly
in watery places, or by the falts of the earth, they have
been preferved entire, and fometimes petrified.
Others think, that thofe (hells, found at the tops of
the highefl mountains, could never have been carried
thither by the waters, even of the deluge } inafmuch as
mod of thefe aquatic animals, on account of the weight
of their fliells, always remain at the bottom of the wa¬
ter, and never move but elofe along the ground, i hey
imagine, that a year’s continuance of the waters of the.
deluge, intermixed with the fait waters of the fea, up¬
on the furface of the earth, might well give eccaflon
to the production of fliells of divers kinds in different
climates, j
FotTarii
I!
Foffil.
Fofter.
F O S [ 37 ] F O S
climates ; and that the univerfal faitnefs of the water
was the real caufe of their refemblance to the fea fhells,
as the lakes formed daily by the retention of rain or
fpring water produce different kinds.
Others think, that the waters of the fea, and the
rivers, with thofe which fell from heaven, turned the
whole furface of the earth upfide down ; after the fame
manner as the waters of the Loire, and other rivers,
which roll on a Tandy bottom, overturn all their fands,
and even the earth itfelf, in their fwellings and inun¬
dations ; and that in this general fubverfion, the {hells
came to be interred here, fillies there, trees there, &c.
See Deluge.
Dr Woodward, in his Natural Hiftory of the Earth,
purfuing and improving the hypothefis of Dr Burnet,
maintains the whole mafs of earth, with every thing
belonging thereto, to have been fo broken and difiblved
at the time of the deluge, that a new earth was then
formed on the bofom of the water, confifting of different
ftrata or beds of ter re ft rial matter, ranged over each
other ufually according to the order of their fpecific
gravities. By this means, plants, animals, and efpecially
fiflies and fhells, not yet diffolved among the reft, re¬
mained mixed and blended among the mineral and
foflil matters ; which preferved them, or at leaft affumed
and retained their figures and impreflions either indent-
edly or in jrelievo. See Geology.
Fossil Fitch. See Petroleum, Mineralogy
Index.
FOSTER James, a nonconformift divine, very
highly celebrated for his pulpit eloquence and erudition,
was born at Exeter in the year 1697. At the age of
five years he was put to the free fchool of that city,
where his progrefs in the acquifition of grammar was fo
rapid, that his mafter boafted of him as the moft emi¬
nent genius in his fchool. From this feminary he went
to the academy where young men defigned for clergy¬
men in the diffenting intereft were educated, where his
progrefs and applaufe were equally great. His appre-
henfion was remarkably quick, his judgment folid, me¬
mory retentive, eloquence commanding, and his talents
for argumentation were truly admirable ; but above all,
his piety was genuine, and few men poflefled candour,
modefty, liberality, integrity, tendernefs and benevo¬
lence, in fuch a remarkable degree. He commenced
preacher at the age of 21, and was much admired where
he occafionally officiated. About this time the doctrine
of the trinity was much agitated in the weft of England,
which was not confonant to the notions of Mr Fofter,
and the lionefty and opennefs of his heart would not
allow him to conceal thefe, which brought fo much
odium upon him from the orthodox party, that he retired
to another fcene of aft ion. He became paftor of a con¬
gregation at Milborne-port, in Somerfetfliire \ but as
foon as his hearers became zealoufly attached to what
was deemed the orthodox opinion, he retired to Afhwick
under the hills of Mendip, in the fame county. In this
afylum he preached to two congregations at a little dif-
tance from each other, as poor as they were plain, the
united contributions of which did not amount to 1 (ft.
per annum. In this humble poverty and obfcurity he
lived for fome years, honourable, however, as it was
occafioned by his determined uprightnefs and fincerity.
In the year 1720, he gave the Avorld his “ Effay on
Fundamentals, with a particular regard to the doftrine
of the ever-bleffed Trinity,” &c. The defign of this
work Avas to check an uncharitable and intolerant fpirit,
at that time extremely prevalent, by ftioAving that the
trinitarian notion is not a fundamental article of Chrif-
tianity, or made an exprefs condition of falvation in the
facred fcriptures. A fermon accompanied this elfay,
entitled “ The refurreftion of Chrift proved, and vindi¬
cated againft: the moft important objeftions of the
ancient Jews, or modern Deifts, and his difciples ftioAvn
to be fufficient witneffes of the faft.” From Afhwick
he removed to TroAvbridge in Wiltfliire, where his con¬
gregation did not ufually exceed 20 or 30 people.
By reading Dr Gale’s treatife on infant baptifm, he-
became a convert to the doftrine, that immerfion is
the true fcriptural rite, and ivas accordingly foon after
bapdfed in London in conformity to that mode. This
unreferved manner of adopting Avhatever his confcience
believed to be truth, excluded him from almoft every
religious party among Avhom he might other wife have
expefted preferment. But Avhile he deliberated with
himfelf whether he fliould abandon the miniftry, and
acquire the knoAvledge of fome mechanical employ¬
ment, Robert Houlfton, Efq. took him to his houfe in
the capacity of chaplain, Avhere his circle of acquaint¬
ances became Avider and more refpeftable. In 1724,
he was appointed to fucceed Dr Gale in the baptift
congregation in Barbican, London. In the year 1728
he commenced a Sunday evening lefture in the Old
JeAvry, which he continued till Avithin a fliort time of
his death, Avith fuch a degree of popularity as feAV
diflenters at that time experienced. In 1731 appeared
his valuable Avork, entitled “ The ufefulnefs,.truth, and
excellency of the Chriitian revelation, defended againft
the objeftions contained in a late book, called Chrif-
tianity as old as the Creation,” &c. In this reply Mr
Fofter exhibited no ordinary ftiare of talents and inge¬
nuity, and it was admired by the candid and judicious
of every defeription. Dr Tindal, againft Avhom it Avas
Avritten, is faid to haA7e fpoken of it always with great
refpeft. He publiffied a volume of fermons in the year
1734, followed by other three volumes, the laft of Avhich
appeared in 1744. At this time he Avas appointed fuc-
ceffior to Dr Jeremiah Hunt, in the proteftant congre¬
gation at Pinner’s-hall. In 1746, he attended the earl
of Kilmarnock Avhen under fentence of death for high-
treafon, after Avhich he publifhed an oftavo pamphlet,
Avith the title of “ An account of the behaviour of the
late earl of Kilmarnock after his fentence, and on the
day of his execution.”
He received from the Marifchal college of Aberdeen
the degree of doftor in divinity, accompanied Avith
handfome letters from the principal and ProfeiTor For-
dyce, the latter of whom thus addrefled him. “ We
beg that you will be fo good as to accept of the diplo¬
ma, as a fmall mark of the fincere veneration avc have
for you, and of the fenfe ive entertain of the eminent
fervices you have done to the caufe of liberty, religion,
and virtue, by your Avritings as well as public inftruc-
tions.” The firft volume in quarto of his ‘ Difcourfes
on all the Principal Branches of Natural Religion and
Social Virtue,’ Avas publiftied in the year 1749, and the
fecond'appeared in 1752. They Avere piibliflied by
fubfeription j and to evince the high eftimation in which.
hb'
Fo ft rf.
F O T {
Torter ]ns talents and virtue were lield, 2000 names were con-
II . tained in the lift, many of them diftinguithed by their
Fothcrgill ran]- aTUt literary abilities.
v In the month of April 1750, he was feized with a
violent diftemper, from the effetts of which he never
thoroughly recovered 5 yet while at all able to officiate,
he continued to preach till the beginning of 1752, when
he had another attack, which feems to have been of a
paralytic nature. After declining for fome time, he
expired like a genuine Chriftian on the 5th of Novem¬
ber, in the 55th year of his age. His private and pub¬
lic life were alike irreproachable. Such was the won¬
derful extent of his beneficence, that he mull have died
in indigent cireumftances, had it not been for the nu¬
merous fubferiptions to his difeourfes on natural reli¬
gion. Mr Rider gives him the following eulogium.
“ His voice was naturally fweet, ftrong, diftinft, har¬
monious, always adapted to his matter, always varied
as his method changed ; as expreffive of the fenfe as the
moft judicious recitative. Monotony was a fault he
was never guilty of. HR action, the foul of eloquence,
■was grave, expreffive, free from diftortions, animated
without being theatrical; in ffiort, fuch as became the
pulpit. He reminded us of Paul at Athens, arrefting
the attention of his auditors.” It was no doubt fuch
rare accomplifhments which induced Mr Pope to be an
occafional hearer, and to pay him the following compli¬
ment :
Let modeft Fofter, if he will, excel
Ten metropolitans in preaching well.
In a poem deferibing the refpeclive merits of diffenting
minifters at that period, and fuppofed to have been the
work of Mr Savage, we find the following lines upon
Dr Fofter.
But fee th’ accompli fir’d orator appear,
Refin’d his language, and his reafoning clear j
Thou only, Fofter, haft the pleafing art,
At once to charm the ear, and mend the heart.
Befides the works formerly tiHien notice of, Dr Fof¬
ter publiftied three funeral fermons, one of which was
intended for that celebrated confeffor Mr Errfiyn ; to¬
gether with a number of effays in the Old Whig.
Foster, Samuel, an ingenious Engliffi mathematician
of the laft century, and aftronomical profeffor in Greftiam
college, was one of that learned affociation which met
for cultivating the new philofophy during the political
confufions, and which Charles II. eftabliflied into the
Royal Society. Mr Fofter, however, died in 16^2,
before this incorporation took place ; but wrote a num¬
ber of mathematical and aftronomical treatifes, too many
to particularize. There were two other mathematical
ftudents of this name ^ William Fofter, a difciple of
Mr Oughtred, who taught in London ; and Mark
Fofter, author of a treatife on trigonometry, who lived
later than the former two.
FOTHER, or Fodder, is a weight of lead, con¬
taining eight pigs, and every pig one and twenty ftone
and a half; fo that it is about a ton or common cart
load. Among the plumbers in London, it is nineteen
hundred and a half 5 and at the mines it is two and
twenty hundred and a half. The word is of Teutonic
origin, from fuller.
FOTHERGILL, Dr Geor.gf., was born in Weft-
3S ] EOT
morland in 1705, where his family had been long Totliergifl.
feated on a competent eftate that had defeended regu- v '
larly for feveral generations. After an academical
education in Queen’s college, Oxford, of which he be¬
came a fellow, he was, in 1751, elected principal of St
Edmund’s hall, and prefented to the vicarage of Brum-
ley in Hampfhire. Having been long afflicted with
an afthma, he died in 1760. He was the author of a
collection of much efteemed fermons, in 2 vols. 8vo.
The firft volume confifts of occaftonal difeourfes, pub-
liffled by himfelf; the fecond printed from his MSS.
Fothergill, Dr John, a late eminent phyfitian,
fon of John and Margaret, (Quakers, was born in 1712,
at Carr End in Yorklhire, where his father^ who had
been a brewer at Knarefborough (after having travelled
from one end of America to the other), lived retired
on a fmall eftate which he cultivated. The Doctor
wras the fecond of five children (four fons and a daugh¬
ter), and received his education under the care ol his
grandfather 'Thomas Hough, a perfon of fortune in.
Chelhire, which gave him a predilection for that county),
and at Sedbergh in Yorkfflire. He afterwards ferved
his time to one Mr Bartlett an apothecary at Bradford.
From thence he removed to London, and became a
pupil of Dr (afterwards Sir Edward) Wilmot, at St
Thomas’s Hofpital. He then went to the univerfity of
Edinburgh to-ftudy phylic, and took his doctor’s degree
there. From Edinburgh he went to Leyden \ whence,
after a fliort ftay, he returned to London, and began to
practife about the year 1740, in a houfe in White-hart
Court, Lombard-itreet, where he refided during the
greateft part of his life, and acquired moft of his
fortune. In 1746, he w^as admitted a’ licentiate of
the College of Phyficians in London; and in 1754
a fellow of that of Edinburgh, to which he was a
confiderable benefactor. He afterwards became a
member of the Royal Medical Society at Paris, and a
member both of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies.
He continued his practice with uninterrupted fuccefs
till within the laft two years of his life, when the illnefs
which he had brought on himfelf by unremitted at¬
tention, obliged him to give up a confiderable part < f
it. Befides his application to medical feience, he had
imbibed an early tafte for natural hiftory, improved by
his friend Peter Collinfon, and employed himftlf on
conchology and fmaller obiedls of botany. He vras for
many years a valuable contributor to the Gentleman’s
Magazine ; where his obfervations on the weather and
difeafes were begun in April 1751, and difeontinued in
the beginning of 17 ;6, being difappointed in his views
of exciting other experienced phylicians in different
parts to imitate the example. He had very extenfive
practice, but he did not add to his art any great or
various improvements. His pamphlet on the ulcerous
fire throat is, on every account, the belt of his publica¬
tions ; but owes much of its merit to the information of
the late Dr Letherland. It was printed in 1748, on
the re-appearance of that fatal diforder which in 1739
had carried off the two only fons of Mr Pelham. In
1762 Dr Fothergill purchafed an eftate at Upton in
Effex ; and formed a botanic garden there, the fecond irt
Europe ; Kew is the firft. In 1766 he began regularly
to withdraw, from Midfummer to Michaelmas, from
the exceffive fatigue of his profeffion, to Lee Hall, near
F O T [ 3
Fothergill, ed it by the year, he had fpared no expenee to improve.
' He took no fees during this recefs, but attended to
preferibe gratis at an inn at Middlewich once a week.
In 1767, after lie found himfelf obliged to relax his
attention to bufmefs, he removed from his houfe in the
city, to refide in Harpur-itreet, Red-Lion Square.
Some time before his death he had been induftrious to
contrive a method of generating and preferving ice in
the Weil Indies. He was the patron of Sidney Par-
kinfon, and drew up the preface prefixed to his account
of the voyage to the South Seas. At his expence al-
fo was made and printed an entire new tranllation of
the whole Bible, from the Hebrew and Greek originals,
by Anthony Purver, a Quaker, in two volumes,
1764, folio, and alfo, in 1780, an edition of Biflrop
Percy’s “ Key to the New Teftament,” adapted to the
ufe of a feminary of young Quakers, at Ac worth, near
Leeds in Yorkshire, founded in 1778 by the Society,
who purchafed, by a fubfeription in which Dr Fother-
gill flood foremoft, the home' and an eftile of thirty
acres which the Foundling Hofpital held there, but
which they found inconvenient for their purpofe on
account of diftance. The Doclor himfelf firlt projeef-
ed this on the plan of a fmaller inftitution of the fame
kind at Gilderfomes. He alfo endowed it handfomely
by his will. It now contains above 300 children of
both fexes, who are clothed and inftrudled. Among
the other beneficent fehemes fuggefted by Dr Fother¬
gill were thofe of bringing filh to London by land car¬
riage, which,.though it did not in every refpedt fuceeed,
tended to deltroy a fuppofed combination : and of ren¬
dering bread much cheaper, though equally wholefome,
to the poor, by making it with one part of potatoes
and three parts of houfehold flour. But his public
benefactions, his encouragements of fcience, the in-
llances of his attention to the health, the police, the
convenience of the metropolis, &c. we cannot pretend
to fpecify. The fortune which Dr Fothergill had ac¬
quired was immenfe , and, talcing all things together,
the houfe and moveables in Harpur-ftreet, the property
in Effex, and the eftate in Chefhire (which he held on
a leafe), and his ready money, amounted to 8o,oool.
His bufinefs, when he wras in full practice, was cal¬
culated at near 7000I. per annum. In the influenza
°f 1775 ar*8 1776, he is faid to have had 60 patients
on his lift daily, and his profit was eftimated at 8000I.
per annum.
The diforder which haftened his death was a feir-
rhus of the proftata, and an obftruclum in the bladder
(in which were found after his death two quarts of
water), which had been gradually coming on him for
fix years paft, oecafioned by a delicacy, which made
him unwilling to alight from his carriage, and when,
after Ins temporary recovery from it the year before he
died, lie fubmitted to ufe relief in his carriage, it was
too late. He died at his houfe in Harpur-ftreet, De¬
cember 26. 1780$ and his remains were interred, Ja¬
nuary 5. in the Quakers burying ground at Winch-
more-hill, whither they were accompanied by more
than 70 coaches and pofl-chaifes, notwithftanding the
intention of the executors to have the funeral private.
The Doftor by his will appointed, that his fhells and
other pieces of natural hiftory fhould be offered to the
late Dr Hunter at 500I. under the valuation he or-
9 ] F o T
dered to be taken of them. Accordingly Dr Hunter
bought them for 1200I. The drawings and collec¬
tions in natural hiltory were alfo to be offered to Mr
(now Sir Jofeph) Bankes at a valuation. His Englifh
portraits and prints, which had been collected by Mr
John Nickolls of Ware, and purchafed by him for 80
guineas, were bought for 200 guineas by Mr Thane.
His books were fold by auction, April 30. 1781, and
the eight following days. His houfe and garden at
Upton, in which 15 men were conftantfy employed,,
were valued at io,oool. He fpared no expence to
augment this as well as his other eolledtions. He had
an ingenious artiit qualified to collect for him at the
Cape of Good Hope, and another on the Alps, and
employed for feveral years before his death a painter in
natural hiftory at Leeds,
Dr Fothergill’s character was excellent. A Iranf-
adlion, indeed, with regard to one Dr Leeds, gave oc-
cafion to feme of his enemies to blame him ; but how,
unjuftly, has been abundantly fbown by Ids biographers
Dr Elliot and Dr Lettfome. Betides the pamphlet al¬
ready mentioned, Dr Fothergill wrote a confiderable
number of Tracts, which are now collected into one
volume 8vo, by Dr Elliot. He fometimes wrote in
the newfpapers, and is faid to have been the author of
more than iqo letters in the Gazetteer, concerning the
New Pavement.
FOTHERGILL A, a genus of plants belonging to
the polyandria clafs. See Botany Index.
FOTHERING, a peculiar method of endeavouring
to flop a leak in the bottom of a fliip while file is afloat,
either under fail or at anchor. It is ufually performed
in the following manner : A bafket is filled with allies,
cinders, and chopped rope yarns, and loofely covered
with a piece of canvas ; to this is fattened a long pole,
by which it is plunged repeatedly in the water, as clofe
as poflible to the place where the leak is conjectured to
lie. The oakum or chopped rope yams being thus
gradually fhaken through the twigs, or over the top of
the balket, are frequently fucked into the hole along
with the water, fo that the leak becomes immediately
choked 5 and the future entrance of the water is there¬
by prevented.
FOTHERING AY, a town of Northampton (hire,
about four miles from Staneford, fituated on the river
Avon, or Non, and confiding of one ffreet. Edward
duke of York, in the reign of Henry V. founded and
endowed a fine collegiate church here, in which he was
interred. At the diffolution, the college and the choir
were pulled down, and the bodies of the founder and
his family left expofed till Queen Elizabeth’s time, who
ordered them to be interred, and the prefent monu¬
ments to be erected. On the north fide of the church
is a free fchool, founded by Henry VII. or Edward VI.
endowed with 20I. per annum for a mafter, payable out
of the exchequer by the receiver of the county. The
bridge over the river here was firit built by Queen
Elizabeth, 1573, of timber, with three pillars upon the
foundation. Daniel, firit earl of Nottingham, and the
other truftces for William Saville, marquis of Halifax,
rebuilt it, in 1722, of freeftone from King’s Cliffe. On
the fouth-eaft fide of the cliffe flood the cattle ; which
was of great antiquity and confiderable ftrength. Mary
queen of Scots, who had been in the cuftody of Sir
Ami^s
FothcrgUl
II .
Fothcrin-
gay-
J
T'otherin-
gay
II
Foulahs.
F O U [4°
Amlas Powlet here, was tried and beheaded in the hall j
and her fon afterwards, forgiving and even taking into
favour her greateft enemy Cecil, only took the childifh
revenge of beating down the caille •, which he fo com¬
pletely demolifhed, that no more than the earthworks
now remain. Within the fir ft work is a farm-houfe,
with fome carved ftones wrought into it, and at the
fouth-weft corner of the inner trench are fome mafles of
ftone walls. Sir Robert Cotton carried the wainfcot of
the hall to Connington.
FOU-tcheou, a city of China, in the province of
Fo-kien. It carries on a confiderable trade 5 but is
chietly remarkable for the magnificence of its principal
bridge, which has more than 100 arches, conftrutled
of white ftone, and ornamented with a double baluf-
trade throughout. This city is the refidence of a
viceroy, and has under its jurifdiclion nine cities of the
third clafs.
FOUGADE, or Fougasse, in the art of war, a
little mine, about 8 or 10 feet wide, and 10 or 12 deep,
dug under fome work or poll, which is in danger of
falling into the enemy’s hands *, and charged with facks
of powder, covered with ftones, earth, and whatever
elfe can make great deftruftion. It is fet on fire like
other mines, with a fauciffe. See Mine.
FOUL, or Foule, in the fea language, is ufed
when a (hip has been long untrimmed, fo that the
grafs weeds, or barnacles, grow to her fides under
water. A rope is alfo foul when it is either tangled
in itfelf, or hindered by another, fo that it cannot run
or be overhauled.
Foul imports, alfo, the running of one ftiip againft
another. This happens fometimes by the violence of
the wind, and fometimes by the carelefsnefs of the
people on board, to Hups in the fame convoy, and to
ftiips in port by means of others coming in. The damages
occafioned by running foul, are of the nature of thofe
in which both parties muft bear a {hare. They are
ufually made half to fall upon the fufferer, and half
upon the veffel which did the injury \ but in cafes
where it is evidently the fault of the mafter of the
veflel, he alone is to bear the damage.
FouL-l'Vater. A Ihip is faid to make foul water,
when, being under fail, fhe comes into fuch ftioal
water, that though her keel do not touch the ground,
yet it comes fo near it, that the motion of the water
under her raifes the mud from the bottom.
Foul is alfo a difeafe in cattle, proceeding from
blood, and a waterifh rheum that falls down into the
legs, and makes them fwell.
FOUL or Pimpled Face. See GUTTA Pofacea.
FOULA, or FOUL I/land, one of the Shetland ifles,
lying between fix and feven leagues Weft from the
main land. It is about three miles long, narrow, and
full of rough, fteep, and bare rocks •, one of which is
fo large, and runs up to fuch a height, that it may
be clearly feen from Orkney. This, it is probable, is
the Thule of Tacitus. It has fcarcely any pafturage,
and but little arable land. The only commodities ex¬
ported are ftock fifh, train oil, and feathers.
FOULAHS, a people of Africa, which inhabit the
confines of the great defert Sahara. The principal of the
Foulah ftates is that within Sierra Leona, and of which
Tccmbo is the capital. See Sierra Leona.
1
F O U
See Mam- Foumart
Foundery.
FOUMART, a fpecies of Mustela.
MALIA Index.
FOUNDATION, in Archite&ure, is that part of a
building which is under ground. See Architecture,
N° 104.
Palladio allows a fixth part of the height of the
whole building for the hollowing or under-digging j
unlefs there be cellars under ground, in which cafe he
would have it fome what lower.
Foundation, denotes alfo a donation or legacy,
either in money or lands, for the maintenance and
fupport of fome community, hofpital, fchool, &c.
The king only can found a college, but there may Jacob's
be a college in reputation founded by others. If it Law
cannot appear by inquifition wTho it was that founded
a church or college, it ftiall be intended that it was the
king, who has power to found a new church, _ &c.
The king may found and eredl an hofpital, and give a
name to the houfe upon the inheritance of another, or
licenfe another peffon to do it upon his own lands j and
the words fundo, creo, &c. are not neceffary in every
foundation, either of a college or hofpital, made by the
king •, but it is fufficient if there be words equivalent:
the incorporation of a college or hofpital is the very
foundation j but he who endows it w;ith lands is the
founder j and to the ereftion of an hcfpital, nothing
more is requifite but the incorporation and foundation.
Perfons feifed of eftates in fee fimple, may ere£t and
found hofpitals for the poor by deed enrolled in chan¬
cery, &c. which {hall be incorporated, and fubjeft to
fuch vifitors as the founder {hall appoint, &c. ftat. 39
Eliz. c. 5.
FOUNDER, in a general fenfe, the perfon who lays a
foundation, or endows a church, fchool, religious houfe,
or other charitable inftitution. See Foundation.
Founder, alfo implies an artift who calls metals, in
various forms, for different ufes, as guns, bells, ftatues,
printing characters, eandlefticks, buckles, &c. whence
they are denominated gun-foUnders, bell-founders, fi¬
gure-founders, letter-founders, founders of fmall wrorks.
See. See Foundery.
Founder, in the fea language : A Ihip is faid to
founder, when by an extraordinary leak, or by a great
fea breaking in upon her, flie is fo filled with water,
that Hie cannot be freed of it 5 fo that ftie can neither
veer nor fteer, but lie like a log j and not being able
to fwim long, will at laft fink.
FOUNDERED, applied to horfes. See Farriery
Index.
FOUNDERY, or Foundry, the art of calling all
forts of metals into different forms. It likewife fignifies
the workhoufe or fmelting hut wherein thefe opera¬
tions are performed.
Founder T of Small Works, or calling in Sand. The
fand ufed for calling fmall works is at firft of a pretty
foft, yellowifli, and clammy nature ; but it being ne¬
ceffary to ftrew charcoal dull in the mould, it at length
becomes of a quite black colour. The fand is worked
over and over, on a board, with a roller, and a fort of
knife 5 being placed over a trough to receive it, after
it is by thefe means fufficiently prepared.
This done, they take a Wooden board of a length,
and breadth proportional to the things to be call, and
putting a ledge round it they fill it with land, a little
moiftened.
F O U f 4i ] F O U
mr’cnmdery. moiftened, to make it duly cohere. Then they take
     either wood or metal models of what they intend to
call, and apply them io to the mould, and prefs them
into the fand, as to leave their imprefiion there. Along
the middle of the mould is laid half a fmall brafs cy¬
linder, as the chief canal for the metal to run through,
when melted, into the models or patterns *, and from
this chief canal are placed feveral others, which extend
to each model or pattern placed in the frame. After
this frame is finifhed, they take out the patterns, by
firit loofening them all around, that the fand may not
give way.
Then they proceed to work the other half of the
mould with the fame patterns in juft fuch another frame j
only that it has pins, which, entering into holes that
correfpond to it in the other, make the two cavities of
the pattern fall exaftly on each other.
The frame, thus moulded, is carried to the melter 5
who, after extending the chief canal of the counterpart,
and adding the crofs canals to the feveral models in
both, and ftrewing mill duft over them, dries them in a
kind of oven for that purpofe.
Both parts of the mould being dry, they are joined
together by means of the pins : and to prevent them
giving way, by reafon of the melted metal palling through
the chief cylindrical canal, they are ferewed or wedged
up like a kind of prefs.
While the moulds are thus preparing, the metal is
fufing in a crucible of a ftze proportionate to the quan¬
tity of metal intended to be call.
When the moulds are cooliih, the frames are un-
ferewed or unwedged, and the call work taken out of
the fand, which land is worked over again for other
calling.
FOUNDER T of Statues. The calling of llatues de¬
pends on the due preparation of the pit, the core, the
wax, the outer mould, the inferior furnace to melt off
the wax, and the upper to fufe the metal. The pit is a
hole dug in a dry place fomething deeper than the in¬
tended figure, and made according to the prominence
of certain parts thereof. The infide of the pit is com¬
monly lined with Hone or brick } or when the figure
is very large, they fometimes work on the ground, and
raife a proper fence to refill the impulfion of the melted
metal.
The inner mould, or core, is a rude mafs to which
is given the intended attitude and contours. It is raif-
ed on an iron grate, ftrong enough to fuftain it, and
is ftrengthened within by feveral bars of iron. It is
generally made either of potters clay, mixed with hair
and horfe dung; or of plafter of Paris mixed with brick
(dull. The ufe of the core is to fupport the wax, the
Ihell, and leffen the weight of the metal. The iron bars
and the core are taken out of the brafs figure through
an aperture left in it for that purpofe, which is fol-
dered up afterwards. It is neceffary to leave fome
of the iron bars of the core, that contribute to the
Ileadinefs of the projefting part, within the brafs fi¬
gure.
The wax is a reprefentation of the intended llatue.
If it be a piece of fculpture, the wax ftiould be all of
the fculptor’s own hand, who ufually forms it on the
core : '{'hough it may be wrought feparately in cavities,
moulded on a model, and afterwards arranged on the
VOL. IX. Part I.
ribs of iron over the grate j filling the vacant fpace in Founded
the middle with liquid plafter and brick duft, whereby
the inner core is proportioned as the fculptor carries on
the wax.
When the wax, which is the intended thicknefs of
the metal, is finilhed, they fill fmall waxen tubes per¬
pendicular to it from top to bottom, to ferve both as ca¬
nals for the conveyance of the metal to all parts of the
work; and as vent holes, to give paffage to the air,
which ■would otherwife occafion great diforder when the
hot metal came to encompafs it.
The work being brought thus far, muft be covered
with its ftiell, which is a kind of cruft laid over the
wax, and which being of a foft matter, eafily receives
the impreflion 6f every part, which is afterwards com¬
municated to the metal upon its taking the place of the
wax, between the Ihell and the mould. The mat¬
ter of this outer mould is varied according as different
layers are applied. The firft is generally a compofition
of clay, and old white crucibles well ground and fifted,
and mixed up with water to the confiftence of a colour
fit for painting : accordingly they apply it with a pen¬
cil, laying it feven or eight times over, and letting it.
dry between whiles. For the fecond impreflion they
add horfe dung and natural earth to the former compo¬
fition. The third impreflion is only horfe dung and
earth. Laftly, The fhell is finilhed by laying on feve¬
ral more impreflions of this laft matter, made very thick
with the hand.
The Ihell, thus finilhed, is fecured by feveral iron
girths, bound round it, at about half a foot diftance from
each other, and faftened at the bottom to the grate un¬
der the ftatue, and at top to a circle of iron where they
all terminate.
If the ftatue be fo big that it wmuld not be eafy to
move the moulds with fafety, they muft be wrought
on the fpot where it is to be call. This is performed
two ways: in the firft, a fquare hole is dug under
ground, much bigger than the mould to be made
therein, and its infide lined with Avails of free-ftone or
brick. At the bottom is made a hole of the fame
materials, with a kind of furnace, having its aperture
outwards: in this is a fire made to dry the mould,
and afterwards melt the Avax. Over this furnace is
placed the grate, and upon this the mould, &c. formed
as above. Laftly, At one of the edges of the fquare
pit, is made another large furnace to melt the metal.
In the other Avay, it is fufficient to Avork the mould
above ground, but Avith the like precaution of a fur¬
nace and grate underneath. When finilhed, four
Avails are to be run around it, and by the fide thereof
' a maflive made for a melting furnace. For the reft,
the method is the fame in both. The mould being fi¬
nilhed, and enclofed as deferibed, Avhether under ground
or above it, a moderate fire is lighted in the fumace
under it, and the Avhole covered Avith planks, that the
Avax may melt gently doAvn, and run out at pipes con¬
trived for that purpofe, at the foot of the mould,
Avhich are afterwards exactly doled Avith earth, fo foon
as the Avax is carried off. This done, the hole is filled
up Avith bricks thrown in at random, and the fire in
the furnace augmented, till fuch time as both the
bricks and mould become red hot. After this, the
fire being extinguilhed, and every thing cold again,
F they
I
F O U
[ 42 ]
F O U
Foundcry. they take out the bricks, and fill up their place with
1 1 ' ^ earth moillened, and a little beaten to the top of the
mould, in order to make it the more firm and fteady.
Thefe preparatory meafures being duly taken, there
remains nothing but to melt the metal, and run it into
the mould. This is the office of the furnace above
defcribed, which is commonly made in the form of an
oven with three apertures, one to put in the wood,
another for a vent, and a third to run the metal out at.
From this iaft aperture, which is kept very clofe while
the metal is in fufidn, a fmall tube is laid, whereby the
melted metal is conveyed into a large earthen bafon,
over the mould, into the bottom of wffiich all the b?g
branches of the jets, or cafts, which are to con¬
vey the metal into all the parts of the mould, are in¬
fer ted.
Thefe cafts or jets are all terminated with a kind of
plugs, which are kept clofe, that, upon opening the
furnace, the brafs, which guflies out with violence,
may not enter any of them, till the bafon be full enough
»f matter to run into them all at once. Upon which
eccafion they pull out the plugs, which are long iron
rods vrith a head at one end, capable of filling the
whole diameter of each tube. The whole of the fur¬
nace is opened with a long piece of iron fitted at the end
of each pole, and the mould filled in an inftant. This
completes the work in relation to the calling part j the
reft being the fculptor’s or carver’s bufinefs, who, tak¬
ing the figure out of the mould and earth wherewith it
is encompafled, faws off the jets with which it appears
covered over, and repairs it with chiflels, gravers, pun¬
cheons, &c.
FOUNDERT of Bells. The metal, it is to be ob-
ferved, is different for bells from what it is for
flatues } there being no tin in the ftatue metal \ but
there is a fifth, and fometimes more, in the bell
metal.
The dimenfions of the core and the wax for bells, if
i chime of bells efpecially, are not left to chance, but
mull be meafured on a fcale, or diapafon, which gives
the height, aperture, and thicknefs, neceffary for the fe-
veral tones required.
It is on the wax that the feveral mouldings and other
ornaments and infcriptions, to be reprefented in re¬
lievo on the outfide of the bell, are formed. The
dapper or tongue is not properly a part of the bell,
but is furnilhed from other hands. In Europe, it is
ufually of iron, with a large knob at the extreme ; and
is fufpended in the middle of the bell. In China, it is
©nly a huge wooden mallet, ftruck by force of arm
againft the bell •, whence they can have but little of that
confonancy fo much admired in fome of our chimes of
bells. The Chinefe have an extraordinary way of in-
ereafing the found of their bells, viz. by leaving a hole
under the cannon} which our bell-founders would reckon
a defeft.
The proportions of our bells differ very much from
thofe of the Chinefe. In ours, the modern propor¬
tions are, to make the diameter 15 times the thicknefs
of the brim, and the height 1 2 times. 1 he parts of a
bell are, 1. The founding bow, terminated by an in¬
ferior circle, which grows thinner and thinner. 2. The
brim or that part of a bell whereon the clapper ftrikes,
=»d which is thicker than the reft. 3. The outward
finking of the middle of the bell, or the point under Foundcry.
which it grows wider to the brim. 4. The waift or ' v
furniture,1 and the part that grows wider and thicker
quite to the brim. 5. The upper vafe, or that part
which is above the waift. 6. The pallet which fup-
ports the ftaple of the clapper within. 7. The bent
and hollowed branches of metal uniting with the can¬
nons, to receive the iron keys, whereby the bell is hung
up to the beam, which is its fupport and counterpoife
when rung out.
The bufinefs of bell foundery is reducible to three
particulars. 1. The proportion of a bell. 2. 1 he
forming of the mould. And, 3. The melting of
the metal. There are two kinds of proportions,
viz. the fimple and the relative 5 the former are
thofe proportions only that are between the feveral
parts of a bell to render it fonorous ) the relative pro¬
portions eftabliffi a requifite harmony between feveral
bells.
The method of forming the profile of a bell, pre¬
vious to its being call, in wffiich the proportion of the
feveral parts may be feen, is as follows : the thicknefs PIate
of the brim, C 1 (Plate CCXXIII.) is the foundation CCXXIII.
of every other meafure, and is divided into three equal
parts. Firft, draw the line HD, which reprefents the
diameter of the bell; bifeel it in F and ere ft the per¬
pendicular Ff; let DF and HF be alfo bifeded in
E and G, and two other perpendiculars E e, Go, be
ereded at E and G : GE will be the diameter of the
top or upper vafe, i. e. the diameter of the top will be
half that of the bell; and it will, therefore, be the dia¬
meter of a bell which will found an oclave to the
other. Divide the diameter of the bell or the line
HD into 15 equal parts, and one of thefe will give
C 1 the thicknefs of the brim 5 divide again each of
theft 15 equal parts into three other equal parts, and
then form a fcale. From this fcale take 12 of the lar¬
ger divifions or Ar of the whole fcale in the compafs,
and fettmg one leg in D defenbe an arc to cut the line
E e in N} drawr ND, and divide this line into 12
equal parts j at the point 1 ered the perpendicular
1 Crrrio, and C I will be the thicknefs of the brim — rTT
of the diameter : draw the line CD *, bifed DN 5 and
at the point of bifedion ered the perpendicular
6 Km4 of the larger divifions on the fcale. With an
opening of the compafs equal to twice the length of
the fcale or 30 brims, fetting one leg in N, deferibe an
arc of a circle, and with the fame leg in K and the
fame opening deferibe another arc to interfed the for¬
mer : on this point of interfedion as a centre, and
with a radius equal to 30 brims, deferibe the arc NK ;
in 6 K produced take KB=4 of the larger meafure
of the fcale or 4 of the brim, and on the fame centre
with the. radius 304 brims deferibe an arc AB parallel
to NK. For the arc BC, take 12 divifions of the
fcale or 1 2 brims in the compafs find a centre, and
from that centre, with this opening, deferibe the arc
BC, in the fame manner as NK or AB ivere defcri¬
bed. There are various ways of deferibing the arc
K /i; fome deferibe it on a centre at the diftance of
nine brims from the points p and K j others, as it is
done in the figure, on a centre at the diftance only of
feven brims from thofe points. But it is neceffary firft
to find the point p, and to determine the rounding of
the
F O U [ 4
Foundery. tLc bell p I. For this purpofe, on tlie point C as a
centre, and with the radius C i, deferibe the arc I p n j
bifecl the part I, 2 of the line T>n, and erecting the
perpendicular p/n, this perpendicular will cut the arc
i pn in m, which terminates the rounding i p. Some
founders make the bendings K a third of a brim lower
than the middle of the line DN ; others make the part
C x D more acute, and inilead of making C i perpendi¬
cular to DN at i, draw it -£th of a brim higher, making
it ftill equal to one brim ; fo that the line I D is longer
than the brim C I. In order to trace out the top part
N a, take in the compafs eight divilions of the fcale or
eight brims, and on the points N and D as centres,
dei'cribe arcs to interfeft each other in 8 : on this point
8, with a radius of eight brims, deferibe the arc N b ;
this arc will be the exterior curve of the top or crown :
on the fame point 8 as a centre, and with a radius
equal to brims, deferibe the arc Ae, and this will
be the interior curve of the crown, and its whole
thicknefs will be one-third of the brim. As the point 8
does not fall in' the axis of the bell, a centre M may
be found in the axis by deferibing, with the interval
of eight brims on the centres 1) and H, arcs which
will interfeft in M ; and this point may be made the
centre of the inner and outer curves of the crown as
before. The thicknefs of the cap which itrengthens
the crown at is about one-third of the thicknefs of
the brim; and the hollow branches or ears about one-
fixth of the diameter of the bell. The height of the
bell in proportion to its diameter as 12 to 15, or in the
proportion of the fundamental found to its third major :
whence it follows, that the found of a bell is principally
compofed of the found of its extremity or brim as a
fundamental, of the found of the crown which is
an o(Slave to it, and of that of the height which is a
third.
The particulars neceffary for making the mould of
a bell are, 1. The earth : the moll cohelive is the bell ;
it mull be well ground and fifted, to prevent any chinks,
2. Brick Hone; which mull be ufed for the mine,
mould, or core, and for the furnace. 3. Horfe dung,
hair, and hemp, mixed with the earth, to render the
cement more binding. 4. The wax for inferiptions,
coats of arms, &c. 5. The tallow equally mixed with
the wax, in order to put a flight lay of it upon the
outer mould, before any letters are applied to it. 6. The
coals to dry the mould.
For making the mould, they have a fcaffold con-
lifting of four boards ranged upon treflels. Upon
this they carry the earth, grofsly diluted, to mix it
with horfe dung, beating the whole with a large fpa-
tula.
The compafles of conftru£lion is the chief inllrument
for making the mould, which conlift of two different
legs joined by a third piece. And laft of all the foun¬
ders Ihelves, on which are the engravings of the letters,
cartridges, coats of arms, &c.
I hey lirft dig a hole of a fufficient depth to contain
the mould of the bell, together with the cafe or can¬
non under ground •, and about fix inches lower than
the terreplain, where the work is performed The
hole mult be wide enough for a free paffage between
the mould and walls of the hole, or between one mould
and another, when feveral bells are to be call. At
3 ] F G U
the centre of the hole is a Hake erefled, that is llrongly Foundery
fattened in the ground. This fupports an iron peg,—-v—
on which the pivot of the fecond branch of the com-
paffes turns. The Hake is encompaffed with a folid
brick-work, perfectly round, about half a foot high,
and of the propofed bell’s diameter. This they call a
mill/}one. The parts of the mould are, the core, the
model of the bell, and the Ihell. When the outer fur-
face of the core is formed, they begin to raife the core,
which is made of bricks that are laid in courfes of equal
height upon a lay of plain earth. At the laying of
each brick, they bring near it the branch of the com¬
pafles on which the curve of the core is fliaped, fo as
that there may remain between it and the curve the
diftance of a line, to be afterwards filled up with layers
of cement. The work is continued to the top, only
leaving an opening for the coals to bake the core. This
work is covered with a layer of cement, made of earth
and horfe dung \ on which they move the compaffes of
conftrudlion, to make it of an even fmoothnefs every¬
where.
The firft layer being finilhed, they put the fire to
the core, by filling it half with coals, through an open¬
ing that is kept Unit, during the baking, with a cake
of earth that lias been feparately baked. The firft
fire confumes the Hake, and the fire is left in the core
half or fometimes a whole day : the firft layer being
thoroughly dry, they cover it with a fecond, third, and
fourth } each being fmoothed by the board of the com¬
paffes, and thoroughly dried before they proceed to
another.
The core being completed, they take the compaffes
to pieces, with intent to cut oft' the thicknefs of the
model, and the compaffes are immediately put in their
place to begin a fecond piece of the mould. It con-
fifts of a mixture of earth and hair, applied with the
hand on the core, in feveral cakes that clofe together.
This work is finiftied by feveral layers of a thinner
cement of the fame matter, fmoothed by the compafles,
and thoroughly dried before another is laid on. The
firft layer of the model is a mixture of wax and greale
fpread over the whole. After which are applied the
inferiptions, coats of arms, &c. befmeared with a pen¬
cil dipped in a veffel of wax in a chafing difti : this is
done for every letter. Before the Ihell is begun, the
compaffes are taken to pieces, to cut off all the -wood
that fills the place of the thicknefs to be given to the
(hell.
The firft layer is the fame earth with the reft, fifted
very fine : while it is tempering in water, it is mixed
with cows hair to make it cohere. The whole being a
thin cullis, is gently poured on the model, that fills
exaflly all the finuofities of the figures, &c. and this
is repeated till the whole is two lines thick over the
model. When this layer is thoroughly dried, they
cover it with a fecond of the fame matter, but fome-
what thicker ; when this fecond layer becomes of fome
confiftence, they apply the compaffes again, and light
a fire in the core, fo as to melt off the wax of the in- .
feriptions, &c.
After this, they go on with other layers of the ftiell,
by means of the compaffes. Here they add to the
cows hair a quantity of hemp, fpread upon the layers,
and afterwards fmoothed by the board of the com-
F 2 paffes.
F O U [ 44 1 F O U
^oundery. paffes. The thieknefs of the (hell comes to four or five
' inches lower than the millftone before obferved, and
furrounds it quite clofe, which prevents the extravafa-
tion of the metal. The wax fhould be taken out before
the melting of the metal. .
The ear of the bell requires a feparate work, which
is done during the drying of the feveral incruftations of
the cement. It has feven rings : the feventh is called
the bridge, and unites the others, being a perpendicular
fupport to ftrengthen the curves. It has an aperture at
the top, to admit a large iron peg, bent at the bottom j
and this is introduced into two holes in the beam,
faftened with two flrong iron keys. I here are models
made of the rings, with mafies of beaten earth, that are
died in the fire in order to have the hollow of them.
Thefe rings are gently prefled upon a layer of earth and
cows hair, one half of its depth } and then taicen out,
without breaking the mould. This operation is repeat¬
ed 12 times for 12 half moulds, that tivo and two united
may make the hollows of the fix rings : the fame they
do for the hollow of the bridge, and bake them all to
unite them together.
Upon the open place left for the coals to be put m
are placed the rings that conftitute the ear. They firft
put into this open place the iron ring to fupport the
clapper of the bell ; then they make a round cake of
clay, to fill up the diameter of the thicknefs of the
core! This cake, after baking, is clapt upon the
opening, and foldered with a thin moitar Ipread over it,
which binds the cover clofe to the core.
The hollow of the model is filled with an earth,
fufficiently moift to fix on the place, which is ftrewed
at feveral times upon the cover of the core ^ and they
beat it gently with a peftle, to a proper height; and a
workman fmooths the earth at top with a wooden trowel
dipped in water.
Upon this cover, to be taken off afterwards, they
affemble the hollows of the rings. When every thing
is in its proper place, they ftrengthen the outfide of the
holloAVS with mortar, in order to bind them with the
bridge, and keep them fteady at the bottom, by means
of a cake of the fame mortar, which fills up the whole
aperture of the fhell. I his they let dry, that it may
be removed without breaking. To make room for the
metal, they pull off the hollows of the rings, through
which the metal is to pafs, before it enters into the va¬
cuity of the mould. The {hell being unloaded of its
ear, they range under the millftone five or fix pieces
of wood, about two feet long, and thick enough to
reach almoft the lower part of the {hell 5 between thole
and the mould, they drive in wooden wedges with a
mallet, to ftiake the {hell of the model whereon it refts,
jo as to be pulled up and got out ot the pit.
When this and the wax are removed, they break
the model and the layer of earth, through which the
metal muft run, from the hollow of the rings, between
the {hell and the core. They fmoke the infide of the
{hell by burning ft raw under it, that helps to fmooth
the furface of the bell. Then they put the {hell in
the place, fo as to leave the fame interval between that
and the core 5 and before the hollows of the rings or
the can are put on again, they add two vents, that are
united to the rings, and to each other, by a mafs of
9-iked cement. After which they put on this mafs of
the cap, the rings, and the vent, over the {hell, and Foundery.
folder it with thin cement, which is dried gradually by 1 —1
covering it with burning coals. Then they fill up the
pit with earth, beating it ftrongly all the time round the
mould.
The furnace has a place for the fire, and another for
the metal. The fire-place has a large chimney with a
fpacious alh-hole. The furnace which contains the
metal is vaulted, whofe bottom is made ot earth,
rammed down j the reft is built with brick. It lias
four apertures} the firft, through which the flame re-
vibrates } the fecond is doled with a ftoppie that is
opened for the metal to run ; the others are to feparate
the drofs or fcorise of the metal by wooden rakes:
through thefe laft apertures pafles the thick fmoke.
The ground of the furnace is built Hoping, for the metal
to run down.
FOUNDE R T of Great Guns and Mortar Pieces. The
method of calling thefe pieces is little different from
that of bells •, they are run mafly, without any core,
being determined by the hollow ot the {hell 5 and they
are afterwards bored with a fteel trepan, that is worked
either by horfes or a water-mill.
For the metal, parts, proportions, &c. of thefe pieces,
fee Gunnery.
Letter FOUNDER!'', or Cajling of Printing Letters.
In the bufinefs of cutting, calling, _ &c. letters for
printing, the letter-cutter muft be provided w ith a vice,
hand-vice, hammers, and files of all forts for watch¬
makers ufe; as alfo gravers and fculpters of all forts,
and an oil-ftone, &c. fuitable and fizeable to the feve¬
ral letters to be cut: a flat gage made of box to hold
a rod of fteel, or the body of a mould, &c. exactly per¬
pendicular to the flat of the ufing file : a Hiding gage,
whofe ufe is to meafure and fet off diftances between
the flioulder and the tooth, and to mark it off from the
end, or from the edge of the work; a face gage,
which is a fquare notch cut with a file into the edge
of a thin plate of fteel, iron, or brafs, of the thicknels of
a piece of common tin, whofe ufe is to proportion the
face of each fort of letter, viz. long letters, afeending
letters, and Ihort letters. So there muft be three gages;
and the gage for the long letters is the length of the
whole body fuppofed to be divided into 42 equal parts.
The gage* for the afeending letters Roman and Italic
are, 4 or 30 parts of 42, and 33 parts for the Englifli
face. The gage for the ftiort letters is 4, or 18 parts of
42 of the whole body for the Roman and Italic, and 22
parts for the Englifti face.
The Italic and other Handing gages are to mcafure
the fcope of the Italic ftems, by applying the top and
bottom of the gage to the top and bottom lines of the
letters, and the other fide of the gage to the ftem ; for
Avhen the letter complies with thefe three fides of the
gage, that letter has its true fliape.
The next care of the letter-cutter is to prepare good
fteel punches, well tempered, and quite free from all
veins of iron ; on the face of Avhich he draws or marks
the exadl Hiape of the letter with pen and ink if the
letter be large, or Avith a fmooth blunted point of a
needle if it be fmall; and then Avith fizeable and pro¬
per ihaped and pointed gravers and fculpters-, digs or
fculps out the fteel between the ftrokes or marks he
made on the face of the punch, and leaves the marks
Handing
5
F O U [ 45 ] F O U
Foundery. ftanding on the face. Having well fhaped the infide
' « 1 Urokes of his letter, he deepens the hollows with the
fame tools 5 for if a letter be not deep in proportion
to its width, it will, when ufed at prefs, print black,
and be good for nothing. This work is generally re¬
gulated by the depth of the counter-punch. Then he
works the outfide with proper fdes till it be fit for the
matrice.
But before we proceed to the finking and juftifying
of the matrices, we mutt provide a mould to juttify
Plate them by, of which there is a draught in Plate CCXXIII.
CCXXIII. fig. x. 2.
fig. 1. Sc 2. Every mould is compofed of an upper and an under
part. The under part is delineated in fig. x. The
upper part is marked fig. 2. and is in all refpedts made
like the under part, excepting the ftool behind, and the
bow or fpring aifo behind j and excepting a fmall
roundith wire between the body and carriage, near the
break, where the under part hath a fmall rounding
groove made in the body. This wire, or rather half
wire, in the upper part makes the nick in the thank of
the letter, when part of it is received into the groove
in the under part. Thefe two parts are fo exactly fit¬
ted and gaged into one another (viz. the male gage
marked c in fig. 2. into the female marked g in fig. 1.),
that when the upper part of the mould is properly pla¬
ced on, and in the under part of the mould, both toge¬
ther make the entire mould, and may be Aid backw'ards
for ufe fo far, till the edge of either of the bodies on the
middle of either carriage comes juft to the edge of the
female gages cut in each carriage 5 and they may be
Hid forward fo far, till the bodies on either carriage
touch each other : and the Aiding of thefe two parts
of the mould backwards makes the ftiank of the letter
thicker, becaufe the bodies on each part ftand wider
afunder 5 and the Aiding them forwards makes the
ftiank of the letter thinner, becaufe the bodies on each
part of the mould ftand clofer together. The parts of
the mould are as follow : viz. a, The carriage, b, The
body. c, The male gage. d e, The mouth-piece,
f i, The regifter. g, The female gage, h, The hag,
a a a a, The bottom-plate, b b b, The wood on which
the bottom-plate lies, c c c, The mouth, d d, The
throat, e d d. The pallat. f. The nick, g g, The
ftool. Ji h, The fpring or bow.
Then the mould muft be juftified : and firft the
founder juftifies the body, by calling about 20 proofs
or famples of letters $ which are fet up in a compofing
ftick, with all their nicks towards the right hand ;
and then by comparing thefe with the pattern letters,
fet up in the fame manner, he finds the exact meafure
of the body to be call. He alfo tries if the two fides of
the body are parallel, or that the body be no bigger
at the head than at the foot, by taking half the num¬
ber of his proofs and turning them with their heads to
the feet of the other half •, and if then the heads and
the feet be found exactly even upon each other, and
neither to drive out nor get in, the two fides may be
pronounced parallel. He farther tries whether the
two fides of the thicknefs of the letter be parallel, by
firft fetting his proofs in the compofing ftick with their
nicks upwards, and then turning one-half with their
heads to the feet of the other half; and if the heads
and feet lie exa&ly upon each other, and neither drive
out nor get in, the two fidcs of the thicknefs are pa¬
rallel.
The mould thus juftified, the next bufinefs is to pre¬
pare the matrices. A matrice is a piece of brafs or
copper of about an inch and a half long, and ol thick¬
nefs in proportion to the iize of the letter it is to con¬
tain. In this metal is funk the factfc of the letter in¬
tended to be call, by linking the letter punch about
the depth of an n. After this the fides and face of
the matrice muft be juftified and cleared with files of
all bunchings made by finking the punch.
Every thing thus prepared, it is brought to the fur¬
nace $ which is built of brick upright, xvith four fquare-
fides, and a Hone on the top, in which ftone is a wide
round hole for the pan to ftand in. A foundery of any
confequence has feveral of thefe furnaces in it.
As to the metal of which the types are to be call,
this, in extenfive founderies, is always prepared in
large quantities ; but call into finall bars, of about 20
pounds weight, to be delivered out to the workmen as
occafion requires. In the letter foundery which has
been long carried on with reputation under the direc¬
tion of MelT. Wilfon and Sons at Glafgow, we are
informed, that a flock of metal is made up at two dif¬
ferent times of the year, fufficient to ferve the callers at
the furnace for fix months each time. For this purpofe,
a large furnace is built under a lhade, furnilhed xvith a
wheel vent, in order the more equally to heat the fides
of a ftrong pot of call iron, which holds when full
15 hundred weight of the metal. The fire being
kindled beloxv, the bars of lead are let foftly down in¬
to the pot, and their fufion promoted by throwing in
fome pitch and talloxv, which foon inflame. An outer
chimney, which is built fo as to project about a foot
over the fartheft lip of the pot, catches hold of the:
flame by a ftrong draught, and makes it a£l very power¬
fully in melting lead 5 xvhilft it ferves- at the fame time
to convey away all the fumes, &c. from the workmen,
to whom this laborious-part of the bufinefs is commit¬
ted. When the lead is thoroughly melted, a due pro¬
portion of the regulus of antimony and other ingredi¬
ents are put in, and fome more tallow inflamed to
make the whole incorporate fooner. The workmen
now having mixed the contents of the pot very tho¬
roughly by ftirring long with a large iron ladle, next
proceed to draw the metal off into the fmall troughs
of call iron, which are ranged to the number of four-
fcore upon a level platform, faced xvith ftone, built to-
xvards the right hand. In the courfe of a day 15 hun¬
dred weight of metal can be eaftly prepared in this
manner ; and the operation is continued for as many
days as are neceffary to prepare a. flock of metal of all
the various degrees of hardnefs. After this, the xvholc
is difpofed into prefles according to its quality, to be
delivered out occafionally to the workmen.
The founder muft now be provided with a ladle,
which differs nothing from other iron ladles but in its
fize y and he is provided always xvith ladles of feveral
fizes, which he ufes according to the fize of the letters-
he is to caff. Before the cafter begins to call, he muft
kindle his fire in the furnace to melt the metal in the
pan. Therefore he takes the pan out of the hole in
the ftone, and there lays in coals and kindles them j
and, xv.hen they are xvell kindled,, he fets the pan in-
Foimdcry.
again.
F O U
[ 46
Foundery- a^axn, and puts in metal into it to melt j if it be a fmall-
1 ’ v ■' bodied letter he calls, or a thin letter of great bodies,
his ladle mult be very hot, nay fometimes red hot,
to make the letter come. Then having chofen a ladle
that will hold about fo much as the letter and break
is, he lays it at the lloking hole, where the flame
burlls out, to heat. Then he lies a thin leather, cut
with its narrow end againlt the face to the leather
groove of the matrice, by whipping a brown thread
twice about the leather groove, and fallening the
thread with a knot. Then he puts both halves oi the
mould together, and puts the matrice into the matrice-
cheek, and places the foot of the matrice on the llool
of the mould, and the broad end of the leather upon
the wood of the upper half of the mould, but not tight
up, lelt it might hinder the foot of the matrice from
finking dole down upon the llool in a train of work.
Then laying a little rofin on the upper wood of the
mould, and having his calling ladle hot, he with the
boiling fide of it melts the rofin : and, when it is yet
melted, preffes the broad end of the leather hard down
on the wood, and fo fallens it to the wood all this is
the preparation.
Now he comes to calling. Wherefore, placing the
under half of the mould in his left hand, with the
hook or hag forward, he clutches the ends ot its wood
between the lower part of the ball of his thumb and
his three hind fingers ; then he lays the upper half of
the mould upon the under half, fo that the male gages
may fall into the female gages, and at the fame time
the foot of the matrice places itfelf upon the llool j
and, clafping his left hand thumb ftrong over the up¬
per half of the mould, he nimbly catches hold of the
bow or fpring with his right hand fingers at the top
of it, and his thumb under it, and places the point
of it againft the middle of the notch in the backfide
of the matrice, prefling it as wrell forwards towards
the mould, as downwards by the Ihoulder of the notch
clofe upon the llool, while at the fame time with his
hinder fingers, as aforefaid, he draws the under half
of the mould towards the ball of his thumb, and thralls
by the ball of his thumb the upper part towards his
fingers, that both the regillers of the mould may prefs
againll both fades of the matrice, and his thumb and
fingers prefs both halves of the mould clofe together.
Then he takes the handle of his ladle in his right
hand, and with the boll of it gives a llroke, two or
three, outwards upon the furface of the. melted metal,
to fcum or clear it from the film or dull that may fwim
upon it; then takes up the ladle full of metal, and
having his mould, as aforefaid, in his left hand, he a
little lwills the left fide of his body from the furnace,
and brings the geat of his ladle (full of metal) to the
mouth of the mould, and twills the upper part of his
right hand towards him to turn the metal into it, while
at the lame moment of time he jilts the mould in his
left hand forwards, to receive the metal rvith a llrong
fliake (as it is called), not only into the body of the
mould, but while the metal is yet hot running, fwift
and llrongly, into the very face of the matrice, to re¬
ceive its perfecl form there, as Avell as in the lhank.
Then he takes the upper half of the mould off the
under half, by placing his right hand thumb on the
-end of the rvood next his left hand thumb, and his
] F O U
...o middle fingers at the other end of the wood ; and FounJcry.
finding the letter and break lie in the under half 01 *
the mould (as molt commonly by reafon of its weight
it does), he throivs or tofies the letter, break and all,
upon a Iheet of Avaite paper laid tor tuat purpofe on
the bench, juft a little beyond his left hand, and is
then ready to call another letter as before , and alfo,
the whole number that is to be call Avith that matrice.
A Avorkman Aviil ordinarily call about 3000 of thefe
letters in a day.
When the callers at the furnace have got a fufficient
number of types upon the tables, a fet of boys come
and nimbly break aAvay the jets trom them : the jets
are throAvn into the pots, and the types are tarried
aAvay in parcels to other boys, Avho pals them Iwittly
under their fingers, defended by leather, upon fmooth
flat Hones, in order to polifli their brcadlides. 1 Ids
is a very dexterous operation, and is a remarkable in-
llance of Avhat may be eHeeled by the poAvcr of habit
and long praclice ; for thefe boys, in turning up the
other fide of the type, do it fo quickly by a mere touch
of the fingers of the left hand, as not to require the
leaft perceptible intermiffion in the motion of the right
hand upon the Hones. The types, thus finely fmooth •
ed and flattened on the broad fides, are next carried
to another let of boys, avIio fit at a Iquare table, Iavo
on each fide, and there are ranged upon long rulers
or Hicks, fitted Avith a fmall projection, to hinder them
from Hiding off backwards. When thefe Hicks are fo
filled, they are placed, tAvo and tAA'o, upon a let of
Avooden pins fixed into the wall, near the dreffer, feme-
times to the amount of an hundred, in order to under¬
go the finilhing operations. ihis Avorkman, Avho is
ahvays the moft expert and fkilful in all the different
branches carried on at the foundery, begins by taking
one of thefe Hicks, and, Avith a peculiar addrefs, Hides
the whole column of types off upon the drelfing-ltick :
this is made of Avell-feafoned mahogany, and fumilhed
Avith tA\ro end-pieces of Heel, a little loAver than the
body of the types, one of Avhich is mo\reable, fo as to
approach the other by means of a long fcreAV-pin, in-
ferted in the end of the Hick. The types are put in¬
to the Hick with their faces next to the back or pro-
jeflion 5 and after they are adjufted to one another fo
as to Hand even, they are then bound up, by fcreAving
home the moveable end-piece. It is here Ailiere the
great and requifite accuracy of the moulds comes to
be perceived •, for in this cafe the Avhole column, lo
bound up, lies flat and true upon the Hick, the tAvo
extreme types being quite parallel, and the whole has
the appearance of one folid continuous plate of metal.
The leaft inaccuracy in the exaCt parallelifm of the in¬
dividual type, when multiplied fo many times, Avould
render it impoffible to bind them up in this manner,
by difpofing them to rife or fpring from the Hick by
the fmalleft preffure from the fcreAV. Noav, Avhen lying
fo conveniently Avith the narroAV edges upper moft, which
cannot poflibly be fmoothed in the manner before men¬
tioned by the ftones, the Avorkmen does this more ef-
feelually by feraping the furface of the column AA’ith a
thick-edged but {harp razor, Avhich at every ftroke
brings on a very fine fmooth fkin, like to poliftied filver :
and thus he proceeds till in about half a minute he
comes to the farther end of the flick. T he other edges
of
F O U [ 47 ] F O U
Foundery, of the types are next turned upwards, and policed in
Fount, the fame manner. It is whilft the types thus lie in the
dreffing-ftick that the operation of bearding or barb¬
ing is performed, which is effected by running a plane,
faced with iteel, along the fhoulder of the body next
to the face, which takes more or lefs off the corner,
as occafion may require. Whilft in the drefling-flick,
they are alfo grooved, which is a very material opera¬
tion. In order to underltand this, it mult be remem¬
bered, that when the types are firft broken off from
the jets, fome fupertluous metal always remains, which
would make them bear very unequally againft the pa¬
per whilft under the printing prefs, and effectually mar
the impreflion. That all thefe inequalities may, there- •
fore, be taken away, and that the bearings of every
type may b.e regulated by the fhoulders imparted to
them all alike from the mould, the workman or dref-
fer proceeds in the following manner : The types be¬
ing fcrewed up in the flick, as before mentioned, with
the jet end outermoft, and projeffing beyond the wood
about one-eighth of an inch, the flick is put into an
open prefs, fo as to prefent the jet end uppermoft, and
then every thing is made faft by driving a long wedge,
which bears upon a flip of W'ood, which lies clofe to
the types the whole length : then a plough or plane
is applied, which is fo conftru£ted as to embrace the
projecting part of the types betwixt its long fides,
which are made of poliihed iron. When the plane is
thus applied, the fteel cutter bearing upon that part
between the fhoulders of the types, where the inequa¬
lities lie, the dreffer dexteroufly glides it along, and by
this means ftrips off every irregular part that comes in
the way, and fo makes an uniform groove the whole
length, and leaves the two fhoulders Handing 5 by
which means every type becomes precifely like to ano¬
ther, as to the height againft paper. The types be¬
ing now finiftied, the flick is taken out of the prefs,
and the whole column replaced upon the other flick j
and after the whole are fo dreffed, he proceeds to pick
out the bad letters, previous to putting them up into
pages and papers. In doing this he takes the flick
into his left hand, and turning the faces near to the
light, he examines them carefully, and whenever an
imperfeCt or damaged letter occurs, he nimbly plucks
it out with a fliarp bodkin, which he holds in the right
hand for that purpofe. Thofe letters which, from their
form, projeCt over the body of the type, and which can¬
not on this account be rubbed on the ftones, are fcraped
on the broadfides with a knife or file, and fome of the
metal next the face pared away with a pen-knife, in
order to allow the type to come clofe to any other. This
operation is called herning.
The excellence of printing types confifts not only
in the due performance of all the operations above de-
feribed, but alfo in the hardnefs of the metal, form,
and fine proportion of the character, and in the exaCt
bearing and ranging of the letters in relation to one
another.
FOUNT, or Font, among printers, &c. a fet or
quantity of characters or letters of each kind, caft
by a letter-founder, and for ted.—We fay, a founder
has caft a fount of pica, of engliih, of pearl, &c.
meaning that he has caft a fet of characters of thefe
kinds.
A complete fount not only includes the running
letters, but alfo large and fmali capitals, fingle letters,
double letters, points, commas, lines, and numeral cha¬
racters.
Founts are large or fmall, according to the demand
of the printer, who orders them by the hundred weight,
or by ftieets. When the printer orders a fount of 500,
he means that the fount Ihould weigh yoolb. When
he demands a fount of 10 ftieets, it is underftood, that
with that fount he ftiall be able to compofe 10 ftieets,
or 20 forms, without being obliged to diftribute. The
founder takes his meafures accordingly ; he reckons
120 pounds for a ftieet, including the quadrates, &c,
or 60 pounds for a form, which is half a ftieet: not
that the ftieet always weighs 120 pounds, or the form
60 pounds ) on the contrary, it varies according to the
fize of the form •, befides, it is always fuppoled that
there are letters left in the cafes.
The letter-founders have a kind of lift, or tariff,
whereby they regulate their founts : the occafion there¬
of is, that fome letters being in much more ufc, and
oftener repeated than others, their cells or cafes ihould
be better filled and ftored than thofe of the letters
which do not return fo frequently. Thus the 0 and i,
for inftance, are always in greater quantity than the k
or 2.
This difference will be belt perceived from a propor¬
tional comparifon of thofe letters with themfelves, or
fome others. Suppofe a fount of 100,000 characters,
which is a common fount; here the a ftiould have
5000, the c 3000, the e 11,000, the / 6000, them
3000, the k only 30, and the x, y and 2;, not many
more. But this is only to be underftood of the let¬
ters of the lower cafe •, thofe of the upper having other
proportions, which it ivould be, here, too long to infift
on.
FOUNTAIN, a fpring or fource of water rifing
out of the earth. Among the ancients, fountains were
generally efteemed as facred 5 but fome were held to be
fo in a more particular manner. The good cffeCts re¬
ceived from cold baths gave fprings and rivers this
high reputation •, for their falutary influence was fup-
pofed to proceed from fome prefiding deity. Particu-
lar reafons might occafion fome to b^ held in greater ve¬
neration than others. It was cuftomary to throw little
pieces of money into thofe fprings, lakes, or rivers,
which were efteemed facred, to render the prefiding
divinities propitious *, as the touch of a naked body was
fuppofed to pollute their hallowed waters. For the phe¬
nomena, theory, and origin of fountains or fprings, fee
Spring.
Artificial FOUNTAIN, called alfo a. jet d'eau, is a con- -
trivance by which water is violently fpouted upwards.
See Hydrodynamics.
Boiling Fountain. Sec Icf.land.
FOUNTAIN-Trec, a very extraordinary vegetable grow¬
ing in one of the Canary iflands, and likewife faid to
exift in fome other places, which diftils water from its
leaves in fuch plenty as to anfwer all the purpofes of
the inhabitants who live near it. Of this tree we have
the following account in Glaffe’s hiftory of the Cana¬
ry iflands.— “ There are only three fountains of water
in the whole ifland of Hierro, wherein the fountain-
tree grows. One of thefe fountains is called Acofi
which, in the language of the ancient inhabitants, fig-
nifies river; a name, however, which does not fteem
ta-
Fount,
Fountain.
TV'untctln.
*
YOU
to have been given it on account of its yielding much
water, for in that refpeft it hardly deferves the name
of a fountain. More to the northward is another call¬
ed Hapio ; and in the middle of the bland is a fpring,
yielding a ftream about the thicknefs of a man’s finger.
This lait was difcovered in the year 1565, and is call¬
ed the fountain of Anton. Hernadez,. On account of
the fear city of water, the fheep, goats, and twine,
here do not drink in the fummer, but are taught to dig
up the roots of fern, and chew them to quench their
thirft. The great cattle are watered at thofe fountains,
and at a place where water diftils from the leaves of a
tree. Many writers have made mention of this fa¬
mous tree, tome in fuch a manner as to make it ap¬
pear miraculous : others again deny the exiitence of
any fuch tree : among whom is Father Feyjoo, a mo¬
dern Spanifh author, in his Theatre Critico. But he,
and thofe who agree with him in this matter, are as
much miftaken as thofe who would make it appear to
be miraculous. 1 his is the only ifland of all the Ca¬
naries which I have not been in 5 but I have failed with
natives of Hierro, who, when queftioned about the ex-
iftence of this tree, anfwered in the affirmative.
“ The author of the HiHonj of the difeovery and con-
quef has given us a particular account of it, which I
fliall here relate at large.
“ The diftriA in which this tree hands is called Ti~
gulahe ; near to which, and in the cliff or fteep rocky
afeent that furrounds the whole ifland, is a narrow gut¬
ter or gully, which commences at the fea, and conti¬
nues to the fummit of the cliff, where it joins or co¬
incides with a valley, which is terminated by the fteep
front of a rock. On the top of this rock grows a tree,
called in the language of the ancient inhabitants, Garfe,
“ Sacred or Holy Tree,” which for many years has
been preferved found, entire, and freffi. Its leaves con-
ftantly diftil fuch a quantity of water as is fufficient to
furniffi drink to every living creature in Hierro 5 na¬
ture having provided this remedy for the drought of
the ifland. It is fituated about a league and a half from
the fea. It is not certainly known of what fpecies it is,
only that it is called Til. It is diftinA from other trees,
and ftands by itfelf •, the circumference of the trunk
is about 12 fpans, the diameter four, and in height,
from the ground to the top of the higheft branch, 40
fpans: the circumference of all the branches together
Is 120 feet. .1 he branches are thick and extended $
the loweft commence about the height of an ell from
the ground. Its fruit refembles the acorn, and taftes
fomething like the kernel of a pine apple, but is fofter
and more aromatic. The leaves of this tree refemble
thofe of the laurel, but are larger, wider, and more
curved } they come forth, in a perpetual fucceffion, fo
that the tree always remains green. Near to it grows
a thorn which it fattens on many of its branches, and in¬
terweaves with them ; and at a fmall diftance from the
garfe are fome beech trees, brefos, and thorns. On the
north fide of the trunk are two large tanks or citterns,
of rough ftone, or rather one cittern divided, each half
being 20 feet fquare, and 16 fpans in depth. One of
thefe contains water for the drinking of the inhabi¬
tants : and the other that which they ufe for their
cattle, wattling, and fuch like purpofes. Every morn¬
ing, near this part of the ifland, a cloud or mitt arifes
from the fea, which the fouth and eafterly winds force
[ 4? 1 . F 0 u 
againft the fore-mentioned fteep cliff; fo that the cloud ^Fountain.
having no vent but by the gutter, gradually afeends it, ' v *
and from thence advances flowly to the extremity of
the valley, where it is flopped and checked by the
front of the rock which terminates the valley, and then
refts upon the thick leaves and wide-fpreading branches
of the tree, from whence it diftils in drops during the
remainder of the day, until it is at length exhaufted,
in the fame manner that we fee water drip from the
leaves of trees after a heavy ftiower of rain. This
diftillation is not peculiar to the garfe or til; for the
brefos, which grow near it, likewife drop water } but
their leaves being but few and narrow, the quantity is
fo trifling, that though the natives fave fome of it,
yet they make little or no account of any but what db
ftils from the til, which, together with the water of
fome fountains, and what is faved in the winter fcafon,
is fufficient to ferve them and their flocks. This tree
yields moft water in thofe years when the Levant or
eafterly winds have prevailed for a continuance j for,
by thefe winds only the clouds or mitts are drawn hi¬
ther from the fea. A perfon lives on the fpot near
which this tree grorvs, who is appointed by the council
to take care of it and its water ; and is allowed a houfe
to live in, with a certain falary. He every day diftri- ^
butes to each family of the diftriA feven pots or veffels
full of water, befides what he gives to the principal
people of the ifland.”
“ Whether the tree which yields water at this pre-
fent time be the fame as that mentioned in the above
defcription, I cannot pretend to determine : but it is
probable there has been a fucceffion of them 5 for Pli¬
ny, deferibing the Fortunate iflands, fays, “ In the
mountains of Ombrion are trees refembling the plant
ferula, from which water may be procured by preffure.
What comes from the black kind is bitter, but that
which the white yields is fweet and potable.”
Trees yielding water are not peculiar to the ifland
of Hierro j for travellers inform us of one of the fame
kind in the ifland of St Thomas, in the bight or gulf
of Guinea. In Cockburn’s voyages we find the follow¬
ing account of a dropping tree, near the mountains of
Vera Paz, in America.
“ On the morning of the fourth day, we came out
on a large plain, where were great numbers of fine
deer, and in the middle flood a tree of unumal fize,
fpreading its branches over a vaft compafs of ground.
Curiofity led us up to it. We had perceived, at fome
diftance off, the ground about it to be wet •, at which
we began to be fomewhat furprifed, as well knowing
there had no rain fallen for near fix months paft, ac¬
cording to the certain courfe of the feafon in that lati¬
tude : that it wTas impoffible to be occafioned by the
fall of dew on the tree, we were convinced, by the
fun’s having poiver to exhale array all moifture of that
nature a few minutes after its riling. At laft, to our
great amazement as rvell as joy, we farv rvater drop¬
ping, or as it were diftilling, faft from the end of every
leaf of this rvonderful (nor had it been amifs if I had
faid miraculous') tree } at leaft it rvas fo rvith refpeA to
us, who had been labouring four days through extreme
heat, Avithout receiving the leaft; moifture, and rvere norv
almoft expiring for rvant of it.
“ We could not help looking on this as liquor fent
from heaven to comfort us under great extremity. V e
F O U [ 49 1 F O U
Fountain catched \vhat we could of it in our hands, and drank
II very plentifully of it 5 and liked it fo well, that we could
l.0UtnC^', hardly prevail with ourfelves to give over. A matter of
this nature could not but incite us to make the ftricleft
obfervations concerning it ; and accordingly we Itaid
under the tree near three hours, and found we could not
fathom its body in five times. We obferved the foil
where it grew to be very firongj and upon the niccft
inquiry we could afterwards make, both of the natives
of the country axd the Spaniili inhabitants, we could
not learn there was any fuch tree known throughout
New S pain, nor perhaps all America over : but I do
not relate this as a prodigy in nature, becaufe I am
not a philofopher enough to defcribe any natural caufe
for it 5 the learned may perhaps give fubftantial reafons
in nature for what appeared to us a great and marvellous
fecret.”
FOUQUIERES, James, an eminent painter, was
born at Antwerp in 1580, and received his chief in-
Ur uftions from Velvet Breughel. He applied himfelf
to the ftudy of landfcapes, and went to Italy to improve
himfelf in colouring. Fie fucceeded fo happily, that
his works are faid to be nearly equal to thofe of Titian.
—He wras engaged and much carefied at the court of
the elector P Jatine, and afterwards fpent feveral years
of his life in France •, where his works met with uni-
verfal approbation. By fome mifeondudt, however, he
funk into poverty, and died in 1659, in the houfe of an
inconfiderable painter. He had refided for feveral
years at Rome and Venice, where he acquired that
excellent ftyle of colouring and defign for which his
works have been defervedly diftinguifhed.
FOURCHEE, or Fourchy, in Heraldry, an ap¬
pellation given to a crofs forked at the end. See
Heraldry.
FOURMONT, Stephen, profeffor of the Arabic
and Chinefe languages, and one of the moil learned
men of his time, was born at Herbelai, a village four
leagues from Paris, in 1683. He lludied in Mazarine
college, and afterwards in the Seminary of Thirty-three.
He was at length profeffor of Arabic in the Royal
College, and was made a member of the Academy of
Infcriptions. In 1738? he was chofen a member of
the Royal Society of London, and of that of Berlin in
1741. He was often confulted by the duke of Orleans,
' firit prince of the blood ; who had a particular efteem
for him, and made him one of his fecretaries. He
wrote a great number of books ; the moft confiderable
of thofe which have been printed are, 1. The Roots of
the Latin Tongue, in verfe. 2. Critical Refiedtions
on the Hiftories of ancient Nations, 2 vols. 4to. 3.
Meditationes Sinicce, folio. 4. A Chinefe Grammar,
in Latin, folio. 5. Several differtations printed in the
Memoirs of the Academy of Infcriptions, &c. He
died at Paris in 1744.
He ought not to be confounded with Michael Four-
mint, his youngeft brother ; who took orders, was
profeffor of the Syriac language in the Royal College,
and a member of the Academy of Infcriptions. He
died in 1746.
FOCJRNESS, in Loynfdale, Lancaftiire, is a tradl,
between the Kent, Leven, and Dudden-fands, which
runs north parallel with the weft fides of Cumberland
and V eftmorland ; and on the fouth runs out into
Vol. IX. Part I.
the lea as a promontory. Here, as Mr Camden ex- F»iirnef«,-
prelies it, “ the fea, as if enraged at it, ladies it more '■ y——'
furioully, and in high tides has even devoured the ihore,
and made three large bays 5 viz. Kentfand, into which
the river Ken empties itfelf j Levenfand and Dudden-
fand, between which the land projects in fuch a man¬
ner that it has its name hence j Forenefs and Foreland,
figniiying the lame with us as pr 01710 n tor mm anterius in
Latin.” JBiihop Giblon, however, derives the name
of Fournefs or iurnefs, from the numerous furnaces
that were there anciently, the rents and lervices of
winch (called BIjQmjmiihy rents') are ftill paid. This
w hole trail, except on the coalt, rifes in high hills and
valt piles of rocks called Fournejs-Fells y among whicli
the Britons found a fecure retreat, trufting to thefe
natural fortrefies, though nothing was inacceflible. to
the victorious Saxons; for we find the Britons fet¬
tled here 228 years after the arrival of the Saxons :
becaule at that time Egfrid king of Northumberland
gave St Cuthbert the land called Carthmell, and all the
Britons in it, as is related in his life. In thefe moun¬
tainous parts are found quarries of a fine durable blue
Hate to cover buildings with, which are made ufe of
in many other parts of the kingdom. Here are feveral
cotton mills lately erected; and if fuel for fire were
more plentiful, the trade of this country would much
increafe : but there being no coals nearer than Wigan
or Whitehaven, and the coaft duties high, firing is ra¬
ther fcarce, the country people ufing only turf or peat,
and that begins to be more fcarce than formerly. In
the moffes of Fournefs much fir is found, but more
oak : the trunks in general lie with their heads to the
eaft, the high winds having been from the weft. High
Furnefs has ever had great quantities of ftieep, which,
browfe upon the hollies left in great numbers for them;-
and produces charcoal for melting iron ore, and oak
bark for tanners ufe, in great abundance. The fortfts
abound with deer and wild boars, and the legh or
fcofe, or large flags, whofe horns are frequently found
under ground here. The low or plain part of Fournefs,
which is fo called to diftinguilh it from the woody or
mountainous part, produces all forts of grain, but prin¬
cipally oats’ whereof the bread eaten "in this country
is generally made ; and there are found here veins of a
very rich iron ore, which is not only melted and
wrought here, but great quantities are exported to
other parts to mix with poorer ores. The three fands
above mentioned are very dangerous to travellers, by
the tides and the many quickfands. There is a guide
on horfeback appointed to Kent or Lancafter fands at
10I. per ann. to Leven at 61. per ann. out of the pub¬
lic revenue ; but to Dudden, which are moft danger¬
ous, none ; and it is no uncommon thing for perlons
to pafs over in parties of too at a time like caravans,
under the direction of the carriers, who go to or fro
every day. 1 he fands are lels dangerous than former¬
ly, being more ufed and better known, and travellers
never going without the carriers or guides. “ Furnis
abbey up in the mountains,” was begun at Tulket in
Amoundernefs 1124, by Stephen earl of Boulogne,
afterwards king of England, for the monks of Savigni
in France, and three years after removed to this val¬
ley, then called Bekangefgi/l, or, “ the vale of night-
Ihade.” It was of the Ciftertian order, endowed with
G above
Fowl.
F O W [ 5°
Fo«rncfs above Sool. per ann. Out of the monks of tins abbey,
i' Mr Camden informs us, the bifhops of the I lie oi Man,
which lies oppofite to it, ufed to be chofen by ancient
cuftom ; it being as it were the mother of many mo-
nafteries in Man and Ireland. Some ruins, and part
of the Me which furrounded the monaftery, are ftill to
be feen at Tulket. The remains at Fournefs breathe
that plain fimplicity of the Ciilertian abbeys j, the chap-
ter-houfe was the only piece of elegant Gothic about it,
and its roof has lately fallen in. Part of the painted
glafs from the eaft window, reprefenting the crucifixion,
&c. is preferved at Windermere church in Bowlnefs,
Weftmorland. The church (except the north fide of
the nave), the chapter-houfe, refectory, &c. remain,
only unroofed.
FOURTH REDUNDANT, in MuJtC. See INTERVAL.
FOWEY, or Foy, a town of Cornwall in England,
240 miles from London, with a commodious ha\en on
the Channel. It is a populous place, extending above
one mile on the eaft fide of a river of its own name ;
and has a great (hare in the fiftiing trade, efpecially
pilchards. It rofe fo much formerly by naval wars and
piracies, that in the reign of Edward HE its ftnps re-
fufino- to ftrike when required as they failed by Rye and
Winchelfea, were attacked by the (hips of thofe ports,
but defeated them ; whereupon they bore their arms
mixed with the arms of thofe two cinque-ports, which
gave rife to the name of the “ Gallants of Fowey.”
And we learn from Camden, that this town quartered
a part of the arms of every one of the cinque ports
with their own ; intimating, that they had at times
triumphed over them all: and indeed once they wreie
fo powerful, that they took feveral of the French men
of v7ar. In the reign of Edward III. they refeued
certain (hips of Rye from diftrefs, for which this town
■was made a member of the cinque-ports. Edward I \ .
favoured Fowey fo much, that when the French
threatened to come up the river to burn it, he caufed
two towers, the ruins of which are yet vilible, to be
built at the public charge for its fecurity : but he was
afterwards fo difgufted with the inhabitants for attack¬
ing the French after a truce proclaimed with Louis XL
that he took away all their iliips and naval ftores, to¬
gether with a chain drawn acrofs the river between tne
two forts above mentioned, which wras carried to Dart¬
mouth. It is faid they were fo infolent, that they cut
off the ears of the king’s purfuivants 5 for which fome
lives were forfeited as well as eftates. The corporation
eonfifts of a mayor, recorder, 8 aldermen, a town cler ,
and 2 aftiftants. The market is on Saturday, the fairs
May-day and Sept. 10. Here are a fine old church,
a free fchool, and an hofpital. T he toll of the market
and fairs, and keyage of the harbour, were vefted m
the corporation on the payment of a fee-farm rent ot
about 40s. It does not appear to have fent members
to parliament before the 13th of Queen Elizabeth.
Here is a coinage for the tin •, of which a great quan¬
tity is dug in the country to the north and weft of it.
The river Foy, or Foath, is very broad and deep here,
and was formerly navigable as high as Leftwithiel.
W. Long. 50. N. Lat. 50. 27. n 1 .
FOWL, among zoologifts, denotes the larger torts
of birds, whether domeftic or wild: fuch as geefe,
pheafants, partridges, turkeys, ducks, &c.
] FOX
Tame fowl make a neceffary part of the ftock of a
country farm. See Poultry. . . .
Fowls are again diftinguithed into two kinds, viz. t—.
/and and water fowl, thefe laft being fo called from
their living much in and about water : alfo into thoie
which are" accounted game, and thofe which are not.
See Game. .
FOWLING, the art of catching birds by means ot
bird-lime, decoys, and other devices, or the killing ot
them by the gun. See BlRD-Catc/nng, BIRD Lime,
Decoy, Shooting, and the names oi the different
birds in the order of the alphabet.
Fowling, is alfo uied for tne putfuing and taking
birds with hawks, more properly called FALCONRY or
HAWKING. See thefe articles.
FOWLING Piece, a light gun for (hooting birds.
That piece is always reckoned belt which has the long-
eft barrel, from to 6 feet, with a moderate bore •,
though every fowler ftiould have them of different fizes,
fuitable to the game he defigns to kill. _ 1 he barrel
fhould be well poliftied and fmooth within, and the
bore of an equal bignefs from one end to the other ;
which may be proved, by putting in a piece of pafte-
board, cut of the exact roundnefs of the top : tor it
this goes down without ftops or dipping, you may con¬
clude the bore good. The bridge-pan muit be iome-
what above the touch-hole, and ought to have a notch
to let down a little powder : this will prevent the piece
from recoiling, which it would otherwife be apt to do.
As to the locks, choofe fuch as are well filled with true
work, whofe fprings muft be neither too ftrong nor too
weak. The hammer ought to be well hardened, and
pliable to go down to the pan with a quick motion.
FOX, in Zoology. See Canis, Mammalia Index.
The fox is a great nuifance to the hufbandman, by
taking away and deftroying his lambs, geefe, poultry,
&c. The common way to catch him is by gins j
which being baited, and a train made by drawing raw
flefh acrofs in his ufual paths or haunts to the gin, it
proves an inducement to bring him to the place of de-
ftrudlion. , . . . ,
The fox is alfo a bead of chafe, and is taken with
grevhounds, terriers, &c. See Hunting.
Fox, John, the martyrologift, was born at Bolton m
Lincolndiire, in the year 1517. At the age of 16 he
was entered a ftudent of Brazen-Nofe college m Oxiord*,
and in 1 543 he proceeded mafter of arts, and was choien
fellow of Magdalen college. He difeovered an early
genius for poetry, and wrote feveral _ Latm comedies,
the fubjefts taken from Scripture, which his ion allures
us were written in an elegant ftyle. Forfaking the
mufes, he now applied himfelf with uncommon ^ am-
duitv to the ftudy of divinity, particularly church-hi-
ftory 5 and, difeovering a premature propenfity to the
doftrine of reformation, he was expelled the college as
an heretic. His diftrefs on this occafion was very great *,
but it was not long before he found an afylum in the
houfe of Sir Thomas Lucy of Warwickftiire, who em¬
ployed him as a tutor to his children. Here he mar¬
ried the daughter of a citizen of Coventry. Sir I ho*
mas’s children being now grown up, after redding a
ftiort time with his wife’s father, he came to London ;
where finding no immediate means of fubfiftence, he
was reduced to the utmoft degree of want j but was at
lensrth.
Fowl
Fox.
5
FOX [5
or, lengili (as his fon relates) miraeuloully relieved in the
glove, following manner : As he was one day fitting in St
v"' ' Paul’s church, emaciated with hunger, a itranger ac-
cofted him familiarly, and, bidding him be of good
cheer, put a firm of money into his hand ; telling him
at the fame time, that in a few days new hopes were
at hand. He was foon after taken into the family of
the duchefs of Richmond, as tutor to the earl of Sur¬
rey’s children, who, when their father was fent to the
Tower, were committed to her care. In this family he
lived, at Rycgate in Surrey, during the latter part of
the reign of Henry VIII. the entire reign of Ed¬
ward VI. and part of that of Queen Mary : but at
length, perfecuted by his implacable enemy Eifhop
Gardiner, he was obliged to feek refuge abroad. Bafil
in Switzerland was the place of his retreat, where he
fubfifted by correcting for the prefs. On the death of
Queen Mary he returned to England •, where he was
graciouily received by his former pupil the duke of
Norfolk, who retained him in his family as long as
he lived, and bequeathed him a penfion at his death.
Mr Secretary Cecil alfo obtained for him the rectory
of Shipton near Salifbury •, and we are allured that he
might have had confiderable church preferment, had
it not been for his unvillingnefs to fubferibe to the
canons. He died in the year 1587, in the 70th year
of his age 5 and vras buried in the chancel of St Giles’s,
Cripplegate. He was a man of great induftry, and
confiderable learning} a zealous, but not a violent
reformer j a nonconform! ft, but not an enemy to the
church of England. He left two fons 5 one of whom
was bred a divine, the other a phyfician. He wrote
many pieces ; but his principal work is, the Adis and
Monuments of the Church, &c. commonly called
Tax's Book of Martyrs. His fadls are not always to
be depended on, and he often lofes his temper ; which,
confidering the fubjecl, is not much to be wondered
at.
Fox, George, the founder of the feci of Englifh
Quakers, was a fhoemaker in Nottingham. The
accounts of thofe times tells us, that as he wrought at
his trade, he ufed to meditate much on the Scriptures j
■which, with his folitary courfe of life, improving his
natural melancholy, he began at length to fancy him-
felf infpired j and in confequence thereof fet up for a
preacher.
He propofed but few articles of faith •, infilling
chiefly on moral virtue, mutual charity, the love of
God, and a deep attention to the inward motions and
fecret operations of the Spirit ; he required a plain
Ample worftiip, and a religion without ceremonies,
making it a principal point to wait in profound filence
the diredlions of the -Holy Spirit. Fox met with much
rough treatment for his zeal, was often imprifoned, and
feveral times in danger of being knocked on the head.
But all difeouragements notwithftanding, his feci pre¬
vailed much, and many confiderable men were drawn
over to them ; among Avhom were Barclay and Penn.
He died in 1681. His followers were called fuakers,
in derifion of fome unufual ftiakings and convulfions
with which they were feized at their firft meetings.
See Quakers.
Fnx-Glove. See Digitalis, Botany and Mate¬
ria Medica Index.
, ] FOX
F0X-Ijlands, the name of a group of ifiands, 16 in Fox-iflandv
number, fituated between the eaftern coaft of Kamt-' v
fchatka and the weftern coaft of the continent of
America. Each ifland has a particular name j but the
general name Fox-IJlands is given to the whole group,
on account of the great number of black, gray, and red
foxes with which they abound. 1 he dreis of the in¬
habitants confifts of a cap, and a fur coat which reaches
down to the knee. Some of them wear common caps
of a party-coloured bird Ikin, upon which they leave
part of the wings and tail. On the fore part of then-
hunting and fiftiing caps, they place a fmall board like
a fkreen, adorned with the jaw bones of fea bears, and
ornamented with glafs beads, which they receive in
barter from the Ruffians. At their feftivals and dan¬
cing parties they ufe a much more fliowy fort of caps.
They feed upon the flelh of all forts of fea animals,
and generally eat it raw. But if at any time they
choofe to drefs their victuals, they make ufe of a
hollow ftone j having placed the fifti or flefli therein,
they cover it with another, and clofe the interftices
with lime or clay. They then lay it horizontally
upon two ftones, and light a fire under it. The
provifion intended for keeping is dried without fait
in the open air. Their. weapons confiil of bows,
arrows, and darts ; and for defence they ufe wooden
ftiields. The moil pcrfe6l equality reigns among
thefe iflanders. They have neither chiefs nor fupe-
riors, neither laws nor punifhments. They live toge¬
ther in families, and focieties of feveral families united,
which form what they call a race, who, in cafe of an
attack or defence, mutually help and fupport each
other. The inhabitants of the fame ifland always
pretend to be of the fame race $ and every perfon
looks upon his ifland as a pofleffion, the property of
which is common to all the individuals of the fame
fociety. Feafts are very common among them, and
more particularly when the inhabitants of one ifland
are vifited by thofe of the others. The men of the
village meet their guefts beating drums, and preceded
by the women, who ling and dance. At the conclu-
fion of the dance, the holts ferve up their bell provi-
fions, and invite their guefts to partake of the feaft.
They feed their children when very young with the
coarfelt flelh, and for the moll part raw. If an infant
cries, the mother immediately carries it to the fea-
fide, and whether it be fummer or winter, holds it
naked in the ivater until it is quiet. This cuftom is
fo far from doing the children any harm, that it
hardens them againft the cold, and they accordingly
go barefooted through the winter without the leall
inconvenience. They feldom heat their dAvellings j
but Avhen they are defirous of Avarming themfelves^
they light a bundle of hay, and Hand over it; or elfe
they fet lire to train-oil, wftiich they pour into a holloAT
ftone. They have a good lhare of plain natural fenfe,
but are rather Hoav of underftanding. They feem
cold and indifferent in moll of their actions 5 but let
an injury, or even a fufpicion only, roufe them from
this phlegmatic Hate, and they become inflexible and
furious, taking the moll violent revenge Avithout any
regard to the confequences. The leaft affliction
prompts them to filicide ; the apprehenfion of even
an uncertain evil often leads them to defpair 5 and
G 2 they
>
¥ 11 A i 52 1' F R A
Fox-iflands they put an end to their days with great apparent xn-
N feulibility.
ywaaion. ^ FRACASTOR, Jerome, an eminent Italian poet
and phyfician, xvas borxx at Verona in the year 1482.
Two Angularities are related of him in his infancy :
one is, that his lips adhered fo clofely to each other
when he came into the world, that afurgeon was obliged
to divide.them with his incilion knife ; the other, that
his mother was killed with lightning, while he, though
in her arms at the very moment, efcaped unhurt. Fra-
caftor was of parts fo exquifite, and made fuch progrefs
in every thing he undertook, that he became eminently
{killed not only in the belles letters, but in all arts and
fciences. He was a poet, a philofopher, a phyfician, an
aftronomer, and a mathematician. He was a man of
vail confequenee in his time ; as appears from Pope
Paul III.’s making ufe of his authority to remove the
council of Trent to Bologna, under the pretext of a
contagious di item per, which, as Fracaftor depofed, made
it no longer fafe to continue at Trent. He was inti¬
mately acquainted with Cardinal Bembus, Julius Seal!-
ger, and all the great men of his time. Fie died of an
apoplexy at Cali near Verona, in 1553 : and in 1559,
the town of Verona erefted a ftatue in honour of him.
He was the author of many performances, both as a
poet and a phyfician: yet never man was more
difinterefted in both thefe capacities than he : evi¬
dently fo as a phyfician, for he praclifed without fees ;
and as a poet, whofe ufual reward is glory, nothing
could be more indifferent. It is owing to this indiffer¬
ence, that xve have fo little of his poetry, in compari-
fon of xvhat he xvnfle •, and that, among other compo-
fitions, his Odes and Epigrams, which xvere read in
manufcript with infinite admiration, yet, never paffing
the prefs, were loft. Whdt we have now of his, are
the three books of “ Siphilis, or of the French difeafe
a book of Mifcellaneous Poems ; and two books oi his
poem, entitled, Jofeph, which he began at the latter
end of his life, but did not live to finifti. And thefe
works, it is laid, would have periihed with the reft, if
his friends had not taken care to preferve and commu¬
nicate copies of them: For Fracaftor, xvriting merely
for amufement, never troubled himfelf in the leaft
about xvhat became of his xvorks after they once got
out of his hands. Fracaftor compofed alfo a poem,
called Alcon, Jive de cum canum venaticcrum. His
poems as xvell as his other xvorks are all xvrittcn in
Latin. His medical pieces are, De Sympathia et An-
tipathia,—De contagione etqontagiqfis morbis,—Decauji,s
criticorum dierum,—De vini temperatura, &c. His
xvorks have been printed feparately and colie ft ively.
The beft edition of them is that of Padua 1735, in 2
vols. 4to.
FRACHES, in the glafs trade, are the flat iron
pans into which the glafs veffels already formed are
put when in the toxver over the xvorking furnace, and
by means of xvhich they are draxxm out through the
leers, that they may be taken gradually from the fire,
axxd cool by degrees.
FRACTION, in Arithmetic and Algebra, a part or
divifion of an unit or integer 5 or a number xvhich Hands
to an unit in the relation of a part to its xvhole. The
word literally imports a broken number.
Fraftions are ufually divided into decimal, fe.xa:
gefimal, and vulgar. See Algebra and Arithme- Fractions
TIC- . Prime
FRACTURE, in Surgery, a rupture of a bone cr 1
a folution of continuity in a bone xvhen it is cruftied
or broken by fome external caufe. See Surgery
Index.
FRiENUM, or FrENUM, Bridle, in Anatomy, a
name given to divers ligaments, from their office in
retaining and curbing the motions cf the parts they
are fitted to.
FrJENUM Linguce, or Bridle of the Tongue ; a mem¬
branous ligament, xvhich ties the tongue to the os
hyoides, larynx, fauces, and loxvcr parts of the mouth.
In fome fubjefts the freenum runs the xvhole length of
the tongue to the very tip ; in xvhich cafes, if it were
not cut, it xvould take axvay all poffibility of fpeech.
See TONGUE-Tied.
FRJENUM Penis, a flender ligament, xvhereby the
prepuce is tied to the lower part of the glans of the
penis. Nature varies in the make of this part j it be¬
ing fo ftiort in fome, that unlefs divided it xvould not
admit of peril ft ereftion. J here is alio a kind of little
f'ernum, faftened to the lower part of the clitoris.
FRAG A, a ftrong toxvn xvith a handfome caftle, in
the kingdom of Arragon in Spain. It is ftrong by
fituation among the mountains \ haxfing the river Cinca
before it, xvhofe high banks are difficult of accefs j
and at its back a hill, xvhich cannot eafily be ap¬
proached xvith large cannon. Alphonfo \ 11. king of
Arragon, and the firft of that nsme of Caftile, xvas
killed by the Moors in 1134, w hen he befieged this toxvn.
E Long. o. 23. N. Eat. 41. 28.
FRAG ARIA, the Strawberry, a genus of plants
belonging to the icolandria elafs j and in the natural
method ranking under the 35th order, Senticofee. See
Botany Index ; and for an account of the varieties and
culture, fee Gardening Index.
FRAIL, a bafket made of ruffies or the like, in xvhich
are packed up figs, raifins, &c. It fignifies alfo a cer¬
tain quantity of raifins, about 75 pounds.
FRAISE, in Fortification, a kind of defence con-
fifting of pointed flakes, fix or feven feet long, driven
parallel to the horizon into the retrenchments of a camp,
a half moon, or the like to prevent any approach or
fealade
Fraifes differ from pallifades chiefly in this, that the
latter ftand perpendicular to the horizon, and the former
jet out parallel to the horizon, or nearly fo, being
ufually made a little floping, or xvith the points hanging
down. Fraifes are chiefly ufed in retrenchments and
other wmrks thrown up of earth fometimes they are
found under the parapet of a rampart, ferving inftead of
the cordon of ftone ufed in ftone xvorks.
To FRAISE a Battalion, is to line the mufqueteers
round with pikes, that in cafe they ftmuld be charged
with a body of horfe, the pikes being prefented, may
cover the mufqueteers from the fhock, and ferve as a
barricade.
FRAME, in Joinery, a kind of cafe, xvherein a thing
is fet or enclofed, or even fupported j as a window frame,
a pifture frame, &c.
Frame is alfo a machine ufed in divers arts ; as,
Frame, among printers, is the ftand which fupperts
the cafes. See Case.
v Frame,
Firft fub-
dued by
?ulius Cje-
far.
* Sec Gaul
Invaded by
the Franks.
FRA [5
Frame, among founders, a kind of ledge eneloling
a board ; which, being filled with wetted land, ferves
as a mould to call; their works in. See FounderY.
Frame is more particularly ufed for a fort of loom,
whereon artificers ftretch their linens, filks, fluffs, &c.
to be embroidered, quilted, or the like.
Frame, among painters, a kind of fquare, confdfing
of four long flips of wood joined together, whofe in¬
termediate fpace is divided by thi'eads into feveral little
fquares like a net •, and hence fometimes called reticu¬
la. It ferves to reduce figures from great to fmall \ or,
on the contrary, to'augment their fize from fmall to
great.
FRAMLINGHAM, a town in Suffex, 88 miles
from London. It is a large old place, with a caflle,
fuppofed to have been built by fome of the firit kings
of the Eat! Angles j the walls, yet Handing, are 44
feet high, 8 thick, with 13 towers 14 feet above them,
two of which are watch-towers. To this caftle the prin-
cefs, afterwards Queen Mary I. retired, when the Lady
Jane Grey was her competitor for the crown. The
town is pleafantly fituated, though but indifferently
built, upon a clay hill, in a fruitful foil and healthy air,
near the fource of the river Ore, by fome called Winck-
nel, which runs through it to Orford. It has a fpaci-
ous place for the market, which is held on Saturday •,
and a large ftately church built all of black flint, with
a fteeple 100 feet high 5 tw'o good alms-houfes j and a
free-fchool.
FRANC. See Frank.
FRANCE, a large kingdom of Europe, fituated be¬
tween 50 W. and 70 E. Long, and between 430 and
510 N. Lat. being bounded by the Englifh channel
and the Auftrian Netherlands on the north ; by Ger¬
many, Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont, in Italy, on
the eaft 5 by the Mediterranean fea, and the Pyrenean
mountains, which feparate it from Spain, on the fouth j
and by the bay of Bifcay on the weft.
The kingdom of France w7as originally poffeffed by
the Celtes or Gauls. They wTere a very warlike peo¬
ple, and often checked the progrefs of the Roman
arms : nor did they yield till the time of Julius Caefar,
who totally fubdued their country, and reduced it to
the form of a Roman province *. The Romans con¬
tinued in quiet pofTeflion of Gaul, as long as their em¬
pire retained its flrength, and they were in a condition
to reprefs the incurfions of the German nations, whom
even in the zenith of their powrer they had not been
able to fubdue. But in the reign of the emperor Va¬
lerian, the ancient Roman valour and difeipline had
begun to decline, and the fame care wras not taken to
defend the provinces as formerly. The barbarous na¬
tions, therefore, began to make much more frequent
incurfions 5 and among the reft the Franks, a Ger¬
man nation, inhabiting the banks of the Rhine, proved
particularly troublefome. Their origin is varioufly ac¬
counted for; but the moft probable fuppofition is, that
about the time of the emperor Gordian, the peo¬
ple inhabiting the banks of the J^ower Rhine, entered
into a confederacy with thofe v^ro dwelt on the Wefer,
and both together aflumed the name of Franks or
Freemen. Their firft irruption, wTe are told by Vale-
fius, happened in the year 254, the fecond of Valerian’s
reign. At this time they were but few in number ;
and were repulfed by Aurelianj afterwards emperor.
3 1 FRA
Not difeouraged by this check, they returned two France,
years after in far greater numbers 5 but were again * i
defeated by Gallienus, whom Valerian had chofen
for his partner in the empire. Others, however,
continued to pour in from their native country in fuch
multitudes, that Gallienus, no longer able to drive
them out by force of arms, made advantageous propofals
to one of their chiefs, whom he engaged to defend the
frontiers againft his countrymen as well as other in¬
vaders.
This expedient did not long anfwer the purpofe.
In 260 the Franks, taking advantage of the defeat
and captivity of Valerian in Perfia, broke into Gaul,
and afterwards into Itlay, committing every where
dreadful ravages. Five years afterwards they invaded
Spain ; which they poffelfed, or rather plundered, for
the fpace of 12 years : nor could they be driven out
of Gaul till the year 275, when the emperor Probus
not only gave them a total overthrow in that country,
but purfued them into their own, where he built feve¬
ral forts to keep them in awe. This intimidated them
fo much, that nine of their kings fubmitted to the em¬
peror and promifed an annual tribute.—They conti¬
nued quiet till the year 287 j when, in conjunction
vdth the Saxon pirates, they plundered the coafts of
Gaul, carrying off an immenfe booty. To revenge this
infult, the emperor Maximian entered the country of
the Franks the following year, where he committed
fuch ravages that two of their kings fubmitted to him 4
and to many of the common people who chofe to re¬
main in Gaul, he allowed lands in the neighbourhood
of Treves and Cambray.
The reftlefs difpofition of the Franks, howTever, did
not allow them to remain long in quite. About the
ytar 293, they made themfelves mafters of Batavia
and part of Flanders ; but were entirely defeated, and
forced to furrender at diferetion, by Conftantius the
father of Conftantine the Great* who tranfplanted them
into Gaul. Their countrymen in Germany continued
quiet till the year 306, when they renewed their de¬
predations ; but being overtaken by Conftantine the
Great, two of their kings were taken prifoners, and
thrown to the wild beafts in the fliowTs exhibited on that
occafion.
All thefe victories, however, as well as many others
faid to have been gained by the Romans, rvere not fuf-
ficiept to prevent the incurnons of this reftlefs and tur¬
bulent nation: infomuch that, in the year 355, they
had made themfelves mafters of 40 cities in the pro¬
vince of Gaul. Soon after, they wrere totally defeated
by the emperor Julian, and again by Count Theodo-
fius, father to the emperor of that name ; but in the
year 388, they ravaged the province with more fury
than ever, and cut off a whole Roman army that wras
fent againft them. As the weftem empire was at
this time in a very low ftate, they for fome time found
more interruption from other barbarians than from
the Romans, till their progrefs wras checked by Ac-
tiu1’- ^
When the war with Aetius broke out, the Franks Pharamond
wrere governed by one Pharamond, the firft of their the firft
lungs of whom we have any diftinCI account. He is king,
fuppofed to have reigned from the year 417 or 418,
to 428 and is thought by Archbilhop Ulher to have
been killed in the war with Aetius, By fome he is
* 6
FRA
Trance.
„ 4
Clodio.
Merovseus.
6
Ghildcric.
Tfench mo
tiarchy efta
btiflied by
Clovis.
r 54
TuppoFed to liave compiled the Salic laws, with the
adiftance of four fages named Wifegaji, Lofegaji, Wide-
gctJIj and Solegajt. But Valefius is ol opinion that the
Franks had no written laws till the time of Clovis.
Pharamond avas fucceeded by his fon Clodio, who
likeAvife carried on a war againit the Romans. He. is
faid to ha\re received a terrible overthrow from Aetius
near the city of Lens } notAvithftanding which, he ad¬
vanced to Cambray, and made himfelf mafter of that
city, Avhere for fome time he took up his refidence.
After this he extended his eonquefts as tar as the river
Somme, and deftroyed the cities of J reves and Co¬
logne, Tournay and Amiens. He died in the year
448, and Avas fucceeded by Menwseus.
Authors are not agreed Avhether the neAV^ king Avas
brother, or fon, or any relation at all, to Clodio. I(t
feems probable indeed, that he A\ras of a different fa¬
mily } as from him the firft race of French kings were
ityled Merovingian. Fie Avas honoured and refpefted
by his people, but did not greatly enlarge the bounda¬
ries of his kingdom. He died in 458.
Merovseus was fucceeded by his fon Childeric \ Avho
being no longer kept in aAve by Actius, made Avar on
the Romans, and extended his conquefts as far as the
river Loire. He is faid to have taken the city of Pa¬
ris after a fiege of five years, according to fome, and
of ten, according to others. The Roman power Avas
noAV totally deftroyed in Italy j and therefore Clodo-
vccus, Clovis, or Louis, for his name is differently Avrit-
ten, Avho fucceeded Childeric, fet himfelf about making
an entire conqueft of Gaul. Part of the province was
ftill retained by a Roman named Sijagnus, Avho proba¬
bly had become fovereign of the country on the down¬
fall of the Aveftern empire in 476. He was defeated
and taken prifoner by Clovis, Avho afterwards caufed
him to be beheaded, and foon after totally 1 educed his
dominions. .
Thus was the French monarchy eftabliftied by Clovis
in the year 487* He noiv pofieffed all the country
lying between the Rhine and the Loire j Avhich, though
a very extenfive dominion, Avas yet conuderably inferior
to what it is at prefent. . .
Clovis had been educated in the Pagan religion,
and continued in that profeffion till the 3°t-h year of
his age j notwithftanding which, he alloAved his fubje&s
full liberty of confcience. Having married, however,
Clotilda, daughter of the duke. of Burgundy j this
princefs, Avho Avas a zealous Chriftian, ufed all her in¬
fluence with her hufband to perfuade him to embrace
her religion. For fome time he continued to. Avaver j
but happening to gain a battle, Avhere, being in great
danger, he had invoked the god of Clotilda and the
Chriftians, he afterAvards gave fuch a favourable ear
to the difcourfes of Remigius biftiop of Rheims, that
he foon declared himfelf a convert, and Avas baptized
in the year 496. His acknoAvledgment of the truths
of the gofpel was not followed by any amendment of
life; on the contrary, he employed the remainder of
his life in the aggrandizement of himfelf and extenfion
of his dominions by the moft abominable- treachery,
fraud, and violence. In his attacks on Armorica he
proved unfuccefsful. The inhabitants of this, country,
-which comprehended the maritime part of ancient Gaul
lying between the rivers Seine and Loire, had united
for their defence j and though abandoned by the Ro-
F B A
mans, made a powerful defence againft the barbarians Franc*.
Avho affaulted them on all fides. Clovis, finding them ''~™
too powerful to be fubdued by force, propofed an union
Avith his people, which they readily accepted, and this
the more eafily on account of his profeflmg the Chri¬
ftian religion. "1 bus the Chriftianity of Ciovis in feve-
ral inftanees proved fubfervient to the purpofes of his
ambition, and his poAver became gradually very for¬
midable. The Burgundians at this time poffeffed all
the country from the foreft of Vofges to the fea of
Marfeilles, under Gondebaud the uncle of Clotilda;
who to fecure his own authority, had put to death,
tivo of his brothers, one of Avhom avhs the father ol
the French queen. The third brother, Godagefil, Avhom
he had fpared and alloAved to poffefs the principality of
Geneva, confpired with Clovis to drive him from his
dominions. A. war having commenced bet\vcon the
French and Burgundian monarchs, the latter Avas de-
ferted in a battle by Godagefil, and obliged to. fly to
Avignon, leaving his antagonift mafter of the cities of
Lyons and Vienne. The viaor. next laid fiege to
Avignon 5 but it Avas defended with fuch vigour, that
Clovis at laft thought proper to accept of a fum of
money and an annual tribute from Gondebaud j Avha
was likewife obliged to cede to Godagefil the city of
Vienne, and feveral other places taken during the
Avar.
Gondebaud no fooner found himfelf at liberty from
his enemies, than he affembled a powerful army j with
which he advanced towards Vienne, A", here Godagefil
himfelf refided at that time. The place Avas garrifon-
ed by 5000 Franks, and might have made confiderabkr
refiftance; but Gondebaud being admitted through
the fubterraneous paffage of an aqueduct, mafiacred
moft of the Franks, fent the reft prifoners to the king
of the Vifigoths, and put Godagefil to death. This
was quickly folloAved by the fubmifllon of all the other
places Avhich had OAvned the authority of Godagefil :
and Gondebaud, noiv thinking himfelf able to refill
the poAver of Clovis, fent a meffage to inform him,
that he mull no longer expedl the promifed tribute.j
and though Clovis Avas very much mortified Avith this
defection, he found himfelf obliged for the prefent to
put up Avith the injury, and accept of the alliance and
military fervice of the king of Burgundy. .
His next expedition Avas againft the Vifigoths, Avho
poffeffed confiderable territories on both fides of the
Pyrenean mountains. Plis motives for this underta¬
king were expreffed in the folloAving fpeech to his no¬
bility when affembled in the city of Paris, Avhich he
confidered as the capital of his dominions. “ It is
Avith concern (faid the religious monarch) that I fuffer
the Arians to poffefs the moft fertile. part of Gaul :
let us, Avith the aid of God, march againft them ■, and
having conquered them, annex their kingdom to our
dominions.” The nobility approved of the fcheme 5
and Clovis marched againft a prince for whom he had
but lately profeffed the greateft regard, vmving to
ere£l a church in honour of the holy apoftles, if he fuc¬
ceeded in his enterprife. Alaric the king.of the Vi¬
figoths was a young man deftitute of military expe¬
rience, though perfonally brar^e. He did not there¬
fore hefitate at engaging his antagonift y but. unable
to contend Avith the veteran troops of Clovis, his. army
'was utterly defeated on the banks of the Clain, .10
mile*
France.
Is honour-
F R A [
miles fouth of Poiftiers, in the year 507. Alaric, per¬
ceiving the ruin of his troops, ruflied againft Clovis in
perfon, by whom he was killed, and the remainder
of the army purfued for fome time with great daugh¬
ter. After this victory the province of Aquitaine fub-
mitted, and Clovis eilablifhed his winter quarters at
Bourdeaux. Thouloufe furrendered next fpring 5 and
the royal treafures of the Vifigoths were tranfported
to Paris. Angouleme was next reduced, and the city
of Arles in vetted. But here the victorious career of
Clovis was flopped by Theodoric king of the Oflro-
goths, jvho had overturned the dominion of Odoacer
in Italy. Pie had married Aboltleda the lifter of Clo¬
vis, but had alfo given his own daughter in marriage
to the king of the Vifigoths, and had endeavoured, as
much as was in his power, to preferve a good under-
ftanding between the two fovereigns. Finding this
impoflible however, and that no bounds could be fet
to the ambition of Clovis, he fent one of his generals
with a powerful army againft him; by whom the
French monarch was defeated with the lofs of 30,000
men. By this misfortune Clovis was obliged to raife
the liege of Arles with precipitation : however, the
Franks ftill retained the greateft part of their conquefts,
and the province of Aquitaine was indilTolubly annexed
to their empire.
In 509, Clovis had the title of Roman conful; by
e.d WIt)1 the which means the people of Rome were infenlibly led
title ot Ro- to a pecuqar regard to the French monarchs : and
’ Clovis was now fuppofed to be mvefted with a juft
title to all his conquefts in whatever manner they had
been acquired. Pie was folemnly invefted with his new
dignity in the church of St Martin in the city of
Tours ; after vThich he entered the cathedra] clothed
in a purple tunic and mantle, the badges of his office.
Clovis now proceeded to augment his power by the
murder of his kinfmen the princes of the Merovingian
race. Among thofe who perilhed on this occafton
were Sigebert king of Cologne, with his fon Cloderic j
Cararic, another prince whole dominions have not been
accurately pointed out. by hiftorians j Ranacaire, who
governed the prefent diocefe of Cambray ; and Reno-
mer, king of the territory of Maine. All thefe mur¬
ders, however, were' expiated, according to the views
~ of the clergy of thofe times, by the great zeal he ex-
prefled in the caufe of Chriftianity, and his liberality
to the church.
Clovis died in the year 511, after having reformed
and publiihed the Salic laws : a few lines of which*
debarring women from inheriting any part of the Sa¬
lic lands, have been extended fo far as to deprive the
females of the royal family of France of their right of
fucceffion to the throne of that kingdom.
Clovis was buried in the church of St Peter and
St Paul, now Genevieve, in the city of Paris, where
(led among tomb is ftill to be feen. His dominions were di¬
vided among his four fons. Thieri, or Theodoric, the
eldeft, had the eaftern part of the empire : and, from
his making the city of Metz his capital, is commonly
called the king of Met*. Clodomir, the eldeft fon' by
Clotilda, had the kingdom of Orleans ; Childebert,
and Clotaire, who were both infants, had the king¬
doms of Paris and Soiffons, under the tutelage of their
mother. The prudence of Clotilda kept matters quiet
in all the parts of the empire for eight years * but
9
His domi¬
nions divi-
his chit
dren.
55 1 FRA
about the year 520, a numerous fleet of Danes arrived Francis,
at the mouth of the Meufe 5 and their king Cochiliac, v—y—
having landed his forces, began to deftroy the country
with fire and fword. Againft him Thieri fent his fon
Theodobert, who defeated the Danilh army and navy,
and killed their king, forcing the reft to retire with
precipitation.
In 522, Hermanfroi king of Thuringia, having de~
ftroyed one of his-brethren named Berthaire, and leized
on his dominions, applied to Thieri for affiftance
againft his other brother Balderic, whom he intended
to treat in the fame manner. In this infamous enter-
prife Thieri embarked, on condition that he fliould
have one half of Balderic’s dominions \ but after the
unhappy prince was overcome and killed in battle,. ^
Hermanfroi feized all his dominions. Thieri had no
opportunity of revenging himfelf till the year 531 j.
when perceiving the power of the Oftrogoths, whom
he much dreaded, to be confiderably leftened by the
deatli of King Theodoric, he engaged his brother Clu-
taire to affift him : and they accordingly entered Thu¬
ringia with two powerful armies. They joined their
forces as foon as they had palfed the Rhine, and were
quickly after reinforced by a confiderable body of
troops under the command of Theodobert. The al¬
lies attacked the army of Hermanfroi, which was ad-
vantageoufly polled ; and having totally defeated it, he
was forced to fly from place to place in difguife. Soon
after this the capital was taken, and Hermanfroi him¬
felf being invited to a conference by Thieri, was trea-
cheroufly murdered ; after which his exteniive domi¬
nions became feudatory to Thieri.
In the mean time, Clotilda had excited her children
to make war on the Burgundians, in order to revenge
the death of her father Chilperic, whom Gondebaud
king of Burgundy had caufed to be murdered. Gon¬
debaud was now dead, and had left his dominions to
his fons Sigifmund and Godemar. Sigifmund’s forces
were quickly defeated ; and he himfelf was foon after
delivered up by his own fubjects to Clodomir, who
caufed him to be thrown into a pit where he periflied
miferably. By his death Godemar became foie mailer
of Burgundy. Clodomir marched againft him, and
defeated him; but purfuing his victory too eagerly, was
furrounded by his enemies and flain. After the reduc¬
tion of Thuringia, however, Childebert and Clotaire
entered the kingdom of Burgundy at the head of a
powerful army, and in 534 completed the conqueft of
it; in which, according to fome, Godemar was killed ;
according to others, he retired into Spain, and from
thence into Africa. IO
In 560 Clotaire became foie monarch of France. He Clotaire be-
had murdered the fons of Clodomir, who was killed incomes
Burgundy as above related. Thieri and his childrenmonarch'
were dead, as was alfo Childebert; fo that Clotaire was
foie heir to all the dominions of Clovis. He had five
fons; and the eldeft of them, named C/trtwines, had fome
time before rebelled againft his father in Auvergne.
As long as Childebert lived, he fupported the young-
prince ; but on his death, Chramnes was obliged to
implore his father’s clemency. He was at this time
pardoned ; but he foon began to cabal afrefli, and en¬
gaged the count of Bretagne to affift him in another
rebellion. The Bretons, however, were defeated, and
Chramnes determined to make his efcape 3 but perceiv-
ing
f ranee.
it
FRA [ 5
inrr that his wife and children were furrounded by his
father’s troops, he attempted to reicue them. In this
attempt he was taken priioner, and with his family was
thruft into a thatched cottage near the field of battle j
©f which the king was no fooner intormed, than he
commanded the cottage to be fet on fire, and all that
were in it periihed in the flames.
France,
The empire
again di¬
vided.
Clotaire did not long furvive this cruel execution of
his fun, but died in 562 j and after his death the French
empire was divided among his four remaining fons,
Caribcrt, Gontran, Sigebert, and Chilperic—L he old,
kinfr made no divifion of his dominions before he uicd,
which perhaps eaufed the young princes to fall out
fooner than they would otherwife have done. After
his death, however, they divided the kingdom by lot;
when Caribert, the eldeft, had the kingdom of Paris ;
Gontran 5 the fecond, had Orleans; Sigebert,^ had
Metz (or the kingdom of Auitrafia) ; and Chilperic
had Soiffons. Provence and Aquitaine were pofiefled
by all of them in common. The peace of the empire
was firft difturbed in 563 by an invafion of the Abares;
a barbarous nation, faid to be the remains of the Hunns.
They entered Thuringia, which belonged to the do¬
minions of Sigebert C but by him they were totally
defeated, and obliged to repafs the Elbe with preci¬
pitation. Sigebert purfued them clofe, but readily
concluded a peace with them on their firft propofals.
To this he was induced, by hearing that his brother
Chilperic had invaded his dominions,. and taken
Rheims and feme other places in the neighbourhood.
Againft him, therefore, Sigebert marched with his
viaorious army, made himfelf mafter of Soiffons his
capital, and of the perfon of his eldeft Ion J heodobert.
He then' defeated Chilperic in battle •, and not only
recovered the places which he had feized, but conquered
the greater part of his dominions : neverthelefs, on the
~ mediation of the other two brothers, Sigebert abandon¬
ed all his conquefts, fet Theodobert at liberty, and thus
reftored peace to the empire.
Soon after this, Sigebert Harried Brunehaut daugh¬
ter to Athanagilde king of the Vifigoths m Spain-, and
in a little time after the marriage, died Caribert king of
Paris whofe dominions were divided among his three
r 12 brethren. In <67 Chilperic married Galfwintha, Brune-
com“of haul’s eldeft lifter, whom he did not obtain without
Chilperic. feme difficulty. Before her arrival, he difmiffed Ins
miftrefs called Fredegonde, a woman of great abilities
and firmnefs of mind, but ambitious to the higheft de¬
cree and capable of committing the blackeft crimes
fn order to gratify her ambition. The queen, who
brought with her immenfe treafures from Spam, and
made it her whole ftudy to pleafe the king, was for
feme time entirely acceptable. By degrees, however,
Chilperic fuffered Fredegonde to appear again at court,
and was fufpected of having renewed his mtercourle
with her-, which gave fuch umbrage to the queen,
that ffie defired leave to return to her owm country,
promifmg to leave behind her all the wealth ffie had
brought. The king, knowing that this would render
him extremely odious, found means to diihpate his
Wife’s fufpicions, and foon after caufed her to be pri¬
vately ftrangled, upon which he publicly married I re-
^ Such an atrocious aftion could not fail of exciting
the greateft indignation againft Chilperic. His domi-
13-
6 1 f n A
nions were immediately invaded by Sigebert and Gon*
tran, who conquered the greateft part of them y alter
which, they fuddenly made peace, Chilperic confenting
that Brunehaut fhould enjoy tliofe places which on his
marriage he had beitovred upon Gallwintha, viz. Bour-
deaux, Limoges, Cahors, Bigorre, and the town of
Bearn, now' called Lefcar.
The French princes, however, did not long conti¬
nue at peace among themfelves. A war quickly er-
fued, in which Gontran and Chilperic allied themfelyes
againft Sigebert. The latter prevailed j and haying
forced Gontran to a feparate peace, feemed determined
to make Chilperic pay dear for his repeated perfidy and ^
infamous eon drift ; when he was affaffinated by a con- S:gebcrt a:
trivance of Fredegonde, who thus faved herfelf and bflmated;
Chilperic from the moft imminent danger. Immediate¬
ly on his death, Brunehaut fell into the hands of Chil-
peric -, but Gondebaud, one of Sigebert’s beft gene ¬
rals, made his efcape into Auftrafia with Childebert,
the’only fon of Sigebert, an infant of about five years
of age, who was immediately proclaimed king in room
of his father. In a ffiort time, however, Meroveus, eld¬
eft fon to Chilperic, fell in love with Brunehaut, and
married her without acquainting his father. Chilperic,
on this news, immediately went to Rouen, where Me¬
roveus and his confort were j and having feized them,
fent Brunehaut and her two daughters to Metz, and
carried Meroveus to Soiffons. Soon after one of his
generals being defeated by Gontran, who efpoufed
Brunehaut’s caufe, Chilperic, in a fit of rage, caufed
Meroveus to be ihaved and confined in a monaftery.
From hence he found means to make his efcape, and
wjth great difficulty arrived in Auftrafia, where Brune¬
haut would gladly have protefted him 5 but the jealou-
fy of the nobles was fo ftrong, that he was forced to
leave that country -, and being betrayed into the hands
of his father’s forces, was murdered at the mitigation of
Fredegonde, as was generally believed.
The French empire was at this time divided between
Gontran king of Orleans, called alfo king of Burgun¬
dy, Chilperic king of Soiffons, and Childebert king of
Auftrafia. Chilperic found his affairs in a very difagree-
able fituation. In 579, he had a difputcywith Varoc
count of Bretagne, who refufed to do him homage.
Chilperic difpatched a body of troops againft him-,
who wore defeated, and he was then forced to fubmit
to a diihonourable peace. His brother and nephew
lived in ftrift union, and had no reafon to be very well
pleafed with him. His own fubjefts, being oppreffed
with heavy taxes, were miferably poor and difeontented.
His fon Clovis, by a former queen named Andover a,
hated Fredegonde, and made no fecret of his averfion.
To add to his embarraffluent, the feafons were for a
long time fo unfavourable, that the country was threat¬
ened with famine and peftilence at the fame time. "I he
king and queen were both attacked by an epidemic
difeafe which then raged. They recovered -, but their
three fons Clodobert, Samfon, and Eagobert, died -,
after which, the fight of Clovis became fo difagreeable
to Fredegonde, that ffie caufed him to be murdered,
and like wife his mother Andovera, left Chilperic’s af-
> feftion for her ffiould return after the tragical death of
her fon. *4
In 583 Chilperic himfelf was murdered by fome un-and like-
known affaffins, when his dominions were on the point
oH 'S iitil
France.
IS
Death of
Gontran;
16
and Frc-
degonde.
F K A [
of being conquered by Gontran and Childebert, who
J had entered into a league for that purpofe. After his
death Fredegonde implored the prote&ion of Gontran
for herfelf and her infant fon Clotaire j which he very
readily granted, and obliged Childebert to put an end to
the war. He found himfelf, however, greatly dif-
ficulted to keep Fredegonde and Erunehaut in awe j
for thefe two princefies having been long rivals and im¬
placable enemies, were continually plotting the de-
ftrudion of each other. This, however, he accom-
plilhed, by favouring fometimes Brunehaut and fometimes
Fredegonde j fo that, during his life, neither of them
durft undertake any thing againft: the other.
On the 28th of March 593, died Gontran, having
lived upwards of 60, and reigned 3 2 years. Childebert
Fucceeded to the kingdom without oppofition, but did
not long enjoy it •, he himfelf dying in the year 596,
and his queen ihortly after. His dominions were di¬
vided between his two fons Theodobert and Thierri 3
the firft of whom was declared king of Auiirafia, and
the latter king of Burgundy. As Theodobert was
only in the nth year of his age, and Thierri in his
10th, Brunehaut governed both kingdoms with an ab-
folute fway. Fredegonde, however, took care not to
let flip fuch a favourable opportunity as was offered her
by the death of Childebert, and therefore made her¬
felf miftrefs of Paris and fome other places on the Seine.
Upon this Brunehaut fent againfl: her the befl: part of
the forces in Auftrafia, who were totally defeated ; but
Fredegonde died before flie had time to improve her
victory, leaving her fon Clotaire heir to ail her domi¬
nions.
For fome time Brunehaut preferved her kingdom in
peace ; but in the end her own ambition proved her
ruin. Inftead of inftru£Hng Theodobert in what was
neceflary for a prince to know, fhe took care rather to
keep him in ignorance, and even fuffered him to marry
a young and handfome flave of his father’s. The new
queen was poflefled of a great deal of affability and
good nature •, by which means fhe in a fhort time gain¬
ed the affeftion of her hufband fo much, that he readily
confented to the banifhment of Brunehaut. Upon this
Brunehaut difgrace fire fled to Thierri king of Burgundy, in the
aniflied. year -gy qie was vcry kindly received j and
inftead of exciting jealoufies or mifunderHandings be¬
tween the two brothers, fhe engaged Thierri to at¬
tempt the recovery of Paris and the other places which
had been wrrefted from their family by Fredegonde,
procuring at the fame time a confiderable body of auxi¬
liaries from the Vifigoths. This meafure was fo ac¬
ceptable to Theodobert, that he likewife raifed a nu¬
merous army, and invaded Clotaire’s dominions in con-
jundiion with his brother. A battle enfued, in which
the forces of Clotaire were totally defeated, and himfelf
obliged foon after to fue for peace : which was not
granted, but on condition of his yielding up the beft part
of his dominions.
This treaty was concluded in the year 600 ; but
three years afterwards, it was broken by Clotaire. He
was again attacked by the two brothers, and the war
carried on with great vigour till the next fpring. At
this time Thierri having forced Landri, Clotaire’s ge¬
neral, to a battle, gave him a total overthrow, in which
the king’s infant fon Meroveus, whom he had fent a-
long with Landri, was mafl'acred; to gratify, as Clo-
Vol. IX. Part I. A
I7
57 3 FRA
taire pretended, the malice of Brunehaut. After this Franca,
vidlory, Thierri marched diredlly to Paris 5 fully bent y-****
on the deftrudtion of his coufin, which now feemed ine¬
vitable. This, however, ■was prevented by Theodo¬
bert ; who no looner heard of the victory gained by
Thierri, than he became jealous of his fuccefs, and of¬
fered Clotaire fuch terms of peace as he gladly accept¬
ed. The latter having then nothing to fear on the fide
of Auftrafia, quickly compelled Thierri to liften to
terms of accommodation alfo.
This behaviour of Theodobert greatly provoked his
brother 5 and his refentment was highly inflamed by
Brunehaut, who never forgot her difgrace in being ba-
niihed from his court. A war was therefore commen¬
ced between the two brothers in 605 j but it was fo
highly difapproved of by the nobility, that Thierri
found himfelf obliged to put an end to it. The tran¬
quillity which now took place was again difturbed in
607, by Theodobert’s fending an embafly to demand
fome part of Childebert’s dominions, which had been
added, by the will of that monarch, to thofe of Bur¬
gundy. The nobility of both kingdoms were fo much
averfe to war, that they conftrained their kings to con-
fent to a conference, attended by an equal number of
troops 5 but Theodobert, by a fcandalous breach of his
faith, brought double the number, and compelled his
brother to fubmit to what terms he pleafed. This piece
of treachery inftantly brought on a war ; for Thierri
was bent on revenge, and his nobility no longer oppo-
fed him. It was neceflary, however, to fecure Clotaire
by a negotiation j and accordingly a promife was made
of reftoring thofe parts of his dominions which had
formerly been taken from him, provided he would re¬
main quiet. This treaty being finifhed, Thierri en¬
tered Theodobert’s dominions, defeated him in two
battles, took him prifoner, ufed him with the utmoft
indignity; and having caufed an infant fon of his to
be put to death, fent him to his grandmother Brune¬
haut. By her orders he was firft ftiaved and confined
in a monaftery ; but afterwards, fearing left he ftiould
make his efcape, ftie caufed him to be put to death.—
Clotaire, in the mean time, thought that the beft me¬
thod of making Thierri keep his word was to feize on
thofe places which he had promifed to reftore to him,
before his return from the war with Theodobert. This
he accordingly did ; and Thierri no fooner heard of his
having done fo, than he fent him a mefiage requiring
him to withdraw his forces, and, in cafe of his'refufal,
declared war. Clotaire was prepared for this; and
accordingly aflembled all the forces in his dominions,
in order to give him a proper reception. But before
Thierri could reach his 'enemies, he was feized with a
dyfentery; of which he died in the year 612, having xhierrL
lived 26 years, and reigned 17.
On the death of Thierri, Brunehaut immediately
caufed his eldeft fon, named Sigi/bert, then in the 10th
year of his age, to be proclaimed king. It is probable
that (he intended to have governed in his name with
an abfolute fway ; but Clotaire did not give her time
to difeover her intentions. Having great intelligence
in Auftrafia and Burgundy, and knowing that the no¬
bility in both kingdoms were difaffeefed to Brunehaut,
he declared war againft her; and ftie being betrayed
by her generals, fell into the hands of her enemies.
■Clotaire gave her up to the nobles; who generally
H hated
cruel
Heath.
FRA [ 58
France, hated her, and who ufed her in the moft cruel manner.
' v ' After having led her about the camp, expofed to the
Brunehaut in^ts °f who had the meannefs to infult her, lire
put to a was tied by the leg and arm to the tail of an untamed
horfe, which, fetting oft' at full fpeed, quickly daftred
out her brains. After this her mangled body was re¬
duced to alhes, which were afterwards interred in the
abbey of St Martin at Autun.
Thus in the year 613, Clotaire became foie monarch
of France ; and quietly enjoyed his kingdom till his
death, which happened in 628. He was fucceeded by
Dagobert •, who proved a great and powerful prince,
and raifed the kingdom of France to a high degree of
fplendour. Dagobert was fucceeded by his ions Sigebert
and Clovis) the former of whom had the kingdom of
Auftrafia, and the latter that of Burgundy. Both the
kings were minors at the time of their acceflion to the
throne, which gave an opportunity to the mayors of the
palace (the higheft officers under the crown) to ufurp
the whole authority. Sigebert died in 640, after a
ftiort reign of one year } leaving behind him an infant
fon named Dagobert, whom he ftrongly recommended
to the care of Grimoalde his mayor of the palace. The
minifter caufed Dagobert to be immediately proclaimed
king, but did not long fuffer him to enjoy that honour.
He had not the cruelty, however, to put him to death $
but fent him to a monaftery in one of the Weftern
iflands of Scotland j and then, giving out that he was
dead, advanced his own fon Childebert to the throne.
Childebert was expelled by Clovis king of Burgundy 5
who placed on the throne Childeric, the fecond fon of
Sigebert. Clovis died foon after the revolution, and
was fucceeded in his dominions by his fon Clotaife 5 who
died in a ftiort time, without iffue. Fie was fucceeded
by his brother Childeric 5 who, after a Ihort reign, was
murdered with his queen, at that time big with child,
and an infant fon named Dagobert; though another,
named Daniel, had the good luck to efcape.
The affairs of the French were now in the moft
fituation of deplorable fituation. The princes of the Merovingian
France. race had been for fome time entirely deprived of their
power by their officers called mayors of the palace. Jn
A.uftrafia the adminiftration had been totally engroffed
by Pepin and his fon Grimaulde *, v hile Archambaud
and Ebroin did the fame in Neuftria and Burgundy.
On the reunion of Neuftria and Burgundy to the reftof
the French dominions, this minifter ruled with fuch a
defpotic fway, that the nobility of Auftrafia were pro¬
voked to a revolt *, electing for their dukes two chiefs
named Martin and Pepin. The forces of the confe¬
derates, however, were defeated by Ebroin ^ and Martin
having furrendered on a promife of fafety, was treache-
roufty put to death. Pepin loft no time in recruiting
his ftiattered forces •, but before he had any occafion to
try his fortune a fecond time in the field of battle, the
affaffination of Ebroin delivered him from all appre-
henfions from that quarter. After his death, Pepin
carried every thing before him, overthrew the royal
army under the command of the new minifter Bertaire;
and, having got poffeflion of the capital, caufed himfelf
to be declared mayor of the palace j in which ftation he
continued to govern with an abfolute fway during the
remainder of his life.
Pepin (who had got the fur name of Uerijlal from
France.
] FRA
his palace on the Meufe) died in the year 7I4> having
enjoyed unlimited power for 26 years. He appointed
his grandfon T hcudobalde, then only fix years of ag®»
to fucceed him in his poll of mayor of the palace. Ihis
happened during the reign of Dagobert already men¬
tioned •, but this prince had too much fpirit to fuffer
himfelf to be deprived of his authority by an infant.
The adherents of the young mayor were defeated in
battle, and this defeat was foon followed by his death. 11
Charles, however, the illegitimate fon of Pepin, was Expioits of
now raifed to the dignity of duke by the Auftrafians,
and by his great qualities feemed every way worthy of
that honour. The murder of Dagobert freed him from
powerful opponent; and the young king Chilperic,
20
Miferable
who after Dagobert’s death was brought from a cloifter
to the throne, could by no means cope with inch an
experienced antagonift. On the 19th of March 717,
Charles had the good fortune to furprife the royal camp
as he paffed through the foreft of Arden ; and foon
after a battle enfued, in which the king’s forces were
entirely defeated. On this Chilperic entered into an
alliance with Eudes duke of Aquitain, whofe friendihip
he purchafed by the final ceflion of all the country
which Eudes had feized for himfelf. Charles, however,
having placed on the throne another of the royal family
named Clotuire, advanced againft Chilperic and his
affociate, whom he entirely defeated near Soiffons.
After this difafter, Eudes, defpairing of fuccefs, deliver¬
ed up Chilperic into the hands of his antagonift : after
having ftipulated for himfelf the fame terms which had
been formerly granted him by the captive monarch.
Charles now advanced to the lummit o» power, treat¬
ed Chilperic with great reipedl j and on the death of
Clotaire, caufed him to be proclaimed king of Auftra¬
fia ; by which, however, his own power was not in the
leaft diminiihed } and from this time the authority of
the kings of France became merely nominal j and lo
inactive and indolent w'ere they accounted, that hifto-
rians have bellowed upon them the epithet of fa means,
i. e. “ lazy or idle.” Charles, however, had Hill one
competitor to contend with, ihis wras Rainfroy, who
had been appointed mayor of the palace 5 and who
made fuch a vigorous reliftance, that Charles was obli¬
ged to allow him the peaceable poffeflion of the country
of Anjou. No fooner, however, had Charles thus fet
himfelf at liberty from domeftic enemies, than he was
threatened with deftruftion from foreign nations. The
Suevians, F'nions, and Alemanni, were fucceflively en¬
countered and defeated. Eudes alfo, who had perfidi-
oufly broken the treaties to which he had bound him¬
felf, w'as twice repulfed ; after which Charles invaded
Aquitain, and obliged the treacherous duke to hearken
to reafon. This was fearce accomplilhed, when he
found himfelf engaged with a more formidable enemy
than any he had yet encountered. The Saracens hav¬
ing overrun great part of Alia, now turned their victo¬
rious arms weftward, and threatened Europe with total
fubje&ion. Spain had already received the yoke *, and
having paffed the Pyrenees, they next invaded France,
appearing in vaft numbers under the walls of Thouloufe.
Here they were encountered and defeated by Eudes j
but this proved only a partial check, i he barbarians
once more paffing the Pyrenees, entered France with
fuch a powerful army, that Eudes was no longer able
5 t0
FRA [ 59 ] FRA
’France, to refift. He encountered them indeed with his accuf-
tomed valour; but being forced to yield to fuperior
power, he folicited the protedlion and aluftance of
Charles. On this occafion the latter, on account of his
valour and perfonal flrength, acquired the name of Mar¬
tel, i. e. “ the hammer,” alluding to the violence of the
+ See Ara- flrokes he bellowed on hisenemiesf. Three hundred and
bia, N° feventy-live thoufand of the Infidels, among whom was
I74- the commander Abdelrahman himfelf, are faid to have
perilhed in the battle ; notwithflanding wrhich they foon
made another irruption : but in this they were attend¬
ed with no better fuccefs, being again defeated by
Charles ; who by fo many victories eftabliflied his power
on the moll folid foundation. Having again defeated
the Frifons, and with his own hand killed their duke,
he a Turned the fovereignty of the dominions of Eudes
after his deceafe, referving to himfelf the claim of ho¬
mage, Avhich he ought to have yielded to Thierri his
lawful fovereign. At lall his fame grew fo great, that
he was chofen by Pope Gregory III. for his protestor.
He offered to fhake off the yoke of the Greek empe¬
ror, and to inveil Charles with the dignity of Roman
conful; fending him at the fame time the keys of the
tomb of St Peter 5 but while this negotiation was going
22 on fuccefsfully, the pope, the emperor, and Charles
France di- Martel himfelf, died. After his death, which happen-
vided a- eq year 'yqi, his dominions were divided among
mongdie pjs three fonSj Carloman, Pepin, and Grippon, accord-
Charles. to t^ie difpolitions he had made in his lifetime. By
this Carloman, the eldell, had Aullrafia ; Pepin, the fe-
cond, Neullria and Burgundy 5 while Grippon, the
third, had only fome lands afligned him in France ; by
which he was fo much difpleafed, that the tranquillity
of the empire wras foon difturbed. With the affillance
of his mother Sonnechilde he feized on the city of
Lahon, where he endured a violent liege. In the end,
however, he was obliged to fubmit; Sonnechilde was
put into a monallcry, and Grippon imprifoned in a
caltle at Arden. The two brothers, having thus freed
themfelves from their domeltic enemy, continued to go¬
vern the empire with uninterrupted harmony ) but
their tranquillity Avas foon dillurbed by the intrigue* of
Sonnechilde. That enterpriling and ambitious Avoman
had negotiated a marriage betAveen Odilon duke of
Bavaria and Hiltrude the filler of the tAvo princes.
This wTrfS no fooner accomplilhed than Odilon, inlligat-
ed by Sonnechilde, and alarmed at the growing poAver
of the two princes, entered into an alliance Avith Theo-
dobald duke of the Alemanni and Theodoric duke of
the Saxons ; w’ho having affembled a formidable army,
advanced direftly againlt the princes. They polled
themfelves in an advantageous manner, Avith the river
Lech in their front j but Carloman and Pepin, palling
the river at different fords in the night time, attacked
the camp of the allies Avith great vigour. The engage¬
ment continued doubtful for five hours } but at lalt the
x intrenchments Avere forced on all fides, the Bavarians
and Saxons entirely routed, and the vanquilhed dukes
obliged to fubmit to the clemency of the viflors. Du¬
ring their abfence on this expedition, Hunalde, whom
Charles Martel had appointed duke of Aquitain, hav¬
ing likeAvife entered into a confederacy Avith Odilon,
paffed the Loire, ravaged the open country, and burnt
the magnificent cathedral of the city of Chartres. The
•tAvo princes, however, having returned Avith their vic¬
torious army, Hunalde founa himfelf obliged to re- France
treat: and even this availed him but little : for the 1 v
Franks entering the duchy of Aquitain, committed
fuch devallations, that Hunalde in defpair refigned his
dominions to his fon, and retired into a convent. This
event was foon folloAved by a fimilar refignation of Car¬
loman, notAvithftanding the uninterrupted fuccefs he had
met with. He fuddenly took the refolution of retiring
into a convent, and perfilled in his delign notAvitblland-
ing tire entreaties of Pepin, who, to appearance at leall,
did all he could to diffuade him.
By the refignation of Carloman, which happened in Pepin be-
the year 746, Pepin was left foie mailer of France; comes foie
and in this exalted Ration he acquitted himfelf in fuch
a manner as has juilly rendered his name famous to po- jom 1
llerity. One of the firit adls of his new adminiilration
Avas to releafe his brother Grippon from prifon : but
that treacherous prince had no fooner regained his li¬
berty, than he again excited the Saxons to take up arms.
His enterprife, hoAvever, proved unfuecefsful : the
Saxons Avere defeated, their duke Theodoric taken,
and his fubjedls obliged to fubmit to the Avill of the
conqueror 5 Avho upon this occafion caufed them make
a profeflion of the Chrillian religion. Grippon then
fled to Hiltrude, his half After, Avhofe hufband Odilon
Avas noAV dead, and had left an infant fon named TaJJi-
lon. He met Avith a favourable reception from her j
but, Avith his ufual treachery, feized both her and her
fon by the affiftance of an army of malecontent Franks,
Avhom he had perfuaded to join him. His next ftep
Avas to affume the fovereignty and title of duke of Ba¬
varia ; but being driven from the throne by Pepin, he
was obliged to implore his clemency, Avhich Avas once
more granted. All thefe misfortunes, hoAvever, Avene
not yet fufficient to cure Grippon of his turbulence
and ambition i He once more endeavoured to excite dif-
turbances in the court of Pepin j but being finally
detedled and baffled, he Avas obliged to take refuge in
Aquitain.
Pepin having noAV fubdued all his foes both foreign Affuntes
and domeftic, began to think of affuming the title of the title of
king, after having fo long enjoyed the regal power. His hiog.
Aviffles in this refpedl were quite agreeable to tbofe of
the nation in general. The nobility, hoAvever, Avere
bound by an oath of allegiance to Childeric the nomi¬
nal monarch at that time : and this oath could not be
difpenfed Avith but by the authority of the pope. Am-
baffadors for this purpofe Avere therefore difpatched
both from Pepin and the nobility to Pope Zachary, the
reigning pontiff. His holinefs replied, that it Avas laAV-
ful to transfer the regal dignity from hands incapable
of maintaining it to thofe Avho had fo fuccefsfully pre-
ferved it ; and that the nation might unite in the fame
perfon the authority and title of king. On this the
unfortunate Childeric was degraded from his dignity,
fhaved, and confined in a monaftery for life j Pepin af¬
firmed the title of king of France, and the line of Clovis
Avas finally fet afide.
This revolution took place in the year 751. The
attention of the neAV monarch Avas firft claimed by a
revolt of the Saxons ; but they were foon reduced to
fubjedlion, and obliged to pay an additional tribute :
and during this expedition againft them, the king had
the fatisfadlion of getting rid of his reftlefs and trea¬
cherous competitor Grippon. This turbulent prince,
H 2 having
F R A [ 60 ]
having Toon become weary of refiding at the court of invafion
Aquitain, determined to efcape from thence, and put
himfelf under the protection of Aftolphus king of the
Lombards ; but he was killed in attempting to force
a pafs on the confines of Italy. Pepin in the mean time
continued to pufh his good fortune. I he fubmiffion
of the Saxons was foon followed by the reduction of
Britanny } and that by the recovery of Narbonne from
the Infidels. His next exploit was the protection of
Pope Stephen III. againft Aftolphus the king of the
Lombards, who had feized on the exarchate of Ra¬
venna, and infilled on being acknowledged king of
Rome. The pope unable to contend with fuch a
powerful rival, halted to crofs the Alps and implore
the protection of Pepin, who received him with all
the refpeCt due to his character. He was lodged in the
abbey of St Dennis, and attended by the king in per-
fon during a dangerous ficknefs with which he was
feized. On his recovery, Stephen folemnly placed the
diadem on the head of his benefaCtor, beftowed the
regal unCtion on his fons Charles and Carloman, and
conferred on the three princes the title of patrician of
Rome. In return for thefe honours, Pepin accompa¬
nied the pontiff into Italy at the head of a powerful
army. Altolphus, unable to withltand fuch a power¬
ful antagonilt, fhut himfelf up in Pavia, where he was
clofely befieged by the Franks, and obliged to renounce
all pretenfions to the fovereignty of Rome, as well as
to reftore the city and exarchate of Ravenna, and
fwear to the obfervance of the treaty. No fooner was
Pepin gone, hoAvever, than Aftolphus broke the treaty
he had juft ratified with fuch folemnity. rI he pope
was again reduced to diftrefs, and again applied to Pe¬
pin. He now fent him a pompous epiftle in the ftyle
and charaCler of St Peter himfelf; which fo much in¬
flamed the zeal of Pepin, that he inftantly fet out for
Italy and compelled Aftolphus a fecond time to fubmit
to his terms, which were now rendered more fevere by
the impofition of an annual tribute. Pepin next made a
tour to Rome •, but finding that his prefence there gave
great uneafinefs both to the G reeks and to the pope him¬
felf, he thought proper to finifh his vifit in a Ihort time.
Soon after his return Aftolphus died, and his dominions
were ufurped by his general Didier j who, however, ob¬
tained the papal fanCHon for what he had done, and was
recognized as lawful fovereign of the Lombards in the
year 756.
Pepin returned to France in triumph ; but the peace
©f his dominions was foon difturbed by the revolt of
the Saxons, who always bore the French yoke with
the utmoft impatience. Their prefent attempts, how¬
ever, proved equally unfuccefsful with thofe they had
formerly made •, being obliged to fubmit and purchafe
their pardon not only by a renewal of their tribute, but
by an additional fupply of 300 horfe. But while the
king was abfent on this expedition, Vaifar duke of
Aquitain took the opportunity of ravaging Burgundy,
where he carried his devaftations as far as Chalons.
Pepin foon returned, and entering the dominions of
Vaifar, committed fimilar devaftations, and would
probably have reduced the whole territory of Aqui¬
tain, had he not been interrupted by the hoftile pre¬
parations of his nepheAV Taflilon the duke of Bavaria.
The king, however, contented himfelf at prefent with
fecuring his frontiers by a chain of polls, againft any
5
FRA
after which he refumed his enterprife on the France;
dominions of V aifar. J he latter at firlt attempted to ' 1 " v
impede the progrefs of his antagonift by burning and
laying wafte the country ; but finding this to no pur-
pofe, he determined to try his fortune in an engage¬
ment. ViCtory declared in favour of Pepin •, but lie
refufed to grant a peace upon any terms. The French
monarch advanced to the banks of the G aronne j while
Vaifar was abandoned by his ally the duke of Bavaria,
and even by his own fubjeCts. In this diftrefs he re¬
tired with a band of faithful followers into the country
of Saintonge, where he defended himfelf as long as pof-
fible, but was at laft deprived both of his crown and life
by the viCtor.
' Thus the duchy of Aquitain was once more annex¬
ed to the crown of France j but Pepin had Icarce time
to indulge himfelf with a view of his new conqueft
when he was feized with a flow fever, which put an
end to his life in the year 768, the 54th of his age> Death5of
and 17th of his reign. He was of a fliort ftature,pCpin>
whence he had the furname of Le Bref or the Short;
but his great aCtions juilly entitled him to the character
of a hero : though under the fucceeding reign his own
fame feemed to have been entirely forgot, and on his
tomb was only inferibed, “ Here lies the father of Char¬
lemagne.” . _ . 2g
Pepin was fucceeded in his authority by his tw o 2uccee4e(j
fons Charles and Carloman *, to whom with his dying by his tw»
breath he bequeathed his dominions. They continued fons.
to reign jointly for fome time j but the aClive and en-
terprifing fpirit of Charles gave fuch umbrage to the
weak and jealous Carloman, that he regarded him with
envy, and was on the point of coming to an open rup¬
ture with him, when he himfelf was taken off by
death, and thus the tranquillity of the empire was pre-
ferved.
The firft military enterprife of Charles was againft
Hunalde, the old duke of Aquitain j who leaving the
monaftery where he had refided upwards of 20 years,
affumed the royal title, and was joyfully received by
his fubjeCts, already weary of the French yoke.—
Charles took the field with the utmoft expedition, and
with difficulty prevailed upon his brother Carloman,
who was then alive, to join him with his forces. But
the junCtion rvas fcarce effeCted, when Carloman with¬
drew his forces again, and left his brother to carry on
the war in the belt manner he could. Charles, though
thus deferted, did not hefitate at engaging the enemy j
and having overthrown them in a great battle, Hu¬
nalde was obliged to fly to the territories of Lupus
duke of Gafcony. Charles quickly fent an embaffy de¬
manding the fugitive prince j and Lupus, not daring to
difobey the orders of fuch a powerful monarch, yielded
up the unfortunate Hunalde, who was inftantly caft in¬
to prifon, from which, however, he afterwards made his
efcape. # 27
The death of Carloman, which happened in the year peign 0f
771, left Charles foie mailer of France, but the revolt Charles the
of the Saxons involved him in a feries of wars from Great,
which he did not extricate himfelf for 33 years. Thefe
had long been tributaries to the French, but frequently
revolted •, and now, when freed from the terror of Pe¬
pin’s arms, thought they had a right to {hake off the
yoke altogether. Charles entered their country with,
a powerful army j and having defeated them in a num¬
ber
0
FRA [6
France, her ox fmall engagements, advanced towards Erefbourg
“^v"- 1 near Paderborn, where they had their capital poll, and
where was the image of their god Irminful, reprefented
as a man completely armed, and itanding on a co¬
lumn. The Saxons made an obftinate defence, but
were at lait obliged to fubmit; and Charles employed
his army three days in demolilhing the monuments of
idolatry in this place } which fo much dilheartened the
whole nation, that for the prefent they fubmitted to
fuch terms as he pleafed to impofe j and which were
rendered ealier than they probably would have been,
by the news which Charles now received from Italy.—
He had concluded a marriage with the daughter of
Didier king of the Lombards j but this had been dif-
folved by the pope, who reproached the Lombards
with the firft ftain of the leprol'y. Thus all friendfhip
was diffolved betwixt Didier and Charles ; and as the
Lombard monarchs feem to have had a kind of natural
enmity toAvards the popes, it is not furprifing that it
Ihould now break out with uncommon fury. Didier
having feized and frighted to death Pope Stephen IV.
ufed his utmoft endeavours to reduce his fucceffor
Adrian I. to a date of entire dependence on himfelf.
Adrian applied- to the French monarch, the ufual re-
fource of the pontiffs in thofe days. Charles was very
willing to grant the neceffary affiftance, but the nobi¬
lity were averfe to an Italian war ; fo that he Avas obli¬
ged to a<ff with great circumfpection. Several embaf-
<ies Avere therefore fent to Didier, entreating him to re-
ffore to the Pope thofe places which he had taken from
him, and at lart even offering him a large fum of money
if he Avould do fo j but this propofal being rejected,
he obtained the confent of his nobility to make Avar
on the Lombards. Didier difpofed his troops in fuch
a manner, that the officers of Charles are faid to have
been unanimouily of opinion that it would be impof-
lible to force a paffage. This, hoAvever, was accom-
pliihed, - either through the fuperior Ikill of Charles,
according to lome hidorians, or a panic which feized
the Lombard foldiers, according to others } after which,
Didier, with the old duke of Aquitain, who had efca-
pod from his prifon, and taken refuge at his court,
Omt themfelves up in Pavia. Adalgife, the only fon
of the Lombard monarch, Avith the widow and children
of Carloman, fled to Verona. That city ivas im¬
mediately inveded by the conqueror, and in a fhort
time obliged to fubmit. Adalgife had the good luck
to efcape to Condantinople, but we are not informed
Avhat became of Carloman’s widoAV and children. 
Charles, after paying a ffiort vidt to Rome, returned
to the fiege of Pavia. I he place Avas vigoroufly de¬
fended, until famine and pedilence obliged the inhabi¬
tants to implore the clemency of Charles. Hunalde
fell a. facrifice to his oAvn obdinacy in oppodng the
intention of the people Didier Avas taken prifoner and
carried into France j but Ave are not informed of his
fate aftenvards. His kingdom, hoAvever, Avas totally
diffolved, and Charles was croAvned king of Lombardy
at Milan in the year 774.
Haying received the .oaths of allegiance from his
neAv lubie&s, Charles fet out for Saxony, the inhabi¬
tants of Ayhich had again revolted, and recovered Eref-
bourg their capital. I he king foon recovered this im¬
portant pod ; but a detachment of his army being cut
»ff, and new troubles arifmg in Italy, he was obliged
i j FRA
to accept of the propofals of the Saxons, though France.
their fincerity Avas very doubtful. Having therefore 1 v—
only drengthened the fortifications of Erefbourg, and
left a fufficient garrifon in the place, he fet out for
Italy, Avhich Avas all in commotion through the in¬
trigues of the emperor of the Eait, and Adalgife the
fon of Didier. The prefence of Charles redored tran¬
quillity in that quarter; but in the mean time, the
Saxons having taken Erefbourg and dedroyed the for¬
tifications, threatened to annihilate the French poAver
in that quarter. On the king’s return, he found them
employed in the dege of Sigebourg. His hidden ar¬
rival ilrudk the barbarians with fuch terror, that they
indantly died for peace; which the king once more
granted, but took care to fecure their obedience by a
chain of forts along the river Lippe, and repairing the
fortifications of Ereibourg. An affembly of the Saxon,
chiefs Avas held at Paderborn, and a promife Avas made,
that the nation ihould embrace the Chridian religion :
after Avhich the king fet out on an expedition to Spain
in the year 778.
This neiv enterprife Avas undertaken at the requed
of Ibunala, the Moorifh hrvereign of Saragofia, Avho
had been driven from his territory. He Avas redored,.
however, by the proAvefs of Charles, Avho reduced the
cities of Pampeluna and Saragoffa. He reduced alfo
the city of Lareelona, and the kingdoms of Navarre
and Arragon ; but, on his return, he met Avith a fe-
vere check from the Gafcons, Avho attacked and de¬
feated the rear-guard of his army Avith great daughter
as they paffed the Pyrenean mountains. This engage¬
ment, which feems to imply fome defect in the prudence
or military fkill of Charles, has been much celebrated
among romance Avriters, on account of the death of Ro¬
land a famous Avarrior.
Next year, 779, he paid a vifit to Italy Avith his two
fons Carloman and Louis. Having paffed the Avinter
at Pavia, he entered Rome next fpring amidit the ac¬
clamations of the inhabitants. Here, in the 39th year
of his age, he divided his dominions in prefence of the
pope betwixt his tAvo fons Carloman and Louis. The
former, avIio now took the name of Pepin, had Lom¬
bardy ; the latter Aquitian. Having then received
the fubmiffion of Taffilon duke of Bavaria, he fet out
for Saxony, Avhere he took a moll fevere revenge
on the people of that country for the many treacheries-
they had been guilty of. The prefent revolt Avas
chiefly oAving to a chief named Witikind, Avho had
tAvice before fled from the victorious arms of Charles,
and taken refuge at the court of Denmark. Return¬
ing from thence, in the king’s abfence, he roufed his
countrymen to action, Avhile the generals of Charles,
difagreeing among themfelves, negleded to take the
proper methods for repelling the enemy. In confe-
quence of this, they Avere entirely defeated on the
banks of the Wefer in the year 782. Charles arrived
in time to prevent the total deliruCtion of his people,
and direCtly penetrated into the heart of the country.
Witikind unable to relilt his antagonilt, once more
fled into Denmark; but 4500 of his followers perilhed
at once by the hands of the executioner. An uniA^er-
fal infurreCtion Avas the confequence of this unheard of
cruelty; and though during three years the French
monarch was conftantly fuccefsful in the field, he found-
it impoffible by any force Avhatever to fubdue the-
fpirit.
e
F R A [ 62 ] FRA
France, fplrit of tlie people. At laft therefore he avas obliged
 v to have recourfe to negotiation. Witikind and leve-
ral other chiefs were invited to an interview ; where
Charles reprefented to them in fuch ftrong colours the
ruin which muft neceilarily enfue to their country by
perfitling obftinately in oppofition to him, that they
were induced not only to perfuade their countrymen
finally to fubmit, but to embrace the Chriftian reli¬
gion.
Charles having thus brought his affairs in Saxony
to a happy conclufion, turned his arms againit I adi-
lon duke of Bavaria, who had underhand fupported
the Saxons in their revolt. Having entered his coun¬
try with a powerful army in the year 787, he made
fuch rapid advances, that the total dcttruclion of Taf-
filon feemcd inevitable. Charles had advanced as far
as the river Lech, when Taffilon privately entered his
camp, and threw himfelf at his feet. The king had
compaffion on his faithlefs kinfman on feeing him in
this abject poiture •, but no fooner did the traitor find
himfelf at liberty, than he ftirred up the Hunns, the
Greek emperor, and the fugitive Adalgife, again!! the
king. He fomented alfo the difcontents of the fac¬
tious nobles of Aquitain and Lombardy *, but his fub-
jects, fearing left thefe intrigues ftiould involve them
in deftrudtion, made a difcovery of the whole to
Charles. Taftilon, ignorant of this, entered the diet
at Ingelheim, not fufpecting any danger, but was in-
ftantly arrefted by order of the French monarch.
Being brought to a trial, the proofs of his guilt were fo
apparent, that he was condemned to lofe his head :
the puniftiment, however, was afterwards mitigated to
perpetual confinement in a monaftery, and the duchy
of Bavaria was annexed to the dominions of Charles,
t The Hunns and other enemies of the French mo¬
narch continued to prolecute their enterprifes without
regarding the fate of their affociate Taffilon. Their
attempts, however, only ferved to enhance the fame
of Charles. He defeated the Hunns in Bavaria, and
the Greek emperor in Italy j obliging the latter to
renounce for ever the fortune of Adalgife. I he
Hunns, not diftieartened by their defeat, continuing to
infeft the French dominions, Charles entered their
country at the head of a formidable army *, and having
forced their intrenchments, penetrated as far as Raab
on the Danube, but was compelled by an epidemic
, diitemper to retire before he had finiffied his conqueft.
He was no fooner returned to his orvn dominions, than
he had the mortification to be informed, that his eldeft
t fon Pepin had confpired againft his fovereignty and
life. The plot Avas difeovered by a prieft who had
accidentally fallen afleep in a church where the con-
fpirators Avere affembled. Being aAvakened by their
l voices, he overheard them confulting on the proper
meafures for completing their purpofe ; on which he
inftantly fet out for the palace, and fummoned the
; monarch from his bed to inform him of the guilt of his
fon. Pepin Avas feized, but had his life fpared, though
condemned to expiate his offences by fpending the re¬
mainder of his days in a monaftery.
Charles Avas no fooner freed from this danger than
lie was again called to arms by a revolt of the Saxons
on the one hand, while a formidable invafion of the
Moors diftreffed him on the other } the Hunns at the
diame time rcneAving their depredations on his domi¬
nions. The king did not at prefect make war againft France.
the Moors ; probably forefeeing that they Avould be v 
called off by their Chriftian enemies in Spain. This
accordingly happened ; the victories of Alonfo the
Chafte obliged them to leave France 5 after Avhich
Charles marched in prerfon to attack the Saxons and
Hunns. The former contented again to receive the
Chriftian religion, but Avere likewife obliged to deliver
up a third part of their army to be difpofed of at the
king’s pleafure ; but the Hunns defended themfelves
AAuth incredible vigour. Though often defeated, their
love of liberty ay as altogether invincible ; fo that the
Avar was not terminated but by the death of the king,
and an almoft total deft ruction of the people : only one
tribe could be induced to acknowledge the authority of
the French monarch.
Thefe exploits Avere finifhed betwixt the years 793
and 798 : after which Charles invaded and fubdued the
iftands of Majorca and Minorca 5 Avhich the diffenfions
of the Moorifh chiefs gave him an opportunity of
doing. The fatisfa&ion he felt from this new con¬
queft, hoAvever, Avas foon damped by the troubles Avhich
broke out in Italy. After the death of Pope Adrian,
his nephew afpired to the papal dignity } but a prieft
named Leo being preferred, the difappointed candi¬
date determined on revenge. He managed matters io
avcII, that his defigns were concealed for four years.
At laft, on the day of a proceffion, a furious affault was
made on the perfon of Leo. The unfortunate pontiff
was left for dead on the ground 3 but having Avith
difficulty recovered, and made his efcape to the Vati¬
can, he Avas protefted by the duke of Spoleto, at that
time general of the the French forces. His caufe Avas
Avarmly efpoufed by Charles, Avho invited him to his
camp at Paderborn in Weftphalia 5 Avhence he dft-
patched him Avith a numerous guard to Rome, promifing
foon after to vifit that metropolis, and redrefs all griev¬
ances. His attention for the prefent, however,, was
called by the defeents of the Normans on the maritime
provinces of his dominions 3 fo that he Avas obliged to
defer the promifed affiftance for fome time longer.
Having conftrudted forts at the mouths of moft of the
navigable rivers, and further provided for the defence
of his territories, by inftituting a regular militia, and
appointing proper fquadrons to cruife againft the in¬
vaders, he fet out for the fourth and laft time on a
journey to Rome. Here he Avas received with the
higheft poffible honours. Leo was allowed to clear
himfelf by oath of the crimes laid to his charge by his
enemies, Avhile his accufers Avere fent into exile. On
the feftival of Chriftmas, in the year 800, after Charles
had made his appearance in the cathedral of St Peter,
and affifted devoutly at mafs, the pope fuddenly put a 2g
croAvn on his head 3 and the place inftanty refounded He is
Avith acclamations of “ Longlife to Charles the Au-crowned _
guft, crowned by the hand of God 1 Long life and
viftory to the great and pacific emperor of the. Ro¬
mans !” His body Avas then confecrated and anointed
Avith royal unition 3 and after being conducted to . a
throne, he Avas treated Avith all the refpeft ufually paid
to the ancient Caefars 3 from this time alfo being ho¬
noured Avith the title of Charlemagne, or Charles the
Great. In private converfation, hoAvever, he ufually
protefted, that he Avas ignorant of the pope’s intention
at this time 3 and that, had he knoAvn it, he Avould .have
difappointed
F K A [ i
France, difappointed him by his abfence : but thefe protefla-
tions were not generally believed $ and the care he
took to have his new title acknowledged by the ealiern
emperors, evidently ihowed how fond he was of it.
Charles, now railed to the fupreme dignity in the
weif, propofed to unite in himfelf the whole power of
the firit Roman emperors, by marrying Irene the em-
prefs of the eaft. But in this he was difappo nted by
the marriage of that princefs by Nicephorus •, .owever,
the latter acknowledged his new dignity of Augaiius,
and the boundaries of the two empires were amicably
fettled. Charles was further gratitied by the refpect
paid him by the great Haroun Al-Rafhid, caliph of
the' Saracens, who yielded to him the facred city of
Jerufalem, and holy fepulchre there. But in the mean
time his empire was threatened with the invalion of a
very formidable enemy, whom even the power of Charles
■would have found it hard to reliil. Thefe were the
Normans, at this time under the government of God¬
frey a celebrated warrior, and who by their adventurous
fpirit, and ikill in maritime artairs, threatened all the
weilern coads of Europe with defolation. From
motives of mutual convenience a tranlitory peace was
elfablilhed, and Charles made ufe of this interval to
fettle the final diftribution of his dominions. Aqui-
tain and Gafcony, with the Spanilh Marche, were afiign-
ed to his Ion Louis; Pepin had Italy confirmed to
him *, and to this urns added the greateft part of Ba¬
varia, with the country now poffefied by the Grifons.
Charles the eldeit had Neuftria, Aultrafia, and Thu¬
ringia. The donation was fuppofed to be rendered
more authentic by the function of the pope. This di¬
vision, however, had fcaree taken place, when the
princes were all obliged to defend their dominions by
force of arms. Louis and Pepin were attacked by the
Saracens, and Charles by the Sclavonians. All thefe
enemies were defeated ^ but while Charles hoped to
fpend the ihort remainder of his life in tranquillity, he
was once more called fortli to martial rxertio s by the
hoftile behaviour of Godfrey the Norman leader.
Charles fent him a meflage of defiance, which -was re¬
turned jn the fame ftyle by Godfrey : but the former,
by artfully fomenting divifions among the northern
powers, prevented for a while the threatened danger}
but, thefe difturbances being quelled, the Normans re¬
newed their depredations, and Charles was obliged to
face them in the field. An engagement, hov ever, was
prevented by death of Godfrey, who was aifaffinated
by a private foimer ; on which the Norman army re¬
treated, and the dominions of the empire ftill remain-
ed free Irom thefe invaders. Still the latter days of
Charles were embittered by domeftic misfortunes. His
favourite daughter Rotrude died, as did alfo Pepin
king of Italy j and thefe misfortunes were foon followed
by the death of his eldcit fon Charles. The emperor
then thought proper to affociate Ins only furviving fon
Louis with him in the government 5 which was formally
•path of done at Aix-la-Chapelle. Charles himfelf furvived this
harks thetranfaciion only a few months: his death happened on
^eat. the 27th of January 814, in the 71ft year of his age,
and 47th of his reign,
xtent of By the martial achievements of this hero, the French
es.territ°’ monarchy was raifed to its utmoft pitch of fplen-
dour. He had added the province of Aquitain to the
territories of his anceftors) he had confined the inha-
]
F R A
29
bitants of Brittany to the fhores of the ocean, and ob-^ France.
liged them to fubmit to a difgraceful tribute. Hej v~*“"
had reduced under his dominion all that part of Spain]
which extends from the Pyrenees to the river Lbro,j
and includes the kingdoms of Rouflillon, Navarre, Ar-j
ragon, and Catalonia. He pofiefitd Italy from the!
Alps to the borders of Calabria j but the duchy of Be-]
neventum, including molt of the prefent kingdom ofj
Naples, efcaped the yoke after a tranfitory fubmillion.I
Bcndes theie extenfive countries, Charles added to his1
territories the whole of Germany and Pannonia j fir
that the French now had the jurifiliction of all the!
country from call to welt, from the Ebro in Spain'
to the Viltula; and from north to fouth, from the
duchy of Beneventum to the river Eyder, the boun¬
dary between Germany and the dominions of Denmark.
In acquiring thefe extenfive dominions Charles had been
guilty of horrid and repeated maffacres, for which,
ho wever, he had been in fome meafure excufable by the
barbarity and rebellious difpofition of the people with
whom he had to deal, upon whom no mild meafures
would probably have had any effedt. His eftablilhing
oi fchools throughout the conquered provinces, Ihowed
alfo his inclination to govern his fubjedts in peace,
and to take proper Reps for their civilization ; though
indeed many parts of his private conduct ihowed no
Imall inclination to cruelty j particularly the fate of
the fons of Carloman, of whom no account could ever
be obtained. His advice to his fon Louis indeed was
excellent; exhorting him to confider his people as his
children ; to be very mild and gentle in his admini-
ftration, but firm in the execution of juilice ; to re¬
ward merit •, promote his nobles gradually j choofe mi-
nillers deliberately, but not remove them capricioufly
or without fufficient reafon. All thefe prudent maxims, Decline of
however, were not fufficient to enable Louis to govern his empire,
dominions fo extenfive, and people fo turbulent as he
had to deal with. At the time of the deccafe of his
father this prince was about 36 years of age, and had
married Ermengarde, daughter of the count of Hef-
bai of the diocefe of Liege, by whom he had three
fons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis. Lothaire, the eldeft,
was afibciated with himfelf in the empire, and the two
youngeft were intrufted with the governments of Aqui¬
tain and Bavaria. Every one of the princes proved un>
faithful to their father, as well as enemies to one an¬
other. The death of Ermengarde, and the marriage of
the emperor with Judith a princefs of Bavaria, artful
but accomplifhed, proved the firfl fource of calamity to
the empire. In the year 823, Charles, the emperor’s
youngeft fon, was born 5 and his pretenfions became in
time more fatal to tlie public tranquillity than the am¬
bition and difobedience of all the reft. Various parts
of the Imperial dominions were likewife aflaulted by
foreign enemies. The inhabitants of Brittany and Na"-
varre revolted ; the Moors invaded Catalonia ; while
the ambition of Judith produced a war amongft the
brothers themfelves.
3 2
Charles at firft had been appointed fovereign of that Civil wars
part of Germany bounded by the rivers Danube, the ":mong the
Maine, the Neckar, and the Rhine; the country of of
the Grifons and Burgundy, comprehending Geneva Gentleh0
and the Swifs cantons; but this was oppofed by the
three elder fons. Pepin and Louis advanced with the
united forces of Aquitain and Bavaria, while the Im-
pt rial!
F H A
[ <>4 3
FRA
France. penal forces deferted their ftandard and joined the
' malecontents. The emperor was taken prifoner, and
the emprefs retired to a monaftery. Lothaire, the
eldeft of the younger princes, to whom the reft found
themfelves obliged to fubmit, was the perlon who re¬
tained the emperor in his pofleffion } but, notwithftand-
ing his breach of duty, his heart was touched with re-
morfe on account of the crimes he had committed.
Dreading the reproach of the world at large, and be-
ing threatened with the cenfures of the church, he
threw himfelf at his father’s feet, and begged par¬
don for his guilt, confenting to relinquifti the autho¬
rity he had unjuftly ufurped. Thus Louis was re-
eftablifhed in his authority by the diet of the empire
which had met to depofe him. His firft ftep was to
recal his emprefs from the monaftery to which Ihe had
retired; but this princefs, implacable in her reient-
ment, now perfecuted Lothaire to fuch a degree, that
he was obliged to join his two brothers Pepin and
Louis in a confederacy againft their father. l«e old
emperor thought to check this, rebellious difpofition
by revoking his grant of Aquitain to Pepin, and con¬
ferring it on his youngeft fon Charles, then only
nine years of age j but Pope Gregory IV. conferred
the Imperial dignity itfelf on Lothaire, depofmg the
unhappy monarch, and again fending the emprefs to a
nunnery in the foreft of Arden. The unnatural beha¬
viour of his fon, however, once more excited the
compaffion of his fubjefts. Dreux the bithop of
Mentz, ufed his intereft with Louis king ot Havana
to arm his fubjefts in defence of his father and fove-
rei<m. In this enterprife the Bavarian monarch vras
joined by the French and Saxons*, fo that the aged
emperor was once more reftored, the emprefs repealed
from her nunnery, and Charles from his prifon, m the
>C The3ambition of Judith now fet matters once more
in a flame. Taking advantage of the affbaion her
hufband bore her, Ihe perfuaded him to inveft her Ion
Charles with the fovereignty of Neuftria as well as
the dominions formerly afligned him. 1 his was pro-
du&ive of great difeontent on the part ot Lothaire
and Pepin *, but their power was now too much broken
to be able to accomplilh any thing by force of arms.
The depth of Pepin, which happened foon after, pro¬
duced a new divifion of the empire. I he claims 01
young Pepin and Charles, fons of the deceafed prince,
were entirely difregarded, and his French dominions
divided between the two brothers Charles and Lothaire,
the latter being named guardian to his infant nephew.
This enraged Louis of Bavaria, whofe intereft was
entirely negkaed in the partition, to fuch a degree,
that he again revolted *, but the unexpe&ed appearance,
with the hoftile preparations of the Saxons, obliged
him to fubmit and afk pardon for his offences. Still,
however, the ambition of the emprefs kept matters m a
continual ferment, and the empire was again threat¬
ened with all the calamities of civil war *, but before
thefe took place, the emperor died, in 841, after a molt
unfortunate reign of 27 years.
Louis was eminent for the mildnefs of his manners
and peaceful virtues, which procured him the title of
Le Debonnaire, or, “ the gentle but fuch was the tur¬
bulence and exceflive barbarity of the age m which lie
lived, that all his virtues, inftead of procuring him
France.
33
refpedl and efteem, were produftiye only of contempt
and rebellion from thofe whom both duty and nature
ought to have rendered the moft fubmiflive and obe-
The deceafe of the emperor was followed by a civil
war among his fons. The united forces of Lothaire
and his nephew Pepin were defeated by thofe of
Charles and Louis in a very bloody battle in the plains
of Fontenoy, where 100,000 Franks perifhed,. m the
year 842. This vidlory, however, bloody as it was,
did not decide the fortune of the war. The conquerors
havino-, through motives of intereft or jealoufy, retired
each into their own dominions, Lothaire found means
not only to recruit his fliattered forces, but preffed the
other two princes fo vigoroufly, that they were glad
to confent to a new partition of the empire. By this
Lothaire was allowed to poffefs the whole of Italy,
with the whole trad of country between the rivers
Rhone and Rhine, as well as that between the Meule
and Scheldt. Charles had Aquitain, with the country
lying between the Loire and the Meufe ; while Louis
had Bavaria, with the reft of Germany, from whence
he was diftinguilhed by the appellation of Louis the
By this partition, Germany and France
joined in fuch a manner as never afterwards to be unit¬
ed under one head. That part of France which was
allowed to Lothaire, was from him called Lotkaringia,
and now Lorrain, by the gradual corruption of the
word. The fovereignty, however, which that prince
had purfued at the expence of every filial duty, and
purchafed with fo much blood, afforded him now but ^
little fatisfaclion. Difgufted with the cares and anxie- Lcthaire
ties of his fituation, he fought relief in a monaftery in retigns.
the year'8155. On his retreat from the throne, he al¬
lotted to his eldeft fon Louis II. the fovereignty of
Italy, to his fecond fon Lothaire the territory of
Lorrain, with the title of king*, and to his youngeft 3S
fon Charles, furnamed the Bald, Provence, Dauphiny, Reign of
and part of the kingdom of Burgundy fo that he tharies y
may be confidered as properly the king of France.
From the year 845 to 857 the provinces fubjefted to
his jurifdiaion had been infefted by the annual de¬
predations of the Normans, from whom Charles was
at laft fain to purchafe peace at a greater expence than
might have carried on a luccefsful war. I he people
of Brittany had alfo revolted*, and though obliged by
the appearance of Charles himfelf, at the head of a
powerful army, to return to their allegiance they no
fooner perceived him again embarraffed by the incur-
fions of the Normans, than they threw off. the yoke,
and under the conduft of their duke Louis fubdued
the neighbouring diocefe of Rennes *, after which ex¬
ploit Louis affumed the title of king, which he trani-
mitted to his fon Herifpee. By him Charles was to¬
tally defeated *, and his fubjefts, perceiving the weak-
nefs of their monarch, put themfelves under the pro-
tedfion of Louis the German. His ambition prompt¬
ed him to give a ready ear to the propofal; and there¬
fore, taking the opportunity of Charles’s abfence m
repelling an invafion of the Danes, he marched with a
formidable army into France, and was folemnly crown¬
ed by the archbifliop of Sens in the year 857.. Being
too confident of fuccefs, however, and fancying him¬
felf already eftabliftied on the throne, he was periuadeft
6 to
I
FRA [65
France, to difmifs his German forces } winch lie had no fooner
' v-—1 done, than Charles marched againil him with an army,
and Louis abandoned his new kingdom as eaiily as he
had obtained it.
Notwithftanding this fuceefs, the kingdom of Charles
continued Hill in a very tottering lituaiion. The Nor-
Imans haraffed him in one quarter, and the king of Brit¬
tany in another. He marched againil the latter in the
year 860 ; but had the misfortune to receive a total de¬
feat, after an engagement which lafted two days. The
viclory was chieily owing to a noted warrior named Ro¬
bert le Fort, or the Strong, who commanded the Bre¬
tons ; but Charles found means to gain him over to his
party, by invefting him with the title of duke of France,
including the country which lies between the rivers
Seine and Loire.
For fome time the abilities of Robert continued to
fupport the tottering throne of Charles 5 but the diffi¬
culties returned on the death of that hero, who was
killed in repelling an invafion of the Danes. Some a-
mends was indeed made for his lofs by the death of the
king of Lorrain in the year 869 5 by which event the
territories of Charles were augmented by the cities of
Lyons, Vienne, Toul, Befan^on, Verdun, Cambray,
Viviers and Urez, together with territories of Hain-
ault, Zealand, and Holland. Cologne, Utrecht, Treves,
Mentz, Strafburg, with the reft of the territories of
Lolhaire, were affigned to Louis the German.
All this time the Normans ftill continued their in-
curfions to fueh a degree, that Solomon king of Brit¬
tany was perfuaded to join his forces to thofe of Charles,
in order to repel the common enemy. The event
proved unfortunate to the Normans : for their principal
leaders were befieged in Angiers, and obliged to pur-
chafe leave to depart by relinquishing all the fpoil they
had taken. Charles thus freed from a formidable ene¬
my, began to afpire to the Imperial crown, which
about this time became vacant by the death of Louis.
This belonged of right to Louis the German ; but
Charles, having inftantly affembled a powerful army,
marched with it into Italy before Louis could be ap-
prifed of his defigns 5 and being favourably received at
Rome, the Imperial crown was put on his head with¬
out any hefitation by the pope, in the year 873. Louis,
enraged at his difappointment, difeharged his fury on
the defencelefs country of Champagne •, and though
the approach of Charles obliged him for the prefent
to retire, yet he continued his preparations with fuch
vigour, that Charles would in all probability have found
him a very formidable adverfary, had he not been taken
off by death in the year 877. Charles was no fooner
informed of his brother’s deceafe, than he invaded the
dominions of his fon Louis, who poffeffed Franconia,
Thuringia, the Lower Lorrain, with fome other terri¬
tories in that quarter. The enterprife, however, prov¬
ed unfuccefsful. Charles, though fuperior in num¬
bers, was defeated with great {laughter, and had fcarcely
time to reunite his fcattered forces, when he was in¬
formed that the Normans had invaded his territories,
laid wafte part of that country, and taken poffeffion of
the city of Rouen. So many difafters affefted him in
iuch a manner that he fell dangeroufty ill, and was
fcarcely recovered of his ficknefs when he found bimfelf
called into Italy to the affiftance of the pope againft
Vol. IX. Part I.
] F fv A
the Saracens, whofe invafions were encouraged by the France,
duke ol lleneventum and the Greek emperor. Charles
paffed into Italy with only a few followers j but when
he came to Pavia, at which place the pontiff had ap¬
pointed to meet him, he was informed that Carloman
king of Bavaria, and Ion oi Louis the German, w as
already in Italy with a powerful army, and laid claim
to the imperial title in virtue of his father’s right.
Charles prepared to oppufe him Ly force of arms ; but
his generals eonipired againft him, and the foldiers de¬
clared their refoluUon not to pais the Alps. On this
he wTas obliged to retire to France, at the very moment
that Carloman, dreading his power, prepared to return
to Germany. This was the laft of Charles’s enterpriies.
His journey brought on a return of his indiipofttion,
which was rendered fatal through the treachery of a
Jewish phyfician named Zedethius, who adminifleitd 36
poifon to him msder pretence of curing his malady. He He ft poi-
expiied in a roilerable cottage upon Mount Cenis, in ionctb
the 54th year ot his age, and 38th of his reign over the
kingdom of France. ^
The ambition of Charles had been productive of deigi. of
much diitrefs both to himfelf and to his fubiebls. His Loud the
fbn Louis, furnamed, from a defect in his fpeech, //^Stammerer.
Stammerer, was of a quite different difpofition j but his
feeble ad mini ft rat ion was ill calculated to retrieve mat¬
ters in their prefent fftuation. He died on the 10th
of April 879, while on a march to fupprefs fome in-
furredtions in Burgundy. He left his queen Adelaide
pregnant ; who fome time after his deceafe was deliver¬
ed of a fon, named Charles. After his death followed
an interregnum ; during which a faction w as formed
for fetling abide the children of Louis the Stammerer,
in favour of the German princes, fons to Louis the
brother of Charles the Bald. This fcheme, however,
proved abortive ; and the two fons of the late king,
Louis and Carloman, were crowned kings of France.
Another kingdom w7as at that time eredted by an af-
fembly of the ftates, namely, the kingdom of Provence,
which coiffifted of the countries now called Lyonnais^
Savoy, Dauphimy, Tranche Compte, and part of the duchy
of Burgundy 5 and the kingdom w as given to Luke
Bofon, brother-in-law to Charles the Bald. In 881,
both kings of France died ; Louis, as wras fufpedted,
by poifon; and Carloman of a wound he received ac¬
cidentally while hunting. This produced a fecond in¬
terregnum ; which ended with The calling in of Charles
the Grofs, emperor of Germany. His reign was more
unfortunate than that of any of his predeceffors. T he
Normans, to whom he had given leave to fettle in
Frieftand, failed up the Seine with a fleet of 700 {hips,
and laid ftege to Paris. Charles, unable to force them
to abandon their undertaking, prevailed on them ta
depart by a large fum of money. But as the king
could not advance the money at once, he allow ed them
to remain in the neighbourhood of Paris during the
winter; and they in return plundered the country,
thus amaffing vaft wealth befides the fum which Charles
had promifed. After this ignominious tranfablion
Charles returned to Germany, in a very declining ftate
of health both as to body and mind. Here he quar¬
relled with his emprefs; and being abandoned by all
his friends, he Avas depofed, and reduced to fuch
diftrefs, that he would not even have had bread to eat,
I had
France.
3s
Family of
Charles the
Great fup-
planted by
Hugh Ca-
pet.
39
flobert.
40
Henry I.
F 11 A [ 66
Iiad be not been {applied by the arebbiihop of Mentz,
out of the principle of charity.
On the depolition of Charles the Grots, Eudes count
of Paris was chofen king by the nobility during the
minority of Charles the ton of Adelaide, afterwards
named Charles the Simple. He defeated the Normans,
and repreffed the power of the nobility •, on which ac¬
count a faction was formed in favour of Charles, who.
was font for, with his mother, from England. Eudes
did not enter into a civil war } but peaceably refigned
the 'meateft part of the kingdom to him, and contented
to do homage for the reft. He died foon after this
agreement, in the year 898. _
During the reign of Charles the Simple, the French
government declined. By the introduftion of fiefs,
thofe noblemen who had got into the poffeflion of go¬
vernments, having thefe confirmed to them and their
heirs for ever, became in a manner independent love-
reigns 5 and as thefe great lords had others under them,
and they in like manner had others under them, and
even thefe again had their vaffals} inftead of the eafy
and equal government which prevailed before, a vaft
number of infupportable little tyrannies was erected.
The Normans, too, ravaged the country in the moft
terrible manner, and deiolated feme of the fineft pro¬
vinces in France. At laft Charles ceded to Rollo, the
king or captain of thefe barbarians, the duchy of Neu-.
Itria 5 Avho thereupon became a Chriftian, changed his
own name to Robert, and that of his principality to
Normanchj. . .
During/the remainder of the reign or Charles tne
Simple, and the entire reign of Lous IV. furnamed
the Stranger, Lothaire, and Louis V. the pow'er of the
Carlovingian race continually declined •, till at laft they
were fupplanted by Hugh Capet, who had been created
duke of France by Lothaire. This revolution happened
in the year 987, and was brought about much in the
fame manner as the former one had been by Pepin.
He proved an active and prudent monarch, and poffeffed
fuch other qualities as were reqmfite for keeping his
tumultuous fubjects in awe. Fie died on the 24th of
Oftober 997, leaving his dominions in perfect quiet to
his fon Robert. _ . . . .
The new king inherited the good qualities or his fa¬
ther. In his reign the kingdom was enlarged by the
death of Flenry duke of Burgundy, the king’s uncle,
to whom he fell heir. Fhis nt-w acceffion of territory,
however, was not obtained without a Avar of feveral
years continuance, on account of fome pretendeis to
the fovereignty of that duchy 5 and had it not been roi
the afliftance of the duke of Normandy, it is doubtful
•whether the king Avould have fuceeded.—As Robert Avas
of opinion, that peace and tranquillity Avere preferable to
Avide extended dominions vvith a precarious tenure, he
refufed the kingdom of Italy and imperial crown of
Germany, both which were offered him. He died on the
20th of July 1030-, having reigned 33 years, and lived 6c.
Robert was fuccfceded by his eldeft ion Henry 1.
Avho in the beginning of his reign met with great.op-
pofition from his mother. She had always hated him *,
and preferred his younger brother Robert, in-Avhofe fa¬
vour (he now raifed an infurre&ion. By the afliftance
of Robert duke of Normandy, however, Henry over¬
came all his enemies, and eftabliflied himfelf firmly up-
1
F R A
France.
on the throne. In return for this, he- fupported V. il- ,
liam, Robert’s natural fon, and afterwards king oi
England, in the poffeflion of the duchy of Normandy.
Afterwards, however, growing jealous of his poAver,
he not only fupported the pretenders to the duchy of
Normandy fecretly, but invaded that country himfelf m
their favour. This enterprife proved- unfuccefsful, and
Henrv Avas obliged to make peace : but no fincere re¬
conciliation ever followed for the king retained a deep
fenfe of the difgrace he had met Avith, and the. duke ne¬
ver forgave him for invading his dominions. The trea¬
ty between them, therefore, was quickly broken } and
Henry once more invaded Normandy A\ith two armies,
one commanded by himfelf, and the other by .his bro¬
ther. The firft Avas haraffed by continual ikirmflhes,
and ’the laft totally defeated ; after which Henry Avas
obliged to agree to fuch terms as the duke thought
proper : but the rancour between them never cealed,
and was in reality the caufe of that implacable averfion
Avhich for a long feries of years produced perpetual
quarrels between the kings of France and thofe of the
Norman race in England. . . 41
Henry died in 1059, n0t without a fufpicion of being Philip,
poifoned ; and Avas fucceeded by his. eldeft fon Phi]ip,
at that time in the eighth year of his . age. Baidu in
earl of Flanders Avas appointed his guardian j and died in
the year 1066, about the time that \V illiam of Normandy
became king of England. After the death oi his tutor,
Philip began to {how a very infincere, haughty, and
oppreflive difpofition. He engaged in a Avar with
William the Conqueror, and fupported his Jon Robert in
his rebellion againll him §. But after the death of § Set Eng-
William, he aflifted Robert’s brothers againft him ; by iand^^
which means he was forced to confent to a partition oi
his dominions. _ .
In 1092, King Philip being Aveaned of his queen
Bertha, procured a divorce from her under, pretence of
confanguinity, and afterwards demanded, in .marriage
Emma daughter to Roger count of Calabria. I he
treaty of marriage Avas concluded ; and the pnncels a\ as
fent over, richly adorned Avith jeAvels, and Avii.h a large
portion in ready money: but the king,, inftead of
efpoufing her, retained her fortune, and dilmriled the
princefs'herfelf, carrying off from her hufband the coun-
tefs of Anjou, who was efteemed the handlomeft wo¬
man in France. With her he was fo deeply enamour¬
ed, that not fatisfied Avith the illegal poffeflion ct her
perfon, he procured a divorce betAveen her and her luff-
band, and prevailed upon fome Norman bifhops to lo-
lemnize his oAvn marriage Avith her. The Avhole of
thefe tranfadfions, however, Avere fo fcandalous, that
the pope having caufcd them to be revhed in .a coun¬
cil at Autun, m the year 1094, pronounced fentence
of excommunication againft Philip in cafe he did not
part Avitli the countefs. On his repentance, the cen-
fure Avas taken off 5 but as the king paid no regard to
his promifes, he was, in 1095, excommunicated a fe-
eond time. He again profeffrd repentance, and avhs
abfolved 5 but foon after, liA'ing Avitli the countefs. of
Anjou as formerly, he Avas excommunicated a third
time. This conduct, fo umvorthy of a prince, expofed
him to the contempt of the people. 100 many of
the nobility folloAved bis example, and at the fame
time defpifed his authority 5 not only making Avar up-
France,
42
luis the
lofs.
FRA [67
on each other, but fpoiling and robbing his iubjedls
with impunity.
In the year mo, Philip prevailed on the court of
Rome to have his affair reviewed in an alfembly at
Poi£tiers ; v/here, notwithflanding his utmoft efforts,
fentence of excommunication was a fourth time pro¬
nounced again!! him. Yet, in fpite of all thefe fen-
tences, as (^ueen Bertha was dead, and the count of
Anjou offered, for a large him of money, to give
whatever affxftance was requifite for procuring a dif-
penfation, Philip at laft prevailed, and the countcfs
was proclaimed queen of France. But though the
king’s dome die affairs were now( in .feme meafure quiet¬
ed, his negligence in government had thrown the af¬
fairs of the nation into the greateil diforder. He there¬
fore alfociated with him in the government his eldeft
fon Louis. This prince was the very reverfe of his fa¬
ther ; and by his activity and refolution, keeping con-
ftantly in the field with a confidcrable body of forces,
he reduced the rebellious nobility to fubjeefion, and
according to the belt hiitorians, at this time laved the
ftate from being utterly fubverted.
For thefe fervxees the queen looked upon the young
prince with fo jealous an eye, and gave him fo much
difturbance, that he found it neeeiTary to retire for fome
time into England ; where he was received by King-
Henry I. with the greateit kindnefs. fie had not been
long at court, before Henry received by an exprefs a
letter from Philip ; telling him, that, for certain im¬
portant reafons, he Ihould be glad if he clofely confined
his fon, or even defpatched him altogether. The king
of England, however, inftead of complying with this
infamous requeft, fliowed the letter to Louis, and fent
him home with ail imaginable marks of refpect. Im¬
mediately on his return, he demanded juilice ; but
the queen procured poifon to be given him, which
operated fo violently that his life was defpaired of. A
ftranger, however, undertook the cure, and fucceeded j
only a palenefs remained in the prince’s face ever af¬
terwards, though he grew fo fat that he was furnamed
the Grofs.
On his recovery, the prince was on the point of re¬
venging his quarrel by force of arms •, but his father
having caufed the queen to make the moft humble fub-
miflions to him, his refentmeut was at length appeafed,
and a perfect reconciliation took place.
Nothing memorable happened in the reign of King
Philip after this reconciliation. He died in the year
1108, and was fucceeded by his fon Louis the Grofs.
The firlf years of his reign were difturbed by infur-
re£tions of his lords in different places of the king¬
dom ; and thefe infurre&ions were the more trouble-
fome, as they were fecretly fomented by Henry L of
England, that by weakening the power of France
his duchy of Normandy might be the more fecure.
This quickly brought on a war 5 in which Henry
was defeated, and his fon William obliged to do ho¬
mage to Louis for the duchy of Normandy. As the
kings of England and France, however, were rivals,
and exceedingly jealous of each other, the latter
elnoufed the caufe of William the fon of Robert duke
of Normandy, whom Henry had unjuftly deprived of
that duchy. I his brought on a new war j in which
Louis, receiving a great defeat from Henry, was obliged
to make peace upon fuch terms as his antagonift thought
]
F R A
proper. The tranquillity, however, was but of ihort
duration. Louis renewed his intrigues in favour of
William, and endeavoured to form a confederacy
againft Henry 5 but the latter found means not only
to difiipate this confederacy, but to prevail upon Hen¬
ry V. emperor of Germany to invade France with the
whole itrength of the empire on one fide, while he
prepared to attack it on the other. But Louis hav¬
ing collected an army of 200,oco men, both of them
thought proper to defilt. Upon this the king of
France would have marched into Normandy, in order
to put William in poffeflion of that duchy. His great
vaffals, however, told him they would do no fuch
thing ; that they had alTernbled in order to defend the
territories of France from the invafion of a foreign
prince, and not to enlarge his power by deltroying
that balance which arofe from the king of England’s
poffeffion of Normandy, and which they reckoned ne-
ceffary for their own fafety. This was followed by a
peace with Henry 5 which, as both monarchs had now
feen the extent of each other’s power, was made on
pretty equal terms, and kept during the life of Louis,
who died in 1137, leaving the kingdom to his fon
Louis VII.
Fiance.
43
The young king was not endowed with any of thofe Louis VlL
qualities which conilitute a great monarch. Froma weak
the fuperftition common to the age in which he lived,pnnCe'
he undertook an expedition into the Holy Land, from
whence he returned without glory. In this expedition
he took his queen Eleanor along with him ; but was
fo much offended with her gallantries during her flay
there, as well as her behaviour afterwards, that he di¬
vorced her, and returned the duchy of Guienne which
he received with her as a portion. Six weeks after
this the married Henry duke of Normandy, count of
Anjou and Maine, and heir apparent to the crown of
England. This marriage was a very great mortifica¬
tion to Louis j and procured him the furname of the
Young, on account of the folly of his conduct. When
Flenry afeended the throne of England, fome wars
were carried on between him and Louis, with little
advantage on either fide : at laft, however, a perfeft
reconciliation took place ; and Louis took a voyage to
England, in order to vifit the Ihrine of St Thomas of
Canterbury. On his return he was ftruck with an
apoplexy ; and though he recovered for that time, yet
he continued ever after paralytic on the right fide.
After having languilhed for about a year under this
malady, he died on the 18th of September 1180, leav¬
ing the kingdom to his fon Philip.
This prince, furnamed The Gift of God, The Magna- PhiUpthe
nimous, and The Conqueror, during his lifetime ; and, as Great,
it all thefe titles had fallen ftiort of his merit, ftyled
Augujlus after his death,—is reckoned one of the
greateft princes that ever fat on tig; throne of France,
or any other. It doth not, however, appear that thefe
titles were altogether well founded. In the beginning
of his reign he was oppofed by a ftrong faction excited
by bis mother. This indeed he fuppreffed with a vi¬
gour and fpirit which did him honour 5 but his taking-
part with the children of Henry II. of England in
their unnatural contefts with their father, and his
treacherous combination with John to feize his bro¬
ther’s kingdom when he was detained in prifon by the
emperor of Germany, muft be indelible ftains in his
I 2
charafter.
• 45 r
SLeign ot
Louis IX.
FRA [68
France, diarafter, and for ever exclude him from the title of
' ’ Magnanimous. As to military {kill and perfonal
valour, he was evidently inferior to Richard I. of
England nor can his recovering of the provinces held
by the EngIKh in France, from fuch a mean and
daftardly prince as King John, entitle him with any
juftice to the furname of Conqueror. In polities he
was evidently the dupe of the pope, who made ufe of
him to intimidate John into a fubrniffion, by prominng
him the kingdom of England, which he never meant
that he ihould enjoy. An account of thefe tranfa&ions,
which are the principal ones of this reign, is given
under the article England, N° 121—141.
Philip died in 1223, and was fucceeded by his fon
Louis VIII. and he, in 1226, by Louis IX. afterwards
ftyled St Louis. This prince was certainly poffeffed
of many good rjualilies, but deeply tintlured with the
fuperftition of the times. This induced him to en¬
gage in two croiiades. The firlt was againfl the
Saracens in Egypt : in which he was taken prifoner
by the Infidels, and treated with great cruelty ^ but
at laft obtained his ranfom, on condition of paying a
million of pieces of gold, and furrendering the city of
Damietta. He no fooner regained his liberty, than he
entered Syria with a view of doing fomething worthy
of his rank and character. From this expedition he
ay as obliged to return fooner than he intended, bv t1 e
news of the deceafe of his mother Queen Blanch, whom
he had appointed regent in his abience, and who had
managed the national affairs with the greateft prudence.
The king, however, found many diforders in the king¬
dom upon his return ; and thefe he fet himfelf to re¬
form with the utmoft diligence. Having fucceeded m
this, he yielded to Henry III. of England, the Li-
moufin, Querci, Perigord, and fome other places; in
conlideration of Plenry and his fon Prince Edward their
renouncing, in the fulleft manner, all pretenfions to
Normandy and the other provinces of France which the
Englifh had formerly poffeffed.
The reputation of this monarch for candour and
juftice was fo great, that the barons of England, as well
as King Henry HI. confented to make him umpire
of the differences which fubfifted between them. But
though he decided this matter very juftly, his decifion
was not produdlive of any good effeft. At laft the
kin
France.
. 4<J
fhilip the
Hardy.
having fettled every thing relating to his king¬
dom in a proper manner, fet out on another croifade
for Africa 5 where he died of the plague, on the 25th
of Auguft x 270, •
Notwithftanding the misfortunes of Louis, his fuc-
ceffor Philip, furnamed the Hardy., continued the war
again ft the Infidels with great vigour. Being rein¬
forced by his uncle Charles king of Sicily, he brought
the war to a more fortunate conclufion than his prede-
ceffor had been li'jely to do. The Saracens were de¬
feated in two engagements, and the king of Tunis
obliged to fuc for peace } offering at the fame time to
double the tribute he formerly paid to the crown of
Sicily ) to reimburfe the expences of the war ; and to
permit the Chriftian religion to be freely propagated
throughout his dominions. Having accompliftred this,
the two princes fet fail for Europe ; but the feeds of
the diftemper which had infeaed the army in Africa
not being eradicated, broke forth on their arrival in
Sicily, and raged for fome time with great violence.
] F H A
Befides a vaft number of common people, the king’s
brother John, his queen Ifabella, with his brother and
fifter-in-law the king and queen of Navarre, and his
uncle and aunt the count and countels of I oiciiers,
periflred by this dreadful malady.
On his return to France, Philip took poffeffion of
the counties of Provence and Thouloufe 5 married hi*
fecond fon, though then very young, to the only daugh¬
ter of the king of Navarre j while he himfelf efpoufed
Mary the daughter of the duke of Brabant, reckoned
one of the moft beautiful princeffes of the age. He
fteadily enforced the regulations of his predeccllor,
who had prohibited the barons from making private
wars upon one another ^ procured the friendship of
Edward I. of England by ceding to him the county of
Agenois j and entered into a war with Spain m cider
to fupport the pretenfions of his nephews, the Infants
de la Cerda, to the throne of Caftile.
The events of this rear were of no^ great import¬
ance 5 and the king’s attention was quickly called off
from them by the death of his eldeft fon Louis at the
age of twelve years. This difaftrous. event happened
in the year I 275» without a lufpicion ot poiton \
and the young queen, Mary, was aecufed by a bur¬
geon named La Broffe as guilty of his death. Philip
gave fome credit to the accufation : but having applied
to a nun, who pretended to be infpired, for full fatis-
fa£tion, her anfwer proved fatal to La Brofie. ^ T he
queen being cleared by this pretended propheteis, La
Broffe was accufed of a treafonable correfpondence with
the king of Caftile, and condemned to death. The
manner of his trial and execution, however, were fuch,
that the tide of popular favour was turned ; La Broffe
was by the voice of the people declared to be innocent,
and the king and queen themfelves loudly condemned.
During thefe unfavourable circumftances, the Sicilians,
over whom Charles of Anjou had eftabliffed his
authority, inftigated by John of Procida, a noble exile,
came to a refolution of freeing themfelves at once from
the French yoke by a general^ maffacre; This cruel French^
refolution vras accordingly put in execution } and the
French, to the number of 8000, murdered in one
night-, after which Peter of Arragon, failed to the
ill and, where he was received by the inhabitants as
theib king and faviour. Charles was fenfibly affected
by this misfortune : and having laid fiege to Medina,
failed direaiy to Marfeilles, where he obtained a power-
ful reinforcement. But during his abfence on this
occafion, his fon, to whom he had entrufted the care of
the fiege, having raihly ventured an engagement with
the Span!fir fleet, was entirely defeated and taken pri¬
foner • which fo much affefted the father that he died
of grief, and Sicily was infeparably attached to the
houfe of Arragon. ,
The misfortunes of Charles were followed by others
equally great to Philip himfelf. Pope Martin IV. in
the warmth of his zeal for the caufe of the duke of
Anjou, had excommunicated Pedro king of Arragon,
afrd bellowed his kingdom on Charles of \alois, a
younger fon of the king of France. In attempting
to defend himfelf againft the execution of this unjuil
fentence, Pedro was mortally wounded ; but, foon af¬
ter, the French fleet being defeated by that of ^ Arra¬
gon, the king was fo much affefted by the misfortune
that he fell ‘fick. His difeafe was augmented by the
heat
47
FRA [ 69 ]
France, heat of the climate and the fatigues of war; fo that, ders :
"v " ' quite worn out with grief and infirmities, he expired at
Perpignan in the 411! year of his age, and 16th of his
FRA
France.
48
Ttcign of
Philip the
Fair.
49
Difference
with ]£n in¬
land.
By the death of Philip the Hardy the French crown
devolved on his fecond fon, called alfo Philip, and from
the beauty of his perfon furnamed the Fair; who had
efpoufed the princefs of Navarre, and at the time of
his acceffion was in his 17th year. By the marriage
with this princefs he had obtained the counties of
Champagne and Brie ; yet with all this increafe of
power lie found himfelf unable to fupport the war in
which his predecefibr had engaged. For this reafon he
thought proper to abandon the intereft of the Infants
dp la Cerda, and fettle the ditferences with Caftile.
The treaty was concluded by the mediation of Edward
I. of England ; at whofe interceflion Charles the
Lame, fon to the duke of Anjou already men¬
tioned, was releafed from his captivity ; Edward him¬
felf paying part of his ranfom. On this Charles con-
fented to renounce his claim on Sicily ; and Philip him¬
felf promifed that his kinfman Philip of Valois fhould
renounce all pretentions to the crown of Arragon. In
return for this generofity, the latter obtained the eldeft
daughter of Charles, with the territories of Anjou, and
Maine as a dowry. x
The tranquillity procured by this treaty, however,
was foon interrupted by differences with Edward the
promoter of it; Pope Boniface VIII. and Guy de
Dampier, count of Flanders. The difference with
England took place by a mere accident. A Norman
and an Englifh veffel having met oft* the coaft of Bay¬
onne, and having both occafion for water, the crews
met and quarrelled at the fame fpring. A Norman
was killed in the fquabble by his own weapon, with
which he affaulted an Englishman, as the latter pre¬
tended : but however the matter was, complaints rvere
made by the Normans to Philip ; who, without giving
himfelf much trouble to inquire into the merits of the
caufe, inftantly allowed them to redrefs their fuppofed
injuries. On this a kind of piratical war commenced
betw'een the two nations, in which the two fovereigns
for fome time took no aftive part ; though other na¬
tions interfered; the Irilh and Dutch feamen tiding
with the Englifh, and thofe of Flanders and Genoa
with the French. Thus the powers on both tides were
gradually augmented, till at laft the affair became fo
ferious, that in one engagement x ?,ooo French are
faid to have perithed. Philip, alarmed at fuch a car¬
nage, fummoned the king of England as his vaffal to
attend; and, on his refufal, declared his eftates in
France to be forfeited. After a number of negotia¬
tions, Philip declared that he would be fatisfied with
the nominal ceffion of the province of Guienne, which
he engaged inftantly to reftore to the king of England
as foon as it thould be put into his hands. Edward
complied with his demands ; but no fooner had the
French monarch obtained poffeftion of that country,
than he pertifted in the forfeiture of the Englith pof-
fetlions in France ; which treacherous proceeding in¬
ftantly produced a war betwixt the two nations. Ed¬
ward, that he might defend himfelf the better againft
fuch a formidable adverfary, concluded a treaty with
the emperor Adolphus, together with the counts of
Brittany, Holland, Bar, Juliers, Gueidres, and Flan-
while Philip ftrengthened himfelf by an alliance
with John Baliol of Scotland ; and thus laid the foun- '
dation of that ftribt union which took place between
France and Scotland for two centuries. During this
war the French made a defeent on the coaft of Eng¬
land, and deftroyed the town of Dover ; while Ed¬
ward, in revenge, landed in Gafcony with an army of
50,000 men. No great exploits, however, were per¬
formed with this mighty armament ; and both parties
finding themfelves pretty equally matched, confented
to a fufpenfion of arms for two years ; during which a
peace was finally concluded by the mediation of Pope
Boniface VIII. Guienne was reftored ; Edward Peace con-
while his eluded.
5*
efpoufed
Margaret
the After of Phili;
daughter Ifabella was given in marriage to the prince of
Wales.
Both Philip and Edward behaved to the allies whom
they had engaged in their caufe with equal perfidy.
Baliol was abandoned by Philip to the refentment of
Edw’ard ; while Guy, earl of Flanders, w'as left equally
expofed to the refentment of Philip.
The reconciliation betwixt the French and Englilh Difference
monarchs was foon followed by a difference with Pope Wlth P°Pe
Boniface, whom they had appointed mediator between Bo^ace'
them. Senfible of his affuming difpofition, how¬
ever, they had inferted in the reference made to him,
that he wras chofen as a private man, and not as
the fucceffor of St Peter. The haughty pontiff,
however, foon fhowed, that he was not by any means
to be treated as a private perfon, and a conteft with
Philip quickly enfued- Boniface began with forbidding
the clergy to grant the king any fubfidies without
firft obtaining the confent of the Holy See, under the
pain of excommunication. Philip revenged himfelf by
prohibiting any ecclefiaftics from fending money out
of the kingdom without his leave , and by protecting
the Colonnas, who were the implacable enemies of Bo¬
niface. By this his holinefs was fo much irritated that
he fent a molt abufive letter to Philip; after w hich he
fummoned the clergy of France to a council at Rome ;
which Philip retaliated, by feizing the temporalities
of thofe who obeyed the fummons, and recalling his
brother Charles of Valois, who had the title of the
Pope's General. Senfible, however, of the danger that
attended this conteft, he defpatched two emiffaries, un¬
der pretence of conciliating the differences, to levy
fuch a body of troops as might execute his hoftile pur-
pofes againft the holy father.. With thefe he fuddenly
invefted the pope in his native city of Anegnia; and
w'hile the bull was preparing for the excommunication
of Philip, and releafing his fubjedls from their obe¬
dience, the pope himfelf was obliged to furrender pri-
foner to the . troops of the prince whom he defigned to
anathematize.
Though Boniface had been at this time delivered
up to the troops of Philip through the treachery of the
people of Anegnia, yet he was no fooner taken pri-
foner and brought to diftrefs, than they refeued him
from his guards and conveyed him to Rome, where he 52
foon after died of grief and Ihame. His fucceffor Be- Death of
nedift revoked the excommunication of Boniface, and Boniface,
attempted to regain the allegiance of Philip by gentle
means : but, before this could be effected, he himfelf
was cut off by death, not without ftrong fufpicions of
poifon, After lus deceale Philip offered to procure
iks -
France.
53
Tlie Pope
fixes his re-
iidence at
Avignon.
54
Expedition
of Philip
againft the
earl of
Flanders.
FRA [7°
the papal chair for Bertrand arehbiihop of Bourdeaux,
provided he would condemn the memory of Boniface,
reft ore the honours and eftates of the Colonnas which
had been forfeited, allow' him, for five years, the tenths
of the clergy of France, and comply with a requelt
which at that time it was not proper to divulge.
Bertrand having complied with the terms propofed
by the king, afcended the papal throne by the name
of Cletvent V. but narrowly efcaped being killed on his
return from the cathedral of Lyons, by the falling or a
wall which had been overloaded by the number of
people who came to fee the proceffion } by which acci¬
dent the duke of Brittany was killed, and the king
and count of Valois conliderably bruifed. I he new
pope fixed his refidence at Avignon, where he punc¬
tually complied with all the conditions ot the treaty,
except that of condemning the conducf of Boniface,
which he abfolutely refuted to do} and, inftead ot
doing fo, vindicated it with much folemnity, after hav¬
ing inquired into the matter, or pretended to do fo.
The other condition, which Philip had at firft con¬
cealed, was difeovered by the death of the emperor
Albert of Auffria ; after which event he defired Cle¬
ment to aflift him in placing his brother Charles of
Valois on the Imperial throne. But his holinefs, ap-
prehenfive of the danger which might accrue to mmlcit
from being furrounded- with the powerful relations ot
Philip, urged the diet to proceed inflantly to an elec¬
tion ; recommending to them Henry of Luxemburg
as a proper perfon to fill the Imperial throne. In tins
fcheme he fucceeded fo well, that the eleftion was over
before Philip could arrive at Avignon j and. the only
confutation the French monarch could obtain for his
difappointment was the poffeflion of the city of Lyons,
which had hitherto maintained an independency under
its archbifhop ; but was now perfuaded to fubmit to the
authority of Philip. . , , .
In the mean time Guy, earl of Flanders, being
abandoned by his ally Edward king of England, was
obliged to throw himfelf on the mercy of the French
monarch, who had font his brother Charles of Va¬
lois with a powerful army to invade his dominions.
From the latter indeed he had obtained a promife, that
if he could not, within a year,, compofe the differences
fubfifting between him and Philip, he fhould be at li¬
berty to retire, and purfue what mealures he pleaied.
But Philip, in order to gratify the refentment which
his queen entertained againft the captive prince, de¬
tained him, with two of his fons, in clofe confinement,
while he himfelf entering Flanders in triumph, was
everywhere received as fovereign of the country *, and
at his departure appointed John de Chatillon, a re¬
lation of the queen, to govern thofe newly acquired ter¬
ritories. . r .c
The new governor took care to repair the iortihea-
tions which had been fuffered to decay by reafon of the
affiduous application of the Flemings to trade ; but be¬
ing of a very haughty and tyrannical difpofition, and
the poverty of the times not allowing his. mailer to
keen regular garrifons, an infurre&ion quickly took
place. This would have been effeaually quelled by
the diligence of the magiftrates, had not Chatillon un¬
luckily entered Bruges, and publicly difplayed two
hogfheads of ropes, which he threatened to employ
in the execution of the inhabitants. On this they flew
5
] FRA
to arms, and maffacred 1500 French j Chatillon himfelf; * QQ c<>‘ ^
being obliged to efcape their fury by Bumming oyer *
the town ditch. The infurgents, now daily gathering
ffrength, foon amounted to an army of 60,000 men,
who laid fiege to Courtray. Here they were rafidy
attacked in their trenches by the count d’Artois, who.
met with the reward of his temerity, being cut off
with 20,000 of his troops. Philip determined on re¬
venge ; though the railing another army obliged him
to debafe the coin of the kingdom. Thus, however, (53)
he was enabled to enter Flanders with fuch a force as The con-
would probably have fubdued the whole country, had 4^^
not Edward artfully communicated to the queen of ^ ])re_
France, as a fecret, a feigned correlpendence between vented by
the French nobility and the court of Rome ; by which Edward III
falfe intelligence the king was induced to abandon the of England,
enterprife without performing any thing worthy of the
armament he had fitted out. i he war w as continued
for fome time longer •, but the attempts 01 Philip w ere
conftantly defeated by the ffeady valour of the Fle¬
mings 5 "and the only recompenfe Philip obtained for all
his trouble and expence was the city of Courtray. (54)
The other remarkable tranfa&ions of this reign were Expdlbon
the expulfion and confifcation of the eflates of theoitne^ _
Templars, who at that time enjoyed immenfe pofief-: ^
fions in France. The confifcations took place without
any form of trial, and upwards of of them were put
to death in a cruel manner. The grand mailer, w ith
three of his principal officers, were burnt by a flow fire
in the prefence of the king himlelf. 1 lie whole body
of thefe unfortunate knights had been accufed of the
moll grofs and abominable fenfualities. J he particu¬
lars were revealed, or pretended to be fo, by two cri¬
minals who received their pardon for the difcovenes
they made •, and thefe difeoveries were confirmed by
the confeffion of the Templars themfelves. But this
confeffion was afterwards retracTed, as being extorted
from them by the fear of abfolute dell ruction ; and
thofe who fuffered, maintained their purity, to the lail :
and on the whole, it wns believed that Philip confulted
his avarice rather than his juiliee by this cruel execu¬
tion. The latter part of ‘ his life was embittered by
domeflic misfortunes. Plis three daughters-in-law,
Margaret daughter of the duke, and Jean and Blanch
of the count, of Burgundy, who had married his three
fons, Louis, Philip, and Charles, were accufed.of infi¬
delity to their huffiands. After a fevere examination,
Margaret and Blanch w’ere condemned to perpetual im-
prifonment 5 in which fituation Margaret was after¬
wards Urangled by order of her hulband Louis. J heir
paramours, Philip and Walter de Launay, two bro¬
thers, were flayed alive, and afterwards hung upon a
o-ibbet, with an uffier of the chamber., who had been
their confidant. The uneafinefs of mind v. hich. Philip
fuffered on this account is fuppofed to have impaired his
health, and he died of a confumption in the year 1395,
the 47th of his age, and 30th of his reign. s5
On the acceffion of Louis, furnamed the Boy?emus, pc|gn of
on account of his violent temper, he found his treafury Louis the
fo much exhaufted, that he was obliged to delay -or 01 Lcr0
fome time the ceremony of his coronation with his new
queen Clemence, daughter of the king of Hungary.
Finding the kingdom otherwife in a very diftracied
ftate, he applied himfelf very diligently to appeafe the
difeontents of his fubie6ls, and conciliate their affection
by
.
Heign of
Philip the
Long.
F R ‘A [
France, by every means in his power. In this he was afliited
 v ' by his uncle Charles of Valois, on whom he at length
entirely devolved the government of the kingdom.
This regent, however, behaved with fuch cruelty as is
fuppofed to have proved fatal to the king himfelf} for
having put to death a nobleman named Enguerrand de
Poilier de Marigni, who enjoyed the confidence of the
late king, this cruelty was fo much refented, that his
friends were thought to have ad mini tiered poifon to
the king *, who expired fuddenly after drinking a glafs
of cold water, in the 26th year of his age, and fecond
of his reign. Immediately after his death, Charles
pi'epared to difpute the fovereignty with the brothers
of the late fovereign. Philip count of Poiclou, the
eldett brother, was at that time at Rome afliiling in
the eleftion of a. newr pope ; and it was not until a
month after the death of his brother that he was able
to put an end to the intrigues which took place on that
occafion : but on his arrival in France, the throne was
affigned to him by the unanimous v6ice of the people.
His profpecls, however, were for a thort time clouded
by the queen dowager Clemence being delivered of a
for, who has been enrolled among the kings of France
under the name of John I. His death in three weeks
fecured the throne to Philip ; who, on account of the
tallnefs of his ftature, was furnamed the Long. His
conduct proved fuperior to that of his prececeflor, who
had unfuccefsfully attempted to fubdue the Flemings,
and had even buffered himfelf to be duped by their
count 5 but Philip, by his vigorous behaviour, fo reduced
tiiern, that they compelled their iovereign to confent
to a peace upon honourable terms. He fummoned
Edward II. of England to do homage for his poffef-
fions in France ; but that monarch, finding himfelf in¬
volved in difficulties, which rendered the vifit inconve¬
nient, fent excufes to Philip, which he was pleafed to
accept. As the French monarch had formerly taken
the crofs during the lifetime of his father, he now pro-
pofed to'put his vow in execution^ but was diffuaded
from this by the pope himfelf, at whofe inftaiice he
fent an army into Italy to put an end to the contend¬
ing factions of the Guelphs and Gibbelines, who for fo
1 mg time filled the country with blood and {laughter.
The event proved unfortunate } and the difgrace was
rendered more mortifying by a contagious diftemjrer,
which fwept off many thoufands of drench fubjetls.
This was fuppofed by the fuperftitious people of thofe
times to be oecafioned by the Jews, who had confpired
with the Saracens to poifon the fprings ; and that the
execution of the projeft was committed to feme le¬
pers who lived by themfelves in hofpitals richly endow¬
ed. On this a perfecution was inftantly commenced
again ft thefe unfortunate men, and great numbers of
them were burnt alive ; while the Jews in general were
abandoned to the rage of the populace, who infulted
their perfons, and plundered their houfes without re-
morfe.
The remaining part of the reign of Philip was fpent
in attempting to regulate the internal concerns of his
kingdom. A defign had been formed by his prede-
ceffors of eftablifning a certain ftandard for the coin,
weights, and meafures, throughout France: and this
was adopted by Philip ; who, in order to carry it more
effectually into execution, purchafed from the counts
of Valois, Clermont, and Bourbon, their right of
7‘ 1
FRA
Unfortr-
inate expe-
lition into
ituly.
coinage within their own dominions. But notwith- France.
Handing all his endeavours for this purpofe, lie never l~—y-——
could bring the fcheme to bear : nor indeed could he
in any degree conciliate the affedtion of his fubjedts.
He died of a fever and dyfentery in the year 1322, the
28 th year of his age, and 6th of his reign.
By the death of Philip, the crown of France de- Reign of
volved on his brother Charles IV. who had obtained Charles the
the furname of Fair. After fettling fome difputes with ^ air*
.the duke of Burgundy, his next ffep wras to diffolvo
his marriage with Blanch, who Hill continued in pri-
fon, and to efpoufe Mary the daughter of Henry em¬
peror of Germany. This marriage tvas contracted
with a view to the Imperial crown itfelf, which had
been fo long feparated from that of France 5 and in
1325 an opportunity offered for Charles to gratify his
ambition. At that time the Imperial dignity was dif-
puted between Louis of Bavaria and Frederic of Au-
ffria ; the latter of whom had been taken prifoner in a
battle with Louis. But Pope John, who entertained
an implacable hatred againit Louis, fulminated the fen-
tence of excommunication againit him, intrufting the
execution of it to Leopold the brother of Ferdinand.
The king of France was induced to embark in the fame
caufe, by a promife of the fpoils of Bavaria j while
Frederic himfelf confented to relinquifh his pretentions
to the empire which he had fo unfuccefsfuily main¬
tained. Louis, however, by inftantly releafing his pri¬
foner, and difmiffing him in an honourable manner,
engaged his friendftnp, and difarmed his molt formid¬
able antagonift. But the pope was not to be dil-
appointed. A confiderable firm of money induced
Leopold to perfevere in his hoftilities, while it was
determined that a new council of electors Ihould be
held in order to transfer the Imperial crown to Charles.
In purfuit of this vifionary fcheme, the king of France
fet out for the frontiers of Germany with a fplendid
army ; but foon found that there was no poffibility of
accomplithing his wilhes. Leopold alone, from mo¬
tives of intereft, remained his friend •, the reft {hewed
the greateft indifference 5 and even his brother-in-law
the king of Bohemia abfented himfelf from the diet;
while in a ftrort time the death of the queen put an end
to all connexions with that crown.
On the deceafe of Mary, Charles efpoufed Joanna
daughter to the count of Evreux : and in order to
avert the calamities to be feared from an infant fuecef-
fion, he entered into an alliance with Robert king of
Scotland 5 by which it was provided, that ftiould ei¬
ther of the fovereigns die without an heir apparent, the
ftates of the kingdom Ihould fill the vacant throne, and
the furvivor of the two kings ftiould with his whole force
fupport the legality of the nomination againft any other
competitor; though even this proved infufficient to
avert the danger which now threatened the kingdom, as
ftrall be explained in the fequel.
Charles died in the year 1328, in the 34th year of Candidates
his age, leaving his queen pregnant 5 and as the fuc-Lr the re-
ceftion depended on the fruit of the queen’s prep-nancy. arK*
. ■ .1 . • .-ff ff’ kingdom on
a regent in the mean time was necellary 5 and two can- the death
didates inftantly appeared for this important poft, of Charles,
urging at the fame time their right to the crown as
well as to the regency. Thefe were, Philip de Valois,
coufin-german to the deceafed king •, the other, Ed-
xvard III. king of England, who afpired to the throne
in
F
France,.
60
Difputes
with Ed¬
ward III.
of Eng¬
land.
(Jl
Edward’s
firft expe¬
dition.
F It A [ 72 ]
in right of his mother, and the nephew of Charles the that it (homi be retaken.
Fain His prctenlions, however, were eafily fet ahde,
and Philip was confirmed in the regency : from which
he icon after ftepped into the throne, on the queen
being delivered of a daughter’, from which carcum-
ftance he acquired the fiumame of Fortunate. But
though the pretenfions of Edward, both to ^ the regen¬
cy and crown, were tmanimoufly rejefted by the peo¬
ple, it was ftill impoffible for Philip to think of the
claims of fuch a formidable rival without uneafinets.
He therefore fummoned the Englifh monarch to do
homage for his poffeflions in France and, upon^ his
not anfwering his fummons, forfeited them, and ieized
his revenues. This at laft induced Edward to crofs
the fea and pay his homage which Philip oonfented
to receive in any form, upon condition of a proper ex¬
planation being afterwards given : but as this was ftu-
dioully delayed after the return of the king of Eng¬
land, the province of Guienne was again feized by the
French monarch. Edward, unwilling to lofe his con¬
tinental dominions, or involve himfelf m a war for the
fake of a mere ceremony, fent over a formal deed, by
which he acknowledged that he owed liege homage to
France. Thus the flame was fmothered for the pre-
fent-, and would perhaps have been entirely extm-
guilhed, had it not been for the intrigues of Robert of
Artois, brother-in-law to the king of France him.elt,
■ who had been expelled his country, and had taken re¬
fuge in England. By him he was perfuaded to renew
his pretenfions to the crown of France, which of necel-
fity produced a war.
For fome time, indeed, neither party made any
open declaration of hoftility but as both monarchs
were poffeffed of great prudence and fagacity, they
foon penetrated each other’s defigns. Philip, under
pretence of taking the crofs, began to make prodigious
armaments, ftrengthening himfelf at the fame time by
alliances on every fide ’, while Edward, determining to
renew his claim to the crown of France, projected the
conqueft of Scotland. This, however, he could not
accomplifh-, and in the mean time Philip, m order to
favour the Scots, with whom he was in alliance, fuffer-
ed his fubjefts to make irruptions into Guienne.
In war broke out openly. Philip having
detached a fquadron of his fleet againft the Infidels,
employed the reft, conftfting chiefly of Genoefe vends,
aoamft the Englifti. As in this war it was of great
importance which fide was taken by the Flemings,
thefe people were courted by both parties. Louis
count of Flanders declared for Philip, but his lubjedts
were more inclined to King Edward. James Arteville
a brewer, the moft able and artful man in the country,
governed’ them at that time as much as if he had been
their prince-, and the advantages arifing from the
Englifh commerce determining him in favour of Ed¬
ward, that prince, at his requeft, embarked for Sluys
with a numerous army. Here he arrived in 1338 and
on his firft landing, it was refolved that the German
princes in alliance with him fhould aft againft Fiance.
But for this a pretence was wanting. The vaffals of
the empire could not a# by Edward’s orders, or even
as his allies, without directions from the emperor, and
he was in league with France. This difficulty, how¬
ever, was foon overcome: the French had made them-
felves mafters of Cambray, and the emperor refolved
K A
With this view he created France.
Edward Vicar General of the Empire ,• an empty ttoe, " *
but which feerned to give hira a right of commanding
the fervices of the princes of Germany. I he Flemings,
who were vafials of Franee, likewife pretended Icruples
at invading the territories of their liege lord. ^ 1 o quiet
thefe, Edward, by the advice of Arteville, affumed the
title of King of France; and by virtue of this right
challenged their affiftance for dethroning Philip de Va¬
lois, the ufurper of his kingdom. I bis ftep, which
he feared would beget endlefs animofities and jealouftes,
he did not take without hefitation } and, according to
Mr Hume, from this time we may date the commence¬
ment of that great animofity which the Englifti have al¬
ways born to the French. _
Edward’s firft attempt was upon the city of Cam¬
bray, to which he laid fiege ; but in a ftiort time he
was prevailed upon by Robert d’Artois to raife the
fiege and march into Picardy. I his country he enter¬
ed with an army of near 50,000 men, compofed moftly
of foreigners. Philip came within fight of him with
an army of near 100,000, compofed chiefly of native
fubjedls j and it was daily expected that a battle would
enfue. But the Englifti monarch was averfe to engage
againft fo great a luperiority : and Philip thought it
fufficient if he eluded the attacks of his enemy, without
running any unnecefiary hazard. I he two armies faced
each other for feveral days} mutual defiances were fentj
and Edward at laft retired into Flanders, and difperfed
his army.
Such was the fruitlefs and aimoft ridiculous conclu-
fion of Edward’s firft expedition, which had plunged
him into the greateft difficulties. He had con Ira died
near 300,000!. of debt} he had anticipated all his
revenue ; he had pawned every thing of value which
belonged either to himfelf or his queen j nay, he ivas
obliged in fome meafure even to pawn himielf to lus
creditors, by deliring their permiffion to go over to
England in order to procure fupply, and by promifing
on his word of honour to return in perfon if he did not
remit their money. On his arrival in England, how¬
ever, he procured a large iuppiy, fufficient to enable
him to make all the neceffary preparations for a new
invafion 5 and fo certain were the Engliffi that France
would now be conquered, that the parliament, before
Edward’s departure, protefted that they owed him no
obedience as king of France, but that the two kingdoms
muft remain for ever diftindl and independent. _
The kinS of England fet out on his fecond expedi-His feconi
tion with a fleet of 240 veffeK Philip had prepared e-‘Pe 1
a fleet of 400 veffels, manned with 40,000 men which
he ft aliened off Sluys, in order to intercept him in his
paffage. The two fleets met on the 13th of June
1340 but the Englifti, either by the fupericr abilities The Frenci,
of Edward, or the greater dexterity of his feamen, entirely d«-
o-ained the wind of the enemy, and had the fun in featxd at
their backs; and with thefe advantages began the ac- Na¬
tion. The battle was fierce and bloody : 1 he Enghlli
archers, whofe force and addrefs were now much cele¬
brated, galled the French on their approachand
when the ffiips grappled together, the example of the
kino- and the nobility who were with him fo animated
the feamen and foldiers, that they maintained every¬
where a fuperiority over the enemy. 1 he Flemings
obferying the battle, hurried out of their ports, and
0 brought
62
FRA. [ 73 ] FRA
ited into
ranee a
.bird time.
France, brought a reinforcoraent to the Englilh ; which coining
unexpectedly, had a greater eftect than in proportion
to its power and numbers. Two hundred and thirty
(hips were taken : and 30,000 Frenchmen were killed,
with two of their admirals : the lofs of the Englilh was
inconliderable, compared to the greatnefs and import¬
ance of the victory. None of Philip’s courtiers, it is
faid, dared to inform him of the event; till his fool or
ieitcr gave him a hint, by which he difeovered the lofs
he had fuftained.
After this great victory, Edward landed Iris forces
and laid liege to Tournay. Philip marched to its re¬
lief with a very numerous army : but aCted with fo
much caution, that Edward found himfelf in a manner
blocked up in his camp : and the counteis dowager of
Hainault, filter to Philip, mother-in-law to Edward,
and fiiter-in-law to Robert d’Artois, coming out of a
convent, to which Ihe had retired, interpoied with fo
much fpirit and addrefs, that die engaged all parties to
agree to a truce for a year, and might perhaps have
64 brought about a peace if ihe had furvived.
dwani in- In 1341, however, Edward’s ambition was once
more excited by the invitation of the count de Mount-
fort, who had polTefled himfelf of the province of
Brittany, and applied to Edward to fecond his claims.
An offer of this kind entirely coincided with Edward’s
moll fanguine defires. He wTas happy in the promifed
afiiitance of Mountfort, an aClive and valiant prince,
clofely united to him by intereft, and thus opening to
him an entrance into the heart of France. Thefe fiat-
tering profpeCls, however, were for a while damped
by the imprifonment of Mountfort 5 whofe aims being
difeovered, he w'as befieged in the city of Nantz and ta¬
ken. But Jane of Flanders his wife foon made up for
the lofs of her hufband. This lady courageoufly under¬
took to fupport the falling fortunes of her family. She
affembled the inhabitants of Rennes, where Ihe then
refided •, and carrying her infant fon in her arms, de¬
plored her misfortunes, and attempted to infpire the
citizens with an affeiftion for her caufc. The inhabi¬
tants of Nantz inilantly efpoufed her interells, and all
the other fortreffes of Brittany embraced the fame re-
folution. The king of England wTas apprifed of her ef¬
forts •, and was entreated to fend her fuccours with all
pollible expedition to the town of Hennebone, in which
place Ihe reiilived to fullain the attacks of the enemy.
Charles de Blois, Philip’s general, anxious to make
himfelf mailer of fo important a fortrefs as Hennebone,
and Hill more to take the countefs a prifoner, fat down
before the place with a large army, and conduced the
fiege with indefatigable induftry. The defence was no
lefs vigorous : feveral fallies were made by the garri-
fon, in which the countefs herfelf was Hill the moll ac¬
tive, and led on the affault. Obferving one day that
their whole army had quitted the camp to join in a
general llorm, Ihe fallied out by a poftern at the head
of 300 horfe, fet fire to the enemies tents and baggage,
put their futlers and fervants to the fword, and occa-
fioned fuch an alarm, that the French defifted from the
afl’ault, in order to cut off her communication with the
town. Thus intercepted, Ihe retired to Auray, where
Ihe continued five or fix days *, then returning at the
head of 500 horfe, Ihe fought her way through one
quarter of the French camp, and returned to her faith-
iul citizens in triumph. But the befiegers had at
VOL. IX. Part L
length made feveral breaches in the walls4 and it was
apprehended that a general affault, which was hourly
expected, would be fatal. A capitulation was there¬
fore propofed, and a conference was already begun,
when the countefs, who had mounted on a high tower,
and was looking towards the fea with great impatience,
deferied feme Ihips at a dillance. She immediately
exclaimed that fucccurs were anived, and forbade any
further capitulation. She was not difappointed in her
wifhes ; the fleet fhe difeerned carried a body of Eng-
lifh gentlemen, with 6000 archers, whom Edward had
prepared for the relief of Hennebone, but who had
been long detained by contrary winds. They entered the
harbour under the conduct of Sir Walter Manny, one
of the moll valiant commanders of his time. This re¬
lief ferved to keep up the declining fpirits of the Bre¬
tons until the time appointed by the late truce with
Edv*ard was expired, on which he was at liberty to re¬
new the war in greater form.
The fuccours under Sir Walter Manny were quickly
followed by a more confiderable reinforcement com¬
manded by Robert of Artois, who made himfelf ma¬
iler of the city of Valines foon after his arrival : but
the French foon recovered the city, and Robert Avas
compelled to relinquilh his prize after receiving a mor*
tal Avound. EdAvard himfelf, eager to revenge the
death of his ally, foon landed at Morbian near Vannes
Avith an army of 12,000 men. With this fmall num¬
ber he undertook at once the fiege of Vannes, Nantz,
and Rennes : but by dividing his forces, he failed in
every enterprife, and gave an opportunity to John duke
of Normandy, the king of France’s eldeil fon, to inveft
him in his camp. In this fituation Ins provifions foon
began to fail •, and EdAvard, notAdthHanding all his
valour, Avould have been obliged to furrender, had he
not, by a train of artful negotiations, induced Philip
to relihquilh the advantage he had obtained, and con-
fent to a truce of three years. This Avas accomplilhed
by the mediation of the court of Rome 5 and the French
monarch was foon made fenfible of the partiality of
that court, and the imprudence of the Hep he himfelf
had taken. EdAvard foon found a pretence to reneAv
the Avar, from the execution of fume nobles of Brittany,
Avho, he faid, Avere partifans of Mountfort, and chofe
to look upon their punilhment as an infraction of the
treaty.
Philip noAV endeavoured to fecure himfelf againfl the
poAver of his rival by alliances, and by purchafing the
city of Montpelier from the king of Majorca : but in
the mean time, the Englilh, under the command of the
earl of Derby, had invaded Guienne, tAvice defeated
the French army commanded by the count de Lille,
and made themfelves maflers of a great number of
toAvns. Philip, by reafon of the exhaufled Hate of his
treafury, Avas for fome time incapable of making any
oppolition. To recruit bis finances, he Avas obliged
to lay a duty on fait; which gave fuch offence to his
fubjecls as had almbff excited a rebellion. When thefe
difeontents Avere affuaged, hoAvever, he foon raifed an
army of 100,000 men, Avhofe courage Avas further
raifed by the prefence of the dukes of Normandy and
Burgundy. I lie Englilh general Avas therefore com¬
pelled to Hand upon the defenfive. One fortrefs after
another Avas furrendered to the French ; till at length
nothing appeared but the total extinftion of the power
K ‘ «f
Traficft.
y—.
mj
FRA
France, of England upon the continent. In .
  Edward refolved to bring relief in perfon to Ids diftref-
fed fubje&s and allies ; and accordingly embarked in
1^46 at Southampton, on board a fleet of near 1000
fail, of all dimenfions. lie carried with him, befldes
all the chief nobility of England, his eldeft fon the
prince of Wales (afterwards furnamed the Black Prince'),
a youth of about 15 years old, and already remarkable
both for underitanding and valour above his age. Eis
I 74 1 FRA
this fituation, fon John to the conntefs of Boulogne. But the hap-
“ pinefs occafloned by thefe marriages was loon interrupt- “
d by the death of the king } who expiied in the ycar Death of
6?
He lands  Q  w
with an ar-ar Confllted of 4000 men at arms, 10,000 archers,
jny in Nor- J    - - - ’ ^ -r-n n —i_:_u
jpandy.
€6
©alais ta¬
ken.
10,000 Wellh infantry, and 6000 Irilh } all which he
landed fafely at La Hogue, a port in Normandy,
which country he determined to make the feat of the
war. .
The intelligence of Edward’s landing, and the deva-
ftation caufed by his troops, who difperfed themfelves
over the whole face of the country, foon fpre ad uni ver¬
bal conilernation through the French court. The rich
city of Caen was taken and plundered by the Englilh
without mercy ; the villages and towns, even up to
Paris, ihared the fame fate *, and the French had no
ether refource but by breaking down their bridges, to
attempt putting a flop to the invader’s-carcer. In the
mean time, Philip was not idle in making preparations
to reprefs the enemy. He had ftationed one of his
generals, Godemar de Faye, with an army on the op-
poflte fide of the river Somme, over which Edward
was to pafs j while he himfelf, at the head of 120,000
fighting men, advanced to give the Englilh battle.
Edward, thus unexpectedly expofed to the danger of
being enclofed and ftarved in an enemy’s country, pub-
lilhed a reward to any that fliould bring him intelli¬
gence of a patlage over the river Somme. This was dif-
covered by a peafant of the country, named Gobin
Agace : and Edward had juft time to get his whole ar¬
my over the river, when Philip appeared in his rear. Oj.
the battle that enfued, in which the French were over¬
thrown with great daughter, an account is given un¬
der the article Cressy.
Edward next laid fiege to Calais, which was then
defended by John de Vienne, an experienced command¬
er, and fupplied with every thing neceflfary for defence.
It’ was at length taken, after a twelvemonth’s fiege,
the defendants ’ having been reduced to the laft extre¬
mity by famine and fatigue : for the confequences of
which, fee the article Calais.
From the very beginning of this unfortunate war,
Philip had invariably ihowed himfelf defirous of peace,
and the viCfory of Creffy rendered him ftill more fo. Ed¬
ward alfo notwithftanding his fuccefles, was unable to
fupport the expences of the war any longer. The me¬
diation of the court of Rome was therefore readily ac¬
cepted, and a truce for three years concluded. At the
fame time, Philip met with fome recompente for the
jofles he had fuftained, by the acquifition of Dauphiny,
which has ever fince given the title of Dauphin to the
eldeft fon of the king of France. It wras obtained by the
refignation of Hubert prince of Dauphiny j who, be •
ing^difappointed in his hopes of marrying Joan, daugh¬
ter of the duke of Bourbon, gave up his territories to
Charles the grandfon of Philip, who had married that
lady j himfelf retiring into a convent. Soon after this
event, the king himfelf, who had been fome time a wi¬
dower, was married to Blanch, the daughter of Philip
•punt of Evreux, avd Jane queen of Navarre •, and his
is ^o, the Oth of his age, and 23d of his rtign. King Phi
' On the death of Philip his eldcft fon John took pof-hp.
feffion of the kingdom ; but fcarcely was he feated on
the throne, when he difgufted his nobility by an un-
feafonable aa of feverity. Robert de Bnenne, count
of Eu and Guifnes, had been taken prifoner by the
king of England at Caen 5 and under pretence of ne¬
gotiating his ranfom, had pafled feveral times between
France and England •, but being accufed of a treafon-
able correfpondcnce with Edward, he was by order of
his fovereign fuddenly arretted, condemned, and be¬
headed, without any form of trial. At his death, it
is faid that he confeffed his treafonable practices 5 but
that has not been authenticated by any hittorian of
credit. Having been conftable of France, the fword,
the badge of his office, was delivered to Charles de la
Carda : °but his fate was equally unfortunate with that
of his predeceflor, being foon after aflaffinated by Charles gg
king of Navarre, furnamed The wicked. This prince, Infamous
celebrated for his perfonal qualifications but detefted condoc^
for his crimes, was the fon-m-law of John himfcL. _ Fie Navami
had demanded the duchy of Angouleme of the king .
but as the latter had thought proper to bellow it upon
Carda, he had taken the elfe&ual method of revenging
himfelf, by affaffinating his rival. John did not fail to
ffiow a proper refentment *, but fuch was the weaknels
of his government, that the king of Navarre fet him
at defiance, and would not even condefcend to the ce¬
remony of alking pardon until John had fent him his
fecond fon as an hoftage for his perfonal fecunty. 1 o
thefe offences the king of Navarre added another Hill
more atrocious, viz. that of afpiring to the crown of
France itfclf*, to which he pretended a right derived
from his mother, being grandfon by the female fide to
Louis the Boifterous. But his more immediate de¬
mands were the countries of Champagne and Brie, io
obviate all difficulties on this head, however, John be¬
llowed the duchy of Normandy on his eldeft Ion
Charles •, and commanded him to feize the eftates of
the kiniT of Navarre. On this the latter foon made
his appearance at Paris •> but John found himfelf obli¬
ged to appeafe his murmurs at the expence of no lets
than 100,000 crowns. . , ^ , , , , ,
All this time the truce with England had been very
ill obferved on both fides ; the French had poffefled
themfelves of the port of St Jean d’Angeli; and the
Engliffi had furprifed the town of Guifnes. 1 he rival
houfes of Mountfort and Blois ftill continued their
animofities 5 while Edward continued to threaten war.
The kiim of Navarre went on with his intrigues 5 and
even the dauphin was drawn into a confederacy againft
his father. John, however, being informed of their
machinations, found means to defeat them effeaually.
The dauphin rvas reclaimed by pointing out to him
the impropriety of his conduft, and the difadvan-
tage which mull unavoidably accrue to hrmfelf Irorn
the connexions which he had formed. Hie king of
Navarre was invited, w-ith his principal adherents, to ^
an entertainment, Avhere they were, unexpectedly ar- Hc g take*
relied : the former being fent prifoner to Chateau and con-
Gaillard, and feveral of the mofl obnoxious of the *
latter put to death. The reft of the confpirators,
*■ " mitead
FRA [
Trance, inftead of being difraayed by this check, immediately
 V—(bowed themfelves in open rebellion j and finding them-
felvcs unable, without farther aililtance, to gain their
point, they without delay invited over Edward from
England.
France a- That warlike and enterprifmg monarch had never
gain invad- loft fight of the object he had originally embraced ;
«d bv hd- ancj on expiration of the truce had fent his Ion,
ward. t]ie prinCe of Wales, from the colour of his armour
furnamed the Black Prince, with a fleet towards the
coaft of France. Young Edward had with this fleet
entered the mouth of the river Garonne, burnt the
towns and villages of Languedoc, and retired with the
plunder into the country of Guienne. Edward him-
felf, who had likewife paffed over to the continent,
wafted the country as far as St Omer j but the French
king, notwitftanding all thefe provocations, deter¬
mined to avoid a battle, and therefore prohibited his
general, the conftable of Bourbon, from coming to an
engagement, though his army was much fuperior to
that of the prince of Wales. With the flower of his
troops, however, be purfued Edward from St Omer to
Hefdin, wrhere he defied him to a pitched battle ; but
the latter, without minding his bravadoes, continued
his march to Calais, from whence he embarked for
England. After his departure, John called an affem-
bly of the dates at Paris, where he explained the dif-
trefled fituation of his finances, and (bowed fo fully the
neceftity of ailifting him in the defence of the kingdom,
that they confented to maintain an army of 30,000
men during the war. To fupply the other exigencies
of government, they revived the duty on fait, and
added a variety of other imports •, but at the fame time
appointed a committee of their own number to take care
that the money was folely appropriated to the public
fervice.
The fatisfaclion which John received from thefe
grants, and the fuppreftion of fome difturbances which
happened about this time, was foon overcaft by the
news that the prince of Wales had marched wdth an
army of 12,000 men from Bourdeaux j and, after ra¬
vaging the Agenois, Quercy, and the Limouiin, had
entered the province of Berry. The young warrior
had penetrated into the heart of France with this trif¬
ling body of forces, in hopes of joining the duke of
Lancafter in Guienne. But he foon found that his
fcheme Avas imprafticable : the country before him was
too Avell guarded to permit his advancing further ; and
all the bridges behind were broken dmvn, which effec¬
tually barred a retreat. In this embarrafling fituation,
his perplexity Avas increafed, by being informed, that
the king of France Avas adtually marching at the head
of 6.0,000 men to intercept him. He at lirft thought of
retreating : but foon finding it impoftible, he determin¬
ed calmly to Avait the approach of the enemy •, and, not-
Avith(landing the difparity of forces, to commit all to the
hazard of a battle.
Sattlc of It Avas at a place called Maupertuis, near Poiftiers,
Poidtiers. that both armies came in fight of each other. The
French king might very eafily have ftarved the Englifti
into any terms he thought proper to impofe ; but fuch
was the impatient valour of the French nobility, and
fuch their certainty of fuccefs, that it might have been
equally fatal to attempt repreffing their ardour to en¬
gage. In the mean time, Avhile both armies Avere
5 ] FRA
draAvn out, and expelling the fignal to begin, they Avere France
flopped by the appearance of the cardinal of Pcrigord, y—“~
Avho attempted to be a mediator between them. How¬
ever, John, who made himfelf fare of victory, Avcuid
liften to no oilier terms than the reflitution of Calais;
Avith Avhich the Black'Prince refufing to comply, the
onfet was deferred till the next morning, for Avhich
both fides waited in anxious fuipenie.
During this interval, the young prince ftrengthen-
ed his port by neAV intrenchments; and placea 300
men in ambuih, with as many archers, Avho were com¬
manded to attack the enemy in flank during the heat
of the engagement. Having taicen thefe precautions,
he ranged his army in three divilionsj the vanAvas com¬
manded by the earl of Warwick, the rear by the earls
of Saliihury and Suffolk, and the main body by him¬
felf. In like manner, the king of France arranged his
forces in tiiree divifions; the uril commanded by the
duke of Orleans ; the fecond by the dauphin, attend¬
ed by his younger brothers •, Avhile he himfelf led up
the main body, feconded by his youngeft and iavourite
fon, then about 14 years of age. - As the Englifh Avere
to be attacked only by marching up a long narrow
lane, the French fuftered greatly from their archers,
who Avere polled on each fide behind the hedges. Nor
Avere they in a better fituation upon emerging from
this danger, being met by the Black Prince himfelf,
at the head of a chofen body of troops, Avho made a
furious onfet upon their forces, already in great difor-
der. A dreadful overthroAV enfued : thofe who Avere French de-
as yet in the lane recoiled upon their oAvn forces; feated.
Avhile the Englifh troops Avho had been placed id am¬
buih, took that opportunity to increafe the confufion,
and confirm the victory. The dauphin and the duke
of Orleans Avere among the firft that fled. The king
of France himfelf made the utmoft efforts to retrieve
by his valour what his rafhnefs had forfeited •, but his
Angle courage Avas unable to flop that conffernation
Avhich had noAV become general through his army j and
his cavalry foon flying, he found himfelf expofed to the
enemy’s fury. At length, fpent Avith fatigue and de-
fpairing of fuccef-, he thought of yielding himfelf a pri-
foner 5 and frequently cried out, that he Avas ready to ^
deliver himfelf to his coufin the prince of Wales. The King Jofm
honour of taking him, hoAvever, was referved for a much taken pri-
more ignoble hand j he Avas feized by Dennis de Mor- f°ner*
bee, a knight of Arras, who had been obliged to fly his
country for murder.
In April following, the prince conducted his royal
prifoner through London," attended by an infinite con-
courfe of people of all ranks and Itations. His moderty
upon this occafion was very remarkable; the king of
France Avas clad in royal apparel, and mounted on a
Avhite fteed diftinguithed by its fize and beauty; Avhile
the prince himfelf rode by his fide upon a mean little
horfe, and in very plain attire.
This dreadful defeat, Avhich happened in the year jviiferable
13 56, almoft entirely ruined the French affairs 5 and fituation «f
the raiferies which enfued from this caufe Avere greatly France,
augmented by internal commotions. The dauphin,
who had uoav affirmed "he government, Avas altogether
unable to govern a turbulent and feditious people at
fuch a crifis. An affembly of the dates, Avhich he
called, took the opportunity to limit the poAver of the
prince, impeach the former minifters, and demand the
K 2/ liberty
from pri
ion.
F R A [7
Krancc. liberty of tlie king of Navarre 5 tire treafurer of the
w—y~—— crown was murdered by one Marcel, a partisan of
that rvorthlefs prince who had filled the city of I arts
with confufion by his intrigues. lire aiTaifin whom
Marcel employed was dragged, by order of the dauphin,
from an altar where he had taken refuge, and inilantly
put to death. The biihop of Paris relented the indig¬
nity done to the church and Marcel avenged tne fate
of his adherent, by murdering both the marefchals who
had feized him in the prefence of the dauphin and fo
near him, that his clothes were ftained with their olood.
"The prince ’indignantly alked him, if he was to be in¬
volved in the fame deftruction ? when Marcel affected
<75 to provide for his fafety by putting upon him a hkie
The king hood, the badge of the adherents of Navarre. The
of Navarre ^ diforders’were now alio augmented by the efcape
efcapes _ ^ t]ie bbig of Navarre from confinement; and though
the dauphin was even affured that he had adminiftered
a dofe of poifon to him, he was obliged Hill to pay him
fome appearance of regard. A fcheme was even formed
by the chiefs of the fedition to change the government,
to veil all the power in the commons, and leave the
king no more than an empty title 5 but though this w as
favourably received by the city of Paris, it was entirely
rejected by the other cities of the kingdom, i he dau¬
phin was likewife recognized as regent by the Hates
general, and the inhabitants of Picardy and Champagne
took up arms in his caufe.
In this difaftrous Hate of affairs, the miferies of the
people were heightened by a new and unexpected evil.
The peafants, who had been all along oppreffed by
the nobles, were now treated in luch a manner, that
they rofe in great numbers to revenge themfelves *,
the caftles of the nobility were rafed to the ground,
their wives and daughters ravilhed, and themfelves put
to the moll cruel torments. At la if they were obliged
to arm in their own defence. The duke of Orleans
cut off 10,000 of them in the neighbourhood of Paris 5
12,000 were maffacred by the king of Navarre *, 9000,
who had laid fiege to the town of Meaux, where the
dauphinefs and three other ladies of the firft rank refided,
were routed and purfued with dreadful {laughter by an
officer in the fervice of Edward. Amidft thefe con-
fufions, Marcel, the feditious leader already mentioned,
perilhed in a tumult of his own raifing ; and the moll
virtuous and prudent people of the nation fupported the
pretenfions of the dauphin. His moll dangerous enemy
Avas the king of Navarre, Avho had allured to his
Handard numbers of thofe Norman and Englilh adven¬
turers wdio had folloAved Edrvard into France, and there
been left to feek their fortunes ; where they affociated
themfelves under the name of the Companions. By
tween the luch a formidable competitor the dauphin was reduced
dauphin almolt to the laft extremity, when his hopes were
AC v^rr ^ °^revived by an unexpecled propofal from his rival, of
peace upon equitable and moderate terms. Hiilorians
in general have aferibed this to the natural levity of the
king of Navarre 5 but fome have been of opinion that
he afted from prudential motives, and that he juftly
fuppofed it would be more eafy to deal with the dauphin
who was his otvn kinfman, and humbled by fo many
misfortunes, than rvith a haughty and imperious con¬
queror like Edward.
On the expiration of the truce in 1359, Edward
Again fet fail for France, and anchored before Calais
5
„ 76
tnfurvec-
tions and
tumults pf
the pea¬
fants.
n
Peace oe-
6 ] < F U A
with a licet of noo fail, affumed the title of King oj ^rr^c‘~J
France, and augmented his army to 100,000 men.' ^
The dauphin, finding himfelf unable to withltand k* new ;n.
great a power, Avas obliged to ait on the defenfive •, yafion of
ehoofing the city of Paris for his if ation, and allowing France by
the Engliffi to ravage all the open country. Thus Edward,
they were alloAved to penetrate through Picardy into
Champagne j but the city of Rheims, where Eduard
defigned to have been eroAvned king of L’ ranee, baltied
their utmoil efforts. From Champagne, therefore,
Avhich was already laid AValte, the Englilh monarch
marched into Burgundy j pillaging lonnere, Gailion,
and Avalon. Burgundy Avas laved by the payment
of 100,000 merks, and a like fum ay as paid for Nivernois.
At laft, after a long and deftruclive march, EdA\ ard
arrived at the gates of Paris 5 but the prudence of the
dauphin and citizens of that metropolis had rendered
it impregnable to the attacks of famine as weft as the
allaults of an army. Thus the war Avent on till theHccon_
year J360, when the king of England Avas inclined to dudes a
peace, as is faid, by a dreadful tempeft, to Avhieh his peace,
army was expofed Avhile encamped in the fields round
Chartres. His conduft, however, may more reafon-
ably be derived from other moti\res. NotAvithftanding
all the victories he had gained, the French nation
11 towed not the leaft favour to his claim of lucceflion ;
the king of Navarre Avas a dangerous rival, and the
caution of the dauphin in avoiding an engagement
deprived him of the advantages he might expect from
his valour and military fkill. Thus conferences for a
peace were opened at Bretigny in the Chartraine $ and
it Avas at laft concluded on the folloAving conditions,
viz. That King John ffiould pay for his ranfom, at
different periods, three millions of crowns of gold (about
a million and a half of our money) : Edward Ihould
for ever renounce all claim to the kingdom of France j
and ffiould remain poffeffed of the territories of Poictou,
Xaintonge, PAgenois, Perigord, the Limouftn, Quercy,
Rouvergne, PAngoumois, and other diitricts in that
quarter, together with Calais, Guifnes, Montreuil, and
the county of Ponthieu on the other fide of I ranee.
Some other ftipulations Avere made in favour of the allies
of England, as a fecurity for the execution of thefe
conditions.
Upon John’s return to his dominions, he found him¬
felf very ill able to ratify thofe terms of peace that had
been juft concluded. Tie Avas Avithout finances, at the
head of an exhaufted ftate 5 his foldiers Avithout difei-
pline, and his peafants Avrthout fubordination. 'J hefe
had rifen in great numbers; and one of the chiefs of
the banditti affumed the title of 7 he Friend oj God
and the terror of Man. A citizen of Sens, named
John Gouge, alfo got himfelf, by means of his robbe¬
ries, to be acknoAvledged king j and he foon caufed as
many calamities by his devaftations, as the real king
had brought on by his misfortunes. Such Avas the
ftate of that Avretched kingdom upon the return of its
captive monarch: and yet fuch Avas his abfurdity,
that he immediately prepared for a croifade into the
Holy Land, before he Avas Avell replaced on the throne.
So
Had his exhaufted iubjeefs been able to equip him for T ^ U!:a_
this chimerical project, it is probable he Avould havebje t0 pay
gone through Avith it } but their miferies were fuch, his raniom,
that they Avere even too poor to pay his ranfom. I his returns to
was a breach of treaty that John would not fubmit to •,JinS “r,c'
and
FRA [
France- and he was heard to ex profs himfelf in a very noble
t—-y-—J manner upon the occafion : “ Though (fays he) good
faith fhould be baniihtd from the red of the earth, yet
Ihe ought dill to retain her habitation in the bread of
kings.” In confequence of this declaration, he ac¬
tually returned to England once more j and yielded
himfelf a prifoner, fmce he could not be honourably
free. It is laid by fume, that his paffion for the eoun-
tefs of Salifbury was the real caufe of his journey : but
gt we want at this time the foundations for fuch an injuri-
Dies, andisous report. He was lodged in the Savoy, the palace
Succeeded where lie had redded during his captivity j and foon
ti^Wife"3 after he clofed a long and unfortunate reign, by his
death, which happened in the year 1384, about the 56th
year of his age.
Charles, furnamed the Wife, fucceeded his father on
the throne of France; and this monarch, merely by the
force of a dnely conduced policy, and even though
fuffering fome defeats, reltored his country once more
to tranquillity and power. He quelled and dillipated
a fet of banditti, who had affociated themfelves under
the name of Companions, and who had long been a ter¬
ror to the peaceable inhabitants. He had them enrol¬
led into a body, and led them into the kingdom of Caf-
tile againft Peter, furnamed the Cruel, whom his fub-
jeers had dethroned, and wrho, by means of an alliance
with the Engliih, endeavoured to get himfelf re-inftat-
ed upon the .throne. In confequence of thefe alliances,
the Engliih and French again came to an engagement;
their armies on the one fide commanded by the Black
Prince ; on the other, by Henry of Tranftamarre, and
Bertrand du Guefclin, one of the moil confummate ge¬
nerals and accomplished characters of the age in which
he lived. However, the ufual good fortune of the
Engliih prince prevailed •, the French loft above 20,000
men, while only four knights and 40 private men on the
fide of the Engliih were fiain.
Neverthelefs, thefe victories were attended with very
good eftcCts. The Engliih, by their frequent le¬
vies, had been quite exhaufted, and were unable to
continue an army in the field. Charles, on the other
hand, cautiouily forcbore coming to any decifive en¬
gagement •, but Avas contented to let his enemies wafte
their ftrength in attempts to plunder a fortified coun¬
try. When they were retired, he then was fare to
ially forth, and poffei^ himfelf of fuch places as they
were not ftrong enough to defend. He firft fell upon
Ponthieu the citizens of Abbeville opened their gates
to him 5 thofe of St Valois, Rue, and Crotoy, imitat¬
ed the example j and the whole country was in a little
time, reduced to total fubmiffion. The fouthern pro¬
vinces were, in the fame manner, invaded by his gene¬
rals with equal fuccefs; while the Black Prince, defti-
tute of fupplies from England, and wafted by a cruel
and confumptive diforder, was obliged to return to his
native country, leaving his affairs in the fouth of France
in a deiperate condition.
In this exigence, the refentment of the king of
England was excited to the utmoft pitch ; and he feem-
ed refolved to take fignal vengeance on his enemies of
the continent. But the fortunate occafion was now
elapfed 5 and all his fucceeding defigns were marked
with ill fuccefs. The earl of Pembroke and his whole
army were intercepted at fea, and taken prifoners by
8z
Bad fuccefs
Hhe Eng- few o-00d effects,
lift.
77 ] FRA
his generals on the continent, at the head of 30,000 France,
men, was defeated by Bertrand du Guefclin while
the duke of Lancafter, at the head of 25,000
Henry king of Caftile. Sir Robert Knolles, one of
had the mortification of feeing his troops diminithed
85
one half by Hying parties, without ever coming to a
battle.
At laft, the Engliftr affairs were totally ruined by the
deatli of the Black Prince and King Edward- On re¬
ceiving this news, the armies of Charles attacked the
Engliih on all fides. One, under the command of the
duke of Burgundy, entered Artois ; another entered
Auvergne, under tire command of the duke of Berry }
that which acted in Guienne was commanded by the
duke of Anjou ; and the forces in Bretagne were un¬
der the conftable Guefclin : the king himfelf had a
powerful body of troops, that he might be able to re¬
pair any accident which fliould happen through the
chance of war. The conftable joined the duke of
Burgundy, who found it difficult to oppofe Sir Tho¬
mas Felton and the fenefchal of Bourdeaux. Soon
after his arrival, the conftable attacked and defeated
them, making both the commanders prifoners of war.
This victory was fo well purfued, that, at the clofe of
the campaign 1-377, Bayonne and Bourdeaux, with the
di ft riels about them, and the fortrefs of Calais with its
dependencies, were all the places left to England on the
continent.
Thus Charles eftabliftred once more the houfe of Va- Death oft
lois on the throne of France, but did not long live to Charles^
enjoy his good fortune. He died in the year 1379, at
the age of 44, of the confequences of poifon formerly
given him by the king of Navarre, as has already been
mentioned. Tire immediate operation of this poifon
had been fufpended by the Ikill of a phyfieian font by
the emperor Charles IV. tie opened an iffue in his
arm, the running of which preferved his life ; but the
phyfician declared, that tv he never it ihould dry up, the
confequence rvould be fatal. Not long before his
death, Charles had commenced a procefs againft the
king of Navarre for this crime. Several of the affo-
ciates of the latter fuffered on this occafion, and the
king himfelf was deprived of his poffeffions in Nor¬
mandy, as well as his lordihip of Montpelier, which
had been given him in lieu of tire counties of Cham¬
pagne and Brie, and the duchy of Burgundy which 84
he had claimed. He did not long furvive the death of ar,<l °f the
the French monarch whom he deftroyed. His death kll’s^a'
was fingular and very terrible ; for having been afflict¬
ed with the leprofy, he had been obliged to make ufe
of fome bandages dipped in fulphur, and afterwards
fteeped in brandy. Thefe took fire by the careleffnefs
of a page, and the unfortunate prince ay as burnt to
death. s„
Charles V. was fucceeded by Ids fon Charles VI. fur- -Rei°n of
named the Well-beloved, who, at the time of his acceflion Charles VL
to the throne, was only 12 years of age. The duke of
Anjou, eldeft brother to the late king, had been ap¬
pointed guardian during the minority of the prince 5 "
but he being totally unfit for the office, and diltin-
guilhed only for his rapacity and ambition, readily re-
figned his charge to the dukes of Burgundy and Bour¬
bon, the former uncle to the king by his father’s fide,
the latter by his mother’s. None of thefe tutors, how¬
ever, proved faithful to the truft repofed in them. The
duke of Anjou feized the plate and treafures of the
late
sF ranr
S<T
Flanders
'invaded.
*7
•Marries
Ifabclla
dauglrtcr
tlie duke
Bavaria.
FRA [ 78
late king, in order to fupport his ambitious enter-
prifes. • At that time Joan, infamous for her profli¬
gacy, reigned in Naples. She had appointed one
Charles Durazzo, who was her relation, to fucceed her
ia the throne 5 but the inhuman wretch murdered his
bene la ef refs, who with her laid breath revoked her
Giant of the kingdom to him, and bellowed it upon
the duke of Anjou. His influence at the French
court enabled him to wafte the treafures of the king¬
dom in fupport of his pretenfions ; though he proved
ultimately unfuecefsful, his forces being conldantly de¬
feated, and his detigns fruftrated by the fuperior Ikill
of his adverfary. The duke of Burgundy, intdead of
inftrucling his pupil in the ways of virtue, indulged
him in every kind of vicious pleafure, hoping thereby
to gain his favour afterwards. The citizens of Paris,
oppreffed by taxes, broke out into tumults, and were
quelled with difficulty ; while the mal-adminiftration of
Philip the duke of Burgundy foon involved the nation
in hollilities with the Flemings. Philip invaded their
country at the head of an army of 80,000 men, along
with whom was the young king, accompanied by the
principal nobility of France. The firft operations of
war were favourable to the Flemings ■, but they were at
length totally defeated on the banks of the river Lis,
where their leader, with 25,000 of his followers, perill¬
ed. This victory was followed by the fubmiffion of
the whole country 5 but the fatisfattion of the king at
this event was difturbed by new feditions and revolts
in the city of Paris, and other great towns of the
kingdom. His return, however, at the head of a vic¬
torious army, foon reduced them to their duty, and fe-
veral of the revolted cities were feverely punilhed; at
the fame time that the death of the duke of Anjou ha¬
ving freed him from the immediate dependence on his
tutors, he affumed the reins of government into his own
hands in the year 1384.
The genius which Charles began to difplay in his
early years, raifed the hopes of the nation j but thefe
■were foon overcaft, and greater misfortunes than ever
were now about to enfue. The young king whofe
marriage began to be a fubjeft of attention to the
council, refufed to comply with the forms in ufe
among his predeceffors, and infilled upon feeing the
perfon defigned for his confort. An interview was
accordingly contrived betwixt him and Ifabella daugh-
ofter to the "duke of Bavaria ; where he fell in love with
that princefs, and afterwards married her. His admi-
niftration was for fome time prudent and vigorous.
He conciliated the affedtions of his people by reiloring
their privileges, punifhing their oppreffors, and reliev¬
ing them from the taxes which had been impofed in
his minority. He reduced the Flemings to fubmit to
the authority of his uncle the duke of Burgundy •, de¬
tached 1 5,000 archers and t <;oo men at arms to affift
the Scots in their incurfions into England •, and in
138^ fitted out a prodigious armament againll Eng¬
land. A vaft fleet was aflembled in the harbour of
kluys, and a very numerous army in the neighbour¬
hood. According to fome waiters, the armament con-
fifted of 1200 (hips, 20,000 foot differently armed,
20,00' cavalry, and 20,000 crofs-bow men. There
was befides a vaft wooden edifice or floating town,
which was contrived for the proteflion of the foldiers
when landed ; but all thefe preparations W’ere at laft
France.
] FRA
brought to nothing through the obftir.acy of the duke
of Berry 5 who, having been originally againft this -wr—»
meafure, carried on his part of the armament fo {low¬
ly, that he did not arrive at Sluys till the middle of
September, when the feafon was fo far advanced, that
no invafion was practicable. A ftorm that happened
foon after, drove the greateft part of the licet on
Ihore, and beat the wooden edifice all to pieces •, the
remains of which the king bellowed on the duke of
Burgundy, to whom he gave alfo tne port 01 oiuys,
which was then very commodious, and of the utmoft
importance.
The deftruclion of the French fleet was only a pre¬
lude to calamities of a more extraordinary nature. The
Sieur de Craon, a profligate nobleman, had been in¬
truded by the court of France with a confiderable fum
of money for the fupport of the duke of Anjou, at
the time he was reduced to diftrefs by his Italian ex¬
pedition. This money he had diffipated at Venice j
but, by the credit of the duke of Orleans, the king’s
brother, he had obtained his pardon, and returned to
court. Here he attempted to gratify his private re-
fentment by the affaftination of Oliver Cliffon the con-
ftable, whom he fufpecled of having promoted his dif-
grace. This veteran hero was attacked, on his return
from the hotel de St Pol, by a band of 20 ruffians,
againft whom he defended himfelf with wonderful in¬
trepidity, when at laft he fell, after receiving more
than 50 wounds. Happily, however, he recovered
notwithftanding his being mangled in this manner ;
while the affaflin, to fereen himfelf from vengeance,
fled for proteftion to the duke of Brittany. I he king
demanded the aftaffin to be given up to him in chains }
but the duke anfwered, that he knew nothing of. him :
to which the king giving no credit, marched with all
his forces into his territories. When the army arrived gg
at Mans, the king was feized with a flow fever j but Is feiz d
could not be prevailed upon to reft or take phylic. On y hh luna*
the 5th of Auguft 1391, having marched all day intic
the heat of the fun, a miferable, ragged, wild-looking
fellow darted from behind a tree, and laying hold of
the bridle of his horfe, cried out “ Stop ! where
are you going, king ? You are betrayed and imme¬
diately withdrew again into the wood. 'I he king
paffed on not a little difturbed •, and foon after one of
the pages, who rode behind and carried his lance,
overcome with heat, fell afleep, and let it fall upon the
helmet which was carried by the other. I he king
hearing the noife, looked about; and perceiving the
page lifting the lance, killed him immediately : then
riding furioully with his fword drawn, he ftruek on
every fide of him, and at every perfon, till he broke
his fword : upon which one of his gentlemen leaped up
behind him and held his arm. He fell foon af er, and
lay as if he had been dead } fo that being taken up and
bound in a wTaggon, he was carried back to Mans,
where he lay two days in a lethargy, after which he
came a little to himfelf, and expreffed great concern at
the blood be had Hied in his delirium. rJ he people
who had expreffed the greateft concern for his diftem-
per, were equally rejoiced at the news of his recove¬
ry •, but unfortunately it was foon difeovered, that he
no longer poffeffed that ftrength of judgment and un-
derftanding for which he had formerly been remark¬
able. Hence a regency became indifpenfably neceffary,
and
FRA [79
France, and the competition for it. brought to light the cha
F R A
Difturban-
aes about a mer
.segcncy.
90
the king.
rafters of the queen and duke of Orleans, which had
not hitherto been cfifplayed to public view. The for-
of thefe was a molt beautiful and accompliihed
princefs ; but vindictive, violent, and intriguing : in-
fentible to natural affeftion, but eafily acceihble to
flattery, and ready to yield to every impulfe of law-
lefs paflion. The duke of Orleans- was equally re¬
markable for his perfonal accompliihments, and had
married Valentina daughter of the duke of Milan ; but
his engagements with that princefs did not prevent him
from engaging in a number of licentious amours, and
among the reit, as was fuppofed, with his liiter-in-law
Ifabella. During the king’s illnefs he openly afpired
at the regency ", but his pretenfions were overruled
by the dates, the adminiftration of affairs being for
the prefent conferred on the duke of Burgundy. In a
few months indeed the health and underftanding of the
king feemed to be fufficiently reltored : but in the year
1393 it was again ditturbed by an accident no lefs
extraordinary than the former had been. An enter-
Anaccident tainment had been given in honour of the marriage of
eccafions a one of the queen’s attendant’s. At this fix mafques
relapfe in €ntered the apartment, difguifed like fatyrs, in linen
clothes covered with rofin, and while warm ftuck over
with down. Thefe were the king and five of his lords.
The duchefs of Berri paid attention to the king, though
flie did not know him, and engaged in converfation with
him. In the mean time the duke of Orleans ignorant
of the confequence, out of diverfion ran a lighted torch
againfl: one of them. His whole drefs was inflantly in
a flame, and the fire was from him communicated to all
the reft. The mafques, notwithftanding the dreadful
fituation they were in, called out, “ Save the king 5
fave the king !” on which the duchefs of Berri, recol¬
lecting that it muft be him ivith whom fhe had engaged
in converfation, wrapped him in her cloak, and pre-
ferved him from further danger. Only one of the reft
efcaped by jumping into a ciftern of water ; the other
four periftied in the flames. The terror Avhich the king
underwent by this accident inftantly occafioned a re¬
lapfe •, and he continued delirious at intervals as long as
he lived. During this ftate of infanity he Avas untrac-
table by every perfon except Valentina duchefs of Or¬
leans ; who feemed to have as great an influence over
him as her hufband the duke had over the mind of the
queen. So great Avas the poAver indeed which flie had
over the king in this deplorable ftate, that in thofe
fuperftitious times it Avas fuppofed by many to be the
effeCl of magic. Others, Avith more probability,
afcribed it to her fuperior charms as a Avoman ; and this
idea inftantly produced her a number of enemies among
her own fex, the duchefs of Burgundy -particularly ;
and the quarrel between the tAro ladies, foon extended
itfelf to their hufbands. Amidft their diffenfions, Iioav-
ever, they did not entirely negleft the adminiftration
of public affairs ; they ftrove to conciliate the affeClion
of the parliament by preferving the rights of the com¬
mons inviolate; and they endeavoured to check an
inordinate paflion for gaming Avhich began to appear
about this time, and to fubftitute manly and martial
exercifes in its place.
During the intervals of his reafon, Charles fre¬
quently affumed the government into his oAvn hands :
and as the Avar ftiil continued, with England, though in
a languid manner, the French monarch, in one of Franee,
thefe lucid intervals, had an intervicAV with Richard'
king of England, in order to put an end to hoftilities,intex^icw
of Avhich both Avere equally Aveary. Still, hoAvever, betwixt the
their claims Avere fo difficult to be adjufted, that they kings < f
could do no more than conclude a truce for 25 years ", ^raiiCe ani-
during Avhich fpace it was hoped that a lafting peace d
might take place. Richard gave up Cherburg to
Charles, and Breft to the duke of Brittany : a mar¬
riage was alfo concluded betAvixt the king of England
and Ifabella the daughter of Charles, though the latter
Avas then only feven years of age *, but by reafon of
the tender age of the princefs, this marriage Avas never
confummated.
During this unfortunate reign, France Avas ftiil far-Unhappy
ther weakened by the fuccours font to the Hungarians(ate ot tIie
againft the Turks. On this fatal expedition upwards
of 1000 of the braveft and moft experienced knights j^unga_
were fent under the conduct of John count of Nevers,rians.
eldeft fon of the duke of Burgundy ; the. count of
Eu, conftable of France ; John de Vienne, admiral
of France ; and the count of Marche, a prince of the
blood royal j together with De Courcy, one of the
belt and moft experienced captains in Chriftendom.
The prudent counfels of this veteran, hoAvever, were
not obeyed by the youthful Avarriors by Avhom he Avas
accompanied. Attacking the enemy therefore rafldy,
and while heated,Avith wine, they Avere all either killed
or taken prifoners. NotAvithftanding this difafter, horv-
ever, afliftance Avas fent in the year 1400 to Wancef-
laus emperor of Germany •, and the duke of Orleans,
Avho commanded the army on this occafion, acquitted
himfelf fo Avell that he acquired the duchy of Luxem¬
burg for himfelf, and left his ally fatisfied : but Avdiile
the friendftiip of France Avas thus courted by foreign
powers, the kingdom itfelf w'as in the moft miferable
fituation. The king’s diftemper feemed daily to gain Violent
ground ", while the difeordant interefts of the contend-commo-
ing parties kept the whole nation in a ferment. The1-’.005”1
moft violent animofity took place betwixt the dukes 0f*rancej -
Orleans and Burgundy. The former, by means of his
own intereft Avith the queen, and the afcendency his
duchefs had over the king, for fome time got the bet¬
ter of his rival, and Avas made lieutenant general and
governor of the kingdom ; but having prefumed on
his power to levy nerv imports on the people, and op¬
prefling alfo the churchmen, whom in that fuperftitious
age he ought by all means to have let alone, he Avas
deprived of his authority, and obliged to yield to the'
duke of Burgundy- For fome time, however, thefe
powerful rivals were kept within fome bounds by the
mediation of the duke of Bourbon, who feems to have
been the only grandee avIio maintained a pure and un-
fpotted charafter ; but by his death in 1404, the un¬
happy nation Avas left totally expofed to their relentlefs
fury. In 1405, the queen and duke of Orleans again
feized the adminiftration 5 but Avere foon deprived of it
by the unanimous voice of the people. During this
period Charles and his children Avere negleded and
abandoned to diftrefs 5 but they Avere relieved by the
duke of Burgundy on his obtaining the regency ; and
Ifabella, with the duke of Orleans, Avas obliged to retire
from Milan. A fudden return of the king’s reafon and
underftanding for a much longer time than ufual, noAV
deprived both parties of their power) and the ad
uuAiftratiog..';
94
Duke of
faffinated.'
FRA [
Trance, nlftration was veiled in the queen and a council com-
—y—j p()fed 0£ princes 0£ the blood.
The two rival dukes, thus prohibited from inter¬
fering in public affairs, exercifed themfelves in com¬
mitting hoftilities again!! the Englilh, with whom the
truce had been lately concluded. They were encou¬
raged to this infraction of the treaty by the unfettled
lituation of the affairs of Henry IV. •, but their at¬
tempts proving unfuccefsful, the truce was renewed af¬
ter obtaining reiteration of the princefs, who had been
married to Richard II. as has been already mentioned.
The failure of their enterprifes produced a new feene of
difeord betwixt the dukes, who mutually threw the
blame .upon each other. By the entreaties of the duke
of Berry they wore apparently reconciled ; but the duke
of Burgundy pretended friendlhip only in order to take
the more lignal vengeance. To this he was now fur-
Orleans af- ther inflamed by jealoufy. Having hired a band of
ruffians to execute his bloody purpofe, the duke was
one evening attacked by eighteen of them while at¬
tended only by trvo pages. A Norman gentleman
whom the duke had deprived of an employment, head¬
ed the affaffins, and in perfon attacked the duke. At
the lirft blow he cut off his hand, at the fecond he
ftruck him from his mule, and at the third put an end
to his life. His wife Valentina was fo deeply affefted
with his death, that Ihe died foon after. The duke of
Burgundy efcaped to Flanders ■, and the whole nation
was rent into two factions, called the Burgundians and
Armagnacs; the latter being the title of the party of
the duke of Orleans, from Armagnac the father-in-law
of that prince. A dreadful confulion enfued : the duke
of Burgundy foon returned to France, and extorted a
pardon from the unhappy king, who was now no
longer able to refill him : and we may have fome no¬
tion of the Hate of the kingdom in general from being
told, that 2000 people periffied in one tumult in the
capital. The king himfelf was alternately the prifoner
of each party, and alternately transferred the power
from the one to the other as he happened to fall into
their hands. This therefore was thought by Henry V.
of England, a favourable opportunity to recover from
France thofe grants that had been formerly given up
by treaty. But previoufly, to give his intended expe¬
dition the appearance of juftice, he fent over ambaffa-
dors to Paris, offering a perpetual peace and alliance,
on condition of being put in poffeffion of all thofe pro¬
vinces which had been ravilhed from the Englilh du¬
ring fome former reigns, and of efpouling Catharine,
the French king’s daughter, in marriage, with a fuit-
able dowry. Though the French court was at that
time extremely averfe to wrar, yet the exorbitance of
^ thefe demands could not be complied with *, and Henry
Tnvafion ly very probably made them in hopes of a denial. He
Henry V. therefore affe.mbled a great fleet and army at Soutb-
of England. ampton • and having allured all the military men of
the kingdom to attend him, from the hopes of con-
quell, he put to fea, and landed at Harfleur, at the
head of an army of 6000 men-at-arms, and 24,000 foot,
roollly archers.
His firll operations were upon Harfleur *, which be¬
ing preffed hard, promifed at a certain day to furren-
der unlefs relieved before that time. The day arriv-
ing, and the garrifon, unmindful of their engagement,
ilill refolving to defend the place, Henry ordered an
80 ] F R A
affault to be made, took the town by ftorm, and put t Trance^
all the garrifon to the fword. From thence the vie-' v '
tor advanced farther into the country, which had been
already rendered defolate by factions, and which he
now totally laid walte. But although the enemy made
a feeble refillance ; yet the climate feemed to fight
again!! the Engliffi ; a contagious dyfentery carrying-
off three parts of Henry’s army. In this fituation
he had recourfe to an expedient common enough in that
barbarous age, to infpire his troops with confidence in
their general. He challenged the dauphin, who com¬
manded in the French army, to Angle combat, offer¬
ing to Hake his pretenfions on the event. This chal¬
lenge, as might naturally be expefled, was rejected ',
and the French, though difagreeing internally, at laft
feemed to unite at the appearance ol the common
danger. A numerous army of 14,000 men-at-arms,
and" 40,000 foot, was by this time alfembled under the
command of Count Albert, and was now placed to in¬
tercept Henry’s weakened forces on their return. I he
Engliffi monarch, when it was too late, began to^ re¬
pent of his ralh inroad into a country where difeafe
and a powerful army everywhere threatened deltruc-
tion ; he therefore thought of retiring into Calais. In
this retreat, which was at once both painful and dan¬
gerous, Henry took every precaution to infpire Iris
troops with patience and perfeverar.ee •, and ffiowed
them in his own perfon the brightelt example of forti¬
tude and refignation. He was continually haraffed
on his march by flying parties of the enemy •, and
whenever he attempted to pafs the river Somme, acrofs
which his march lay, he faw troops on the other fide
ready to oppofe his paffage. However, he was fo for¬
tunate as to feize by furprife a paffage near St Oulntin,
which had not been fufficiently guarded 5 and there he
fafely carried over his army.
But the enemy was Hill refolved to intercept his re¬
treat : and after he had paffed the fmall river of Ter-
trois at Blangi, he was furprifed to obferve from the
heights the whole French army drawn up in the plains ^
of Agincourt 5 and fo polled, that it -was impoffible for Battle of
him to proceed on his march, without coming to an Agincourt.
engagement. A battle accordingly took place, in
which the Engiiffi gained a vidlory, the moll remark¬
able perhaps of any recorded in hillory } an account
of which is given under the article Agincourt.
This vidlory, gained on the 25th of Odlober I4I5>
w?as however attended with no immediate effedls.
Henry Hill continued to retreat, after the battle of
Agincourt, out of the kingdom j and carried his pri- ^
foners to Calais, and from thence to England. In Henry
1417, he once more landed an army of 2 ^,000 men lands again
in Normandy 5 and prepared to llrike a decifive blow ^ ^or’
for the crown of France, to which the Englilh mo- 1 ^
narchs had long made pretenfions. That wretched
country W'as now in a moll deplorable fituation. J he
whole kingdom appeared as one vail theatre of crimes,
murders, injullice, and devaftation. The duke of Or¬
leans was affaffinated by the duke of Burgundy ) and
the duke of Burgundy, in his turn, fell by the treach¬
ery of the dauphin. At the fame time, the duke’s
fon, defirous of revenging his father’s death, entered
into a fecret treaty with the Engliffi •, and a league was
immediately concluded at Arras, between Henry and
the young duke of Burgundy, in which the king pro¬
mifed
J
FRA [
France, rnifed to revenge the murder of the late duke j and
^ * tjie fon feeme(i tQ infift upon no further ftipulations.
Henry, therefore, proceeded in Ms conquelts without
much oppofition from any quarter. Several towns and
provinces fubmitted on his approach ; the city of Rouen
was befxeged and taken : and he foon became mafter
of Pontoife and Gifors. He even threatened Paris by
the terror of his power, and obliged the court to re¬
move to Troyes. It was at this.city that the duke of
Burgundy, who had taken upon him the protedlion
of the French king, met Henry in order to ratify that
treaty which was formerly begun, and by which the
crown of France was to be transferred to a ftranger.
The imbecility into which Charles had fallen, made
him pa (live in this remarkable treaty •, .and Henry dic¬
tated the terms throughout the v'hole negociation.
The principal articles of this treaty were, That Henry
fhould efpoufethe princefs Catharine; that King Charles
Mould enjoy the title and dignity of king for life ; but
that Henry Mould be declared heir to the crown, and
Mould be intruded with the prefent adminirtration of
the government; that France and England Mould for
ever be united under one king, but Mould dill retain
their refpeclive laws and privileges; that Henry diould
unite his arms with thofe of King Charles and the duke
of Burgundy, to deprefs and fubdue the dauphin and his
9g partifans.
; He marries It was not long after this treaty, that Henry mar-
I the Princefs ried the princefs Catharine ; after which he carried his
I 'atharme. father-in-law to Paris, and took a formal poffeflion of
that capital. There he obtained from the edates of
the kingdom a ratification of the late compact ; and
then turned his arms with fuccefs againd the adhe¬
rents of the dauphin ; who, in the mean time, wan¬
dered about a dranger in his own patrimony, and to
his enemies fucceffes only oppofed fruitlefs expodula-
tions.
Henry’s fupplies were not provided in fuch plenty as
to enable him to carry on the war without returning in
perfon to prevail upon his parliament for fredi fuccours;
and, upon his arrival in England, though he found his
fubje&s highly pleafed with the fplendour of his con-
queds, yet they feemed fomewhat doubtful as to the ad¬
vantage of them. A treaty, which in its confequences
was likely to transfer the feat of empire from England,
was not much relidied by the parliament. They there¬
fore, upon various pretences, refufed him a fupply equal
to his exigencies or his demands; but he was refolved
on purfuing his fchemes ; and, joining to the fupplies
granted at home, the contributions levied on the con¬
quered provinces, he was able once more to affemble an
army of 28,000 men, and wuth thefe he landed fafely at
Calais.
In the mean time, the dauphin, a prince of great pru¬
dence and activity, omitted no opportunity of repairing
his ruined fduation, and to take the advantage of Hem
ry’s abfence from France. He prevailed upon the re¬
gent of Scotland to fend him a body of 8000 men from
that kingdom ; and with thefe, and fome few forces of
his own, he attacked the duke of Clarence, avIio com¬
manded the troops in Henry’s abfence, and gained a
complete victory.
This was the firft adtion which turned the tide of
fuccefs againft the EngliM. But it wuas of Mort dura¬
tion : for Henry foon after appearing with a confider-
Vol. IX. Part I.
Si ] FRA
able army, the dauphin fled at his approach; while France,
many of the places, which held out for the dauphin l-—Y-—
in the neighbourhood of Paris, furrendered to the con¬
queror. In this manner, while Henry was everywhere
vi&orious, he fixed his refidence at Paris; and while
Charles had a finall court, lie was attended with a
very magnificent one. On Whitfunday 1421, the two
kings and their tAvo queens Avith crowns on their heads
dined together in public ; Charles receiving apparent
homage, but Henry commanding with abfolute autho¬
rity.
In the mean time, the dauphin Avas purfued beyond
the Loire, and almofl totally difpofiefled of all the
northern provinces. He was even purfued into the
fouth, by the united arms of the EngliM and Burgun¬
dians, and threatened with total deitruftion. In this
exigence, he found it neceflary to fpin out the Avar, and
to evade all hazardous actions with a rival who had
been long accuftomed to victory. His prudence was
everyAvhere remarkable ; and, after a train of long per-
fecutions from fortune, he found her at length willing to
declare in his favour, by the death of the king of Eng¬
land. 6
Charles VI. died a fliort time after; and Charles VII. Death of
fucceeded his father to a nominal throne. Nothing Henry an<
could be more deplorable than the fituation of that mo- Charles‘
narch on affuming his title to the croAvn. The Eng¬
liM Avere mafters of almoft all France ; and Henry VI.
though yet but an infant, Avas folemnly inverted Avith
regal power by legates from Paris. The duke of Bed¬
ford Avas at the bead of a numerous army, in the heart
of the kingdom, ready to oppofe every infurrefition ;
Avhile the duke of Burgundy, who had entered into a
firm confederacy Avith him, ftill remained ftedfaft, and
feconded his claims. Yet notwithftanding thefe fa- lO0
vourable appearances, Charles found means to break the Deiperate
leagues formed againft him, and to bring back his fub- fituation of
jedts to their natural interefts and their duty. Charles
HoAvever, his firft attempts Avere totally deftitute of ^
fuccefs. Wherever he endeavoured to face the enemy
he Avas overthroAvn, and he could fcarcely rely on the
friends next his perfon. His authority was infulted.
even by his oavu fervants; advantage after advantage
was gained againft him ; and a battle fought near Ver-
neuil, in which he was totally defeated by the duke of
Bedford, feemed to render his affairs altogether defpe-
rate. But from the impoflibility of the Englifh keep¬
ing the field Avithout neAV fupplies, Bedford was obliged
to retire into England ; and in the mean time, his vigi¬
lant enemy began to recover from his late conftemation.
Dumois, one of his generals, at the head of 1000 men,
compelled the earl of Warwick to raife the fiege of
Montargis ; and this advantage, flight as it was, began
to make the French fuppofe that the Englifli were not
invincible.
But they foon had ftill greater reafon to triumph in The Frenck
their change of fortune, and a neAV revolution was pro- affairs re¬
duced by means apparently the moft unlikely to be at- trieved by
tended Avith fuccefs. In the village of Domremi, near tl'° I^aid
Vaucouleurs, on the borders of Lorrain, there lived aof0rleais’
country girl, about 27 years of age, called Joan de
Arc. This girl had been a fervant at a fmall inn ; and
in that humble ftation had fubmitted to thofe hardy
employments which fit the body for the fatigues of
war. She Avas of an irreproachable life, and had hi-
thert*
FRA [ 82
France, tlicrto teftified none of tliofe enterpriling qualities
1 ' which difplayed themfelves foon after. She content¬
edly fulfilled the duties of her fituation, and was re¬
markable only for her modefty and love oi religion.
But the miferies of her country feemed to have been
one of the greateft objects of her com path on and re¬
gard. Her mind, inflamed by thefe objects, and brood-
iaa with melancholy Itedfaltnefs upon them, began to
feel fcveral impulfes, which the was willing to miitake
for the infpirations of heaven. Convinced of the rea¬
lity of her own admonitions, (lie had recourfe to one
Baudricourt, governor of Vaucouleurs, and informed
him of her deitination by heaven to free her native
country of its fierce invaders. Baudricourt treated
her at firit with negleft : but her importunities at
length prevailed } and willing to make a trial of her
pretenfions, he gave her fome attendants, who con¬
duced her to the court, which at that time refided at
Chinon.
The French court were probably fenfible of the
weaknefs of her pretenfions ■, but they were willing, to
make ufe of every artifice to fupport their declining
fortunes. It was therefore given oiit, that Joan was
actually infpired 5 that Ihe had been able to difcover
the king among the number of his courtiers, although
he had laid afide all the diftinctions of his authority }
that (he had told him fome fecrets, which were only
known to himfelf j and that the had demanded, and
minutely defcribed, a fword in the church of St Ca¬
tharine de Fierbois, which flie had never feen. In this
manner, the minds of the vulgar being prepared for
her appearance, fhe was armed bap-a-pee, and fhown
in that martial drefs to the people. She was then
brought before the doftors of the univerfity } and they,
tinctured with the credulity of the times,- or willing to
fecond the impofture, declared that flie had actually
received her commiflion from above.
When the preparations for her miflion were com¬
pletely blazoned, the next aim was to fend her againft
the enemy. The Englilh were at that time befieging
the city of Orleans, the laft refource of Charles, and
•very thing promifed them a fpeedy furrender. Joan
undertook to raife the fiege •, and to render herfelf {till
more remarkable, girded herfelf with the miraculous
fword, of which (Ire before had fuch extraordinary no¬
tices. Thus equipped, (he ordered all the foldiers to
eonfefs themfelves before they fet out •, (he difplayed in
her hand a confecrated banner, and aflured the troops
of certain fuccefs. Such confidence on her fide foon
raifed the fpirits of the French army •, and even the
Englilh, who pretended to defpifc her efforts, felt
themfelves fecretly influenced with the terrors of her
million. A fupply of provifions was to be conveyed
into the town; Joan, at the head of fome French
troops, covered the embarkation, and entered Orleans
at the head of the convoy which Ihe had fafely pro-
tefted. While Ihe was leading her troops along, a dead
filence and aftonilhment reigned among the Englilh 5
and they regarded with religious awe that temerity,
which they thought nothing but fupernatural afliftance
could infpire. But they were foon roufed from their
ftate of amazement by a fally from the town •, Joan led
on the befieged, bearing the facred ftandard in her hand,
encouraging them with her words and actions, bring¬
ing them to the trenches, and overpowering the befie-
] . F 11 A
o-ers in their own redoubts. In the attack of one of Franc/i.
die forts, fhe was wounded in the neck with an arrow j —v ;
but inftantly pulling out the weapon with her own
hands, and getting the wound quickly dreffed, Ihe haft-
ened back to head the troops, and to plant her victo¬
rious banner on the ramparts of the enemy. Ihefe fuc*
ceffes continuing, the Englilh. found that it was impof-
fible to refill, troops animated by fucb fuperior energy 5
and Suffolk, who conducted the attack, thinking that
it might prove extremely dangerous to remain any
longer in the prefence of fuch a courageous and vidlo-
rious enemy, raifed the fiege, and retreated with all
imaginable precaution.
From being attacked, the French now in turn be¬
came the aggreffors. Charles formed a body of 6000
men, and fent them to befiege Jergeau, whither the
Englilh, commanded by the earl of Suffolk, had re¬
tired, with a detachment of his army. The city was
taken ; Suffolk yielded himfelf a prifoner; and Joan
marched into the place in triumph at the head of the
army. A battle was foon after fought near Patay,
where the Englilh rvere v’orfted, as before •, and the
generals Scales and Talbot were taken prifoners.
The railing of the fiege of Orleans was one part of
the Maid’s promife to the king of France 5 the crown¬
ing him at Kheims was the other. She now declared
that it was time to complete that ceremony ; and
Charles, in purfuanee of her advice, fet out for Rheims
at the head of 12,000 men. The towns through which
he paffed opened their gates to receive him ; and Rheims
fent him a deputation, with its keys, upon his ap¬
proach. The ceremony of his coronation was there
performed with the utrcoft folemnity ; and the Maid
of Orleans (for fo Ihe was now called) feeing the com¬
pletion of her miflion, defired leave to retire, alleging
that Ihe had now accomplilhed the end of her calling.
But her fervices had been fo great, that the king\.
could not think of parting with her ; he preffed her to
flay fo earneltly, that Ihe at length complied with his
requelt.
A tide of fucceffes followed the performance of
this folemnity j Laon, Soiffons, Chateau-Thierri, Pro-
vins, and many other fortreffes in that neighbourhood,
fubmitted to him on the firlt fummons. On the other
hand, the Englilh, difeomfited and difpirited, fled in
every quarter ; not knowing whether to aferibe their
misfortunes to the power of forcery or to a celeltial
influence ; but equally terrified at either. They now
found themfelves deprived of the conquefts they had
gained, in the fame manner as the French had former¬
ly fubmitted to their power. Their own divifions,
both abroad and at home, unfitted them entirely for
carrying on the war; and the duke of Bedford, not-
withftanding all his prudence, faw himfelf divefted of
his Itrong holds in the country, without being able to
Hop the enemy’s progrefs. In order, therefore, to re-IIcnry yf,
vive the declining llate of his affairs, he refolved to 0f England
have Henry crowned king at Paris, knowing that the crowned
natives would be allured to obedience by the fplendour £mg of
of the ceremony. In 1430, Henry was accordingly1 rance’
crowmed, all the vaffals that Hill continued under the
Englilh power fwearing fealty and homage. But it
was now too late for the ceremonies of a coronation to
give a turn to the affairs of the Englilh \ the genera¬
lity of the kingdom had declared againlt them, and the
remaind^ ,
F R A
[ 83 ]
F R A
*03
Maid ot
Orleans
taken pri-
fijner,
Fa’a»ee. remainder only waited a convenient Opportunity to fol-
low the example.
An accident enfued foon after, which, though it pro-
mifed to promote the Englith caufe in France, in the
end ferved to render it odious, and conduced to the
total evacuation of that country. The dake of Bur¬
gundy, at the head of a powerful army, had laid liege
to Compeign ; and the Maid of Orleans had thrown
herfelf into the place, contrary to the willies of the
governor, who did not delire the company of one
whofe authority would be greater than his own. The
garrifon, however, were rejoiced at her appearance,
and believed themfelves invincible under her protec¬
tion. But their joy was of Ihort duration $ for Joan
having the day after her arrival headed a Tally, and
twice driven the enemy from their intrenchments, the
wgs at lalt obliged to retire, placing herfelf in the rear,
to proteft the retreat of her forces. But in the end,
attempting to follow her troops into the city, the found
the gates fhut, and the bridge drawn up by order of
the governor, who is faid to have long wilhed for an
opportunity of delivering her up to the enemy.
Nothing could exceed the joy of the beliegers, in
having taken a perfon who had been fo long a terror
to their arms. The fervice of Te Deum wras publicly
celebrated on this occalion •, and it was hoped, that the
capture of this extraordinary perfon would reftore the
Englilh to their former victories and fuccefles. The
duke of Bedford ivas no fooner informed of her being-
taken, than he purchafed her of the Count Vendome,
who had made her his prifoner, and ordered her to be
committed to clofe confinement. The credulity of
both nations was at that time fo great, that nothing
was too abfurd to gain belief that coincided with their
pa (lions. As Joan but a little before, from her fuccef-
fes, was regarded as a faint, Ihe was nowr, upon her
captivity, confidered as a forcerefs, forfaken by the de¬
mon who had granted her a fallacious and temporary
alTiftance. Accordingly it was refolved in council to
fend her to Rouen to be tried for witchcraft : and the
bifhop of Beauvais, a man wholly devoted to the Eng-
lifii intereft, prefented a petition againft her for that
purpofe. The univerfity of Paris was fo mean as to
join in the fame requeft. Several prelates, among
whom the cardinal of Winchefter was the only Englilh-
man, -were appointed as her judges. They held their
court at Rouen, where Henry then refided j and the
Maid, clothed in her former military apparel, but load¬
ed with irons, was produced before the tribunal. Her
behaviour there no -way difgraced her former gallantry ;
fire betrayed neither weaknefs nor womanifh fubmif-
fion j but appealed to God and the pope for the truth
of her former revelations. In the iflue, (he was found
guilty of herefy and witchcraft; and fentenced to be
burnt alive, the common punifiiment for fuch offences.
But previous to the infliction of this dreadful fen-
tence upon her, they were refolved to make her abjure
her former errors ; and at length fo far prevailed upon
her, by terror and rigorous treatment, that her fpirits
wrere entirely broken by the hardfhips (he was obliged
to luffer. Her former vifionary dreams began to va-
nifh, and a gloomy diftruft to take place of her late in-
fpirations. She publicly declared herfelf willing to
recant, and promifed never more to give way to the
vain delufions which had hitherto milled her, and im- Fnwcr.
pofed on the people. This was what her oppreffors 1
defired 5 and willing to fhow fome appearance of mer¬
cy, they changed her fentei.ce into perpetual imprifon-
ment, and to be fed during life on bread and water.
But the rage of her enemies was not yet fatiated. Su-
fpecting that the female drefs which Hie had confent-
ed to wear, was difagreeable to her, they purpofely
placed in her apartment a fuit of men’s apparel, and
watched for the effeft of their temptation upon her.
Their cruel artifices prevailed. Joan, (truck with the ,
fight of a drefs in which (lie had gained fo much glo¬
ry, immediately threw off her penitent robes, and
put on the forbidden garment. Her enemies caught
her equipped in this manner ; ami her imprudence was
confidcred as a relapfe into her former tranfgreffiomv 104
No recantation would fuff ee, and no pardon wouldan^ cruelly
be granted. She was condemned to be burnt alive in
the market-place of Rouen j and this infamous fentence
rvas accordingly executed with molt brutal feveiity.
One of the firlt misfortunes which the Englilh felt
after this punilhment, was the defeftion of the duke
of Burgundy j who had for fome time feen the error
of his conduct, and wifhed to break an unnatural con¬
nexion, that only ferved to involve his country in ruin.
A treaty was therefore begun and concluded between
him and Charles, in which the former agreed to aflilt
him in driving the Englifli out of France. This was
a mortal blow to their caufe j and fuch was its effects
upon the populace of London when they were inform¬
ed of it, that they killed feveral of the duke of Bur¬
gundy’s fubjefts, who happened to be among them at
the time. It might perhaps alfo have haftened the
duke of Bedford’s death, who died at Rouen a few
days after the treaty was concluded j and the earl of
Cambridge was appointed his fucceffor to the regency
of France. r j
From this period, the Englilh affairs became totally A ffairs^of
irretrievable. The city of Paris returned once more the Enghll*
to a fenfe of its duty. Lord Willoughby, who com- totall>
manded it for the Engliffi, was contented to ftipulateru!nCt"
for the fafe retreat of his troops to Normandy. Thus
ground was continually, though llowly, gained by the
French; and notwithftanding their fields were laid
wafte, and their towns depopulated, yet they found
protection from the weaknefs and divilions of the Eng¬
lifli, At length both parties began to grow wreary
of a war, which, though carried on but feebly, was yet
a burden greater than either could fupport. But the
terms of peace infifted upon by both were fo wide of
each other, that no hopes of an accommodation could
quickly be expected. A truce, therefore, for twenty-
two months, was concluded in 1443, which left every
thing on the prefent footing between the parties. No
fooner was this agreed upon, than Charles employed
himfelf with great induftry and judgment in repairing
thofe numberlefs ills to which his kingdom, from the
continuance of wars both foreign and domeftic, had
fo long been expofed. He eftablilhed difeipline a-
mong his troops, and juftice among his governors.
He revived agriculture, and repreffed faflion. Thus
being prepared once more for taking the field, he took
the firft favourable occafion of breaking the truce 5 and
Normandy was at the fame time invaded by four
L 2 powerful
France.
FRA L
powerful armies ; one commanded by Charles himfelf,
a fecond by the duke of Brittany, a third by the count
of Alen^on, and a fourth by the Count Dunois. Every
place opened its gates almoft as foon as the French
appeared before them. Rouen was the only one that
promifed to hold out a fiege ; but the inhabitants cla¬
moured fo loud for a furrender, that the duke of So
merfet, who commanded the garrifon, was obliged to
capitulate. The battle, or rather the fkirmiih, of
Fourmingi, was the lalt Rand which the Englilh made
in defence of their French dominions. However, they
were put to the rout, and above a thoufand were llain.
All Normandy and Guienne, that had fo long acknow¬
ledged fubjeflion to England, were loft in the fpace
of a year ; 'and the Englilh faw themfelves entirely dif-
poffeffed of a country which for above three centuries
they had confidered as annexed to their native domi¬
nions. Calais alone remained of all their conquefts ;
and this was but a fmall compenfation for the blood and
treafure which had been lavilhed in that country, and
only ferved to gratify ambition with a tranlient applaufe.
Thus, in the year 1450, the power of the Englifh in
France was entirely deftroyed ; and Charles deferv-
edly obtained the furname of ViBorious, on account of
the vigour he had drown in driving out the invaders of
his country. His fatisfadfion, however, was now
greatly diminiflred by domeftic misfortunes. The dau-
misfortunes plftn, forgetting the allegiance and filial duty he owed
death to his father, had already impeded his conquefts by his
* lar eS‘ Editions intrigues. He had ufed every endeavour to
thwart the defigns of his minifters, and it was fuppof-
ed that he had deftroyed Agnes Soreiile his father’s
favourite miftrefs by poifon. He . had married Char¬
lotte daughter to the duke of Savoy } which Charles
France.
106
Domeftic
had refented by a declaration of war again!! the duke,
but had been perfuaded to recal it in order to profe-
cute the war again!! Guienne, which made part of the
dominions of the Englilh. At laft, weary of the dif-
obedience of his fon, he commanded him to be arrefted ;
but Louis, informed of his defign, withdrew to Franche
Comte, and afterwards to Brabant of which the duke
of Burgundy (at this time fovereign of the country)
was no fooner apprifed, than he ordered him to be
fupplied with every neceffary, and treated with all
imaginable refpetl. He refufed to fee him, however,
until he ftiould obtain the approbation of his father;
on which Louis, having in vain attempted to draw the
duke into a participation of his crimes, employed him¬
felf in fowing diffenfion betwixt his benefaclor and his
fon the count of Charolois, at the very time that he
himfelf was receiving a penfion of 12,000 croAvns an¬
nually from the father. Thus he at laft deftroyed the'
domeftic peace of his benefaftor, while his unnatural
behaviour created continual fufpicions in the rrlind of
his father. Charles was repeatedly informed that his
own domeftics, along with his undutiful fon, were in
a confpiracy again!! his life. The miferable monarch,
therefore, in continual fear of being poifoned, and hav¬
ing nolle in whom he could repofe any confidence,
obftinately refufed for fome days to take any nourifti-
ment •, and when at laft prevailed upon by the impor¬
tunities of his attendants to do fo, his ftomach had
become incapable of receiving food, fo that he died
for want of fuftenance in the year 1461. His body,
negkfled by his unnatural fon, was interred at the ex-
5
84 ] F R A
pence of Tannegui de Chattel, who had been his faith¬
ful companion. v
On the death of Charles, his fon Louis fucceeded to
the throne, to which he had fo long afpired. He pouls xr,
Avas reckoned one oi the greatei! politicians that ever
exifted 5 though his character Avas not on that account
the more amiable 5 on the contrary, there are feAV
princes Avhofe hiftory appears in a more deteftable light.
So deftitute Avas he of natural afteclion, that he did
not even attempt to conceal his joy at his lather's
death. He pretended much friendihip for the count
of Charolois, fon to the duke of Burgundy, on ac¬
count of the protection he had received at his father’s
court; and even conferred upon him a penlion 0!
12,000 crowns annually : but all this Hioav of affec¬
tion foon degenerated into a mortal averfion on both
fides. Some ditterences Avhich took place betAveen the
courts of France and Caftile produced an interview
betwixt the two monarchs, Louis, and Henry fur-
named the Impotent. They met at Mauleon on the _
confines of Navarre: but their negotiations came to
nothing, and they parted Avith a mutual contempt of
each other ; Henry defpifing the mean and fordid ap¬
pearance of Louis, as he in his turn did the gaudy
magnificence of Henry. In his negotiations with the
duke of Burgundy, Louis proved more fuccefsful ; per-
fuading him to reftore lome towns on the river Somme,
Avhich had been ceded by Charles VII. and by the
poffeflion of which the duke Avas in effeCt matter of
Picardy. This ceffion Avas oppofed by the count of
Charolois; but Louis, by corrupting John de Croy
the duke’s minifter, obtained his end 5 and for the firm
of 400,000 croAvns the cities Avere delivered to him.
By this tranfaftion he efFe&ually enfured the hatred of
Charolois : and even in that very tranfadtion the dupli¬
city of Louis Avas eminently difplayed; for though he had
agreed to retain in thofe toAvns the officers appointed
by the duke, he Avas no looner in pofiefiion of them than
he difplaced them all, and nominated others in their
ftead. 108
The duchy of Brittany Avas at this time governed Forn.idablc
by Francis, a Aveak but generous prince, and whole con^‘^racy
defect of capacity Avas fupplied by the abilities of his Louis,
minifters. Him Louis iniulted in the mott grievous
manner 5 and as Francis found himfelf unable to op-
pofe fuch a poAverful adA^erlary alone, he joined in a
clofe alliance with the duke of Burgundy and the
count of Charolois; the latter having been grievoufly
offended Avith Louis, and even accufed him of attempt¬
ing his life. The confpiracy was joined by feveral of
the principal French nobility, avIio had been oppref-
fed by the king; and though the fecret av^s confided
to upAvards of 500 perfons, not one of them ever di¬
vulged it. Louis, finding matters become very critical,
marched Avith an army toAvards the capital, Avhich the
count of Charolois already infulted. A battle enfiied,
in which both princes exerted themfelves to the ut-
moft, though their valour Avas but ill feconded by
the bravery of their troops. About 1500 periftied on
each fide ; but the count of Charolois remained matter
of the field of battle. Louis, however, after*!his en¬
gagement, entered the capital : Avhere he endeavoured,
by »very kind conceflion he could think of, to con¬
ciliate the affeblion of his fubjefls ; in Avhich he fuc¬
ceeded fo well, that though the army of infurgents
was
FRA f 85 ] FRA
'France, was foon augmented to more than 100,000 men, they
1   were unable to make themfelves mailers of the city.
„ 109 At lalt a treaty was fet on foot betwixt Louis and the
eluded. count of Charolois; by Avhich the latter obtained the
towms which had been formerly ceded, with the di-
ftriels of Boulogne, Guifne, Peronne, Mondidior, and
Roye, as a perpetual inheritance for himfelf. By
granting favours to the other confederates, the league
II0 was broken j and the moment that Louis found him-
Treachery felf freed from danger, he protelled againll the whole
ei Louis, treaty in the prefence of fome confidential members of
parliament, as contrary to the interell of the crown ;
and therefore waited the firll favourable opportunity
to crulh one by one thofe who had been ready by their
united efforts to deftroy himfelf. The duke of Bour¬
bon, one of the moll able of the confederates, was
gained over, by bellowing upon him in marriage, Jane
the natural daughter of Louis himfelf, with the dowry
of Ulfon in Auvergne 5 together with Moras, Beau-
repaire, and Cormillon in Dauphiny ; while, by the diL
contents betwixt the dukes of Brittany and Normandy,
he was enabled to fecure the neutrality of the former,
and to recover from the latter fome territories which
he had unwillingly ceded to him.
In 1467, Philip duke of Burgundy, from his amiable
qualities furnamed The Good, died, and left his domi¬
nions to his fon Charles count of Charolois. That
fiery and impetuous prince, jealous of the growing
power of France, and an implacable enemy of Louis,
had entered into a fecret treaty with Francis j but
Louis had driven the Bretons from the polls they oc¬
cupied in Normandy before the duke of Burgundy
could pafs the Somme. The king, however, alarmed
at the power of the confederates, concluded a peace
with Brittany; and, confiding in his talents for nego¬
tiation, determined to have a per.'onal interview with
TII the duke of Burgundy.
Louis im- This memorable interview took place in the year
prifoned by 1468 ; and Peronne, a city of Picardy, but belong-
Charles. ing to the duke of Burgundy, was appointed as the
place of rendezvous. To this place the politic Louis
repaired with a llender train, and attended only by
Cardinal Balue, the duke of Bourbon, and the count
de St Pol, conltable of France ; feemingly without re¬
lieving that he was entering a holtile city, where he
might be confined for any length of time, or treated at
the pleafure of the duke, who was his mortal enemy.
Indeed he had not long been in the place when he be¬
gan to fee the error of his conduV ; and by the daily
concourfe of Burgundian lords and other perfons of
rank, who were his avowed enemies, he became
alarmed for his perfonal fafety. His fear now fug-
gelled to him a worfe meafure than even the former 1
and he requelled apartments in the caltle, where it
was in the power of his rival in a moment to make him
a clofe prifoner. This event accordingly took place,
and that through the arts and machinations of Louis
himfelf. His defign had been from the beginning to
keep the duke of Burgundy conllantlv employed in
domellic wars. For this purpofe he had, before his
interview with Charles, excited the inhabitants of
Liege, who were fubjeV to the duke of Burgundy, to
revolt. It is moll probable, that he did not imagine
the eflfebls of this treachery would fo foon begin to
appear. At the very time, however, that Louis was
in the callle of Peronne, the people of Liege revolted, France.
feized the bilhop and governor j and having maliaered 1 v—
great numbers of the adherents of Charles, retired
with the prifoners they had made to the capital.
Charles was loon informed of this maflacre, with the
additional circumllance, that the ambaffadors of Louis
were feen animating the infurgents to their work of
dellrublion. He then flew into a tranfport of rage j
commanded the gates of the callle to be Ihut and
llriblly guarded; denouncing the feverell vengeance
on the perfidious monarch who had fo often deceived
him. Louis, however, though greatly, and no doubt
very jultly, alarmed, did not negleft to take the pro¬
per methods for fecuring himfelf. He dillributed large
fums of money among thofe officers to whom he ima¬
gined the duke was moll inclined to pay any regard,
and by fplendid promifes and prefents endeavoured to
allay the refentment of his other enemies. At laft the
refentment of Charles having lubfided, he entered into a treaty
a treaty with the king, and concluded it upon much between
the lame terms as thole which had been agreed upon Louis and
before. His refentment, however, Hill manifeiled it-
leli fo far, that he infilled upon Louis being prefent
at the punilhment he inflidled upon the inhabitants of
Liege for the maffacre they had committed, and of
which we have already taken notice. This tv as agreed
to : the two princes formed the liege of the city in
conjunVion 5 and, notwithllanding the obllinate de¬
fence of the people, it was at lalt taken by itorm, and
the inhabitants maliaered. It was not long, however,
before the new alliance was dillolved. A confederacy
againll Louis, whom neither promifes nor treaties
could bind, was formed betwixt his own brother the
duke of Normandy and the duke of Burgundy 5 but
before their meafures were ripe for execution, Louis
had already commenced hollilities. The duke of Bur¬
gundy, as a peer of France, was fummoned to parlia¬
ment 5 and on his refufal, the conltable St Pol made
himfelf mailer of St ^uintin. Several other cities
were foon after reduced ; and Baldwin, the natural
brother of Charles, corrupted by Louis, delerted his
caufe 5 and the haughty fpirit of the duke was thus at
laft obliged to eondefeend to folicit a peace. This,
however, was of no long duration. Charles, encou¬
raged by the fuecefs of Edward IV. of England his
brother-in-law, began once more to league againft
Louis with the dukes of Brittany and of Guienne ; the •
latter being the king’s brother, formerly duke of Nor¬
mandy, but who had exchanged that duchy for the
territory of Guienne. But while the affairs of the
confederates feemed to be in a prolperous way, their
prorpeVs were fuddenly overcaft by the death of the
duke of Guienne, which was univerfally fuppofed to
have been occafioned by poifon, and Louis was as uni¬
verfally looked upon as the author. The abbot of St
Joan d’Angeli was fixed upon as the immediate perpe¬
trator of the deed : but on the ftay appointed for his
trial he was found ftrangled in his cell; and this alfo
was with great probability fuppofed to have been the
deed of Louis, who after the death of his brother in-
liantlv feized on the territory of Guienne, and annexed
it to the dominions of France.
By this unheard of conduft of the French monarch,
Charles was exafperated to Inch a degree, that he vow¬
ed the moft dreadful vengeance againlt the unhappy
people
France.
} I3.
Furious in-
valion of
France by
Charles of
Burgundy.
114
'Xnvafion by
Ed ward IV
of England
VS
' Louis
agrees to
pay an an¬
nual pen-
lion to Ed¬
ward.
f R A [ 86
people of France, and threatened to facrifiee to the me¬
mory of the duke of Guienne every one who now fell
into his hands. The citizens of Nefle were maffacred
without diftinftion of fex or age ; Beauvis relifted his
attacks j after which Charles wreaked his fury on other
places. Having entered the country of Caux, he re¬
duced the cities of Eu and St Valery, burnt Longue-
ville, and wafted the whole country as far as Rouen.
Louis, on the other hand, iteady and conftant in his
defigns, determined to diffolve the league between the
duke of Brittany and Edward IV. oi England. Ac¬
cordingly he encamped with his army on the frontiers
T)f Brittany; while the duke, not meeting with the
alliftance promifed by Edward, was obliged to confent
to a truce for a year ; and the duke of Burgundy him*
felf was obliged to follow his example, having com¬
mitted fuch devaftations as deprived him of all means
of fubliftence in the country, fo that he could neither
advance nor retreat. In a very little time, however,
he again began to confpire with the king of England
againft Louis, and a powerful invafion was determined
upon. Edward was to crofs the fea with an army of
10,000 men, while Charles affembled all his forces to
join him. The former ivas alfo to fet up a claim to
the crown of France, and at lead: to obtain the pro¬
vinces of Normandy and Guienne ; the duke wTas to
have Champagne with fome adjacent diftriefts ; to free
his dominions from homage ; and neither party was
to make peace without the confent of the other. It
was fuppofed that the duke of Brittany would na¬
turally accede to the confederacy ; and the Count, de
St Pol, conftable of France, had engaged, to deliver
up the town of St Quin tin and others which he oc¬
cupied on the river Somme. Louis, however, ftill
had the good fortune to avoid the ftorm. Charles,
inftead of advancing to the affiftance of Edward, who
had entered France at the head of 15,000 archers and
1500 men at arms, laid fiege to the city of Nuiz on
the Rhine ; while the conftable St Pol, inftead of
delivering up the towns as he had promifed, deceived
his allies, and enabled Louis to diffolve a confederacy,
which, had it been vigoroufly maintained, might have
involved him in the greateft difficulties. I o procure
the departure of Edward, how'ever, he w’as obliged to
confent to a tribute of 75,000 crowns, as well as to
fettle on the king himfelf 50,000 crowns for life ; be¬
trothing alfo the dauphin to the eldeft daughter of
the king of England. The duke of Burgundy ex¬
claimed loudly againft this treaty ; but Edward per-
fifted in his refolution ; and it was accordingly exe¬
cuted at a place called Pecquigmj, near Amiens ; but
in fuch a manner as ftiowed the little confidence the
two fovereigns repofed in each other. A grated bar¬
rier was erefted in the middle of the bridge of Pec-
quigny, between the barriers of which only a man’s
arm could pafs : the two princes appeared on the op-
pofite fides of it; and having conferred privately, and
confirmed the treaty between them, parted with many
proteftations of friendffiip ; in which, probably, neither
party was very fincere. A power was referved by Ed¬
ward, for the duke of Burgundy to accede to the
treaty ; but the latter haughtily replied, that he was
able to fupport himfelf without the affiftance of Eng¬
land ; and that he would make no peace with Louis
; toll three months after the return of Edward to his own
1
FRA
country. To this refolution he adhered ; but no fooner | fVane<>; ,
was the term expired, than he concluded a truce with |T“ v'J 117 .
Louis for nine years. I he ftipulations publicly agreed
upon betwixt thefe two princes confifted only in iome
articles for the mutual advantage of their lubjeCts ; but
privately they had figned others of a different nature.
The conftable St Pol having rendered himfelf obnoxi¬
ous to all parties by his complicated treachery, tied to
Mons in Hainault; but the duke of Burgundy had al¬
ready confented to deliver him up on condition of re¬
ceiving his eftates and moveables as the price of his
treachery.
Thus was Louis without any other remarkable quali¬
fication than the mere arts of falfehood and duplici¬
ty, got rid of all his enemies except the duke of Bur¬
gundy, whofe growing power rendered him a conftant
objetl of jealoufy and terror. Plis own imprudence Ir(j-
and rafhnefs, however, foon proved his ruin. Having Charles en-
raffily engaged in a war with the Swifs, he was de-gages in a
feated in the firft engagement with that martial nation,
with the lofs of his military cheft and baggage, with
his plate and jewels, fuppofed to be the rieheft in Eu¬
rope. His difappointment on this occafion was fo
great, that he was feized with a fevere ficknefs, from
which he had hardly recovered when he refumed his
mad fcheme of conquering the Swifs. Another battle
enfued ; in which, after an obftinate difpute, Charles-
was defeated with the lofs of 18,000 men, himfelf
efcaping with great difficulty. This difafter was fol¬
lowed by the defe&ion of moft of his allies ; the duke
of Lorrain recovered the city of Nancy and great part
of his dominions which Charles had feized ; while the
latter, overwhelmed with ftiame and difappointment,
fpent his time in folitude and inaftivity. from this
he was at laft roufed by the misfortunes which fell up¬
on him in fuch quick fucceffion. He now invefted
the city of Nancy ; and in this, as well as in every
other inftance, he afted againft the advice of his bell;
officers; and the confequences were ftill more fatal
than before. The duke of Lorrain advanced with a
ftrong body of Germans to the relief of the city, while
Charles had fcarcely 4000 men to oppofe. him. His
troops were therefore eafily defeated, and himfelf, not-
withftanding the moft heroic efforts of valour, hurried
away in the crowd. Ihe count de Campobaffo, an
Italian nobleman in whom he put a great deal of confi¬
dence, but vffio was in reality a traitor, had deferted
with about 80 men in the beginning of the engagement. Il7
He left 12 or 15 men about the duke’s perfon, with He is afiaf-,
ftrift orders to affaffinate him in the tumult; and thisfinated.
order they punctually complied with ; the body of
Charles being found tvro days after the battle pierced
with three wounds.
The news of Charles’s death was received with the
moft unfeigned joy by Louis, whofe foie objeCt now
wras to unite the territories of the duke of Burgundy jjj
to his own. This might be done in two ways; one Conqueft of
by a match betwixt the dauphin and Mary the heirefsBurgundy
of Burgundy ; the other, by marrying her to the duke ^ oul5,
of Angouleme, a prince of the royal blood of France,
and on whom Mary had ftieAvn fome inclination to be¬
llow herfelf. The king, however, to whom duplicity
and falfehood feem to have been abfolutely neceffary,
chofe a third method, more agreeable to his charafter.
The match with the dauphin was attended with fuch
eircumftances
FRA r 87 ] FRA
France, circumftances as rendered it evidently impracticable.
The difparity of age was very great, the dauphin
being only eight years old, and the princefs twenty :
the Flemings were belides very much averfe from fub-
mitting to a prince whofe powerful refources would
enable him to opprefs their liberties : but notwithftand-
ing thefe unfurmountable difficulties, Louis chofe to
inffft upon tlxe match, at the fame time that he endea¬
voured to make himfelf mafter of her dominions by
force of arms. He addreffed circular letters to the
principal cities of Burgundy ; reprefenting, that the
duchy had been given by King John to the male heirs
of his fon Philip ; and that now, when thefe were
extinfl by the death of Charles, the territory reverted
of courfe to the crown. To render this argument more
effectual, he corrupted the governors of feme towns,
feduced the inhabitants of others to rife againft their
governors ; whilit he himfelf at the head of an army,
prepared to enforce obedience from thofe who could not
be worked upon by other methods. Thus the pro¬
vince of Burgundy was entirely reduced ; but Flanders
could not be brought under fubjeftion either by fair
means, force, or fraud. In his conducf for this pur-
pofe, indeed, Louis difplayed the moft deteftable as
well as the meaneff: treachery and falfehood. To ren¬
der Mary odious to her fubjefts, he negociated with
her minilters, and prevailed upon them to difclofe to
him fome of the molt important date fecrets; after
which he communicated their letters to the Hates of
Flanders. This double treachery, however, did not
at prefent anfwer Ins purpofe. The two myiifters
W'hom he had betrayed were indeed put to death with¬
out mercy, and that even in the prefence of their
fovereign : but Mary herfelf was thus induced to be¬
llow herfelf upon the emperor Maximilian ; and Louis
had the mortification to find that all his arts had con¬
tributed only to aggrandife a rival power, whom he
had already fufficient caufe to dread. To remedy this
overfight, he entered into an alliance with Edxvard IV.
of England, whom he had infpired with a jealoufy of
his brother Clarence, in order to prevent a match be¬
twixt that nobleman and the princefs Mary, xvhich had
alfo been in agitation. Thus a peace was concluded
between the two monarchs, to continue during the life
of each, and a year after.
The marriage of Mary with .Maximilian effe&ually
fecured the independence of Flanders ; while the re¬
turn of the prince of Orange to the party of that
princefs extended the flames of war once more to the
cities of Burgundy. The French were on the point
of being totally expelled from that country, when
Maximilian unexpectedly made propofals of peace. A
truce was on this concluded between the two princes,
but without any term limited for its duration, or with-
. out any conditions ftipulated in favour of the Bur¬
gundians •, fo that the whole country was quickly after
Il9 reduced by Louis.
Tyranny The king now freed from the apprehenfions of
md cruelty foreign enemies, turned his vindictive difpofition againft
ou‘3’ his own fubjefts ; over whom, under pretence of for¬
mer rebellions, he exercifed the moft infupportabff ty¬
ranny. The principal viclim to his fanguinary difpofi¬
tion on this occafion was James d’Armagnac duke of
Nemours, one of the firft noblemen in the kingdom,
but who had formerly appeared a zealous confederate
againft him in the league in which Edxvard and Charles France.
were concerned. The unfortunate nobleman, know- 1 *—-
big that vengeance wras determined againft him, fled to
a fortrefs named Car/at, fituated among the mountains
of Auvergne. Here he was befieged by the Seigneut
de Beaujeu, who had married Anne the daughter of
Louis. The place, however, tv as almoft impregnable"
to any force 5 fo that his enemies were obliged to make
the moft folemn promifes of fafety in order to induce
him to furrender himfelf. By thefe he w as at laft per-
fuaded to truft himfelf in the hands of the faithlels
tyrant} who no fooner had him in his power than he
ftmt. him up in the Baftile in an iron cage, and repri¬
manded the judges becaufe they had releafed him from
this clofe confinement during the time of his examina¬
tion. The judges reluclantly condemned him to be
beheaded : but the king’s cruelty extended beyond the
fentence ; and he ordered the two young fons of the
duke, though yet in early childhood, to be placed
diredly under the fcaffbld, that they might be covered
with the blood of their father. Four thoufand perfons
are fuppofed to have perifhed upon this occafion with¬
out any form or trial : and were it not for the con¬
current teftimony of the hiftorians of that age, the in¬
humanities and barbarities of this monarch are fcarce
to be credited. By thefe he broke the fpirits of the
French nobility, and gradually extended the power of
the crown beyond all bounds 3 fo that at laft it was
limited only by the fovereign’s pleafure. Amidft all
the perfidy and cruelty, however, for xvhich this
monarch is fo juftly to be detefted, xve may on fome
occafions remark a kind of magnanimity and generofity,
which xve cannot but applaud. An inftance of this
xvas his fupporting the houfe of Medici againft Pope
Sextus, whom he obliged to defift from his attacks,
and to recal his fentence xvhich he had fulminated
ap-ainft them.
o ^ ^ 1
In 1479, the emperor Maximilian, who had lightly Burgundy
abandoned the duchy of Burgundy xvhen he might unfuccefs-
have reduced it, noxv renexved his claims when it xvas in-
no longer in his power to enforce them. After a
variety of actions of lefler note, and the deftruclion of *
cities on both fides, a decifive battle xvas fought at
Guinegate. Here the Flemings xvere routed 3 but as
the French purfued xvith too great ardour, the infantry
of the enemy rallied, and the battle was renexved with
great flaughter on both fides. A more decifive advan¬
tage xvas afterxvards gained by the capture of 80 Fle-
milh veflels, which induced that commercial people to
think of peace. In the mean time, however, Louis,
after a life fpent in continual deceit, hypocrify, and
cruelty, received xvarning of his approaching end by
a fit of apoplexy with xvhich he was feized in the
year 1480. He lay fpeechlefs and motionlefs for txvo
days 3 after xvhich he recovered in fome degree, but
never completely regained his health and ftrength.
His illnefs, hoxvcver, neither prevented him from pur-
fuing the fchemes of his ambition, nor from ufing the
fame methods as before to attain them. He feized,
xvithout any pretence, the eftates of the duke of Bour¬
bon, the only nobleman in the kingdom xvhofe power
could give him any caufe of fufpicion 3 yet, notxvith-
ftanding his afliduity for the intereft of the dauphin,
he kept him a kind of prifoner in the caftle of Am-
boife, permitting none but his oxvn fervants, or per-
fens .
F R A [ 88
France. f0ns of tire mcancft rank, to have accefs to him. He
! -"J v 11 banifhed his own confort, the mother of the dauphin,
to Savoy, and endeavoured to infpire the prince with
averfion towards her. By the death of Charles, the
titular king' of Naples, and the laft of the fecond houfe
of Anjou, he became mailer of the county of Pro¬
vence j but his fatisfaefion on this occafion was mar¬
red by a fecond ilroke of apoplexy. Still, however,
he revived, and, wdth his recovery, again began to pur-
fue his ambitious intrigues. The death of Mary of
Burgundy, who perilhed by a fall from her horfe, in-
fpired him with new views } and he betrothed his Ion
to the infant daughter of the emperor. Thus he of¬
fended Edward IV. of England, whofe eldeft daugh¬
ter Elizabeth had been previoully contract'd to the
dauphin } and a war would have undoubtedly eniued,
had it not been for the death of the king of England.
12i This was followed in no long time after by that of
Death of Louis himfelf, who had in vain exhaufted the Ikill of
Louis XI. t]ie phyfician, and wearied the clerical order with pray¬
ers and proceffions to avert the impending Ilroke. He
expired in the year 1483, after a reign of 23 years •,
during which he was detelted by his fubjeCs, whom
he had continually oppreffed } and equally dreaded and
hated by his neighbours, whom he had conltantly de¬
ceived : notwithftanding which he obtained the title
of Mo/? ChriJHan from his holinefs, which his fucceffors
have ever after retained.
Notwithllanding the dark charafter of this prince,
it is undoubtedly to be allowed, that he laid the foun¬
dations of the future greatnefs of France. By his
aits he deprived the common people of their liberty,
depreffed the power of the nobility, ellablifhed a Hand¬
ing army, and even induced the Hates to render many
taxes perpetual, which formerly were only temporary,
in order to fupport the army which was to keep them-
felves in flavery. From this time the people were.ac-
cuHomed to fubmit entirely to the voice of their fo-
vereign as their only legiflator 5 and being always obe¬
dient in matters of the greateH confequence, they cheer¬
fully contributed whatever fums were required to fulfil
the king’s pleafure.
Charles VIII. who fucceeded his father Louis XI.
in 1483, was only 14 years of age at the time of his
father’s death : but though he might, even at that
age, have afeended the throne without any material
violation of the laws of France, yet it was judged ne-
ceffary to have a regent, on account of the king’s de¬
licacy of conflitution and want of education. Three
competitors appeared as candidates for this important
trufl, viz. John duke of Bourbon, a prince of the
blood, and who had, till the age of 60, maintained
the moH unblemiflied charafiter ; Louis duke of Or¬
leans, prefumptive heir to the crown, but who from
his being only 20 years old himfelf, feemed incapaci¬
tated on that account from undertaking fuch an im¬
portant office : the third competitor was Anne, the
eldeH daughter of Louis, to whom the latter had in
•Regency of the laH moments of his life committed the charge of
the*'Lady the kingdom, with the title of governefs. The claim
Scaujcu. 0£ this" lady was fupported by the affembly of the
Hates general at Tours ; and though Hie was only en¬
tered into the 22d year of her age, it appears that the
office could not have been more properly beflowed.
Being married to Peter of Bourbon, fire of Beaujeu,
122
Reign of
'Charles
VIII.
] FRA
her prefent title was the Lady of Beaijeu ; but fhe ap- France,
pears to have a£ted entirely independent of her huf--'v—-■*
band, who U'as but of a moderate capacity, and in¬
deed had been recommended to her by Louis on ac¬
count of his flender abilities, left by any other match
the houfe of Bourbon Ihould be too much aggran¬
dized. Her firfl Hep was to ingratiate herfelf with
the people, by fome popular ads ; among w hich one
was to punifli the inHruments of her lather’s cruelties.
One of thefe, named Oliver le Lian, who, from the
ftation of a barber, had railed himfelf to the confi¬
dence and favour of the king, and had difiinguilhed
himfelf by the invention of new' modes ol torture,
w'as publicly hanged. Another, named Jean Doyac,
who by continual ads of violence and rapacity had
opprefied the people, was condemned, alter being
whipped in all the open places or Iquares oi Paris, to
have one of his ears cut off, and his tongue pierced
with a hot iron •, after w hich he A' as conveyed to his
native city of Montferrand, where he was again whip¬
ped, and his other ear cut off -, after w hich his effates,
as well as thofe of Oliver, were confifcated. Jacques
Coitier, the phyfician of Louis, who had availed him¬
felf of the terror of death u'ith which the king was
ffrongly influenced, to extort great fums of money from
him, was ordered to aniwer for the immenfe wealth he
had acquired •, but he averted the danger by paying a
fine of 50,000 crowns.
Thus the lady de Beaujeu gained the affeftion of
the people at large •, and w'as equally fuecefsful in gain¬
ing ower thofe who were averfe to her government.
The duke of Bourbon was made conffable, an office
which he had long defired } but the duke of Oilcans
behaved in fuch a manner as to exclude all hopes of
favour. I ncenfed at the determination of a trilling
d 'pute at tennis againfl him, by the lady Beaujeu, he
exclaimed, that whoever had decided in that manner
“ AVas a lier if a man, or a {crumpet if a woman.” Af¬
ter this furious declaration he fled to the caflle of Beau-
jency, where, however, he was foon forced to furrender.
He then applied to Henry VII. of England, who. had
newly afeended the throne of England : but that prince,
naturally flow and cautious, did not pay much attention
to his propofals 5 on which he next made his applica- I2i^
tion to the court of Brittany. Here he was received Duke of
with great marks of efleem, and began to entertain ^Jeans^
hopes of marrying the daughter of the duke j but be- 0 |
ing looked upon with a jealous eye by the nobility,
they entered into fecret negotiations with Anne, and
even folicited her to invade the country. In thefe ne¬
gotiations, however, they ffipulated that only a certain
number of troops fhould enter the province, and that
no fortified place fliould remain in the hands of the
French j which conditions were indeed agreed to by
the regent, though ffie determined to keep them no I25
longer than it anfwered her purpofe. In purfuance of That coun-
this refolution, Brittany was invaded at once by four try in-
armies, each of them fuperior to the ffipulated number,
who quickly made themfelves maflers of the moff im¬
portant places in the country t while the troops of
the duke retired in difguft, leaving them to purfue
their conqueffs as they pleafed. Finding at laff, how¬
ever, that the entire fubjection of their country was de¬
termined upon, the nobility began to exert themfclves
in defence of it •, and, inflamed by the enthufiafm of liber-
F Pv A [ S9 <3 F R A
France, ty, they raifed an army of 60,000 men. By lliefe the
hrench were compelled to abandon the fiege of Nantz j
but this proved only a tranfient gleam of iuccefs. Anne
perfevered in her defign of completing the conqueft of
the country, and the Hate of Europe at that time fa¬
voured the defign. Of all the European Hates, Eng¬
land alone was then capable of affording any effectual
alfiftance ; and the flow caution of Henry prevented
him from giving the affiflance which for his own inte-
reft he ought to have done. Thus the Bretons were
left to defend themfelves the befl way they could 5 and
having ventured a battle, they were entirely defeated,
and niofl of their leaders taken prifoners. A fmall body
oi Englifh, under the command of Lord Woodville,
who aififled them, were entirely cut in pieces. The
duke foon after died by a fall from his horfe, leaving
his dominions to his daughter Anne, at that time only
I3 years of age. A marriage was negotiated betwixt
this princefs and Maximilian king of the Romans, who
had been married to Mary of Burgundy ; but by
126 reafon of the poverty of that prince it was never
Marriage completed. The lady Beaujeu, then finding that the
between abfolute conqueit of Brittany would Hill be a difficult
VA.,::! matter, determined to conclude a marriage betwixt the
and da- young klng of France and the duchefs, though the
chtfsof former had already been married to Margaret of Auf-
Brittany tria, the daughter of Maximilian. This marriage in¬
deed had not been con fum mated by reafon of the
tender age of the princefs ; but Hie had been fent to
Paris for her education, and had for feveral years been
treated as queen of France. In 1491, however, Mar¬
garet was fent back to her father : Anne of Brittany
tor a long time refufed to violate the engagements into
which Hie had entered ; but at lad, finding herfelf dif-
trefled on all fides, and incapable of refifling the nu¬
merous forces of France with which (he was prefled,
Hie relmRantly confented to the match, and the nup¬
tials were celebrated the fame year at Langeais in
Touraine.
_ Maximilian, wbofe poverty had prevented him from
giving any afliflahee to his bride, or even from coming
to fee her, enraged at the double difgrace he had fuf-
fered, began, when too late, to think of revenge.
France ivas now threatened with an inVafion from the
united forces of Auflria, Spain, and England. But
this formidable confederacy was foon diflipated. 
Henry, whofe natural avarice had prevented him from
giving the neceflary afliflance, was bought off with
money : the immediate payment of 745,000 crowns
and the promife of 25.000 annually ever after, per-
fuaded him to retire into his own country. Ferdinand
king of Spain had the counties of Rouffillon and Ccr-
dagne reflored to him ; while Maximilian was gratified
by the ceflion of part of Artois, which had been ac-
n7 quired by Louis XI.
His expedi- The young king of France agreed to thefe terms
K tllC m°re. reac%’ tliat lie was impatient to undertake
urpr’ifing an exPe^1H°n into Italy, in order to conquer the king-
fuccefs. 5 Naples, to which he claimed a right. Moff of
his counfellors ivere againfl the expedition j but the
king was inflexible, even though Ferdinand king of
Naples offered to do homage for his kingdom, and pay
him a tribute of 50,000 crowns a-year. He appointed
Peter duke of Bourbon regent in his abfence ; after
which he fet out on his expedition with very few
Vol. IX. Part I.
troops and very little money. By the way he fell ill France,
of the fmall-pox, but in a Ihort time recovered, and en-
tering Italy with only 6000 horfe and 12,000 foot, he
was attended with the molt furprliing iuccefs, traverfing
the whole country in fix weeks, and becoming maffer of
the kingdom of Naples in Ids than a fortnight. Such
extraordinary good fortune feemed .miraculous j and he
was reckoned an inltrument railed up by God to deflroy
the execrable tyrants with which Italy was at that time
infeffed. Had Charles made ufe of this prepoffeflion in
his favour, and acted up to the charadler generally given
him, he might have railed his name as high as any hero
of antiquity. His behaviour, however, was of a very
different nature. He amufed himfelf with feafls and
fliows; and leaving his power in the hands of favourites,
they abandoned it to whoever would purchafe titles,
places, or authority, at the rates they impofed ; and the
whole force he propofed to leave in his new conquered
dominions amounted to no more than 4000 men.
But while Charles was thus lofing his time, a league
Was concluded againfl him at Venice ; into which en¬
tered the pope, the emperor Maximilian, the archduke
Philip, Ludovic Sforza, and the Venetians. The con¬
federates aflembled an army of 40,000 men, command¬
ed by Francis marquis of Mantua j and they waited
for the king in the valley of Fornova, in the duchy of
Parma, into which he defeended with 9000 men. On
the 6th of July 1495 he attacked the allies ; and, not-
withflanding their great fuperiority, defeated them,
with the lofs of only 80 of his own men. Thus he got
fafe to France; but his Italian dominions were lofl al-
mofl as foon as he departed. Some fchemes were pro- I2g
pofed for recovering thefe eonquefts j but they were His deaths,
never put in execution, and the king died of an apo¬
plexy in 1498.x
The premature death of this monarch in the 28th
year of his age, was fuppofed to have been owing to
his irregular life, and particularly his attachment to
women 5 which had for fome time impaired his health,
and brought on evident fymptoms of his approaching
diffolution. At lafl he relinquiflied his irregularities,
and retired with the queen to the caflle of Ambloife.
Here in palling tlirough a low door he flruck his head
with violence againfl the top. No unfavourable fymp-
tom appeared at the time; but foon afterwards, as he
converfed with his confeffor, and avowed his defign of
obferving the nuptial fidelity he owed to the queen,
he fuddenly fell backward in a fit of apoplexy. He
recovered his voice three times, and uttered fome ex-
preflions of devotion ; but inftantly relapfed, and in a
Ihort time expired, not with Handing every afliftance
that could be given. He was greatly celebrated for
his fweet temper and agreeable difpofition, which pro¬
cured him the fumames of the Affable and Courteous.
Two of his domeftics are faid to have died of grief af¬
ter his death, and his widow abandoned herfelf to the
moft pungent forrow for two days.
By the death of Charles VIII. the throne of France
pafled from the dire6t line of the houfe of Valois, and
Louis duke of Orleans fucceeded to the throne. At
the time of his acceffion he wras in his 36th vear, and
had long been taught prudence in the fchool of ad-
yerfity. During the adminiftration of the lady Beau¬
jeu, he had been, as we have already obferved, con-
ftantly in difgrace 3 and after his connexions with the
M duke
F II A [ go
France, duke of Brittany, had fpent a very confiderable time
““v ' in prifon -T and though afterwards fet at liberty by
Charles, he had never pofleffed any (hare of that mo¬
narch’s confidence or favour. Towards the conclufion
of that reign, he fell under the difpleafure of the
queen ; and" had afterwards continued at his eaftle of
Blois till he was called from thence to the poffeffion of
the kingdom. He Trad been married in early life, and
againft his will, to Jane the youngeft daughter of
Louis XL a princefs of an amiable difpofition, but de¬
formed in her perfon, and fuppofed to be incapable of
bearing children. Afterwards he entertained thoughts
of having his marriage diffolved, and was fuppofed to
poffefs the affeftion of the duchefs of Brittany, before
the became queen of Trance. After the death of her
hufband, that princefs retired to Brittany, where the
pretended to alTume an independent fovereignty ; but
Louis having got his marriage with Jane diffolved by
Pope Alexander VI. quickly after made propofals to
the queen-dowager, which on her part wrere accepted
without hefitation ; though it was ilipulated, that if fire
flrould have two fons, the younger fhould inherit the
duchy of Brittany.
As Louis, while duke of Orleans, had feme preten-
fions to the kingdom of Naples, he inftantly fet about
realizing them by conqueft. On his acceflion, he
found matters in that country much more favourable
to his defigns than formerly. The pope, Alexander
VI. wTas very much in his interefts, from the hopes of
getting his fon Ctefar Borgia provided for : he had con¬
ciliated tire friendfnip of the Venetians by promifing
them a part of the Milanefe; he concluded a truce
with the archduke Philip; and renewed his alliances
129 with the crowns of England, Scotland, and Denmark.
Expedition pje then entered Italy with an army of 20,000 men ;
and being afiifted by the Venetians, quickly conquered
one part of the duchy, while they conquered the other,
the duke himfelf being obliged to fly with his family
to Infpruck. He then attacked Ferdinand of Spain
with three armies at once, two to aft by land, and one
by fea •, but none of thefe performing any thing re¬
markable, he was obliged to evacuate the kingdom of
Naples in 1504.
In 1506, the people of Genoa revolted j drove out
the nobility •, chofe eight tribunes 5 and declared Paul
Nuova, a filk dyer, their duke : after which they ex¬
pelled the French governor, and reduced a great part
of the Riviera. This occafioned Louis’s return into
Italy } where, in 1507, he obliged the Genoefe to fur-
render at discretion : and, in 1508, entered into the
league of Cambray, with the other princes who at
that time wanted to reduce the overgrown power of
the Venetians. Pope Julius II. who had been the firft
contriver of this league, very foon repented of it; and
declared, that if the Venetians would reftore the cities
of Faenza and Rimini, which had been unjuftly taken
from him, he would be contented. This was refufed *,
and, in 1509, the forces of the republic received fuch
an entire.defeat from Louis, that they agreed to reflore
not only the two cities demanded by Pope Julius, but
whatever elfe the allies required.
The pope now, inilead of executing his treaties with
his allies, made war on the king of France without the
leaft provocation. Louis called an affembly of his
clergy 5 where it was determined, that in feme cafes it
5
]
F R A
of Louis
XII. into
Italy.
was-lawful to make war upon the pope; upon which France,
the king declared war againit him, and committed the ' '
care of his army to the Marlhal de Trivulce. He foon
obliged the pope to retire into Ravenna ; and in 1511,
Gallon de Foix, duke of Nemours, gained a great vic¬
tory at Ravenna, but was hiuflelf killed in the engage¬
ment. After his death the army was dilbanded for w ant
of pay ; and the French affairs in Italy, and everywhere
elfc, fell into great eonfufion. They recovered the
duchy of Milan, and loft it again in a few weeks. Hen¬
ry VIII. of England invaded France, and took Terru-
enne and Tournay ; and the Swifs invaded Burgundy
with an army of 215,000 men. In this defperate fituation
of affairs the queen died, and Louis put an end to the
oppofition of his moff dangerous enemies by negotiating
marriages. To Ferdinand of Spain he offered his fe-
ccnd daughter for either of his grandfons, Charles or
Ferdinand ; and to renounce, in favour of that mar- ^
riage, his claims on Milan and Genoa. This propofal His mar-
was accepted ; and Louis himfelf married the princefs riage with
Mary, fifter to Henry VIII. of England. This mar-^rpr^ce&
riage he did not long furvive, but died on the 2d of Ja-^YJ^
nuary 1^14; and was fucceeded by Francis I. count of anf death.
Angoulefme, and duke of Bretagne and Valois.
The new king was no fooner feated on the throne, Frauds I.
than he refolved on an expedition into Italy. In this invades
he u'as at firff fuceefsful, defeating the Swifs at Marig- Italy,
non, and reducing the duchy of Milan. In i the
emperor Maximilian dying, Francis was very ambitious
of being his fucceffor, and thereby reftoring to France
fuch a fplendid title, which had been fo long loft. But
Maximilian, before his death, had exerted himfelf fo
much in favour of Charles V. of Spain, that Francis
found it impoflible to fuccecd ; and from that time an,
irreconcileable hatred took place between the two mo-
narchs. In 1 $21, this ill will produced a u'ar ; which,
however, might perhaps have been terminated, if Fran¬
cis could have been prevailed upon to reftore the town
of Fontarabia, which had been taken by his admiral
Bonivet : but this being refufed, hoftilities were re¬
newed with greater vigour than ever ; nor were they
concluded till France was brought to the very brink of
deftruftion. The war was continued with various fuc-
cefs till the year 1524; when Francis having invaded I32
Italy, and laid fiege to Pavia, he was utterly defeated Defeated
before that city, and taken prifoner on the 24th of Fe- anfltakcn
, J 1 pnfoner.
bruary. > r
This difafter threw the whole kingdom into the ut-
rnoft confufion. The Flemifli troops made continual
inroads ; many thoufand boors affembled in Alface, in
order to make an invafion from that quarter ; Henry
VIII. had affembled a great army, and threatened the
kingdom on that fide alfo ; and a party was formed
in the kingdom, in order to difpoffefs the duchefs of
the regency, and confer it upon the duke de Ven-
dofme. This prince, however, who, after the conftable,
was the head of the houfe of Bourbon, W'ent on pur-
pofe to Lyons, where he affured the regent that he
had no view but for her fervice, and that of his coun¬
try ; upon which he formed a council of the ableft
men of the kingdom, and of this (he made him prefi-
dent. The famous Andrew Doria failed with the
French galleys to take on board the remains of the
French troops under the duke of Alva, whom he land¬
ed fafely in France. Thofe who efcaped out of the
Milanefe
France.
133
Francis I.
| carried to
' Madrid,
where he
figns a d'f-
advanta-
gcous trea¬
ty;
134
and breaks
it.
FRA [ (
Milanefe alfo made their way back again as well as
they could. Henry VIII. under the intluence of Car¬
dinal Wolfey, refolved not to opprefs the oppreffed :
he therefore allured the regent that die had nothing to
fear from him ; and at the fame time advifed her not
to confent to any treaty by which France was to be
difmembered. To the emperor, however, he ufed an¬
other language. He told him, that the time was noAV
tome when this puiliant monarchy lay at their mercy ;
and therefore, that fo favourable an opportunity Ihould
not be let flip : that, for his part, he Ihould be content
■with Normandy, Guienne, and Gafcony, and hoped
the empire would make no fcruple of owning him king
of France : adding, that he expected the emperor
would make a right ufe of his victory, by entering
Guienne in perfon •, in which cafe he was ready to bear
half the expences of the war. He forefawr what fell out :
the emperor was alarmed at thefe conditions, and did
not care to have him for a neighbour; for which reafon
he agreed to a truce with the regent for fix months. In
Picardy the Flemings wrere repulfed ; and the count de
Guife, xvith the duke of Lorrain, had the good fortune,
with a handful of troops, to defeat and cut to pieces the
German peafants.
In the mean time, Francis Avas detained in captivity
in Italy : but being wearied of his confinement in that
country, and the princes of Italy beginning to cabal
for his deliverance, he aves carried to Madrid 5 where,
on the 14th of January 1525, he figned a treaty, the
principal articles of which Avere, 'That he fliould refign
to the emperor the duchy of Burgundy in full fove-
reignty •, that he fliould defift from the homage which
the emperor oAA’ed him for Artois and Flanders; that
he fliould renounce all claim to Naples, Milan, Afti,
Tournav, Lifle, and Hefden, &c. ; that he fliould per-
fuade Henry d’Albert to refign the kingdom of Na¬
varre to the emperor, or at leal! fliould give him no af-
fiftance •, that Avithin 40 days he fliould reftore the
duke of Bourbon and all his party to their eftates j
that he fliould pay the king of England $00,000
croAvns Avhicli the emperor oived him •, that Avhen the
emperor went to Italv to receive the Imperial croAvn,
he tliould lend him 11 galleys, four large fliips, and a
land army, or in (lead of it 200,000 croAvns.
All thefe articles the king of France promifed on
the AA'ord and honour of a prince to execute ; or, in
cafe of non-performance to return prifoner into Spain.
But, notwithftanding thefe profeflions, Francis had al¬
ready protefted before certain notaries and Avitnefles in
Avliom he could truft, that the treaty he Avas about to
fign Avas againil his Avill, and therefore null and void.
On the 21 ft of February, the emperor thought fit to
releafe him from his prifon, in Avhich he had been
clofely confined ever fince his arrival in Spain 5 and
after receiving the ftrongeft afiurances from his oAvn
mouth, that he Avould literally fulfil the terms of the
treaty, fent him under a ftrong guard to the frontiers,
Avliere he Avas exchanged for his tAvo eldeft fons, avIio
Avere to remain as hoftages for his fidelity.
When the king returned to his dominions, his firft
care Avas to get himfelf abfolved by the pope from the
oaths he had taken *, after AA'liich he entered into a
league with the pontiff, the Venetians, the duke of
Milan, and the king of England, for preferving the
peace of Italy. In the month of June, he publicly
i ] FRA
received remonftrances from the ftates of Burgundy; in
Avhich they told him, Avithout ceremony, that by the
treaty of Madrid lie had done what he had no right to
do, in breach of the laArs and his coronation oath ; add¬
ing, that if he perfifted in bis refolution of throwing
them under a foreign yoke, they muft appeal to the ge¬
neral ftates of the kingdom. At thefe remonftrances
the viceroy of Naples and the Spanifli minifters Avere
prefent. They perceived the end AA'hich the king aim¬
ed at, and therefore expoftukted Avith him in pretty
warm terms. At laft the viceroy told him, that he had
iioav nothing left but to keep his royal AA'ord in return¬
ing to the caftle of Madrid, as his predeceflbr John had
done in a like cafe. To this the king replied, that King
John afred rightly; that he returned to a king Avho had
treated him like a king ; but that at Madrid he had re¬
ceived fuch ufage as wrould have been unbecoming to a
gentleman : that he had often delared to the emperor’s
minifters, that the terms they extorted from him AATere
unjuft and impradlicable : but that he was Hill Avilling
to do all that AATas fit and reafonable ; and to ranfom his
fons at the rate of tAvo millions of gold, in lieu of the
duchy of Burgundy.
Hitherto the treaty for the tranquillity of Italy had
been kept fecret, in hopes that fome mitigation of the
treaty of Madrid A\ould have been obtained ; but noAV
it Avas judged expedient to publifh it, though the vice¬
roy of Naples and the Spanifti lords were ftill at the
French court; and the emperor was to be admitted
into it, provided he accepted the king’s offer of tAvo
millions for the releafe of Ins children, and left the
duke of Milan and other Italian princes in quiet pof-
feftion of their dominions. It is the common misfor¬
tune of all leagues, that the poAvers who enter into
them keep only their OAvn particular interefts in view,
and thus defeat the general intention of the confederacy.
Phis was the cafe here. The king’s great point wras
to obtain his children upon the terms he had propofed ;
and he Avas defirous of knoAAring Avhat hopes there Avere
of that, before he afted againft the monarch Avho had
them in his poAA'er. Thus the duke of Milan and the
pope AArere both facrificed. The former Avas obliged to
furrender to the duke of Bourbon, and the latter Avas
furprifed by the Colonnas ; both of Avhich difafters
Avould have been prevented if the French fuccours had
entered Italy in time. See Italy.
According to an agreement Avhich had been made
betAveen Francis and Henry, their ambafladors went
into Spain, attended each of them by a herald, in or¬
der to fummon the emperor to accept the terms Avhich
had been offered him ; or, in cafe of refufal, to declare
Avar. It feems the emperor’s anfwer Avas forefeen in
the court of France ; and therefore the king had pre-
vioufly called together an affembly of the notables ;
that is, perfons of the feveral ranks of his people in
Avhom he could confide. To them he propofed the
great queftion, Whether he Avas bound to perform the
treaty of Madrid ? or. Whether if he did not perform
it, he Avas obliged in honour to return to Spain ? To
both thefe queftions, the affembly anfwered in the ne¬
gative : they faid, that Burgundy was united to the
crown of France, and that he could not feparate it by
his oavu authority ; that his perfon alfo was the pro¬
perty of the public, of Avhich therefore he could not
difpofe ; but for the tAvo millions, Avhieh they looked
M 2 Upon
FRA
C 9
Treaty of
C'a mb ray.
France, upon as a juft equivalent, they undertook that it (hould
w ^ be raifed for his fervice. When the ambaffadors de¬
livered their propofitions, Charles treated the h.nglhli
herald with refpeft, and the French one with con¬
tempt 5 which produced a challenge from Francis to
1 Sec Duel, emperor -f. All differences, however, were at laid
135 - adjuided ; and a treaty was concluded at Cambray, on
the 5th of Auguft 1528. By this treaty, inftead of
the poffeffion, the emperor contented himfelf with re-
ferving his right to the duchy of Burgundy, and the
two millions of crovms already mentioned. Of thefe
he was to receive 1,200,000 in ready money: the
prince’s lands in Flanders belonging to the houfe of
Bourbon were to be delivered up •, thefe were valued
at 400,000 more : and the remaining 400,000 were
to be paid by France in difeharge of the emperor’s
debt to England. Francis was likewife to difeharge
the penalty of 500,000 crowns which the emperor
had incurred, by not marrying his niece the princefs
Mary of England ; and to releafe a rich jleur-de-lis
which had been many years before pawned by the houfe
©f Burgundy for 50,000 crow'ns. The town and caille
of Hefden were alfo yielded j together with the fove-
reignty of Flanders and Artois, and all the king’s pre-
tenfions in Italy. As for the allies of France, they
were abandoned to the emperor’s mercy, without the
.leaft ftipulation in their favour •, and Francis himfelf
protefted againft the validity of the treaty before he ra¬
tified it, as did alfo his attorney-general before he re-
giftered it in parliament •, but both of them with the
tueateft fecrecy imaginable.
Nothing farther of much cdnfequence happened dur¬
ing the remainder of the reign of Francis I. The war
was foon renewed with Charles, who made an invafion
into France, but with very bad fuceefs •, nor was peace
fully eftablifiied but by the death of Francis, which
Trancis dies happened on the 3d of March, 1547* tie was fuc-
and is fuc- cec4cJ by his fon Henry II. who afeended the throne
Henry l7 vcl7 on w'h'ch he was 29 years of age. In
■’ the beginning of his reign, an infurreftion happened
in Guicnne, owing to the oppreffive condubt of the
officers who levied the fait tax. The king defpatehed
againft the infurgents tw;o bodies of troops *, one com¬
manded by the duke of Aumale fon to the duke of
Guife, the other by the conftable. The firft behaved
with the greateft moderation, and brought back the
people to their duty without making many examples :
the other behaved with the utmoft haughtinefs and
cruelty; and though the king afterwards remitted many
of his punifhments, yet from that time the eonftable
became odious to the people, while the family of Guife
i were highly refpedfed.
Henry per- In 1548, the king began to execute the edidls which
fecutes the had been made againft the Proteftants w ith the ut-
"froteftants. mojq {bverity •, and, thinking even the clergy too mild
in the profecution of herefy, erected for that purpofe
a chamber compofed of members of the parliament of
Paris. At the queen’s coronation, which happened this
year, he caufed a number of Proteftants to be burned,
and was himfelf prefent at the fpcctacle. He was, how¬
ever, fo much ftiocked, that he could never forget it •,
but complained, as long as he lived, that, at certain
times, it appeared before his eyes, and troubled his un-
4erftanding.
In 1549, a peace being concluded with England, the
2 ] FRA
kincr purchafed Boulogne from the latter, for the fum franc?.
of 400,000 crowns j one half io be paid on the day
of reftitution, and the other a few months after.
Scotland was included in the treaty, and the Englifti gt,ous treaty
reftored fome places they had taken there. This was with En^-
the moft advantageous peace that France had hitherto lana-
made with England •, the vaft arrears which were due
to that crown being in effedt remitted ) and the pen-
fion wffiich looked fo like tribute, not being mentioned,
was in fact extinguilhed. The earl of W arwick him¬
felf, w ho had concluded the peace, was fo fenfihle of
the difgrace fuffered by this nation on this occafion,
that he pretended to be lick, in order to avoid fetting
his hand to fuch a fcandalous bargain.
This year, an edict was made to reftrain the extra¬
vagant remittances which the clergy had been in ufe
of making to the court of Rome, and for correcting
fome other abufes committed by the papal notaries.
With this ediCt Pope Julius III. was highly difpleafed ; •
and the following year (1550) war was declared by
the king of France againft the pope and the emperor.
The pretence was, that Henry protected QCtavio Far-
nefe duke of Parma, whom the pope was defirous of
depriving of his dominions. In this war the king was
threatened with the cenfures of the church, more efpe-
cially when it wras known that he had entered into
an alliance with the Turks, and a Turkilh fleet entered
the Mediterranean, w here they threatened the ifle of
Gozo, and made defeents upon Sicily. Henry, how¬
ever, ftrongly denied any fuch connexion, and infilled
that the emperor had given them fufficient provoca¬
tion : but be that as it will, the emperor foon found
himfelf in fuch danger from thefe new enemies, that ,
he could not fupport the pope as he intended, who on Henry’s
that account was obliged to fue for peace. After fuccets
this the king .continued the war againft the emperor aSHmft
with fuccefs ”, reducing the cities of Toul, Verdun, clliI)e'or-
and Metz. He then entered the country of Aliace,
and reduced all the fortreffes between Hagenau and
Wiffenburg. Fie failed, however, in his attempt on
Strafhurg 5 and w as loon after obliged by the Ger¬
man princes and the Swifs to defift from farther con-
quefts on that fide. This war continued with very
little interruption, and as little fuccefs on the part of
the French, till the year 1557, when a peace was I40
concluded ; and foon after, the king was killed at a He is killed
tournament by one Count de Montgomery, who wrasat a tourna-
reckoned one of the ftrongeft knights in France, andmcnt:”
who had done all he could to avoid this encounter with
the king.
The reign of his fucceffor Francis II. was remarkable
only for the perfecution of the Proteftants”, which be¬
came fo grievous, that they were obliged to take up
arms in their owTn defence. This occafioned feveral
civil wrars, the firft of which commenced in the reign of 141
Charles IX. who fucceeded to the throne in X ij6o. This G'h wars
firft wrar continued till the year 1562, when a peace
was concluded, by which the Proteftants w’ere to have
a free pardon and liberty of confcience. In x sb 9,
the w'ar broke cut anew, and was continued with very
little interruption till 1 ^69, when peace was again
concluded upon very advantageous terms for the Pro-
teftants. After this King Charles, who had now ta¬
ken the government into his hands careffed the Pro¬
teftants in an extraordinary manner. He invited tp
court .
FRA [ 93 ] FRA
France, court the admiral Coligni, who was the head of the
1'” ^‘ Proteftant party j and cajoled him fo, tliat he was
lulled into a perfeft fecurity, notwithftandirig the
many warnings given him by his friends, that the
king’s fair fpeeches were by no means to be trailed ;
but he had foon reafon to repent his confidence. On
the 22d of Augulf 1571, as he was walking from the
court to his lodgings, he received a fhot from a win¬
dow, which carried away the fecund finger of his
right hand, and wounded him grievoully in the left
arm. This he himfelf aferibed to the malice of the
duke of Guife, the head of the Catholic party. After
dmner, however, the king went to pav him a vifit, and
among!! others made him this compliment : “ You have
received the wound, but it is I who fuffer 5” defiring
at the fame time that he would order his friends to quarter
about his houfe, and promifing to hinder the Catholics
from entering that quarter after it was dark. This
• faiisfied the admiral of the king’s fincerity ; and hindered
him from complying with the defires of his friends, who
would have carried him a wav, and who were ftrong
enough to have forced a paffage out of Paris if they had
I42 attempted it.
Dreadful In the evening, the queen mother, Catharine de
maffsure of Medicis, held a cabinet council to fix the execution of
the maifacre of the Proteftants, which had been long
meditated. The perfons of which this council was
compofed, were, Henry duke of Anjou, the king’s bro¬
ther j Gonzagua duke of Nevers •, Henry of Angou-
lefme grand prior of France, and baltard brother of
the king; and marlhal de Tavannes •, and Albert de
Gondi, count de Retz : the direction of the whole
was given to the duke of Guife, to whom the ad-
minillration had been entirely confided during the
former reign. The guards were appointed to be in
arms, and the city officers were to difpofe the militia
to execute the king’s orders, of which the fignal was
the ringing of a bell near the Louvre. Some fay, tliat
when the hour approached, which was that of mid¬
night, the king grew undetermined : tliat he expref-
fed his horror at Ihedding fo much blood, efpecially
eonfidering that the people whom he was going to de-
Itroy were his fubjeils, who had come to the capital at
li’ts command, and in confidence of his word ; and par¬
ticularly the admiral, whom he had detained fo lately
by his careffes. The queen mother, however, re¬
proached him with his cowardice, and reprefented to
him the great danger he was in from the Proteftants ;
which at laft induced him to confent. According to
others, however, the king himfelf urged on the maf-
facre •, and when it was propofed to him to take off
only a few of the heads, he cried out, “ If any are
to die, let there not be one left to reproach me. with
breach of faith.”
As foon as the fignal was given, a body of Swifs
troops of the Catholic religion, headed by the duke
of Guife, the chevalier d’Angoulefme, accompanied by
many perfons of quality, attacked the admiral’s houfe.
Having forced open the doors, the foremoft of the af-
faffins ruftied into the apartment; and one of them alk-
ed if he was Coligni ? To this he anfwered that he was;
adding, “Young man refpect thefe gray hairs:” to
which the affaffin replied by running him through the
body with a fword. The duke of Guife and the
vheyalier growing impatient below flairs, cried out to
know if the bufinefs was done; and being told that it Franc?,
was, commanded that the body ftiould be thrown out—v-—^
at the window. As foon as it fell on the ground, the
chevalier, or (as fome fay) the duke of Guife, wiping
the blood off the face, kicked it with his foot. The
body was then abandoned to the fury of the populace ;
who, after a feries of indignities, dragged it to the com¬
mon gallows, to which they chained it by the foot, the
head being cut off and carried to the queen mother ;
who, it is faid, caufed it to be embalmed and fent to
Rome. The king himfelf went to fee the body hang
upon the gibbet; where a fire being kindled under it,
part was burnt, and the reft fcorched. In the Louvre,
the gentlemen belonging to the king of Navarre and
the prince of Conde were murdered under the king’s
eye. Two of them, wounded and purfued by the
affaffins, lied into the bedchamber of the queen of
Navarre and jumped upon her bed, befeeching her to
fave their lives ; and as the went to alk this favour of
the queen mother, two more, under the like circum-
ftances rallied into the room, and threw themfelves at her
feet. The queen mother came to the window to enjoy
thefe dreadful feenes ; and the king, feeing the Prote¬
ftants who lodged on the other fide of the river Hying
for their lives, called for his long gun, and fired upon
them. In the fp&ce of three or four days, many thou-
fands were deftroyed in the city of Paris, bv the moll
cruel deaths which malice itfelf could invent. Peter
Ramus, profeffor of philofophy and mathematics, after
being robbed of all lie had, his belly being firlt ripped
open, was thrown out of a window. This fo much
aftedted Denis Lambin, the king’s profeffor, that
though a zealous Catholic, he died of terror. The firli
two days, the king denied it ivas done by his orders, and'
threw the whole blame on the houfe of Guile : but, on
the 28th of Auguft, he went to the parliament, avowed
it, was complimented upon it, and diredted a procefs
again ft the admiral, by which he was ftigmatized as a
traitor. Two innoc e it gentlemen fuffered as his ac¬
complices in a pretended plot againft the life of the
king, in order to fet the crown on the head of the
prince of Conde. They were executed by torch light;
and the king and the queen mother (with the kino- of
Navarre and the prince of Conde by force) were fpec-
tators of this horrid deed ; and they alfo affilted at the
jubilee to thank God for the execution of ffieh an infa¬
mous defign.
The maffacre was not confined to the city of Paris
alone. On the eve of St Bartholomew, orders had
been fent to the governors of provinces to fall upon
the Proteftants themlelves, and to let loofe the people
upon them; and though an edidf was publilhed before
the end of the week, affuring them of the king’s pro-
tedlion, and that he by no means defigned to extermi-
minate them becaufe of their religion, yet private orders
were fent, of a nature dire&ly contrary ; in confequenee
of which, the maffacre, or (as, in allulion to the Sici- -
lian vefpersf, it is now flyled) the Matins of Paris f sce v
were repeated hi Meaux, Orleans, Troyes, Angers’ "
Thouloufe, Rouen, and Lyons ; fo that in the fpaee of
two months 30,000 Proteftants were butchered. The
next year Rochelle, the only ftrong fortrefs which the
Proteftants held in France, was befieged, but was not
taken without the lois of 2q,ooo of the Catholics who
befieged it. Alter this a pacification enfued on terms
favourable
FRA
[ 94 ]
FRA
144
Henry III
France, favourable to tbe Proteftants, but to which they never
trufted. _
This year the duke of Anjou was elected king ot
Poland, and foon after fet out to take poffeflion of his
newr kingdom. 1 he king accompanied him to the fron¬
tiers of the kingdom ; but during the journey was feiz-
t , ed with a flow fever, which from the beginning had
Death of a very dangerous appearance. He lingered for iome
Charles IX. time under the molt terrible agonies both of body and
mind j and at lalt died on the 3°th of May. 157 hav¬
ing lived 24 years, and reigned 13. It is laid, that
after the dreadful maffacre above mentioned, this prince
had a fiercenefs in his looks, and a colour in his cheeks,
which he never had before. He flept little, and never
found. He waked frequently in agonies, and had foft
mufle to compofe him again to reft.
During the fir ft years of the reign of Henry III. who
fucceeded his brother Charles, the war with the Protef¬
tants was carried on writh indifterent fuccefs on the part
of the Catholics. In 1575, a peace was concluded,
called by way of eminence the KdtSl of Pdeification.
It confifted of no fewer than 63 articles ) the fubftance
of which was, that liberty of confcience, and the public
exercife of religion, were granted to the reformed, with¬
out any other reftriction than that they fliould not
preach within two leagues of ParL* or any other part
where the court was •, party chambers erected in every
parliament, to confift of equal numbers of Catholics and
Proteftants, before whom all judgments were to be
tried : The judgments again!! the admiral, and, in ge¬
neral, all who had fallen in the war or been executed,
were reverted 5 and eight cautionary towns were given
to the Proteftants.
The edict gave occafion to the Guifes to form an
affociation in defence, as was pretended, of the Ca¬
tholic religion, afterwards known by the name of the
Catholic League. In this league, though the king was
mentioned with refpeft, he could not. help feeing that
it ftruck at the very root of his authority : for, as the
Proteftants had already their chiefs, fo the Catholics
were, for the future, to depend entirely upon the
chief of the league ; and were, by the very words of
it, to execute whatever he commanded, for the good of
the caufe, againft any, without exception of perfons.
The king, to avoid the bad effects of this, by the ad¬
vice of his council declared himfelf head of the league }
and of confequence recommenced the war againft the
Proteftants, which was not extinguiftied as long as he
lived.
The faction of the duke of Guife, in the mean, time,
took a refolution of fupportmg Charles cardinal of
Bourbon, a weak old man, as prefumptive heir of the
1 crown. In 1 ^84 they entered into a league with
Spain, and took up arms againft the king ; and though
peace wras concluded the fame year, yet in 1587 they
ao-ain proceeded to fuch extremities, that the king was
forced to fly from Paris. Another reconciliation was
foon after efle&ed ; but it is generally believed that
the king from this time 'refolved on the deftruftion
H6 0f Guife. Accordingly, finding that this nobleman
Guife mur-ftiH behaved towards him with his ufual infolen.ee,
acred, and the king caufed him to be {tabbed, as he was coming
likewife the jn|-0 his prefence, by his guards, on the 23d of De-
2dng. cember 1587. The king himfelf did not long fur-
vive him; being {tabbed by one James Clement, a Ja-
HS.
Catholic
league
formed.
cobine monk, on the firft of Auguft 1588. His wound France,
at firft wras not thought mortal} but bis frequent fwoon- v
ing quickly difeovered Ins danger j and he died next
morning, in the 39th year of his age, and 16th of his
reign. 147
Before the king’s death, he nominated Henry Bour-Henry IV,
bon king of Navarre for his fucceflor on the throne
of France ^ but as he was a Proteftant, or at leaft
one w'ho greatly favoured their caufe, he was at firft
owned by very few except thofe of the Proteftant party.
He met with the moft violent oppofition from the
members of the Catholic league } and was often re¬
duced to fuch {trails, that he went t& people’s houfes
under colour of vifits, when in reality he had not a
dinner in his own. By his activity and perieveranee,
however, he was at laft acknowledged throughout tne
whole kingdom, to which his abjuration of the 1 ro-
teftant religion contributed not a little. As the king
of Spain had laid claim to the crown of France, Henry
no fooner found himfelf in a fair way of being firmly
feated on the throne, than he formally declared war a-
gainft that kingdom j in which he at laft proved luccefs-
ful, and in 1597 entered upon the quiet poffeflion of his
kingdom.
The king’s firft care was to put an end to tfe
religious diiputes which had fo long difliaCied the
kingdom. For this purpofe, he granted the famous I43
edidt, dated at Nantz, April 13. 1598. It re-efta-Edi& of
blilhed, in a moft folid and effedtual manner, all the .Nantz.
favours that had ever been granted, to the reformed
by other princes adding fome which had not been
thought of before, particularly the allowing them a
free admifflon to all employments of truft, profit, anQ.
honour ; the eftabliftiing chambers in which the mem¬
bers of the two religions were equal and the per¬
mitting their children to be educated without con-
ftraint in any of the univerfities. Soon aftei, he con¬
cluded peace with Spain upon very advantageous
terms. This gave him an opportunity of reftoring
order and juftice throughout his dominions.*, of repair¬
ing all the ravages occafioned by the civil war j and
abolifhing all thole innovations which had been made,
either to the prejudice of the prerogatives of the
crown or the welfare of the people. His fchemes The king
of reformation, indeed, he intended to have carried be-propofes to
yond the boundaries of France. If we may believer-mode
the duke of Sully, he had in view no lefs.a defign than ^
the new-modelling of all Europe. He imagined thatp0wers,
the European powers might be formed into a kind of
Chriftian republic, by rendering them as nearly as pof-
fible of equal ftrength *, and that this republic might
be maintained in perpetual peace, by bringing all their
differences to be decided before a fenate of wife, dif-
interefted, and able judges : and then he thought it
would be no difficult matter to overturn the Ottoman
empire. The number of thefe powers was to be 15 j
viz. the Papacy ; the empire of Germany 5 h ranee j
Spain*, Hungary; Great Britain; Bohemia; Lombardy;
Poland ; Sweden ; Denmark ; the republic of Venice ;
the States General; the Swifs Cantons ; and the Ita¬
lian commonwealth, which was to comprehend the
ftates of Florence, Genoa, Lucca, Modena, Parma,
Mantua, and Monaco. In order to render the ftates
equal, the empire was to be given to the duke of Ba¬
varia ; the kingdom of Naples to the pope; that.of
Sicily
FRA [ 95 ] FRA
France. Sicily to the Venetians $■ Milan to the duke of Savoy,
“V—who, by his acquifition, was to become king of Lom¬
bardy j the Auitrian Low Countries were to be added
to the Dutch republic $ Franche Compte, Alface, and
the country of Trent, were to be given to the Swifs.
With a view, it is now thought, of executing this grand
project, but under pretence of reducing the exorbitant
power of the houfe of Auflria, Henry made immenfe
preparations both by fea and land j but if he really had
I1.0 fuch a delign, he was prevented by death from attempt-
He is mar- ing to execute it. He was llabbed in his coach by
dcred. one Ravilliac, on the 12th of May 1608.
On the death of Henry IV. the queen mother af-
fumed the regency. Ravilliac was executed, after fuf-
fering horrid tortures. It is faid that he made a con-
feffion, which was fo Avritten by the perfon Avho took
it down, that not one word of it could ever be read,
and thus his inftigators and accomplices could never
Louis XIII. be difeovered. The regency, during the minority of
Louis XIII. was only remarkable for cabals and in¬
trigues of the courtiers. 'In 1617, the king alfumed
the government himfelf, banifhed the queen mother to
Blois, caufed her favourite Marfhal d’Ancre to be killed,
and chofe for his mini (ter the famous Cardinal Riche¬
lieu. In 1620, a neAV war broke out between the
Catholics and Proteftants Avhich was carried on with
the greateft fury on both fides ; and rve may judge of
the fpirit Avhich aftuated both parties by what hap¬
pened at Negreplifle, a town in Ouercy. This place
was befieged by the king’s troops, and it Avas refolved
to make an example of the inhabitants. The latter,
however, abfolutely refufed to furrender upon any
terms. They defended themfelves, therefore, moft
defperately ; and the city being at laid taken by florm,
they Avere all maiTacred, without refpeft of rank, fex,
or age, except ten men. When thefe Avere brought
into the king’s prefence, he told them they did not
deferve mercy : they anfwered, that they would not
receive it ; that the only favour they alked, Avas to be
hanged on trees in their oAvn gardens; which Avas
granted, and the place reduced to athes. Both par¬
ties foon became weary of fuch a deitruftive Avar; and
a peace was concluded in 1621, by which the edift of
Nantz Avas confirmed. This treaty, however, Avas of no
long duration. A iicav Avar broke out Avhich lafted till
the year 1628, when the edift of Nantz was again con¬
firmed ; only the Protellants were deprived of all their
cautionary towns, and confequently of the porver of de¬
fending themfelves in time to come. This put an end
to the civil Avars on account of religion in France.
Hiflorians fay, that in thefe wars above a million of
men loft their lives, that 150,000,000 livres were fpent
in carrying them on ; and that 9 cities, 400 villages,
2000 churches, 2000 monafteries, and io,coo houfes,
Avere burnt or other wife deftroved during their conti¬
nuance. The next year, the king was attacked with a
flow fever which nothing could allay, an extreme de-
preftion of fpirits, and prodigious {Veiling in his fto-
mach and belly. The year after, however, he recover-
"ed, to the great difappointment of his mother, Avho
had been in hopes of regaining her poAver. She Avas
arrefted; but found means to efcape into Flanders,
where fhe remained during the reft of his reign. Riche¬
lieu, by a mafterly train of politics, though himfelf
was next to an enthufiaft for popery, fupported the
Proteftants of Germany and Guftavus Adolphus againft France,
the houfe of Auftria } and after quelling all the rebel- ‘ " v 1
lions and confpiracies which had been formed againft
him in France, he died feme months before Louis XIII.
in l643- . I52
Louis XIV. furnamed le Grand, fucceeded to the Louis XIV.
throne Avhen he Avas only live years of age. During
his minority, the kingdom Avas torn in pieces under
the adminiftration of his mother Anne of Auitria, by
the factions of the great, and the divifions betAveen
the court and parliament, for the moft trifling caufes
and upon the moft defpieable principles. 1 he prince
of Conde flamed like a blazing ftar ; fometimes a pa¬
triot, fometimes a courtier, and fometimes a rebel.
He Avas oppofed by the celebrated Turenne, Avho from
a Proteftant had turned Papift. The nation of France
Avas involved at once in civil and domeftic Avars 5 but
the queen mother having made choice of Cardinal Ma¬
zarine for her firft minifter, he found means to turn
the arms even of Cromwell againft the Spaniards, and
to divide the domeftic enemies of the court fo efte&u-
ally among themfelves, that when Louis aflumed the
reins of government into his own hands, he found
himfelf the moft abfolute monarch that had ever fat
upon the throne of France. He had the good for¬
tune, on the death of Mazarine, to put the domeftic
adminiftration of his affairs into the hands of Colbert,
who formed new fyffems for the glory, commerce, and
manufactures of France, all which he carried to a
furprifing height. The king himfelf ignorant and
vain, was blind to every patriotic duty of a king, pro¬
moting the interefts of his fubjects only that they
might the better anfwer the purpofes of his greatnefs y
and by his ambition he embroiled himfelf with all his
neighbours, and wantonly rendered Germany a difmal
feene of deveftation. By his impolitic and unjuff re-
vocation of the ediCt of Nantz in the year 1685, with
the dragooning * the Proteffants that folloAved it, he * See D/;j-
obliged them to take flielter in England, Holland, and Soonwg.
different parts of Germany, where they eftabliflted the
filk manufactories, to the great prejudice of their oAvn
country. He Avas fo blinded by flattery, that he ar¬
rogated to himfelf the divine honours paid to the Pa¬
gan emperors of Rome. He made and broke treaties
for his conveniency : and in the end he raifed againft
himfelf a confederacy of almoft all the other princes
of Europe 5 at the head of which Avas King William III.
of England. He Avas fo Avell fcrved, that he made
head for fome years againft this alliance ; and France
feemed to have attained the higheft pitch of military
glory, under the conduff of thefe renoAvned generals
Conde and Turenne. (See United Provinces). At
length, having provoked the Englith by his repeated
in tide1.] ties, their arms under the duke of Marlborough,
and thofe of the Auftrians under Prince Eugene, ren¬
dered the latter part of Louis’s life* as miferable as the
beginning of it Avas fplendid. His reign, from the year
1702 to 1711, was one continued feiqts of defeats and
calamities ; and he had the mortivibation of feeing
thofe places taking from him, Avhich, in the former
part of his reign, were acquired at the expence of
many thoufand lives. (See BnimiN, N° 342, &c.)—
Juft as lie Avas reduced, old as he Avas, to the defperate
refolution of collecting his people and dying at their
head, he Avas fayed by the Englilh Tory miniftry de-
ferting
Vra;
FRA t 9
ft-rting- tlie caufe, withdrawing from their allies, and
concluding the peace of Utrecht in I7I3’ ^ce
TAIN, NW 371, &C.
The laft year of Louis XIV. were alfo embittered
by domeftic calamities-, which, added to thole he had
already endured of a public nature, impreffed him with
a deep melancholy. He had been for feme time af-
fli&ed with a fiitula j which, though fuccefsfully cut,
ever afterwards affected his health* J lie year before
the peace, his only Ion, the duke of Burgundy, died,
together with the duchefs and the ir eldeft fon ; and the
only remaining child was left at the point of death.
The king himfelf furvived till the month of Septem-
1
t R A
ber 1715-, but on the 14th of that month expired,
leaving the kingdom to his great grandfon Louis, then
a minor.
153 By the laft will of Louis he had devolved the re-
Louis XV. gency during the minority of the young king, upon
1 c,4 a council, at the head of which was the duke of Or-
Admini- leans. That nobleman, however, difgufted with a
of difpofition which gave him only a calling vote, appeal-
Orleans.6 ed to the parliament of Paris, who fet abide the will
of the late king and declared him foie regent. His
firft asfts were extremely popular, and gave the moft
favourable ideas of his government and character. He
reftored to the parliament the right which had been
taken from them of remonftrating againft the edicts
of the crown, and compelled thole who had enriched
themfelves during the calamities of the former reign
to reftore their wealth. He alfo took every method
to efface the calamities occafioned by the unfuccefsful
wars in which his predeceifor had engaged j promoted
commerce and agriculture 5 and, by a cloie alliance with
Great Britain and the United Provinces, feemed to
lay the foundation of a lafting tranquillity. This hap¬
py profpedf, however, was foon overcaft by the in¬
trigues of Alberoni the Spaniih minifter, who had
formed a defign of recovering Sardinia from the em¬
peror, Sicily from the duke of Savoy, and of efta-
blilhing the' Pretender on the throne of Britain. To
accomplilh thefe purporcs, he negotiated with the Ot¬
toman Porte, Peter the Great of Rulha, and Charles XII.
of Sweden j the Turks intending to refume the war
againft the emperor 5 the two latter to invade Great
Britain. But as long as the duke of Orleans retained
the adminiftration of France, he found it impolhble
to bring his fchemes to bear. To remove him, there¬
fore, he fomented divifions in the kingdom. An in-
tated by the regent of France j and of thefe the dif- ^ Fuii'.-e.
million of Alberoni the Spaniih minifter was one. A V—-
double marriage was now fet on foot : the dune of
Orleans gave his own daughter, Mademoifelle IVIont-
penlier, to Don Lewis prince of Afturias, while the
infanta of Spain was betrothed to her coufin the king
of France. From this time the houfe of Bourbon con¬
tinued united j both princes being convinced, that it
was their intereft not to wafte their ftrength in wars
againft each other. _ j - -
The fpirit of conqueft having now in a great meafure Dsftmclive
fubfided, and that of commerce take place through- project of
out the world in general, France became the feene of John Law.
as remarkable a project in the commercial way as ever
was known in any country. One John Law, a Scoti-
man, who had been obliged to leave his ovn
country, laid the plan of a company which might
by its notes pay oft' the debt of the nation, and reim-
burfe itfelf by the profits. Law had wandered through
various parts of Europe, and had fuccellively endea¬
voured to engrofs the attention of various courts. i he
propofal was made to Victor Amadeus king of Sicily j
but he difmifled Law with a reply, that “ he was not
rich enough to ruin himfelfbut in L*ranee it " as
I sd
furrection took place in Brittany j and Alberoni font
fmall parties into the country in difguife, in order to
fupport the infurgents, and even laid pints to feize the
regent himfelf. All of a hidden, however, the Spa¬
niih minifter found himfelf difappointed in every one
of his fchemes. Flis partizans in France were put to
death 5 the king of Sweden was killed at Frederick-
fhall in Norway, the Czar, intent on making new re¬
gulations, could not be perfuaded to make war upon
Britain } and the Turks refufed to engage in a war
with the emperor, from whom they had lately fuffer-
ed fo much. The cardinal, neverthelefs, continued
his intrigues 5 which quickly produced a war betwixt
Spain on the one part, and France and Britain on the
other. The Spaniards, unable to refift the union of
two fueh formidable powers, were foon reduced to the
Hcceflity of fuing for peace j and the terms were dic-
6
looked upon in a more favourable light j the nation be¬
ing at this time involved in a debt of 200 millions,
and the regent, as well as the people in general, very
fond of embarking in new fchemes. I he bank, thus
eftabliftied,' proceeded at firft with feme degree of
caution j but having by degrees extended their credit
to more than 80 times their real flock, they loon be¬
came unable to anfwer the demands made upon them j
fo that the company was diflblved the very fame year
in which it had been inftituted. The confufion into
which the kingdom was thrown by this tatal Icheme,
required the utmoft exertions of the regent to put a
flop to it ; and fcarcely was this accomplifhed when m ^
the king, in 1723, took the government into his own takes th|
hands. The duke then became minifter but did notgOVern-
long enjoy this port. His irregularities had broken mint into
his conftitution, and had brought on a number of ma-j^™
ladies, under which he in a {hurt time funk, and
was lucceeded in his adminiftration by the duke of
Bourbon Conde. I he king, as we have already re¬
marked, had been married, when very young, to the
infanta of Spain, though by reafon of his tender years
the marriage had never been completed. I he prin-
cefs, however, had been brought to Paris, and fur
fome time treated as queen of France -, but as Louis
grew up, it was eafy to fee that he had contracted an
inveterate hatred againft the intended partner of his0f $pa;n
bed. The minifter, therefore, at laft confented that the Rut back,
princefs ftiould be fent back an affront fo much re-
fented by the queen her mother, that it had almoft pro¬
duced a war betwixt the two nations.
The diffolution of the marriage of Louis was the
laft: a£l of Conde’s adminiftration ; and the procuring
of a new match was the firft act of his fucceffor Car¬
dinal Fleury. The princefs pitched upon was the
daughter of Staniflaus Lefczinfki, king of Poland, ^
who had been depofed by Charles XII. of Sweden.^yjarr;age
The princefs was deftitute of perfonal charms, but of with the
an amiable difpofition •, and though it is probable that daughter
(lie never poffeffed the love of her hufband, her excel- p0,
lent qualities could not but extort his efteem 3 and the
birth
F Pi A [ 97 ] FRA
Trance, birth of a prince foon after their marriage removed all
' v the fears of the people concerning the fucceffion.
Cardinal Fleury continued the pacific fehemes pur-
fued by his predeceffors ; though they were fomewhat
interrupted by the war which took place in the year
1733. Notwithftanding the connexion betwixt that
monarch and the French nation, however, Fleury was
fo parfnnonious in his alliftance, that only 1500 fid¬
dlers were fent to relieve Dantzic, where Stanifiaus
himfelf refided, and who at that time was befieged by
the Ruffians. This pitiful reinforcement was foon
overwhelmed by a multitude of Ruffians ; and Stani-
llaus was at laft obliged to renounce all thoughts of the
crown of Poland, though he was permitted to retain
the title of king : and that this title might not be
merely nominal, the king of France confented to be¬
llow upon him the duchies of Bar and Lorrain ; fo
that, after the death of Stanillaus, thefe territories
were indiiTolubly united to the dominions of France.
Fleury Readily purfued his pacific plans, and the dif-
putes between Spain and England in 1737 very little
affeiSled the peace of France •, and it mull be remem¬
bered to his praife, that inllead of fomenting the
quarrels betwixt the neighbouring potentates, he la¬
boured inceffantly to keep them at peace. He recon¬
ciled the Genoefe and Corlicans, who were at war ;
and his mediation was accepted by the Ottoman Porte;
who at, that time carried on a fuccefsful Avar with the
emperor of Germany, but made peace with him at
the interceffion of the cardinal. All his endeavours
to preferve the general peace, hotvever, proved at lall
ineffeftual. The death of the emperor Charles VI. in
1740, the lall prince of the houfe of Auftria, fet all
Europe in a flame. The emperor’s eldell daughter,
Maria Therefa, claimed the Aultrian fucceffion, which
comprehended the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohe¬
mia, the duchy of Silefia, Aultrian Suabia, Upper
and Lower Aultria, Stiria, Carinthia, Carniola ; the
four forelt toAvns 5 Burgaw j Brifgaw ; the Low Coun¬
tries ; Friuli ; Tyrol 5 the duchy of Milan j and the
duchies of Parma and Placentia. Among the many
competitors Avho pretended a right to lhare, or wholly
to inherit, thefe extenfive dominions, the king of
France was one. But as he wilhed not to awaken the
jealoufy of the European princes by preferring directly
his oAvn pretenfions, he chofe ratlier to fupport thofe
of Frederick HI. who laid claim to the duchy of Sile¬
fia. This brought on the war of 1740 ; and of which
an account is given under the articles Britain and
Prussia. It was .terminated in 1748 by the treaty
of Aix-la Chapelle; but to this Louis, who fecretlv
meditated a fevere vengeance againlt Britain, only con¬
fented, that he might have time to recruit his fleet,
and put himfelf fomewhat more upon an equality with
this formidable power. But while he meditated great
exploits of this kind, the internal tranquillity of the
159 kingdom was difturbed by violent difputes betwixt the
betwiK the der|7y and Parl!aments of France. In the reign of
parliaments Louis XIV. there had been violent contefts betwixt
and clergy, the Janfenifts and Jefuits concerning free will and other
obfeure points of theology ; and the opinions of the
Janfenifts had been declared heretical by the celebra¬
ted papal bull named Unigenitus; the reception of
Avhich was enforced bv the king, in oppofition to the
parliaments, the archbifhop of Paris, and the body of
VOL. IX. Part I.
the people. The archbifhop, with 13 other prelates, Frrnce:
protefted againft it as an infringement of the rights of' " ■'
the Gallican church, of the laws of the realm, and an
infult on the rights of the people themfelves. The
duke of Orleans favoured the bull by inducing the
biffiops to fubmit to it; but at the fame time flopped a
perfccution which was going on againft its opponents.
I hus matters palled over till the conclufion of the peace ;
a fhort time after which, the jealoufy of the clergy was
aAvakened by an attempt of the minifter of ftate to
inquire into the wealth of individuals of their order.
To prevent this, they revived the conteft about the bull
Unigenitus ; and it was refolved, that confeffional notes
fhould be obtained of dying perfons ; that thefe notes
ftiould be figned by priefts who maintained the autho¬
rity of the bull j and that, without fuch notes, no
perfon could obtain a viaticum, or extreme unction.
On this occafion the ucav archbifhop of Paris, and the
parliament of that city, took oppofite fides 5 the latter
imprifoning fuch of the clergy as refufed to adminifter
the facraments excepting in the circumftances above*
mentioned. Other parliaments followed the example
of that of Paris j and a Avar Avas inftantly kindled be-
tAvixt the civil and ecclefiaftical departments of the
ftate. In this difpute the king interfered, forbade the
parliaments to take cognizance of ecclefiaftical pro-*
ceedings, and commanded them to fufpend all profe-
cutions relative to the refufal of the facraments : but
inftead of acquiefcing, the parliaments prefented nerv
remonftrances, refufed to attend any other bufinefs,
and refolved that they could not obey this injunction
without violating their duty as Avell as their oath.
'L hey cited the bilhop of Orleans before their tribunal;
and ordered all Avritings, in which its jurifdidion Avas
difputed, to be burnt by the executioner. By the
affiftance of the military, they enforced the adminiftra-
tion of the facraments to the fiek, and ceafed to dif-
tribute that juftice to the fubjeft for Avhich they had I(S„
been originally inftituted. The king, enraged at their Pprliameft"
obftinacy, arrefted and imprifoned four of the mem-of Pari*
bers Avho had been moft obftinate, and banifhed the
remainder to Bourges, Poicliers, and Auvergne 5 while,
to prevent any impediment from taking place in the
adminiftration of juftice by their abfence, he iifued let¬
ters patent, by Avhich a royal chamber for the profecu-
tion of civil and criminal fuits Avas inftituted. The
counfellors refufed to plead before thefe neAV courts;
and the king, finding at laft that the Avhole nation Avas
about to fall into a ftate of anarchy, thought proper1
to recal the parliament. The baniffied members en¬
tered Paris amidft the acclamations of the inhabitants j
and the archbifhop, Avho ftill continued to encourage
the priefts in refufing the facraments, Avas banifhed to
his feat at Conflans j the bifhops of Orleans and Troyes
Avere in like manner banifhed, and a calm for the pre-
fent reftored to the kingdom.
The tranquillity thus eftablifhed Avas of no long du- New* dif.,
ration. In the year 1756, the parliaments again fellputcsbe-
under the difpleafure of their king by their imprudenttwixt: the
perfecution of thofe Avho adhered to the bull Unige- kin& and
nitus. They proceeded fo far in this oppofition as to*llliamcn‘
refufe to regifter certain taxes abfolutely neceffary for
the carrying on of the Avar. By this "Louis was fo
provoked, that he fuppreffed the fourth and fifth cham¬
bers of inquefts, the members of which had diftin-
N guifhed
FRA
Eratice. guifVicd themfclves by their oppofition. to his tvill
1 V 1 commanded the bull Unigenitus to be refpecled, and
prohibited the fecular judges from ordering the aclmi-
niftration of the facraments. On this 15 counfellors
of the great chamber refigned their offices, and 124
members of the different parliaments followed their
example ; and the moft grievous difcontents took place
throughout the kingdom. An attempt was made by
a fanatic, named Dcwtien^ to affaffinate him } and the
king was actually wounded, though (lightly, between
the ribs, in the prefence of his Ion and in the midft
of his guards. J he affaffin was put to the moft ex-
quifite tortures \ in the midft of which he perfiftcd,
in the moft obftinate manner, to declare that he had
no intention to kill the king •, but that his defign \\ as
®nly to wound him, that God might touch his heart,
and incline him toreftore peace to his dominions, &c.
Thefe expreffions, which undoubtedly indicated infani-
ty, had no effeft on his mercilefs judges, who configned
him to one of the moft horrid deaths the ingenuity or
cruelty of man could invent. This attempt, however,
feems to have had fome effe<ft upon the king j for he
fpon after baniffied the archbifhop of Paris, who had
been recalled, and once more accommodated matters
<5 with his parliament.
Family The unfortunate event of the war of 1/55 ^ _
compadl brought the nation to the brink of ruin, when Louis
between implored the affiftance of Spain ; and on this occafion
France and - r - - - ^ e J - t-..
Spain efta-
bliflied.
France.,
163
'Expulfion
of the Je¬
suits.
the celebrated Family Compact was (igned j by which,
•with the (ingle exception of the American trade, the
fubje&s of France and Spain are naturalized in. both
kingdoms, and the enemy of the one fovereign is in¬
variably to be looked upon as the enemy of the other.
At that time, however, the affiftance of Spain availed
very little •, both powers were reduced to the lowed ebb,
and the arms of Britain wTere triumphant in every quar¬
ter of the globe. See the article Britain.
The peace concluded at Paris in the year 1763?
though it freed the nation from a moft deftructivc and
bloody war, did not reftore its internal tranquillity.
The parliament, eager to purfue the viftory they had
formerly gained over their religious enemies, now di-
reifted their efforts againft the Jcluits, who had obtain¬
ed and enforced the bull Unigenitus. That once
powerful order, however, was now on the brink of de-
ftruftion. A general deteftation of its members had
taken place throughout the whole world. A confpi-
racy formed by them againft the king of Portugal,
■ and from which he narrowly efcaped, had roufed the
indignation of Europe, and this was (till farther in¬
flamed by fome fraudulent praftices of which they had
been guilty in France. Lc Valette, the chief of their
miffionaries at Martinico, had, ever flnee the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, carried on a very extenfive commerce,
infomuch that he even afpired at monopolizing the
whole Weft India trade when the war with Britain com¬
menced in 1755* Leonay and Gouffre, merchants at
Marfeilles, in expectation of receiving merchandife to
the value of two millions from him, had accepted, of
bills drawn by the Jefuits to the amount of a million
and a half. Unhappily they were difappointed by
the vaft number of captures made by the Britifti •, in
confequence of which they were obliged to apply to
the Society of Jefuits at large : but they, either igno-
xant of their true intereft, or too (low in giving atiift-
5
[ 98 ] FRA
He ance, fuffered the merchants to ftop payment 5 and thus
not only to bring ruin upon themfelves, but to in-
volve, as is ufual in fuch cafes, a great many others
in the fame calamity. Their creditors demanded in¬
demnification from the Society at large j and on their
refufal to fatisfy them, brought their caufe before the
parliament of Paris. That body, eager to revenge
themfelves on fuch powerful adverfaries, carried on the
moft violent perfecutions every where againft them. In
the courfe of thefe, the volume containing the con-
ftitution and government of the order itfelf ivas ap¬
pealed to, and produced in open court. It then ap¬
peared, that the order of Jefuits formed a .diftinft body
in the (late, fubmitting implicitly to their chief, who
alone was abfolute over their lives and fortunes. It
was like wife difeovered that they had, after a former
expulfion, l^een admitted into the kingdom upon con¬
ditions which they had never fulfilled j and to which
their chief had obftinately refufed to fubferibe j con-
fequently that their exiftence at that time in the na¬
tion was merely the effeft of toleration. The event
was, that the writings of the Jefuits were pronounced
to contain doftrines fubverfive of all civil government,
and injurious to the fecurity of the facr.ed perfons. of
fovereigns : the attempt of Damien againft the king
was attributed to them, and every thing (eemed.to prog-
noftieate their fpeedy diffolution. In this critical mo¬
ment, however, the king interfered, and by his royal
mandate fufpended all proceedings againft them for a
year 5 a plan of accommodation was drawn up, and
fubmitted to the pope and general of the order : but
the latter, by his ill-timed haughtinefs, entirely over¬
threw the hope of reconciliation. The king withdrew
his proteftion, and the parliament redoubled their ef¬
forts againft them. The bulls., briefs, con ft ituti.ons,
and other regulations of the Society, were determined
to be encroachments on authority, and abufes of go¬
vernment j the Society itfelf was finally diffolved, and
its members declared incapable of holding any clerical
or municipal offices j their colleges were feized j their
effedls confifcated, and the order annihilated ever
fince. -t.
The parliament, having gained this vidory, next Contentious
made an attempt to fet bounds to the .power of the betwixt
king himfelf. They now refufed to regifter an ednft .md his par.
which Louis had iffued for the continuance of lome gament.
taxes which (hould have ended with the war, and like-
wife to conform to another by which the king W'as en¬
abled to redeem his debts at an inadequate price. The
court attempted to get the edi&s regiftered by force,
but the parliaments everywhere feemed inclined to re¬
fill to the laft. In 1766, the parliament of Brittany
refufed the crown a gift of 700,000 livres j in confe¬
quence of which they were fingled out to bear the
164
weight of royal vengeance •, but while matters were on
the point of coming to extremities, the king thought
proper to drop the procefs altogether, and to publfth a
general amnefty. The parliaments, however, now af-
fedted to defpife the royal clemency, which exafperated
the king to fuch a degree, that he ordered the counfel¬
lors of the parliament of Brittany (who had refufed
to refume the fundtions of which he deprived them)
to be included in the lift of thofe who were to be
drafted for militia j and thofe upon whom the. lot fell
■were immediately obliged, to join their refpedlive regi¬
ments %
“France.
165
Iflanct of
Corfica
reduced.
155
Diftrefled
, itateofthe
nation.
FRA [ 99
ments j the reft being employed in forming the city
J guard. The parliament of Paris remonftrated fo freely
upon this conduct of the king, that they alfo fell under
his eenfure ^ and Louis in the moft explicit manner
declared, that he would fuffer no earthly power to inter¬
fere with his will; and the parliaments were for the
prefent intimidated into fubmiflion.
The interval of domeftic tranquillity which now
took place, was employed by the king in humbling the
pride of the pope, who refufed to recal a brief he had
publifhed againft the duke of Parma. On this the
French monarch reclaimed the territories of Avignon
and Venaiftin •, and while the pontiff denounced his
unavailing cenfures againft him, the marquis de Roche-
couart, with a Angle regiment of foldiers, drove out the
troops of the pope, and took poffeffion of the territories
in queftion.
A more formidable oppoiition was made by the natives
of the fmall iiland of Corfica ; the foverejgnty of which
had been transferred to France by the Genoefe its for¬
mer mafters, on condition that Louis ihould reinftate
them in the poffeflion of the ifland of Capra!a, which the
Corficans had lately reduced. Thefe iflanders defended
themfelves with the moft defperate intrepidity; and it
was not till after two campaigns, in which feveral thou-
fands of the braveft troops of France were loft, that they
could be brought under fubjeftion.
The fatisfaction which this unimportant conqueft
might afford to Louis, was clouded by the diftrefs of
the nation at large. The Eaft India Company had to¬
tally failed, and moft of the capital commercial houfes
in the kingdom were involved in the lame calamity.
The minifter, the due de Choifeuil, by one defperate
ftroke, reduced the intereft of the funds to one half,
and at the fame time took away the benefit of the fur-
vivorlhip in the tontines, by which the national credit
was greatly affe&ed ; the altercation betwixt the king
and his parliaments revived, and the diffenfions became
worfe than ever. The due de Choifeuil attempted in
vain to conciliate the differences 5 his efforts tended
only to bring misfortunes upon himfelf, and in 1771
he was banilhed by the king, who fufpeeted him of fa¬
vouring the popular party too much ; and this was foon
after followed by the banilhment of the Avhole parlia¬
ment of Paris, and that by the baniffiment of a num¬
ber of others ; new parliaments being everywhere cho-
fen in place of thofe who had been expelled. The
people were by no means difpofed to pay the fame re¬
gard to thefe new parliaments that they had done to
the old ones ; but every appearance of oppoiition was
at laft lilenced by the abfolute authority of the king.
In the midft of this plentitude of power, however, which
he had fo ardently defired, his health daily declined,
and the end of his days was evidently at no great
diftance. As he had all along indulged himfelf in fen-
fual pleafures to the greateft excefs, fo now they proved
the immediate means of his deftru&ion. His favourite
miftrefs, Madame de Pompadour, vdio for a long time
governed him with an abfolute fvvay, had long fmee
been dead, and the king had for fome time been equally
enllaved by the charms of Madame du Barre. At laft
even her beauty proved infufficient to excite defire;
and a fucceffion of miftreffes became neceffary to roufe
the languid appetites of the king. One of thefe, who
] FRA
was infefled with the fmallpox, communicated the France,
difeafe to the king ; who in a Ihort time died of it, wr—
notwithftanding all the alfiltance that could be given
him by the phylicians. ^ Louis XV.
The new king Louis XVI. grandfon to the former, 168
afeended the throne in the year 1774, in the 20th year^e%n0^
of his age 5 and to fecurc himfelf againft the difeafe ^0W1S ^VL
which had proved fatal to his predeceffory, fubmitted to
inoculation, with feveral others of the royal family.
Their quick and eaiy recovery contributed much to ex¬
tend that practice throughout the kingdom, and to remove
the prejudices which had been entertained againft it.
The king had no fooner regained his health, than he
applied himfelf diligently to extinguilh the differences
which had taken place betwixt his predecefibr and the
people. He removed thofe from their employments
who had given caufe of complaint by their arbitrary
and oppreftive conduct j and he conciliated the affec¬
tion of his fubjefts by removing the new parliaments
and recalling the old ones.
But though the prudence of Louis had fuggefted
to him thefe compliances, he endeavoured ftill to pre-
ferve pure and entire the royal authority. He explain¬
ed his intentions by a fpeech in the great chamber
of parliament. “ The ftep that he had taken to en-
fure the tranquillity and happinefs of his fubje&s, ought
not (he obferved) to invalidate his own authority; and
he Imped, from the zeal and attachment of the prefent
aflembly, an example of fubmiflion to the reft of his
fubjefts. Their repeated refiftance to the commands
of his grandfather had compelled that monarch to
maintain his prerogative by their banifhment; and they
were now recalled, in the expectation that they would
quietly exercife their functions, and difplay their gra¬
titude by their obedience.” He concluded with de¬
claring, “ That it vras his defire to bury in oblivion all
paft grievances j that he ftiould ever behold with ex¬
treme difapprobation whatever might tend to create
divifions and difturb the general tranquillity ; and that
his chancellor would read his ordinance to the affem-
bly, from which they might be affured he would not
fuffer the fmalleft deviation to be made.” That ordi¬
nance was conceived in the moft explicit terms, and
was immediately regiftered by the king’s commands
The articles of it limited rvithin very narroAV bounds
the pretenfions of the parliament of Paris : The mem¬
bers Avere forbidden to look upon themfelves as one
body Avith the other parliaments of the kingdom, or
to take any ftep, or affume any title, that might tend
toAvards or imply fuch an union : They Avere enjoin¬
ed never to relinquifli the adminiftration of public ju-
ftice, except in cafes of abfolute neceflity, for which
the firft prefident Avas to be refponfible to the king $
and it Avas added, that on their difobedience the grand
council might replace the parliament, without any
neAV ediCl for the purpofe. They Avere ftill hoAvever
permitted to ejjoy the right of remonftrating before
the regiftering of any ediCts or letters patent which
they, might conceive injurious to the Welfare of the
people, provided they preferved in their reprefentations
the refpeCt due to the throne. But thefe remonftrances
Avere not to be repeated; and the parliament, if they
proved ineffectual, Avere to regifter the ediCt objeCted
to within a month at fartheft from the firft day of its
N 2 being
♦
Je'raRCc
Ii775-
i(?9
Humane
edidl in
favour of
deferters.
170
Suppreffion
of the mouf-
quetaires.
P R A [ 1
being publilbed. They were forbidden to iflue any
' arrets which might excite trouble, or in any manner
retard the execution of the king’s ordinances ; and they
were aiTured by the king himfelf, at the conclufion of
this code for their future conduct, that as long as they
adhered to the bounds preferibed, they might depend
upon his countenance and protection. In Ihort, the
terms on which Louis confqnted to re-eftablilh the par¬
liaments were fuch, that they were reduced to mere
cyphers, and the word of the king itill continued to be
the only law in the kingdom. The archbithop of Paris,
who had likewife prefumed to raife fome commotions
with regard to the bull Unigenitus, was obliged to fub-
mit; and fevercly threatened if he ihould afterwards
interfere in fuch a caufe.
The final conqueft of the Corficans, who, provoked
by the oppreffion of their governors, had once more
attempted to regain their former liberty, was the firft
event of importance which took place after this reite¬
ration of tranquillity : but the kingdom was yet filled
with diforder from other caufes. A fearcity of corn
happening to take place juft at the time that lome
regulations had been made by M. Turgot the new
financier, the populace role in great bodies, and com¬
mitted fuch outrages, that a military force became ab-
folutely neceffary to quell them 5 and it was not till
upwards of 500 of thefe miferable wretches were de-
ftroyed that they could be reduced. The king, how¬
ever, by his prudent and vigorous conduft on this
occafion, foon put a ftop to all riots, and eminently
difplayed his clemency as well as prudence in the
methods be took for the reftoration of the public tran¬
quillity.
The humanity of Louis was next Ihown in an edi6t
which he caufed to be regiftered in parliament, fenten-
cing the deferters from his army in future to work as
Haves on the public roads, inftead of punilhing them as
formerly with death 5 and with equal attention to the
general welfare of his fubjccls, he feized the moment of
peace to fulfil thofe promifes of economy which on his
acceflion he had given to the people. Various regula¬
tions took place in confequence 5 particularly the fup-
preffion of the moufquetaires and fome other corps,
which being adapted more to the parade of guarding
the royal perfon than any real military fervice, were
fupported at a great expence, without any adequate re¬
turn of benefit to the ftate.
Particular attention was alfo paid to the ftate of the
marine ; and the appointment of M. de Sartine in
1776 to that department did honour to the penetra¬
tion of the fovereign. That minifter, fruitful in re-
fources, and unwearied in his application, was incef-
fantly engaged in augmenting the naval ftrength of
his country ; and the various preparations that filled
the ports and docks created no fmall uneafinefs to the
Britifh court.
The next appointment made by the king was equal¬
ly happy, and in one refpeft fingular and unpre¬
cedented. M. Turgot, though poffeffed of integrity
and induftry, had not been able to command the pub¬
lic confidence. On his retreat, M. Clugny, intendant
general of Bourdeaux, had been elevated to the vacant
poft : but he dying in a very fhort fpace, M. Taboureau
des Reaux was appointed his fucceflbr 5 and the king
&on after affogiated with him in the management of
00 ] FRA
the finances M. Neckar, by birth a Swifs, and by re- _ Prance. _
ligion a Proteftant. .that gentleman, in the preced- ^
ing reign, had been chofen to adjuft fome difterences ^ppoint-
between the Eaft India Company and the crown ; andmentof M,
had difeharged his truft in a manner which gained the Neckar to
approbation of both parties. Poffelfed of diftinguilh-J^direc-^
ed abilities, his appointment would have excited no fur- financcs>
prife, had it not been contrary to the conftant policy
of France, which had carefully excluded the aliens of
her country and faith from the controul of her revenue.
It nowr flood forward as a new inftance of enlargement
of mind and liberality of fentiment} and will to po-
fterity mark the prominent features of the reign of
Louis XVI.
Although the French monarch was of a pacific dii-
pofition, and not deftitute of generofity of fentiment;
yet his own and the public exultation had been openly
and conftantly proportioned to the fuccefs of the Arne- 172
ricans in their conteft with Britain : the princes of the The Frencfi
blood and the chief nobility were eager to embark in
fupport of the caufe of freedom •, and the prudence of Americans
the king and his moft confidential minifters alone re_ in their
{trained their ardour. The fatal events of the former war conteft
liramcu. LI1V1I axvxwux. ~     . , -n*
were Hill imprefled on the mind of Louis } ana ne could
not readily confent to expofe his infant marine in a con- ait ’
left with a nation who had fo frequently afterted ^the
dominion of the feas, and fo lately broken the united
{Length of the houfe of Bourbon. At the fame time,
he was fenfible that the opportunity of humbling thole
haughty illanders ftiould not be entirely negledled, and
that fome advantages fhould be taken of the prefent
commotions in America, iwo agents from the L nlt-
ed States, Silas Deane and Dr Benjamin Iranklin,
had fucceflively arrived at Paris and though all audi¬
ence ivas denied them in a public capacity, ftill they
were privately encouraged to hope that France only
waited the proper opportunity to vindicate in arms
the independence of America. In the mean while,
the American cruifers were hofpitably received into
the French ports 5 artillery and all kinds of warlike
{lores were freely fold or liberally granted to tne diftrtfs
of the colon ills; and French officers and engineers,
with the connivance of government, entered into theii
fervice. .
Some changes were about this time introduced into
the different departments of ftate. I he condudl of M.
Neckar in the finances had been attended with univer-
fal approbation } and M. Faboureau des Reaux, his col¬
league, had refigned his fituation, but ftill retained the
dignity of couniellor of ftate. To afford full Icope to
the genius of M. Neckar, Louis determined no longer
to clog him with an affociate : but, with the title of
Diredtor General of the Finances, fubmitted to him the
entire management of the funds and revenue of France.
In the enfuing year, the Count de St Germains, fecre-
tary at war, died ; and the prince de Montbarey, who
had already filled an inferior fituation in that depart¬
ment, was now appointed to fuceeed him.
In the mean time, Louis’s negotiations with foreign
courts were not negledled. Fie concluded a new trea¬
ty of alliance with Switzerland ; vigilantly obferved
the motions of the different princes of Germany on the
death of the eledtor of Bavaria •, and when clofely
queftioned by the Engliffi ambaffador, Lord Stormont,
refpedting the various warlike preparations which were
1 0 diligently
France-
I73
and at J a d
openly ac¬
knowledge
the inde¬
pendence
FRA Ci
diligently continued through the kingdom, he replied,
That at a time when the Teas were covered with Englilh
fleets and American crullers, and when fuch armies
were fent to the New World as had never before ap¬
peared there, it became prudent for him alfo to arm
for the fecurity of the colonies and the protection of
the commerce of France. The king was not ignorant
at the fame time, that the remonftrances of Great Bri¬
tain, and the importunities of the agents of the United
States, would foon compel him to adopt fome deciiive
line of conduCt. This was haftened by a new* event
difaitrous to Britain ; the failure of General Burgoyne’s
expedition, and the capture of his army. The news
of that event was received at Paris with unbounded ex¬
ultation. M. Sartine, the marine fuperintendant, was
eager to meafure the naval itrength of France with
«f the Unit-that of Great Britain j the queen, who had long fe¬
ed States, conded the applications of the American agents, now
efpoufed their caufe with freih ardour ; and the pacific
inclinations of Louis being overborne by the fugged ions
of his miniders and the influence of the queen, it was
at length determined ©penly to acknowledge the inde¬
pendence of the United States.
Dr Franklin and Silas Deane, who had hitherto
aCled as private agents, were notv acknowledged as
public ambaifadors from thole dates to the court of
Verfailles j and a treaty of amity and commerce was
figned between the two powers in the month of Febru¬
ary 1778. The duke of Noailles, ambaflfador to the
court of London, was in the month of March in-
x drafted to acquaint that court with the above treaty.
At the fame time he declared, that the contrafting
parties had paid great attention not to itipulate any
exclufive advantages in favour of France, and that the
United States had referved the liberty of treating with
every nation whatever on the fame footing of equality
and reciprocity. But this ftipulation was treated by
the Britifli with contempt 5 and the recal of Lord
Stormont, their ambaffador at Verfailles, was the fig-
nal for the commencement of hoftilities.—The events
produced by this war are related under the articles
America, Britain, and Indostan. Here our
chief bufinefs is with domeltic tranfaftions, the mea-
fures of the cabinet, and the internal economy of the
date.
In the year 1780 new changes in the French mini-
dry took place. M. Berlin had refigned the office
of fecretary of date; the prince de Montbarey had fe-
tired from the pod of fecretary at war, and was fuc-
Removal of ceec^eti by the Marquis de Segur. But the mod im-
M. de Sar- portant removal was that of M. Sartine, who had for
feveral years prefided over the marine department, and
whofe unwearied application and ability had railed the
naval power of France to a height that adonifhed Eu¬
rope : but his colleagues in the cabinet loudly arraiinied
a profufion, which would have diverted into one chan¬
nel the whole refources of the kingdom *, and his re¬
treat opened a road to the ambition of the Marquis de
Cadries, who was appointed to fupply his place.
This year, the king fixed on the anniverfary of his
birth day to render it memorable by a new indance of
humanity : and he abolifhed for ever the inhuman cu~
dom of putting the quejlion, as it was called, by torture 5
a cudom which had been fo edabliffied by the praftice
*f ages, that it feemed to be an infeparable part of
One.
01 ] FRA
the conditution of the courts of judice in France. At France,
the fame time, to defray the charges of Avar, he conti - 1 » ”
nued to diminilh his own expenditure; and facrificing
his magnificence to the eafe of his fubjeft, difmiffed
at once above 400 officers belonging to his court. ^
Unhappily, hoAvever, the popular difeontents were Difmiffion
excited next year by the difmiffion of their favourite0* M.
minider, M. Neckar. He had conceived the arduous ^ec^ar*
but popular projeft of fupporting a war by loans Avith-
out taxes j and the rigid economy which he had intro¬
duced into all the departments of the royal houfehold,
and the Ararious refources that prefented themfelves to
his fertile genius, had fupported him amidd the diffi¬
culties that attended this fydem. But his auderity of
temper had not rendered him equally acceptable to the
fovereign and his lubjefts \ and the repeated reforms
he had recommended Avere reprefented a>. inconfident
Avith the dignity of the crown 5 he Avas therefore in
1781 difmitfcd from his office of comptroller-general j
and M. Joli de Fleuri, counfellor of date, Avas appoint¬
ed to that important department. The defeat of the
count de Grail'e happened next year, and impreffed the
kingdom with general grief and nondernation. Im-
menfe preparations Avere, however, made for the opera¬
tions of 1783 ; and in conjunftion Avith the courts of
Madrid and the Hague, Louis was determined this year
to make the mod poAverful eflbrts to bring the Avar to a
conclufion. But in the midd of thefe preparations, the
voice of peace Avas again heard 5 and Louis Avas induced x ^
to liden to the proffered mediation of the tAvo fird po- pcace Conv
tentates in Europe, the emperor of Germany and the eluded,
emprefs of Ruffia. The count de Vergennes, Avho dill
occupied the pod of fecretary of foreign affairs, Avas
appointed to treat Avith Mr Fitzherbert the Britifli
minider at Bruffels, but Avho had lately proceeded to
Paris to conduft this important negotiation. The
Avay Avas already fmoothed for the redoration of public
tranquillity, by provifional articles figned at the con¬
clufion of the lad year betiveen the dates of America
and Great Britain, and which Avere to conditute a
treaty of peace finally to be concluded when that be-
tAveen France and Great Britain took place. Prelimi¬
nary articles Avere accordingly agreed upon and fign¬
ed at Verfailles : thefe Avere foon after fucceeded by a
definitive treaty ; and France, throughout her exten-
five dominions, beheld peace once more edablilhed.
Though the late Avar had been attended by the mod
brilliant fuccefs, and the independence of America
feemed to drike deep at the fource of her rival’s porVer,
yet France herfelf had not been entirely free from in¬
convenience. The retreat of M. Neckar, had, as avc
have already obferved, diminiflied the public confidence j
three different perfons who had finee tranfiently occu¬
pied his pod, increafed the jealoufies of the people ; 0f
and the failure of the celebrated Caiffe d’Efcompte Caifle
completed the univerfal condernation. d’Efcompte. a.
That bank had been edabliffied in the year 1776.
The plan of it Avas formed by a company of private
adventurers, and its capital Avas fixed at 500,000!.
derling. . .The profeffed defign of the Company Avas
to difeount bills at fliort dates, at the rate of four per
cent, per annum : but as this intered could never be an
equivalent for the capital funk by the proprietors, they
Avere intruded Avith the additional poAver of iffuing
notes to the amount of their capital, Avkich, as they
were o
F 11 A [ 102 ] FRA
Trancn. were capable at any time of being converted into fpecie,
1, iMir y i might be often voluntarily taken by their cuftomers
from mere convenience. The reputation of the bank
loon caufed its dock to fell above par : and its credit
was Hill at the higheft, when to the attonilhment of the
nation it fuddenly Hopped payment on the 2d of Octo¬
ber 1783. The caule afligned was an uncommon fcar-
city of fpecie : But the public fufpe&ed that the failure
arofe from a loan fecretly made to government $ and
what confirmed the fufpicion was, that government a-
bout the fame time Hopped payment of the bills drawn
upon them by their army in America.
Whatever was the caufe of this event, the king was
prevailed on to extend his prote&ion to the Company.
By four fucceflive edicts the banks in Paris were
ordered to receive the notes of the Caiffe d’Efcompte
as currency 5 and a lottery with a Hock of one million
flerling, redeemable in eight years, being eflablilhed,
the tickets were made purchafable in notes of the Caifie ■
d’Efcompte. By thefe expedients the public confi¬
dence in that bank was revived, its bufinefs increafed,
and its Hock rofe to above double the original fubferip-
tion ; the bills from America were at the fame time put
in a train of payment, and public credit was reHored
throughout the kingdom. Some compenfation alfo
for the expences that had been incurred during the late
war, was drawn from a treaty with the United Stales
of America. Thefe engaged to reimburfe France in
the fum of 18 millions of livres, which had been ad¬
vanced in the hour of their diHrefs •, and Louis con-
fented to receive the money, as more convenient to the
States, in the fpace of 12 years, by 12 equal and an-
I78 nual payments.
Treaty be- The general peace was foon after followed by a par-
tween ticular treaty between France and Holland, which was
France and ^j^p^^ed with great addrefs by the Count de Vergennes.
' 0 Ian ’ It included all the principles which can ferve to ce¬
ment in the clofefl union diflinct nations under diflindt
governments 5 and by which they may mutually partici¬
pate, in peace or in war, of good or of evil} and in
all cafes adminifler the mofl perfedt aid, counfel, and
fuccour to each other. It alfo preferibed, if their
united good offices for the prefervation of peace ffiould
prove ineffedhial, the affiflance they were to afford
each other by fea and land. France was to furniffi
Holland with 10,000 effedtive infantry, 2000 cavalry,
with 12 (hips of the line and 6 frigates. Their high
Mightineffes, on the other fide, in cafe of a marine
war, or that France ffiould be attacked by fea, were to
contribute to her defence fix ffiips of the line and three
frigates ; and in cafe of an attack on the territory of
France, the States General were to have the option of
furniffiing their land contingent either in money or
troops, at the effimate of 5000 infantry and 1000 ca¬
valry. Further, If the Hipulated fuccours ffiould be
infufficient for the defence of the party attacked, or
for procuring a proper peace, they engaged to affiff
-each other with all their forces, if neceffary 5 it being
however agreed that the contingent of troops to be fur-
niffied by the States General ffiould not exceed 20,000
infantry and 4000 cavalry. It was further added,
that neither of the contradling powers ffiould difarm,
or make or receive propofals of peace or truce, with¬
out the confent of the other : they promifed alfo not
to contract any future alliance or engagement what¬
ever, diredtly or indiredtly, contrary to the prefent Fiancp.
treaty ; and on any treaties or negotiations being pro- —v——
pofed which might prove detrimental to their joint inte-
reff, they pledged their faith to give notice to each o-
ther of fuch propofals as foon as made.
Thus was Holland now converted into the firm ally
of that power againfl whofe encroaching fpirit die had
formerly armed the moH powerful kingdoms of Eu¬
rope ; while France having afferted the independence
of America againff Great Britain, and having con¬
verted an ancient and formidable foe into an ufeful
friend, feemed to have attained an influence over the
nations of the earth that ffie had never before been pof-
feffed of.
But however exalted her prefent fituation might ap¬
pear, the feeds of future commotion were already ap¬
parent to an attentive obferver. The applaule that
had attended the parliament of Paris in their Hruggles
with the late king might be confidered as the fuff dawn
of freedom j the language of that affembly had boldly
inculcated to their countrymen their natural rights,
and taught them to look with a lefs enraptured eye on ^
the luff re that encompaffed the throne. The war in
America had contributed to enlarge the political ideas quence to
of the French : they had on that occafion flood forth France
as the champions of liberty, in oppofition to regal I(,_er
power ; and the officers, who had afted on that confpi- uncc
cuous theatre, accuflomed to think and fpeak without tween Bri-
reftraint, on their return imparted to the provinces of tain and
France the flame of freedom which had been kindled in h?r col°'
the wilds of America. From that moment the French,
inffead of filently acquit Icing under the edi&s of their
fovereign, canvailed each adtion with bold and rigid im¬
partiality •, while the attachment of the army, which
has ever been confidered as the foie foundation of def-
potifm, gave way to the noble enthufiafm of liberty.
We have already noticed the public drf'atisfadlion
that had attended the difmiffion of M. Neckar; his tran-
fient fucceffor, M. de Fleury, had retired from the
management of the finances in 1783, and the more
tranfient adminiflration of M. d’Ormeffon had expired
in the fame year that gave it birth. On his retreat,
M. de Calonne, who had fucceffively filled with acknow- App1o;®t.
ledged reputation the office of intendant of Mentz, and ni^t and
afterwards of the provinces of Flanders and Artois, was meafures of
nominated to the pofl of comptroller-general.. This M. de Ca-
gentleman, flexible and infinuating, eloquent in con-lonne*
verfation, and poliflied in his manners, fertile in refour-
ces and liberal in the difpofal of the public money,
foon rendered himfelf acceptable to the fovereign. But
he did not enter upon his new and arduous flation fa¬
voured by the breath of popularity : he was reported
to be tnore able than confiffent, and not to have tem¬
pered the ardour of his fpirit by the feverity'of deep
refearch; and the people, amidfl repeated loans,^ re¬
gretted that fevere fimplicity which had characterized
the adminiflration of M. Neckar.
It was the bold and judicious meafures of Calonne,
however, that reflored credit to the Caiffe d’Efcompte,
which had Hopped payment a few weeks before his ac-
ceffion. His next meafure, in 1784, the effabliffiment
of the Caiffe d’Amortiffement, or finking fund, was en¬
titled to a Hill higher degree of applaufe. The plan
of that fund was fimple and moderate : It was to pay
annually by government, into the hands of a board fet
apart
FRA
. apart for that purpofe, the entire intereft of the nation-
al debts, whether in ftock or annuities, together with
an additional fum of i20,oool. The annuities that
would be extinguifhed every year were eftimated at
50,000!. 5 and in that proportion, the fum fet apart for
the redemption of the national debt would annually in-
creafe. The operation of this new fund was limited to
the term of 25 years 5 and during that term the annual
receipt of the Caiffe d’Amortilfement is declared unal¬
terable, and incapable of being diverted to any other
objeft.
The principal meafure of the next year was the
eftablifhmcnt of a new Eaft India Company, (the con-
llitutions of which have been already detailed : fee
Company) ;—a meafure not equally commendable
with the preceding, and which did not fail to excite
violent complaints. The time, however, was now ap¬
proaching, when the neceffities of the Hate would com¬
pel him to meafures Hill more unpopular, and deltined
to undergo a feverer fcrutiny. Although peace had
been re-eftablilhed throughout Europe for three years,
yet the finances of France feemed fcarce affefted by
this interval of tranquillity, and it was found requilite
to clofe every year with a loan. The public expen¬
diture of 17B5 might probably feem to fan&ion this
meafure. It had been thought proper to fortify
Cherbourg upon a large and magnificent fcale ; the
claim of the emperor to the navigation of the Scheldt
had obliged the French to increafe their land forces,
either to form a refpeftable neutrality, or to afiifi;
effectually their Dutch allies 5 and the marquis de
Caftries, fond of war, and profufe in his defigns, had
not fuffered the navy, which M. Sartine had furren-
dered into his hands, to decline during the interval of
peace. The treaty of commerce concluded in the year
1786 with Great Britain was a new fource of difcon-
tent.—Though regarded by the Englilh manufacturers
as far from advantageous, it excited in France ftill
louder murmurs. It was reprefented as likely to ex-
tinguilh thofe infant effabliihments, which were yet
unable to vie with the manufactures of England that
had attained to maturity j and the market that it held
out for the wines and oils of France was paffed over in
filence, while the diftrefs of the artifan was painted in
the molt ftriking colours. But when the ediCt for
regiftering the loan at the conclufion of the laft year,
and which amounted to the fum of three millions three
hundred and thirty thoufand pounds, was prefented to
the parliament of Paris, the murmurs of the people,
through the remonftrances of that affembly, affumed a
more legal and formidable afpeft. The king, however,
fignified to the feleCt deputation that were commiffioned
to convey to him their remonftrances, that he expefted
to be obeyed without farther delay. The ceremony
of the regiftering accordingly took place on the next
day •, but it was accompanied with a refolution, im¬
porting, “ that public economy was the only genuine
fource of abundant revenue, the only means of pro¬
viding for the neceftities of the ftate, and reftoring that
credit which borrowing had reduced to the brink of
ruin.”
The king was no fooner informed of this ftep, than
he commanded the attendance of the grand deputa¬
tion of parliament 3 when he crazed from their records
FRA
the refolution that had been adopted 3 and oblerved, France.
that though it was his pleafure that the parliament'—~v 
Ihould communicate, by its refpeftful reprefentations,
whatever might concern the good of the public, yet
he never would allow them fo far to abufe his clemency
as to ercft themfelves into the cenfors of his govern¬
ment. At the fame time, more ftrongly to mark his
difpleafure at their expoftulations, he luperfeded one
of their officers, who had appeared moll active in for¬
warding the obnoxious refolution.
M. de Calonne, however, though gratified by the
approbation of his fovereign, could not but feel him-
felf deeply mortified by the oppofition of the par¬
liament. His attempts to conciliate that affembly had
proved ineffeftual: and he experienced their inflexible
averfion at the critical juncture when their acquiefcence
might have proved of the moft effential fervice. An
anxious inquiry into the ftate of the public finances
had convinced him that the expenditure by far exceed¬
ed the revenue. In this fituation, to impofe new taxes
was impracticable 3 to continue the method of borrow¬
ing was ruinous 3 to have recourfe only to economical
reforms, would be found wholly inadequate 3 and he
helitated not to declare, that it would be impoffible to.
place the finances on a folid balls, but by the reforma¬
tion of whatever was vicious in the conftitution of the
ftate.
To give weight to this reform, M. de Calonne was
fenfible that fomething more was neceffary than the
royal authority 3. he perceived that the parliament was
neither a fit inftrument for introducing a new order
into public affairs, nor would fubmit to be a pafiive.
machine for fanftioning the plans of a minifter, even
if thofe plans were the emanations of perfect wifdom.
Though originally a body of lawyers, indebted for-
their appointments to the king, there was not an
attribute of genuine legiflative affembly but what they
feemed defirous to engrofs to themfelves ; and they had
been fupported in their pretenfions by the plaudits of
the people, who were fenfible that there was no other
body in the nation that could plead their caufe againfl;
royal or minifterral oppreffion. To fupprefs, therefore,
the only power of controul that remained, and to ren¬
der the government more arbitrary, was deemed too
perilous a meafure : yet to leave the parliament in the
full pofleffion of their influence, an influence that the
minifter was convinced would be exerted againft him,
was at once to render his whole fyftem abortive.
In this dilemma, the only expedient that fuggefted
itfelf was to have recourfe to fome other affembly, more
dignified and folemn in its chara&er, and which Ihould
in a greater degree confift of members from the vari¬
ous orders of the ftate and the different provinces of
the kingdom. This promifed to be a popular mea-
fure 3 it implied a deference to the people at large,
and might be expefted to prove highly acceptable.
But the true and legitimate affembly of the nation, the
States General, had not met fince the year 1614 3 nor
could the minifter flatter himfelf with the hope of ob¬
taining the royal affent to a meeting which a defpotic
fovereign could not but regard with fecret jealoufy. Affembly
Another affembly had occafionally been fubftituted in of the Not-
the room of the States General : this was diftinguilhed ablcs.
by the title of the Notables ; and confifted of a nunv
her.
1 103 1
F R A
[ i°4 5
FRA
•Frances
1S2
Splendid
projedl of
M. de Ca-
lonne.
bcr of perfons from all parts of the kingdom, chiefly
fele&ed from the higher orders of. the ftate, and no¬
minated by the king himfelf. This affembly had beten
convened by Henry IV. again by Louis XIIL and
■was now once more fummoned by the authority of
Louis XVI.
The writs for calling them together were dated on
the 20th of December 1786 5 and they were addreffed
to feven princes of the blood, nine dukes and peers of
France, eight field marefchals, twenty-two nobles, eight
counfellors of ftate, four mafters of requefts, eleven
archbifhops and biftiops, thirty-feven of the heads of
the law, twelve deputies of the pays d'etats, the. lieute¬
nant civil, and twenty-five magiftrates of the different
towns of the kingdom. The number of members was
144 •, and the 29th of J anuary 1787 was the period ap¬
pointed for their meeting. .
Upon the arrival of the notables at Paris, however,
the minifter found himfelf yet unprepared to fubmit
his fyftem to their infpeaion, and poftponed the
openino- of the council to the 7th of February. A
fecond°delay to the 14th of the fame month was oc-
cafioned by the indifpofition of M. de Calonne him¬
felf, and that of the count de Vergennes prefident of
the council of finance and firft fecretary of ftate and
a third procraftination was the neceffary refult of the
death of the count on the day previous to that fixed
for the opening of the meeting. . He was fucceeded
in the department of foreign affairs by the count de
Montmorin, a nobleman of unblemiihed charaftcr.
But his lofs at this critical juntlure was feverely felt
by M. de Calonne ; he alone, of all the minifters, hav¬
ing entered with warmth and fincerity into the plans
of the comptroller general. The chevalier de Miro-
mefnil, keeper of the feals, was avowedly the rival and
enemy of that ftatefman. The marefchal de Caftnes,
fecretary for the marine department, was perfonally
attached to M. Neckar ; and the baron de Breteuil, fe¬
cretary for the houfehold, was the creature of the queen,
and deeply engaged in what was called the Auftrian
fyftem.
It was under thefe difficulties that M. de Calonne,
on the 22d of February, firft met the affembly of the
notables, and opened his long-expe,aed plan. He
began by ftating, that the public expenditure had for
centuries paft exceeded the revenue, and that a very
confiderable deficiency had of courfe exifted } that.the
Miffiffippi fcheme of 1720 had by no means, as might
have been expefled, reftored the balance } and that
under the economical adminiftration of Cardinal Fleury
the deficit ftill exifted *, that the progrefs of this de¬
rangement under the laft reign had been extreme } the
deficiencv amounting to three millions fterling at the
appointment of the AbteTerray, who, however, re¬
duced it to one million fix hundred and feventy-five
thoufand pounds •, it decreafed a little under the ffiort
adminiftrations that followed, but rofe again in con-
fequence of the war, under the adminiftration of M.
Neckar •, and at his own acceffion to office, it was three
millions three hundred and thirty thoufand pounds.
In order to remedy this growing evil, M. Calonne
recommended a territorial impoft, in the nature of the
Englilh land tax, Lorn which no rank or order of
.men -were to be exempted } and an inquiry into the
Fran??,
poffeffions of the clergy, which hitherto had been deemed
facred from their proportion of the public burdens . the
various branches of internal taxation were alio to un¬
dergo a ft rift examination ) and a confiderable relource
was prefented in mortgaging the demefne lands of the
crown.
The very neceffity for thefe reforms was combated
with a degree of boldnefs and force of reafoning that ^
could not fail of deeply impreffing the affembly 5 and
inftead of meeting with a ready acquiefcence, the
comptroller general was now launched into the bound-
lefs ocean of political controverfy. M. Neckar, pre¬
vious to his retirement, had publilhed his Compte ren¬
du au Roy, in which France was reprefented as poffeffmg
a clear fiirplus of 425,000 pounds fterling: tins per- 1S3
formance had been read with avidity, and probably con- Oppofed by
tributed to eftrange from the author the royal connte-Mirabeau.
nance *, but the credit of it was ably vindicated by M.^ of
de Brienne archbithop of Thouloufe. . Thouloufe,
M. de Calonne met with a ftill more, formidable ad-
verfarv in the count de IMirabeau. J his extraordinary
reftlefs in his difpofition, licentious in his morals.
but ’bold, penetrating^ and enterprifing, had occafion-
ally vifited every court in Europe. He had been ad¬
mitted at one time to the confidence of the minifter j
and had been direfted, though in no oftenfible charac¬
ter, to obferve at Berlin, the difpofition of the fucceffor
of the great Frederick j in this capacity he was fre¬
quently expofed to negleft and difappointment; his
letters were often left unanfwered j difguft fucceeded to
admiration •, and he who had entered the Prulhan court
the intimate friend, returned to Paris the avowed enemy,
of M. de Calonne : While the archbilhop arraigned
the underftanding, the count impeached the integrity,
of the comptroller general.
The eloquence of M. de Calonne, however, might
have fuccefsfully vindicated his fyftem and reputation
again ft the calculations of Brienne, and the inveftives
of Mirabeau 5 but he could not fupport himfelf again ft
the inftuence of the three great bodies of the nation. 184
The ancient nobility and the clergy had ever been
free from all public affeflments j and had the ev no^)1i1tyj
gone no farther, it might have been ftill perhaps borne cier^y, and
with patience •, but through the ftiameful cuftom ofinagi-
felling patents of nobility, fu.ch crowds of new nobleffe ftrates.
flarted up, that every province in the kingdom was
filled with them. The firft objeft. with thofe who had
acquired fortunes rapidly, was to purehafe a patent}
which, befides gratifying their vanity, pfforded.an ex¬
emption to them and their pofterity from contributing
proportionably to the exigencies of the ftate j the ma-
giftracies likewife throughout the kingdom enjoyed
their ftiare of the exemptions*, fo that the whole
weight of the taxes fell on thofe who were leaft able to
bear them. .
The minifter’s defign, then, of equalizing the pub¬
lic burdens, and by rendering the taxes general dimi-
nifhmg the load borne by the lower and moft ufeful
claffes of people, though undoubtedly great, and pa¬
triotic, at once united againft him the nobility, the
clergy, and the magiftracy j and the event v’as fucb.as
might be expefted : the intrigues of thofe three bodies
raifed againft him fo loud a clamour, that finding it
irimoffible to ftem the torrent, he not only refigned his
r place
-5
FRA [ 105 ] FRA
France, place on the 12th of April, but foon after retired to
England from the Itorm of perfeeution.
^jp0I* 5 In the midif of thefe tranfatlions at home, Louis’s
which M. attention was alfo called to the date of affairs in the re¬
de Calonne public of Holland, his new and clofe ally. The prince
refigns. 0£ Orange had been ftripped of all authority by the
ariftocratic party $ and, retiring from the Hague, main¬
tained the fhadow of a court at Nimeguen. His bro-
ther-in-larv, however, the new king of Pruflia, exerted
his endeavours to promote the interefts of the ffadt-
holder } and, having offered, in concert with France,
to undertake the arduous talk of compofing the differ¬
ences which diltra<!ffed the republic, the propofal was
received with apparent cordiality by the tourt of Ver-
failles. At the fame time it could fcarce be expeded
that France would become the inftrument of reltoring
the prince of Orange to that (hare of power which he
had before occupied, and thus abandon one of the
186
Difturban-
ccs in Hol¬
land.
longeft and mod favourite objeds of her policy, the
edabliftiing a fupreme and permanent controul in the
affair's of Holland. In fad, the conditions which were
framed by the Louvedein fadion, as the bads of re¬
conciliation, rvere fuch as plainly indicated their dedgn
to reduce the influence and authority of the ffadtholder
within very narrorv limits. On his renouncing his
right of filling up the occadonal vacancies in the toAvn
ferrates, he Avas to be redored to the nominal office of
captain general : but he Avas to be redrained from
marching the troops into or out of any province, Avith-
out leave from the refpedive provinces concerned 5
and he Avas alfo to fubferibe to a refolution paffed fome
time before by the fenate of Amflerdam, that the
command flrould at all times be revocable at the
pleafure of the dates. Had the prince acquiefced
in thefe preliminaries, France Avould have complete¬
ly attained the objed of her long negotiations, and
by means of the Louvedein fadion have acquired
the afcendency that die had repeatedly fought in
the councils of Holland. But under the difficul¬
ties that furrounded him, the prince of Orange Avas
admirably fupported and affiffed by the genius, the
fpirit, and the abilities of his confort: die firmly re-
jeded every meafure tending to abridge any rights
that had been attached to the office of dadtholder $ and
M. de Rayneval, the French negeeiator, having in
vain endeavoured to overcome her refolution, broke
off the correfpondence betAveen the Hague and Nime¬
guen, and returned to Paris about the middle of Janu-
iS7 ary 1787.
• Attempts But the republican party were totally difappoint-
I 'rerich to tt their hoPts from France. The court of
Wort the Verfailles had. indeed long truded to the natural
II -publican drength of this party, and had been afliduous dur-
Ijarty. ing the Avhole fummer in endeavouring to fecond
them by every fpecies of fuccours that could be
privately afforded. Croivds of French officers arrived
daily in Holland ; and either received commiflions in
the fervice of the ftates, or a&ed as volunteers in their
troops. Several hundreds of tried and experienced
foldiers Avere felefted from different regiments; and
being furnifhed Avith money for their journey, and af-
furances of future favour, Avere defpatched in fmall
parties to join the troops, and help to difeipline the
burghers and volunteers. A conliderable corps of en-
Vol. IX. Part I. r
gineers ivere alfo dire£led to proceed flJently and in France,
difguife toAvards Amfterdam, and to ailiit in ftrength- v—
ening the Avorks of that city. Thefe aids, which might
have proved effedluai had the conteft been confined
to the dates of Holland and the dadtholder, ivere oArer-
Avhelmed in the rapid invafion of the Pruffians j and
the court of Berlin had taken its meafures Avith fo
much celerity, and the fituation of the republicans ivaS
already become fo defperate, that it Avas doubtful
whether their affairs could be redored by any abid¬
ance that France was capable of immediately admi-
nidering. \ et on Great Britain fitting out a drong
fquadron of men of Avar at Portfmouth to gAe conff-
dence to the operations of the king of Pruffia, the
court of Verfailles alfo font orders to equip 16 fail
of the line at Bred, at d recalled a fmall fquadroii
which had been commiffioned on a fummer’s cruife
on the coall of Portugal. But in thefe preparations
Louis feemed rather to regard his own dignity, than
to be actuated by any hopes of effectually relieving
his allies. All oppofftion in Holland might be al¬
ready confidered as extinguiffied. The dates affem-
bled at the Hague had officially notified to the
court of Verfailles, that the difputes betAveen them
and the dadtholder Avere now happily terminated ;
and as the circumdances Avbich gave occafion for their
application to that court no longer exilled, fo the fuc¬
cours Avhich they had then requeded Avould noAV be un-
neceffary.
Under thefe circumftances, France could only Avilh
to extricate herfelf from her prefent difficulty Avith
honour. She. therefore readily liftened to a memorial
fiom the Biitifli minifter at Paris : avIio propofed, in
order to preferve the good underftanding .betAveen the
tw° crowns, that all warlike preparations ffiould be
discontinued, and that the navies of both kingdoms
ffiould be again reduced to the footing of a peace
eftablifhment. 1 his Avas gladly acceded to by the court
Vcrfailles ^ and that harmony Avhicli had been tran-
fiently interrupted betAAreen the two nations Avas re-
ftored.
1 hough, the French king could not but fenfibly feel Domcftic
the. mortification of thus relinquifliing the afcendency concerns of
Avlnch he had attained in the councils of Holland, the Francc*
ftate of his OAvn domeftic concerns and the internal fi¬
tuation of his kingdom furniffied matter for more fe-
rious refle&ion. The difmiffion of M. de Calonne had
left France Avithout a minifter, and almoft Avithout a
fyftemj and though the king bore the oppofition of
the notables Avith admirable temper, yet the diiap-
pointment that he had experienced funk deep into his
mind. Without obtaining any relief for his moll ur¬
gent neceflities, he perceived too late that he had
opened a path to the reftoration of the ancient confti-
tution of h ranee, Avhich had been undermined by the
crafty Louis XL and had been nearly extinguiflied by
the dating and fanguinary counfels of Richelieu under
Louis XIII.. I he notables had indeed demeaned
themfelves Avith refpetft and moderation, but at the
fame time they had not been deficient in firmnefs.
I he appointment of the archbiffiop of Thouloufe, theAireSv
vigorousadverfaryofM.de Calonne, to the office ofofthclko
comptroller-general, probably contributed to preferve tables dif-
the appearance of good humour in that affembly 5 yetfolved’
O the
F R A
t
1’rance.
150
Refufal of
the parlia¬
ment to re
giftei the
sew taxes.
the propofed territorial impofl, or general land tax,
which was an cbjedt fo ardently coveted by the court,
was rejected. Louis, therefore, deprived of any fur¬
ther hope of rendering the convention fubfervtent to his
embarraffments, determined to diffolve the affcmblj j
■which he accordingly did, with a very moderate
and conciliatory fpeeeh to the members on their dif-
miffion. ' . ,
Thus difappointed of the advantage which he had
flattered, himfelf he would have draivn from the aegui-
' efcence of the notables, the king was obliged now to
recur to the ufual mode of raifing money by the royal
edicts *, among the meafures propofed for which purpofe
were the doubling of the poll tax, the re-eftablilhment
of the third twentieth, and a ftamp duty. _ But the
whole was itrongly difapproved by the parliament of
Paris j and that affembly, in the molt pohtive terms, re¬
futed to regitter the edift. Louis was obliged to apply,
the laft refort, to his abiblute authority •, and, by
191
Tlie mem
feers ba-
•iflied.
holding what is called a bed of jujlice, compelled them
to enrol the impoflulh
The parliament, though defeated, were far from
fubdued •, and on the day after the king had held his
bed of juftice, they entered a formal proteft agamft the
edia 5 ‘ declaring,' “ that it had been regiftered againft
their approbation and confent, by the king’s eXprefs
command ; that it neither ought nor Ihould have any
force ; and that the firif perfon who fliould prefume
to attempt to carry it into execution, fliould be ad¬
judged a traitor, and condemned to the galleys..
This fpirited declaration left the king no other alter¬
native, than either proceeding to extremities in fupport
of his authority, or relinquhhing for ever . after the
power of raifing money upon any oecafion without the
eonfent of the parliament. Painful as every appearance
of violence muff have proved to the mild difpofition
of Louis, he could not eonfent to furrender, without
a ftruggle, that authority which had been fo long
exercifed by his predeceflbrs. Since the commence¬
ment of the prefent difeontents, the capital had been
gradually filled with confiderable bodies of troops;
and about a week after the parliament had entered
the proteft, an officer of the French guards, with a
party of foldiers, went at break of day to the houfe
of each individual member, to fignify to him the
king’s command, that he fliould immediately get in¬
to his carriage, and proceed to Troyes, a city of
Champagne, about 70 miles from Paris, without
writing or fpeaking to any perfon out of his own
- houfe before his departure. Thefe orders were ferved
at the fame inftantj and before the citizens _ of Paris
were acquainted with the tranfaftion, their magi-
ftrates were already on the road to their place of ba-
nifhment.
Previous to their removal, however, they had pre-
fcnled a remonftrance on the late meafures of govern¬
ment, and the alarming ftate of public affairs. In Ha¬
ting their opinions on taxes, they declared, that nei¬
ther the parliaments, nor any other authority, except¬
ing that of the three eftates of the kingdom collecffive-
ly^affembled, could warrant the laying of any perma¬
nent tax upon the people *,. and they ftrongly enforced
iiic renewal of thofe national aflemblies^ wlncli had.
rendered the reign of Charlemagne fo great and illu-
ftrious,.
I06 ] * t & A
This requifition of the parliaments to re-eftablith France,
the national council, or ftates general, was the more ' *
honourable, as the former aflemblres muft have funk
under the influence of the latter, and returned to their
original condition of mere regifters and courts of
law'. The confidence and attachment of the peo¬
ple of confequence rofe in proportion to this inftance
of difintereftednefs $ their murmurs were openly ex-
preffed in the ftreets of the capital, and the general
diffatisfa&ion was augmented by the flop that was
put to public buiinefs by the exile of the parlia¬
ment.
The cabinet at the fame time was apparently weak,
difunited, and*flu61uating •, and continual changes took
place in every department of the ftate. Louiq averfe
to rigorous counfels, wilhed to allay the grow ing dif-
content bv every conceflion that was conftftent with
his dignity-, but it was generally believed, that the
queen ftrongly diffuaded him from any ftep that might
tend to the diminution of the royal authority. 1 he
influence of that princefs in the cabinet wras undoubt¬
edly great : but the popularity which once had accom¬
panied her was no more and fome imputations of pri¬
vate levity, which had been rumoured through the ca¬
pital, were far from rendering her acceptable to the
majority of the people 5 while the Count d Artois, the
king’s brother, who had expreffed himfelf in the moft
unguarded terms againft the conduct of the parliament,
flood expofed to all the confequences of popular
hatred. _
Nor was it only in the capital that the name oi li-
berty once more burft forth ; it blazed with equal
ftrength in the provincial parliaments.^ Among va-
itik nature, the narliament of <
nous inftances of this nature, the parliament of Gre¬
noble pailed a decree againft /etfres de cachet, the
moft odious engine of arbitrary _ powerand declared
the execution of them within their junfdiciion, by any
perfon, and under whatever authority, to be a capital
crime. .r
The king had endeavoured to loothe the ranrans
by new regulations of economy, and by continual ic-
trenchments in bis houfehold : but thefe inftances of
attention, which once would have been received uith
the loudeft acclamations, were now difregarded under
their affliftion for the abfence of their parliament. His
majefty, therefore, in order to regain the affeftions of ^
his fubjedfs, confented to reftore that affembly ; aban - Recalled,
doning at the fame time the ftamp duty, and the terri¬
torial impoft, wfliich had been the fources of difpute.
Thefe meafures were, however, infufficient to eiiabiifti
harmony between the court and the parliament, ff he
neceffities of the Hate ftill continued-, nor could the
deficiency of the revenue he fupplied but by extraor¬
dinary refources, or a long eourfe of rigid frugality.
About the middle of November 1787, in ,a full meet¬
ing of the parliament, attended by all the princes of
the blood and the peers of France,_ the king enter¬
ed the affembly, and propofed two edifts for their ap¬
probation : one was for a new loan of 450 millions,
near 19 millions fterling : the other was for the re-
eftablifhment of the Proteftants in all their ancient
civil rights -, a meafure which had long been waimly
recommended by the parliament, and which was pro¬
bably now introduced to procure a better reception to
tire loan. „
On
FRA r :
1 France. On this occafion, the king delivered himfelf in a
fpeech of uncommon length, filled with profelTions of
regard for the people, but at the fame time ftrongly
exprellive of the obedience he expefted to his edicts.
Louis probably imagined, that the dread of that ba-
nilhraent from which the members had been fo lately
recalled would have enfured the acquiefcence of the
affembly j but no fooner was permidion announced for
every member to deliver his fentiments, than he was
convinced that their fpirits remained totally unfubdued.
An animated debate took place, and was continued
1103 ^'>r n*ne hours; when the king, wearied by perpetual
Oppofe the oppofition, and chagrined at forae freedoms ufed in
edict for a their debates, luddenly rofe and commanded the edi6l
I 3oai,• to be regiftered without further delay. This meafure
was moft unexpe£ledly oppofed by the duke of Or¬
leans, firft prince of the blood 5 who, confidering it as
an infringement of the rights of parliament, protefted
againft the whole proceedings of the day' as being
thereby null and void. I hough Louis Could not con¬
ceal his aftoniihment and difpleafure at this decifive
ftep, he contented himfelf with repeating his orders 5
and immediately after, quitting the affembly, retired
to Verfailles. On the king’s departure, the parliament
confirmed the proteft of the duke of Orleans 5 and de¬
clared, that as their deliberations had been interrupted,
they confidered the whole bufinefs of that day as of no
effeft. J
It was not to be fuppofed that Louis would fuffer
fo bold an attack on his power with impunity. Ac¬
cordingly, a letter was next day delivered to the duke
of Orleans, commanding him to retire to Villars Cot-
terel, one of his feats, about 1 j leagues from Paris,
194 anc3 to receive no company there except his own fami-
I Duke of ly ; at the fame time, the Abbe Sabatiere and M. Fre-
; Orleans and teau, both members of the parliament, and who had
bers ba-11" diftlngui{hed themfelves in the debate, were feized
niflied. * under tlie authority of lettres de cachet, and con-
i _ veyed, the firft to the caftle of Mont St Michel in
, Strong3re- Normandy, the laft to a prifon in Picardy. This aft
monftran- “ defpotifm did not fail immediately to roufe the feel-
1 cesofthe ings of the parliament. On the following day they
! Parllament- waited on the king, and expreffed their aftonifh-
ment and concern that a prince of the blood royal
had been exiled, and two of their members iniprifon-
ed, for having declared in his prefence what their
duty and confciences di&ated, and at a time when
bis majefty had announced that he came to take the
fenfe of the affembly by a plurality of voices. The
anfwer of the king was referved, forbidding, and
unfatisfaftory; and tended to increafe the refentment
of the parliament. At the fame time, it did not
prevent them from attending to the exigencies of
the ftate ; and convinced of the emergency, they con-
fented to regifter the loan for 450 millions of livres,
yllc^ ^ad been the fource of this unfortunate dif¬
ference. This conceftion contributed to foften the
mind of the king, and the fenten»e of the two magi-
ifrates was in confequence changed from imprifonment
to exile j M. Freteau being fent to one of his country
tats, and the Abbe Sabatiere to a convent of Bene¬
dictines.
The parliament, however, was not to be foothed by
that meafure to give up the points againft which they
sad originally remonftrated. In a petition conceived
[07 ] 'FRA
with freedom, and couched in the mofi: animated lan- France,
guage, they boldly reprobated the late adfs of arbitrary ——v—^
violence, and demanded the entire liberation of the
perfons againft whom they had been exerted. We
have already noticed the ftuftuating counfels of the
court of Verfailles; and that Louis, as often as he
was left to purfue his own inclinations, adopted mea-
fures of reconciliation. On the prefent occafion, in Diijxfof
the beginning of the year 1788, he recalled the Orleans re-
.duke of Orleans to court, who foon after obtained called,
leave to retire to England ; and he permitted the re¬
turn of the Abbe Sabatiere and M. Freteau to the ca¬
pital.
The parliament, however, had not confined their
demands to the liberation of thofe gentlemen j but had
alfo echoed the remonftrances of the parliament of
Grenoble, and had loudly inveighed againft the execu¬
tion of lettres de cachet. Tliefe repeated remonftrances,
mingled with perfonal reflexions, feconded moft pro¬
bably the fuggeftions of the queen, and Louis was Ncw^l-
once more mitigated to meafures of feverity. Meff. monftra*-
d’Efprcmenil and Monfambert, whofe bold and pointedces»
harangues had preffed moft clofely on the royal digni¬
ty, were doomed to experience its immediate refent¬
ment. . While a body of armed troops furrounded the
hotel in which the parliament were convened, Colonel
Degout entered the affembly, and fecured the per¬
fons of the obnoxious members, who were inftantly
conducted to different prifons. This new inftance
of arbitrary violence occafioned a remonftrance from
parliament, which in boldnefs far exceeded all the
former reprefentations of that affembly. They de¬
clared they were now more ftrongly confirmed, by
every proceeding, of the entire innovation which was
aimed at in the conftitution. “ But, Sire,” added
they, “ the French nation will never adopt the de¬
spotic meafures to which you are advifed, and whole
effeXs alarm the moft faithful of your magiftrates $
we. lhall not repeat all the unfortunate circumftances
which affliX us j we ftiall only reprefent to you with
refpeXful firmnefs, that the fundamental laws of the
kingdom mujl not be trampled upon, and that your au¬
thority can only be ejleented Jo lo7ig as it is tempered
with juJUcey
Language fo pointed and decifive, and which affert-Affembly
ed the controlling power of the laws above the reo-alof the N»-
authority, could not fail of ferioufly alarming thetables-
king; and with a view to diminifh the influence of
parliament, it was determined again to convene the no¬
tables. Accordingly, about the beginning of May,
Louis appeared in that affembly: and after com¬
plaining of the exceffes in which the parliament of
Paris had indulged themfelves, and which had drawn
down his reluXant indignation on a few of the mem¬
bers, he declared his refolution, inftead of annihi¬
lating them as a body, to recal them to their duty
and^ obedience by a falutary reform. M. de la
Moignon, as keeper of the feals, then explained his
majefty’s pleafure to eftablifli a cour plenier or fu-
preme aflembly, to be compofed of princes of the
blood, peers of the realm, great officers of the crown,
the clergy, marefchals of France, governors of pro¬
vinces, knights of different orders, a deputation of
one member from every parliament, and two members
from the chambers of council, and to be fummoned as
. O 2 often
France.
199
Oppofition
to the
king’s pro-
polals.
FRA [i
often as the public emergency, in the royal opinion,
ihould render it requifite.
If the affembly of the notables liftened in filent de¬
ference to the project of their fovereign, the parliament
of Paris received it with every fymptom of averfion.
That body ftrongly protefted againft the eilablifhment
of any other tribunal; and declared their final refolu-
tion not to affitt at any deliberations in the fupreme
affembly which his majefty prepared to inftitute. A
more unexpected mortification occurred to the king in
the oppofition of feveral peers of the realm : thefe ex-
preffed their regret at beholding the fundamental prin¬
ciples of the conftitution violated ; and while they were
lavith in the profeffions of attachment to the perfon
of their fovereign, concluded with apologizing for not
entering on thofe functions affigned them in the ple¬
nary court, as being inconfiftent with the true intereils
of his majefty, which were infeparable from thofe of
the nation.
The flame quickly fpread throughout the more di-
fiant provinces; at Rennes in Brittany, and Gre¬
noble in Dauphine, the people broke out into afts of
the moft daring outrage. In the latter city feveral
hundred of the inhabitants perifhed in a conflict with
the military j they yet maintained their ground againft
the regulars ; and the commanding officer, at the en¬
treaties of the firfl prefident, readily withdrew his troops
•from a conteft into which he had entered with reluc¬
tance. The different parliaments of the kingdom at
the fame time expreffed their feelings in the moil glow¬
ing language •, and ftrongly urged the neceffity of call¬
ing together the ftates general, the lawful council of
the kingdom, as the only means of reftoring the pub¬
lic tranquillity.
Louis now plainly law, that a compliance with
the public wifhes for the re-eftabliffiment of the ftates
general was abfolutely neceffary, in order to avoid
the calamities of a civil war, which impended upon
his refufal. In that event he muff have expected
to have encountered the majority of the people, ani¬
mated by the exhortations and example of their ma-
giftrates ; the peers of the realm had expreffed the
ftrongeft difapprobation of his meafures 5 nor could he
even depend any longer on the fupport of the princes
of his blood : but what afforded moft ferious matter
of alarm -was the fpirit lately difplayed among the
military, who, during the difturbances in the pro¬
vinces, had relu&antly been brought to draw their
fvvords againft their countrymen, and many of whofe
officers fo recently engaged in eftablifhing the free¬
dom of America, publicly declared their abhorrence
of defpotifm.
It was not, however, till after many a painful ftruggle
that Louis could refolve to reftore an affembly, whofe
influence muft naturally overffiadow that of the crown,
and whofe jurifdiftion would confine within narrow
limits the boundlefs power he had inherited from his
predeceffor. In the two preceding reigns the ftates
general had been wholly difeontinued ; and though
the queen regent, during the troubles which attended
the minority of Louis XIV. frequently expreffed her
intention of calling them together, flue was conftantly
diffuaded by the reprefentations of Mazarin. It is
probable that the prefent monarch ftill flattered him-
felf with the hope of being able to allure the members
France.
08 ] FRA
of that affembly to the fide of the court > and having
employed them to eftablifli fome degree of regularity
in the finances, and to curb the fpirit of the parlia¬
ment, that he wrould again have difmiffed them to ob-
feurity. _ > aco
Under thefe impreflions an arret wras iffued in Au- Arret for
guft, fixing the meeting of the ftates general to thefummon-
firft of May in the’enfuing year *, and every ftep was^gj^
taken to fecure the favourable opinion of the public n^r^ge
during the interval. New arrangements took place in
the adminiftration ; and M. Neckax, whom the con¬
fidence of the people had long followed, was ggain
introduced into the management of the finances 5, the
torture, which by a former edict had been reftri&ed
in part, w7as now entirely aboliffied j every perfon ac~
cufed was allowed the affiftance of counfel, and per¬
mitted to avail himfelf of any point of law j and it was
decreed, that in future fentence of death Ihould nut
be paffed on any perfon, unlefs the party accufed ihould
be pronounced guilty by a majority at leaft of three
judges.
The time appointed for the convention of the ftates
general was now approaching; and the means of al-
fembling them formed a matter of difficult deliberation
in the cabinet. The laft meeting, in 1614, had been
convened by application to the bailiwicks. But this
mode was liable to feveral ftrong objections ; the
bailiwicks had been increafed in number and juriidic-
tion, feveral provinces having fince that period been
united to France ; and the numbers and quality of the
members Avere no lefs an object of ferious attention ;
it was not till the clofe of the year, therefore, that the
propofal of M. Neckar was adopted, Avhich fixed the
number of deputies at 1000 and upAvards, and ordain¬
ed that the reprefentatives of the ihhd eftate or com¬
mons fhould equal in number thofe of the nobility and
clergy united.
The eyes of all Europe Avere noAV turned on the
ftates general y but the moment of that affembly’s
meeting avus far from aufpicious : The minds of the
French had long been agitated by various rumours;
the unanimity that had been expected from the differ¬
ent orders of the ftates Avas extinguiffied by the jarring
pretenfions of each ; and their mutual jealoufi.es AA7ere
attributed by the fufpicions of the people to the in¬
trigues of the court, Avho Avere fuppofed already to re¬
pent of the hafty affent which had been extorted. A
dearth that pervaded the kingdom increafed the general
difeontent; and the people preffed by hunger, and in¬
flamed by refentment, were ripe for revolt. The fove¬
reign alfo, equally impatient of the obftacles he con¬
tinually encountered, could not conceal his chagrin ;
Avhile the influence of the queen in the cabinet was
again eftabliftied, and Avas attended by the immediate 20I
removal of M. Neckar. The difmiflion of that mini-infurrec-
fter, fo long the favourite of the public, Avas the fignal tions and
of open infurre&ion : the Parifians affembled. in my-ievolutlon*
riads; the guards refufed to oppofe and ftain their
arms Avith the blood of their felloAV citizens ; the Count
d’Artois and the moft obnoxious of the nobility
thought themfelves happy in eluding by flight the fury
of the infurgents ; and in a moment a revolution Avas
accompliffied, the moft remarkable perhaps of any re¬
corded in hiftory.
But before avc proceed in our narration and detail,
1
France.
FRA [ i
the tranfactions which have marked the progrefs of this
Angular and terrible revolution, it may be worth while
to take a ihort view of the internal fituation of France
previous to this period, and the more obvious political
caufes, the operation of which feems to have contributed
to the production of this great event.
The moral hiitory of man is always more important
than the mere recital of any phyfieal occurrences that
may take place in his lot. It is not the fall of a mighty
monarch and the difperlion of his family 5 it is not the
convulfion of empires, and the oceans of human blood
which have been Hied, that render the French revolution
peculiarly interefting. Such events, however deplorable,
are far from being without example in the hiilory of
mankind. In the populous regions of the eaft, where
fuperftition and ilavery have always prevailed, they are
regarded as forming a part of the ordinary courfe of
human affairs 5 becaufe an intrepid and fkilful ufurper
finds it eafy to intimidate or enfnare millions of weak
and credulous men. In Europe the cafe is very dif¬
ferent ; no adventurer can advance far without encoun¬
tering thoufands as artful and as daring as himfelf.
Events are not the refult either of blind hazard or of
individual fkill; confpiracies or plots produce little
effeCl. Like other arts, the art of government has been
brought to much perfection 5 and an eftabliilied confti-
tution can only be fhaken by the ftrong convulfion pro¬
duced by national paffions and efforts. The wonderful
fpeClacle which we are now to contemplate, is that of
a mild and poll died people becoming in an inftant
fanguinary and fierce 5 a well eftablilhed government,
celebrated for its dexterity and fkill, overturned almoft
without a ftruggle j a whole nation apparently uniting
to deftroy every inflitution which antiquity had hallow¬
ed or education taught them to refpecft; a fuperftitious
people treating the religion of their fathers with con¬
tempt } a long-enflaved people, whofe very chains had
become dear to them, occupied in their public councils
in the difcuffion of refined and even vifionary fchemes
of freedom : in fliort, 25,000,000 of perfons fuddenly
treading under foot every fentiment and every prejudice
that they themfelves had once regarded as facred and
venerable.
Like the other nations of Europe, France was an¬
ciently governed by a barbarous aritf ocracy, whofe dif-
barbarous ^erent urembers were feebly united by the authority of
ariftocracy. a dicceffion of kings deifitute of power or influence.
The nobles, within their own territories, enjoyed privi¬
leges entirely royal: they made peace and war } they
coined money j they were judges in the laff refort;
their vaffals were their flaves, whom they brought and
fold along with the lands 5 the inhabitants of cities, al¬
though freemen, were deprelfed and poor, depending
for protection upon fome tyrannical baron in their
neighbourhood. At length, however, by the progrefs
of the arts, the cities rofe into confiderable importance,
and their inhabitants, along with fuch freemen of low
rank as refided in the country, were confidered as enti¬
tled to a reprefentation in the flates-general of the king¬
dom, under the appellation of tiers etat, or third ejlate;
the clergy and the nobles forming the two firll ellates.
But the fovereign, having fpeedily become defpotic,
the meetings of the Hates-general were laid afide. This
abfolute authority, on the part of the crown, was not
acquired, as it was in England by the houfe of Tudor,
6
201
France
formerly
under a
cp ] FRA
by abolifhing the pernicious privileges of the nobles and France,
elevating the commons ; but by Ikilful encroachments,
by daring exertions of prerogative, and the ufe of a
powerful military force. In France, therefore, the
monarch was abfolute, yet the nobles retained all
their feudal privileges, and the ecclefiartical hier¬
archy did the fame. The following was, in a few
words, the Hate of that country during thefe two lafl:
centuries. 20,
The kingdom of France, previous to the revolution, Was never
was never reduced to one homogeneous mafs. It con- reduced
filled of a variety of feparate provinces acquired by dif- Jnt0 onc
ferent means; fome by marriage, fome by legacy, and
others by conqueft. Each province retained its ancient
laws and privileges, whether political or civil, as ex-
prefled in their capitularies or conditions by which they
were originally acquired. In one part of his dominions
the French monarch was a count, in another he was a
duke, and in others he was a king; the only bond
which united his vail empire being the Itrong military
force by which it was overavved. Each province had
its barriers \ and the intercourfe betwixt one province
and another was often more reilrained by local ufages
than the intercourfe of either with a foreign country,,
Some of the provinces, fuch as Bretagne and Dauphine,
even retained the right of alfembling periodically their
provincial Hates ; but thefe formed no barrier againfl
the power of the court.
The clergy formed the firfl eflate of the kingdom The clergy
in point of precedence. They amounted to 130,000. formed the
The higher orders of them enjoyed immenfe revenues $ ^ e^atc
but the cures or great body of a fling clergy feldom !n
pofieffed more than about 281. flerling a year, and their
vicaires about half that fum. A few of their dig¬
nified clergy were men of great piety, who refided
confiantly in their diocefes, and attended to the duties
of their office ; but by far the greater number of them
puffed their lives at Paris and Verfailles, immerfed
in all the intrigues and diflipation of a gay and
corrupted court and capital. They were almofl ex-
clufively felefted from among the younger branches
of the families of the mofl powerful nobility, and
accounted it a kind of dilhonour to the order of bilhops
for any perfons of low rank to be admitted into it.
The lower clergy, on the contrary, were perfons of
mean birth, and had little chance of preferment. At
the fame time, we find feveral refpeflable exceptions -
to this laff rvde. The clergy, as a body, independent
of the tithes, poffeffed a revenue arifing from then*
property in land, amounting to four or five millions
Herling annually •, at the fame time they were exempt
from taxation. The crown had of late years attempted
to break through this privilege. To avoid the danger,
the clergy prefented to the court a free gift of a fum of
money fome what Ihort of a million flerling every five
years.
The nobility was nominally the fecond order of the The^nobi-
Hate, but it was in reality the firfl. The nobles amount- lity the
ed to no lefs than 200,000 in number. The title and conck
rank defeended to all the children of the family, but
the property to the eldeft alone : hence vaft multitudes
of them were dependent upon the bounty of the court.
They regarded the ufeful and commercial arts as diflto-
nourable, and even the liberal profeflions of the law and
phyfic as in a great meafure beneath their dignity, difi
daining^.;
Trance.
706
The par¬
liament the
third.
FRA [ 11
daining to intermarry with the families of their profef-
fors. The feudal fyitem in its purity was extremely
favourable to the production of reipeCtable qualities in
the minds of thole who belonged to the order of the
nobles ; but the introduction of commerce has rendered
its decline equally unfavourable to that clais of men.
Inftead of the ancient patriarchal attachment between
the /eudal chieftain and his vaiials, the nobility had be¬
come greedy landlords in the provinces, that they might
appear in Iplendor at court and in the capital. There,
loft in intrigue, fenfuality, and vanity, their charac¬
ters became trivolous and contemptible. Such oi the
French nobleffe, however, as remained in the provinces,
regarded with indignation this degradation oi their or¬
der, and ftill retained a proud lenle of honour and of
courage, which has always rendered them refpeClable.
The order of the nobles was exempted from the pay¬
ment of taxes, although the property of fome of them
was immenfe. The eftates of the prince of Conde, for
example, were worth 200,000!. a-year, and thofe of the
duke of Orleans nearly twice as much. The crown had
indeed impofed fome triHing taxes upon the noblelTe,'
which, however, they in a great meafure contrived to
elude.
Next to the nobles, and as a privileged order poffef-
fing a fecondary kind of nobility of their own, we may
mention the parliaments. Thefe were large bodies of
men, in different provinces, appointed as courts of law
for the adminiftration of juftice. In confequence of the
corruption of the officers of ftate, the members purcha-
fed their places, which they held for life 5 but the fon
wras ufually preferred when he offered to purchafe his
father’s place. In confequence of this laft circumftanee,
the pra6tiiing lawyers had little chance of ever beco¬
ming judges. Courts thus conftituted conlifted of a
motley mixture of old and young, learned and igno¬
rant, men. Juftice was ill adminiltered. The judges
allowed their votes in depending caufes to be openly
folicited by the parties or their friends. No wife
man ever entered into a litigation againft a member of
one of thefe parliaments ; no lawyer would undertake
to plead his caufe *, it never came to a fuccefsful iffue,
and ufually never came to any iffue at all. After
the ftates-general had fallen into difufe, the parlia¬
ments acquired a certain degree of political confe-
quence, and formed the only check upon the abfo-
lute power of the crown. The laws, or royal edifts,
before being put in force, were always lent to be regi-
ftered in the books of the parliaments. Taking ad¬
vantage of this, in favourable times and circumftances,
they often delayed or refufed to regifter the royal edifts,
and prefented remonftrances againft them. This was
done under a kind of legal fiction : for they pretended
that the obnoxious edict being iniurious to the public
happinefs, could not be the will of the king, but muft
either be a forgery or an impofition by the minifters.
Thefe objections were got the better of, either by a po¬
ll tive order from the king, or by his coming in perfon
and ordering the edift to be regiftered. The parlia¬
ments, however, often carried their oppofitkm very far,
even to the ruin of themfelves and their families as in¬
dividuals. This rendered them extremely popular with
the nation, and enabled them to embarrafs a weak ad-
miniftration. After all, however, the oppofition of the
parliaments was fo feeble, that it was never thought
0 ] FRA
worth while to abolilh them entirely till towards the France,
end of the reign or Louis XV.5 but they were reftored •
as a popular meafure, at the beginning of the reign of
Louis XVI. 207
The tiers etat, or commons, formed the loweft order The c°m-
of the ftate in France, and they were deprefled and mi- 6
ferable in the extreme. 'io form a conception of their :ircler.
fituation, it is necelfary to obferve that they bore the Oppre-ffive
whole pecuniary burdens of the ftate: 'ihey alone burdens 0*
were liable to taxation. An expenfive and ambitious^em*
court; an army of 200,000 men in time of peace, and
of twice that number in war $ a confiderable marine efi-
tablifhment, public roads and works, were ail lupported
exclufively by the loweft oi the people. . To add to
the evil, the revenues were ill collected. They were
let out to farmers-general at a certain fum, over and
above which they not only acquired iminen e fortunes
to themfelves, but w'ere enabled to advance enormous
prefents to thofe favourites or miftrelfes of the king or
the minifter, by means of whom they procured their
places. To raile all tin-, money from the people,
they were guilty of the cruelleft dppieflien, having it
in their power to obtain whatever revenue laws they
pleafed, and executing them in the feveieft manner.
For this laft purpofe they kept in pay an army of
clerks, fubalterns, Icouts, and ipies, amounting to
80,000 men. Thefe men were indeed detelted by the
king, whom they deceived and kept in poverty j by
the people, whom they oppreffed 5 and by the ancient
nobility, as purfe-proud upftarts. But the court of
France could never contrive to manage without them.
The peafants could be called out by the intendants of
the provinces, in what they called curve'es, to work upon
the high roads for a ceriain number of days in the
year, which was a foiirce of fevere opprelnon, as the
intendant had the choice of the time and place of their
employment, and was not bound to accept of any com¬
mutation in money. They were moreover fubjeft to
the nobles in a thoufand ways. The nobles retained
all their ancient mano at . r patrimonial jurifdiftions.
The common people being anciently Haves, had ob¬
tained their freedom upon different conditions. In
many places they and their pofterity remained bound
to pay a perpetual tribute to their feudal lords. Such
tributes formed a confiderable part of the revenue of
many of the provincial nobles. No man could be
an officer of the army, by a late regulation, who did
not produce proofs of nobility for four generations.
The parliaments, although originally of the tiers
etat, attempted alfo to introduce a rule that none but
the nobleffe ftiould be admitted into their order. In
fuch a fituation, it will not be accounted furprifing
that the common people of France were extremely fu-
perftitious and ignorant. They wrere, however, paf-
fionately devoted to their monarch, and whatever con¬
cerned him. In 17.C4, when Louis XV. w7as taken ill
at Metz, the whole nation wras truly in a kind of def-
pair. The courier and his horfe that brought the new’s
of his recovery to Paris were both almoft fuffocated by
the embraces of the people. 20g
We have faid that the French monarch was defpo- Dcfpotic
tic. His power was lupported by his army, and by a power of
watchful police, having in pay an infinite holt of fpies t^ie ^nl^‘
and other fervants. In France no man w7as fafe. The
fecrets of private families were fearched into. Nothing
was
FRA [ i
France, was unknown to the jealous inquifition of the police.
Men were feized by lettres de cachet when they lead
expected it, and their families had no means of difco-
vering their late. The fentence of a court of law
againlt a nobleman was ufually reverfed by the minifter.
No book was publiihed without the licenfe of a cenfor-
general appointed by the court, and the miniiter was
accountable to none but the king. No account was
given of the expenditure of the public money. Enor¬
mous gratifications and penfions were given as the
reward oi the molt infamous fervices. The fupreme
power of the Hate was ufually lodged with a favourite
209 miltrefs, and die was fometimes a woman taken from
■Splendour public proititution. This was not indeed the cafe
Isf the court under Louis XVI. but it wTas neverthelels one of the
misfortunes of his life that he was far from being ab-
folute in his own family. Still, however, with all its
faults, the French court was the molt fplendid and
poliihed in Europe. It was more the refort of men of
talents and literature of every kind, and there they
met with more ample proteftion, than anywhere elfe.
The court was often jealous of their productions, but
they met with the molt diltinguilhed attention from
men of fortune and rank ^ infomuch that for a cen¬
tury pail the French have given the law to Europe
in all queftions oi tafte, of literature, and of every
polite accompliIhment. The gay elegance that pre¬
vailed at court diffufed itfelf through the nation ; and
amidil much internal mifery, gave it to a foreigner the
appearance of happinefs, or at lead of levity and va¬
nity.
Such as it was, this government had dood for
ages, and might have continued, had not a concur¬
rence of caufes contributed to its overthrow. The in¬
ferior orders of clergy, excluded from all chance of
preferment, regarded their fuperiors with jealoufy and
envy, and were ready to join the laity of their own
rank in any popular commotion. The inferior provin¬
cial noblcife beheld with contempt and indignation the
vices and the power of the courtiers, and the higher
nobility wifhed to diminidr the power of the crown.
The praCHfing lawyers, almoft entirely excluded from
the chance of becoming judges, wilhed eagerly for a
change of affairs, not doubting that their talents and
profedional {kill would render them neeeffary amidd
any alterations that could occur. Accordingly, they
were the fird indruments in producing the revolu¬
tion, and have been its mod aflive fupporters. The
monied intered wilhed eagerly for the downfal of the
ancient nobility. As for the great mafs of the com¬
mon people, they were too ignorant, too fuperilitioufly
attached to old edablilhments, and too much depref-
fed, to have any conception of the nature of political
liberty, or any hope of obtaining it. We have al¬
ready dated the leading circumdances which led to
the French revolution (fee N° 184, &c.) •, but there
were other circumdances which contributed in an
equal degree both to its commencement and its pro-
grefs.
For 40 years the principles of liberty had been diffe-
minated with eagernefs in France bv Tome men of great
talents, as Rouffeau, Helvetius, and Ravnal, to whom
the celebrated Montefquieu had led the way. Befides
thefe, there was in France a vad multitude of what
5
210
Caufes of
he Revo-
Rion.
11] FRA
were called men of letters, or perfons who gave this
account of the manner in which they fpent their time.
All thefe were deeply engaged on the fide of fome kind
of political reform. The men of letters in Paris alone
are laid to have amounted to 20,000. One of the lad
abbs of the adminidration of the archbiihop of Thouloufe
was, on the 5th July 1788, to publilh a refolution of
the king in council, inviting all his fubjeds to give him
their advice with regard to the date of affairs. This
was confidered as a eoncedion of an unlimited liberty
of the prels 5 and it is icarcely poflible to form an idea
of the infinite variety of political publications which
from that period diffufed among the people a difiatis-
faction with the order of things in which they had
hitherto lived.
France.
The edablifhed religion of France had for fome time
pad been gradually undermined. It had been folemnly
aifaulted by philofophers in various elaborate perform¬
ances ; and men of wit, among whom Voltaire took the
lead, had attacked it with the dangerous weapon of
ridicule. 1 he Roman Catholic religion is much expofed
in this refpetff, in confequence of the multitude of falfe
miracles and legendary tales with which its hiffory
abounds. Without diferiminating betwixt the refpeft-
able principles on which it reds, and the fuperditious
follies by which they had been defaced, the French
nation learned to laugh at the whole, and rejedled in¬
dead of reforming the religion of their fathers, 'i hus
the fird order in the date had already begun to be
regarded as ufelefs, and the minds of men were pre¬
pared for important changes.
The immenfe population of the city of Paris, a-
mounting to upwards of 800,000 fouls, rendered it an.
important engine in the hands of the condu&ors of the
revolution. An overgrown capital has always proved
dangerous to a government that is or attempts to be
defpotic, as appears from tire hidory of ancient Baby¬
lon and Rome, as well as of modern Gondantinople, of
London under Charles I. and Paris under feveral of its
K.mgs.
We cannot here srt oid mentioning a phyfical event,,
which affided not a little in producing many of the
convulfions attending the revolution, a general fcarcity
of grain, which occurred about that period. On Sun¬
day the 13th of July 1788, about nine in the morning,
without any eelipfe, a dreadful darknefs fuddenly over¬
spread feveral parts of France. It was the prelude of.
fuch a temped as is unexampled in the temperate cli¬
mates of Europe. Wind, rain, hail, and thunder, feem-
ed to contend in impetuofity •, but the hail was the
great inffrument of ruin. Indead of the rich profpeefs
of an early autumn, the face of nature in the fpace of
an hour prefen ted the dreary afpect of univerial winter.
The foil was converted into a morafs, the Handing
corn beaten into the quagmire, the vines broken to
pieces, the fruit trees demolilhed, and unmelted hail
lying in heaps like rocks of folid ice. Even the robud
fored trees were unable to withffand the fury of the
temped. The hail was compofed of enormous, folid,
and angular pieces of ice, fome of them weighing
from eight to ten ounces. The country people, beat¬
en down in the fields on their way to church, amidd
this concuflion of the elements, concluded that the lad
daj was arrived ; and fcarcely attempting to extricate
themfelves,
fVancc.
2IX
Attempt to
reduce the
power of
the crown
in fpring
F K A [ i
thcmfelves, lay defpairing and half fufFocated amidft
the water and the mud, expefting the immediate dillb-
lution of all things. The ftorm was irregular in its
devaftations. W hile feveral rich diftri6ts were laid en¬
tirely wafte, fome intermediate portions of country
were comparatively little injured. One of 60 fquare
leagues had not a fingle ear of corn or fruit of any kind
left. Of the 66 parlihcs in the dill riel of Pontoife, 43
were entirely defolated, and of the remaining 23 lome
loll two-thirds and others half their harveft. I he Ille
of France, being the diilricl-in which Paris is fituated,
and the Orleannois, appear to have i’uffcred chiefly.
The damage there, upon a moderate eftimate, amount¬
ed to 80^000,000 of livres, or between three and
four millions llerling. Such a calamity mull at any pe¬
riod have been feverely felt} but occurring on the
eve of a great political revolution, and amidit a gene¬
ral fcarcity throughout Europe, it was peculiarly un¬
fortunate, and gave more embarraflment to the govern¬
ment than perhaps any other event whatever. Num¬
bers of families found it neceffary to contradl their mode
of living for a time, and to difmifs their fervants, who
were thus left deftitute of bread. Added to the pub¬
lic difeontent and political diflenlions, it produced
fuch an effecl upon the people in general, that the na¬
tion feemed to have changed its character; and in-
Head of that levity by which it had ever been diilin-
guifhed, a fettled gloom now feemed fixed on every
countenance.
The fpring of the year 1789 was a period of much
political anxiety in France. The fuperior orders wilhed
to reduce the power of the crown, but were jealous
of their own privileges, and determined to retain them}
while the popular philofophers and others were endea¬
vouring to render them odious, and to roufc the people
to a love of freedom. Still, however, the great body
of the common people remained carelefs fpeflators of
the ilruggle, and unconfcious of the approaching com¬
motion. Such was their indifference, that few of them
took the trouble even to attend and vote at the eleftions
of the deputies to the ftates-general. In many places,
where a thoufand voters were expelled, not fifty came
forward *, but fuch of them as did appear fhowed that a
feed was fown which might one day rife into important
fruits. In the inftruclions w’hieh they gave to their
deputies, the Britilh conftitution was in general the
model of what they wilhed their government to be.
They demanded equal taxation, the abolition of iettres
de cachet or arbitrary imprifonment, the refponfibility of
minifters, and the extinction of the feudal privileges
of the nobles ; but they wilhed that the whole three
orders of the Hate fhould fit and vote in one houfe, well
knowing that their nobility were not prepared to aft
the moderate part of a Britilh houfe of lords. 1 he
nobles, on the contrary, although willing to renounce
fome of their pecuniary privileges, and to facrifice the
power of the crown, wTere moll decifively refolved
neither to furrender their feudal prerogatives nor the
right of fitting in three feparate affemblies 5 by means
of which each of the orders could eafily refill the
encroachments of the other two. M, Neckar has
been improperly cenfured for not deciding this laft
important quellion previous to the meeting of the
ffates-general: but it mull be obferved, that the very
France.
12 ] fra
purpofe of calling that affembly was to overturn the
unhilt privileges of the higher orders' through its
medium, and without any direft interpofition on the
part of the miniiters. Had the king positively de¬
cided in favour of three chambers, the nobles and the
clergy would have retained all thofe ancient abules
eftablilhed in their own favour, of which it was his
with to depiive them, and the crown and its prero¬
gatives would have been the only objefts of facri-
lice. It was therefore thought lafer to leave the tiers
etat to fight its own battle 5 nor was it yet imagined
that the commons of France, deprelled and poor, and
difperfed by fituation over a multitude of provinces,
could ever unite in enterprifes dangerous to the fo-
vereign. 212
The Hates had been fummoned to meet at Ver-States fiuu.
failles on the 27th of April, and moil of the deputies m°ned to
arrived at that time 5 but the eleftions for the city Yerf-dUes,
of Paris not being concluded, the king deferred the
commencement of their feflions till the 4th of May.
During this period, the members, left in idlenefs,
began to find out and form acquaintance with each
other. Among others, a few members from Brittany
(Bretagne) formed themfelves into a club, into which
they gradually admitted many other deputies that
were found to be zealous for the popular caufe, and
alfo many perfons who were not deputies. . 1 his fo-
ciety, thus originally eflabliflied at ^ erlailles, was
called the Comite Breton; and was one day defiined,
under the appellation of the Jacobin Chib, to give
latvs to France, and to diffufe terror and alaim through¬
out Europe. On the other fide, the ariHocratic party
eflabliflied conferences at the houfe of Madame Polig-
nac, for the purpofe, it is faid, of uniting the nobles and
the clergy. _ . 213
An event occurred at this time which all parties A popular
aferibed to fome malicious motive. In the populous not m the
fuburb of St Antoine, a M. Reveillon carried on a,u U1J0
great paper manufaftory. A falfe report was fpread
that he intended to lower the wages of his work¬
men, and that he had declared bread was too good
for them, and that they might fubfift very well on
potato-flour. A commotion was railed, he was burnt
in effigy, and his houfe was thereafter burnt and pil¬
laged by the mob, who were not aifperfed till the
military had been called in, and much carnage en-
fued. The popular party afferted that the commo¬
tion had been artfully excited by the party of the
queen and the Count D1 Artois, to afford a pretence
for bringing great bodies of the military to the
neighbourhood to overawe the flates-general, or in¬
duce the king more decifively to refolve on affembling
that body at Verfailles, in preference to Paris, where
they and the popular minifter M. Neckar wiffied it to
be held.
On the 4th of May the ftates general affembled at The States
Vcrfailles. They commenced bufinefs by going in a General^
folemn proceffion, preceded by the clergy, and at
lowed by the king, according to ancient cuftom, to Verlailles*
church, to perform an aft of devotion. I he nobles
were arrayed in a fplendid robe, and they and the
higher clergy glittered in gold and jewels.. I he
commons appeared in black, the drefs belonging to
the law. The affembly was thereafter opened by a
, St Antoine.
2x4
FRA. [ 113 ]
FRA
France, fliort fpeecli from the throne, in which the king con-
’ ^ ' gratulated himfelf on thus meeting his people af-
1789. fembled j alluded to the national debt, and the taxes,
which were feverely felt becaufe unequally levied 5
he took notice of the general difcontent and fpirit
of innovation which prevailed, but declared his con¬
fidence in the wifdom of the affembly for remedying
t every evil. “ May an happy union (added he) reign
in this ailcmbly j and may this epocha become ever
memorable for the happinefs and profperity of the
country. It is the with of my heart; it is the moll
ardent defire of my prayers $ it xs, in flxort, the price
which I expeft from the fincerity of my intentions and
my love for my people.”
M. Barretin, the keeper of the feals, next addreffed
the a trembly in a congratulatory and uninterefting fpeech.
He was followed by the popular minifter M. Neckar,
who fpoke for three hours. Though much applauded
on account of the clear financial details which his fpeech
contained, he encountered a certain degree of cenfure
from all parties, on account of the cautious ambiguity
which he obferved with regard to the future proceedings
of the ftates-peneral.
Their de- ^ext day the three orders affembled feparately.
bates and The deputies of the tiers etat amounted to 600 in
inactivity, number, and thofe of the nobles and clergy to 300
each. . During their firft fittings much time was fpent
in unimportant debates about trilling points of form ;
but the firlf important queftion, that neceflarily be¬
came the fubjeel of their difeufiion, was the verifica¬
tion of their powers, or production of the commifiions
of the members, and inveltigation of their authenti¬
city. The commons {tiers etat) laid hold of this as
a pretext for opening the grand controverfy, whether
the ftates-general Ihould fit in one or in three fepa-
rate chambers ? T. hey fent a deputation inviting the
nobles and the clergy to meet along with them in
the common hall for the purpofe of verifying their
powers in one common affembly. In the chamber of
the clergy 114 members voted for the performance of
this ceremony in the general affembly; and 133 againft
it. But in the more haughty order of the nobles, the
refolution for the verification in their own affembly
was carried by a majority of 188 againft 47. The
commons paid no regard to this. They were con¬
ducted by bold and Ikilful leaders, who difeerned the
importance of the point in conteft, and rcfolved not
to abandon it. Aware of the exigencies of the ftate,
they knew that the crown was nearly verging upon
bankruptcy; and that fuch were the deficiencies of
the revenue, that only a Ihort delay was neceffary to
accomplidi the abfolute diflolution of the government.
They fuffered five weeks to pafs away therefore in
total inaaivity. During this period propofals were
made on the part of the miniftry for a pacification
between the three orders, and conferences were open¬
ed by commiffioners from each. But no art could
feduce the commons from their original purpofe, or
prevail with them to enter upon the bufinefs of the
ftate.
2T” ’Tl
ipularity ^ *ie nation had expefted much from the affembling
the of the ftates-gencral, and learnt the news of their in-
t a(^on with no fmall degree of concern. Tiie tiers
ons. ' etat \xzs naturally popular, and the public cenfure
could not readily devolve upon that favourite order.
Vol. IX. Part I.
Moreover, from the firft period of their affembling France.
the commons made every effort to augment their own ' ^ 
natural popularity. They admitted ail perfons pro- I7^9*
milcuoufly into tiie galleries, and even into the body
of their hall. No reftraint was attempted to be laid
upon the moft vehement marks of popular applaufe
or cenlure. Lifts of the voters names were publicly
taken and fent to Paris upon every remarkable occa-
fion ; and the members fuddenly found themfelves be¬
come, according to their political fentiments, the ob-
jefls of general execration or applaufe. The new
and bold notions of liberty that were daily advanced
by the leaders of the tiers etat were received with
acclamation by their hearers. The capital became
intererted in the iffue of every debate ; and the poli¬
tical fervor was eagerly imbibed by the nation with
that vivacity which is fo peculiar to the French.
The commons accufed the nobles of obftinately im¬
peding the bufinefs of the ftate, by refufing to verify
their powers in one common affembly. The accufa-
tion was fwallowed by the multitude, who faw not,
or were unwilling to fee, that the attack was made
by their own favourite order. In the mean time
the nobles became rapidly more and more unpopular.
Their perfons were infulted, new publications daily
came forth, and were greedily bought up, which re¬
viled their whole order, and reprefented them as an
ufelefs or pernicious body of men, whofe exiftence
ought not to be tolerated in a free ftate. Whoever
adhered to them was branded with the odious appel¬
lation of Ariflocrat. dhe clergy, from the influence
of the parifh cures or perfons, feemed ready to defert
their caufe. They were even oppofed by a minority
of their own body, which derived luftre from having
at its head the duke of Orleans the firft prince of the
blood. Still, however, the majority of the nobles re¬
mained firm ; well aware, that if they once confented
to fit in the fame affembly, and to vote promifcuoufly,
with the ambitious and more numerous body of the
commons, their whole order, and all its fplendid privi¬
leges muft fpeedily be overthrown.
I he leaders of the commons faw the change that Takin^ad
was taking place in the minds of men ; and they at vantajof
length 1 egarded the period as arrived when they ought this popu-
to emerge from their ina&ivity, and execute the darino-^fhy. they
project of feizing the legiflative authority in their !CiZ^ t5-'e
country. They declared that the reprefentatives dfaSoritT;
the nobles, and the clergy were only the deputies of
particular incorporations whom they would allow' to
fit and vote along with themfelves; but. who had no
title in a colle&ive capacity to aft as the legifiators of
France. For 'condufting bufinefs with more facility,
they appointed 20 committees. In confequence of
a propofal by the. Abbe Sieyes, a final meffage was
fent to the privileged orders, requiring their attendance
as individuals, and intimating that the commons, as the
deputies of 96 out of every hundred of their country¬
men, were about to aflume the exclufive povrer of 1c-
giflation. None of the nobles obeyed this fummons ;
but three cures, Meffrs Cefve, Ballard, and Jallot, pre¬
sented their commiftions, and were received with loud
acclamations. They were next day followed by five
more, among whom were Meffrs Gregoire, Dillon, and
Bodineau. After fome debate concerning the appella¬
tion wliich they ought to a flume, the commons, with
fuck
aiS
and affert
their own
fovereign-
ty-
F It A [ii
Trance, fucli of the clergy as had joined them, folemnly voted
themfelves the fovereign legiflators of their ^ country
under the name of the National AJfetnbly. 1 he refult
of the vote was no fooner declared, than the hall re-
founded with fliouts from the immenfe concourfe of
fpeftators, of “ Vive le roi et vive I’affemblee nationale,
Long live the king and the national ajfembhj. M. Badly
was chofen prefident for four days only, Meffrs Camus
and Pifon de G aland fecretaries, and the affembly pro¬
ceeded to bufmefs. .
Its firft aels were decifively expreffive of its own
fovereignty. All taxes impofed without the confent
of the reprefentatives of the people were declared to
be null and void } but a temporary fanftion was given
to the prefent taxes, although illegal, till the diffo-
lution of the affembly, and no longer. . It was added,
that “ as foon as, in concert with his majefty,. the
affembly iliould be able to fix the principles oi national
regeneration, it would taffe into confideration the na¬
tional debt, placing, from the prefent moment, the
creditors of the date under the fafeguard and honour
219 of the French nation.”
Majority of The popular caufe now gained ground fo fad, that
the clergy on the th ()f june a raajo.rity of the clergy voted for
umte with ^ verification 0f their powers in common with the
national affembly, and they refolved to unite with them
220 on the following day. >
Fears of the Affairs were now come to a erms, and the nobles
nobles. perceived that they mud indantly make a decifive
dand, or yield up their caufe as finally lod. Such
was their alarm, that M. d’Efpremenil propofed, at
one of the fittings of their order, to addrefs the king,
intreating him to diffolve tne dates-general. Hither¬
to that prince had gone along with M. Neckar in fa¬
vouring the popular caufe in oppofition to the arido-
But every art was now ufed to alarm his
Franc
221
Royal lef-
fion pro¬
claimed.
cracy. ——  j —- - _ . .
mind upon the fubject of the late affumptions of power
on the part of the commons, and thefe arts were at
length fuccefsful. Repeated counfels were held j M.
Neckar w7as abfent attending a dying fider, and the
king was prevailed upon to a£l agreeably to the advice
of the leaders of the nobles. But the fird meafure
which they adopted was fo ill conducted^as to afford
little profpecl of final fuccefs to their caufe. On the
20th of June, when the prefident and members were
about to enter as ufual into their own hall, they found
it unexpectedly furrounded by a detachment of the
guards, who refufed them admiflion, while the heralds
at the fame time proclaimed a royal itffion. Alarmed
by this unforefeen event, the meaning of which they
knew not, but apprehending tnat an immediate diffolu-
tion of the affembly was defigned, they indantly retir¬
ed to a neighbouring tennis court, where, in the
vehemence of their enthufiafm, they took a foltron
oath “ never to feparate till the conditution of their
country fhould be completed.”
On the 22d a new proclamation intimated that the
roval feffion was deferred till the following day. It
was now found that the affembly had been excluded
from their hall merely becaufe the workmen were occu¬
pied in preparing it for the intended, folemnity. This
information was ill calculated to excite lavourable ex-
peefations of the meafures about to be adopted at a
royal feffion, ufhered in by fuch circumdances of mark¬
ed difrefpedf for the reprefentatives of the people. The
4 ] FRA
affembly, after wandering about in fearch of a place
of meeting, at length entered the church of . St Louis, g
and vrere immediately joined by the majority of the
clergy, with their prefident, the archbiftiop of ^ icnnG-fhe Afil'm.
at their head. Two nobles of Dauphine, the marquis biy meets
de Blacon and the count d’Agoult, prefented their com- in the
jniflions at the fame time. Encouraged by thefe events,
and by the applaufes of furrounding multitudes, the al-
fembly now expeCted with firmnefs the meafures about
to be adopted. . 223
The royal feffion was held in the mod fplendid form, Difcourfvof
but altogether in the dyle of the ancient defpotifm. the king.
Soldiers furrounded the hall. The two fuperior orders
were feated, while the reprefentatives of the people,
left danding a full hour in the ram, were in no humour,
when at lad admitted, to receive with much compla¬
cency the commands of their fovereign. The. king
read a difeourfe, in which he declared null and void the
refolutions of the 17th, but at the fame time prefented
the plan of a conditution for France. It contained
many good and patriotic principles, but preferved the
diftinftion of orders, and the exercife of lettres de ca¬
chet ; it faid nothing about any active fliare in the 1c-
giflative power to be poffeffed by the dates-general, and
was filent both about the refponfibility of miniders and
the liberty of the prefs. The king concluded by com¬
manding the deputies immediately to retire, and to al-
femble again on the following day. He then withdrew,
and was followed by all the nobles and a part of the
clergy. The commons remained in gloomy filence on 224
their feats. It was interrupted by the grand maffer.of m receive*
the ceremonies, who reminded the prefident of the in-ky the
tentions of the king. Indantly the vehement count commons,
de Mirabeau, darting from his feat, exclaimed with in¬
dignation, “ The commons of France have aetermined
Umlebate. We have heard the intentions that have
been fuggeded to the king j and you, who cannot be
his agent with the dates-general, you who have here
neither feat nor voice, nor a right to fpeak, are not
the perfon to remind us of his fpeech. Go tell your
mader, that we are here by the power ox the people,
and that nothing fhall expel us but the bayonet.” Ihe
applaufe of the affembly feconded the enthufiafm of the
orator, and the mader of the ceremonies withdrew m
fflcncc# • • 225
M. Camus then rofe 5 and in a violent fpeech indig- Debates a>
nantly digmatized the royal feflion by the obnoxious ter the
appellation of a bed ofjujlice; he concluded by moving
that the affembly Ihould declare their, unqualified aefie-
rence to their former decrees. 1 his motion was fol¬
lowed by another, pronouncing the perfons of the de¬
puties inviolable. Both were fupported by Meffrs Pe-
tion, Barnave, Glaizen, the Abbes Gregoire, Sieyes,
and many others, and were unanimoufly decreed. I he
affcmbly therefore continued their fittings in the ufual
form. On the following day the majority of the clergy
attended as members} and on the 2jth the duke of
Orleans, along with 49 of the deputies belonging, to
the order of nobles, joined them alio. The remaining
nobles, as xvell as the fmall minority of the clergy, now
found themfelves awkwardly fituated. Vv hether on this
account, or becaufe their leaders had by this time form¬
ed a plan for carrying their point not by peaceable
means but by the aid of a military force, the king,,
on the 27th, invited by a prefling letter both orders.
to
FRA [ i
This requcfi: was immediately
]
1789.
2i<>
Alarming
227
Numerous
Seditious
publica¬
tions.
France, to join the commons
complied with, although many of the nobility diiappro-
ved of the meafure.
The lituation of France was now become truly alarm-
fituation of ing. When the king retired from the affembly after
France, at the royal felTion, he was followed by more than 6000
this period, citizens, from whom loud clamours and every mark of
difapprobation broke forth. All Verfailles was fpeedily
in an uproar. M. Neckar had repeatedly folicited his
difmidion, and the report of this had increafed the po¬
pular clamour. The court wras in contfernation. The
king probably difcovered, with no great fatisfaclion,
that his minifter was more popular than himfelf. At
dx o’clock in the evening the queen fent for M. Nec¬
kar. When he returned from the palace, he allured the
crowd that waited for him that he would not abandon
them ; upon which they retired fatisded. At the fame
time the news of the royal feffion had thrown the city
of Paris into violent agitation. The peace of that ca¬
pital was at this time endangered by a variety of caufes.
A dreadful famine raged through the land, which in a
great city is ufually molt feverely felt. This prepared
the minds of men for receiving unfavourable impref-
dons of their political ftate. Every effort was more¬
over made to diforganize the government, and pro¬
duce a didike to the ancient order of things. The
prefs poured forth innumerable publications, dlled with
new and feducing, though generally impradticable, theo¬
ries of liberty. Thefe were diitributed gratis among the
bulk of the people of Paris, and difperfed in the fame
manner through the provinces. Philip duke of Or¬
leans (prefumptive heir to the crown, failing the chil¬
dren and brothers of the king) is with good reafon be¬
lieved to have fupplied this expence out of his more
than royal revenues. In the gardens of the Palais
Royal at Paris, which belonged to him, an immense
multitude was daily affembled, liftening from morning
to night to orators who defcanted upon the mod: violent
fubje&s of popular politics. Many of thefe orators
were fufpedted to be in his pay. It was even believed
that his money found its way into the pockets of fome
of the moll diftinguilhed leaders in the national affem-
bly.
But the government was, if poffible, dill more dan-
f the mill- geroufly affaulted by the methods now generally ufed
to feduce the military. Every officer of the French
army belonged to the order of the nobles •, and from
that quarter, therefore, it might have been imagined
that there was little danger. But this very circum-
ifance became the means of diforganizing that great
engine of defpotifm. As the foldiers could not avoid
imbibing fome of the new opinions, their own officers
became the firft objecls of their jealoufy *, efpecially in
confequence of that impolitic edift of Louis XVI.
which required every officer to produce proofs of four
degrees of nobility, and thus infulted, by avowedly
excluding the private men from promotion. Perhaps
with a view to what might happen, the inftru&ions to
the deputies of the tiers etat had recommended an in-
creafe of the pay of the foldiers. And now at Paris
every art was ufed to gain them to the popular caufe.
*1 hey were conduced to the Palais Royal, and were
there careffed and flattered by the populace, while they
liflened to the popular harangues. Thefe arts were
fuccefsful. On the 23d of June they firft refufed to
France
1789.
228
iediuftion
ary.
FRA
fire on the mob in a riot. Some of them were on the
30th reported to be in confinement for this offence 5 a
crowd inftantly collecfed, and refeued them, the dra¬
goons that were brought to fupprefs the tumult ground¬
ing their arms. A deputation of the citizens folicited
of the affembly the pardon of the prifoners. The al-
fembly applied to the king, who pardoned them accord-
ingly.
All thefe events, together with the tumultuous ftate Ti,e
of the capital, which was daily increafing, made it ne- tary calleit
ceffary for the king to call out the military force to out.
reftore, if poffible, the public peace. That his inten¬
tions were pure, the then ftate of affairs will permit
no man but a democrat to doubt; but the ariftocracy,
with the Count d’Artois at their head, were bringing
forward other meafures, which ultimately contributed
to the ruin of themfelves, the king, and the kingdom.
Crowds of foldiers were colie died from all parts of the
kingdom around Paris and Verfeilles. It was ob-
ferved, that thefe confifled chiefly of foreign merce¬
naries. Camps were traced out. Marfhal Broglie*
a tried veteran, was fent for and placed at the head of
the army. The king was fuppofed to have entirely
yielded to new counfels, and every thing bore the
appearance of a defperate effort to reftore the energy
of the ancient government. This is the moft import
tant period of the French revolution; yet the fpecific
defigns of the leading adlors have never been clearly
underftood. It w?as rumoured at the time, that Pans
was to be fubdued by a liege and bombardment; that
the affembly was to be diffolved, and its leaders put
to death. Thefe are incredible exaggerations ; but
the crifis of French liberty was univerfally regarded
as at hand, and alfo the exiftence of the national af¬
fembly as an independent body ; or at leaf! upon any
other footing than that propofed by the king on the 23d
of June.
An able and eloquent addrefs to the king againfl: the
affemblage of foreign troops in their neighbourhood bly addreft
was brought forward by Mirabeau, and voted by the the king to
affembly. The king properly replied, that the ftate 0fremove
the capital was the caufe of affembling the troops, and .
offered to transfer the ftates-general to Noyons or Soif- refufed.^
fons. “ We will neither remove (exclaimed Mirabeau)
to Noyons or to Soiffons; we will not place ourfelves
between two hoftile armies, that which is befieging Pa¬
ris, and that which may fall upon Us through Flanders
or Alface $ we have not afked permiffion to run awav
from the troops; we have defired that the troops fhould
be removed from the capital.”
Thirty-five thoufand men were now ftationed in the
neighbourhood of Paris and Verfailles. The polls were
occupied which commanded the city, and camps were
marked out for a greater force. The Count d’Artois
and his party regarded their plans as ripe for execu¬
tion ; and M. Neckar received a letter from the king,
requiring him to quit the kingdom in 24 hours. That
popular minifter took the route of Bruffels on the
following day, when his departure was made public.
In his difmiffion the popular, or, as it was now called,
the democratic, party thought they faw the refolution
adopted to accomplifh their ruin. The affembly again They again
addreffed the throne ; they requefted anew the removal addrefs the
of the troops, offering to be refponfible for the public kinf> 5
peace, and to proceed in a body to Paris to encoun-
P 3 ter
France.
I789-
232
and are
again re-
fufed.
233 •
Decree of
the aflem-
bly in confe
quence.
FRA [11
ter perfonally every danger that might occur. But
234
Confterna-
tioi) in Pa¬
ris on Nec
kar’s re¬
treat.
235
Cruelty of
the Prince
De Lam-
ted'q.
23d
Terror in
the city
univerfal.
they were coolly told, that the king was the bell judge
of the mode of employing the troops, and that the pre-
fence of the affembly was neceffary at \ erfailles. From
a lovereign who doubtlels recollefted the proceedings
of the long parliament of England, a different re¬
ply could not in reafon be expected. On receiv¬
ing it, however, it tvas inftantly decreed, on the mo¬
tion of the marquis de la Fayette, that the late mi-
niftry had carried voith them the confidence of the af¬
fembly that the troops ought to be removed; that the
miniitry are and (hall be refponfible to the people
for their conduct} that the afifembly perfiiled in all its
former decrees } and that as it had taken the public
debt under the protection of the nation, no power in
France was entitled to pronounce the infamous word
bankruptcy.
The city of Paris was thrown into deep conftcrna-
tion by the news of M. Neckar’s retreat. His buft
- and that of the duke d’Orleans were dreffed in mourn¬
ing, and carried through the ftreets. The royal Alle-
mand, a German regiment, broke in pieces the buits,
and diiperfed the populace. 1 he prince de Lambefq,
errand ecuyer of France, was ordered to advance with
his regiment of cavalry, anci take port at the 1. huille-
ries. ^Being a man of a violent temper, and enraged
by the appearances of difapprobation which were vifible
around him, he furioully cut down with his fword a
poor old man who was walking peaceably in the gar¬
dens. The confequences of this a6t of inhumanity were
fuch as might have been expected } a (bout of execra¬
tion inftantly arofe •, the cry to arms was heard j the
military were affaulted on all fides $ the French guards
joined their countrymen, and compelled the Germans,
overpowered by numbers, and unfupported by the reft
of the army, to retire.
All brder was now at an end, and as night approach¬
ed an univerfal terror diffufed itfelf through the city.
Bands of robbers were colie6Hngq and from them or
from the foreign foldiery a general pillage was expefted.
The night paft’ed away in confternation and tumult. It
Was found in the morning that the hofpital of St La-
zare was already plundered. The alarm bells were rung •,
the citizens affembled at the Hotel de Ville, and adopt¬
ed a propofal that was there made, of enrolling them-
felves as a militia for general defence, under the appel¬
lation of the national guard. This day and the fucceed-
jng night were fpent in tolerable quietnefs, without
any attempt on the part of the army. Onthemorn-
ino-of the memorable 14th of July, it was difeovered
that the troops encamped in the Champs Elifees had
moved off, and an immediate affault was. expedfed.
The national guard now amounted to 150,000 men j
but they were in general deftitute of arms. They had
affumed a green cockade } but on recolledling that
this was the livery of the Count d’Artois, they adopted
one of red, blue, and white. M. de la Salle was na¬
med commander in chief, officers were chofen, and de¬
tachments fent around in queft of arms. In the Hotel
des Invalides upwards of 30,000 (land of arms were
found, along with 20 pieces of cannon 4 a variety of
weapons was alfo procured from the garde meuble de
la couronne, and from the (hops of armourers, cutlers,
fee.
The celebrated fortrefs of the Baftile was an cbjecl
6 ] FRA
of much jealoufy to the Parifians. At 11 o’clock in France,
the morning, M. de la Rofiere, at the head of a nume¬
rous deputation, waited upon M. de Launay the go¬
vernor, who promifed, along with the officers of his xhe'iLf-
garrifon, that they would not fire upon the city unlefs tile attack-
they (hould be attacked. But a report was foon fpreaded;
through Paris, that M. de Launay had, in a ihort time
thereafter, admitted into the fortrefs a multitude of
perfons, and then treacheroufly maffacred them. The
caufe of this piece of perfidy has never been explained.
The fa ft itfelf has been denied •, but it was attefted at
the time by the duke of Dorfet, the Britifti ambafla-
dor at the court of France. The effeft of the report
was, that a fudden refolution was adopted of aflaulting
the Baftile ; an immenfe and furious multitude ruftied
into its outer, and foon forced their way into its inner,
courts, where they received and returned a fevere fire
for the fpace of an hour. The French guards, who
were now embodied into the national guard, condufted
the attack with (kill and eoolnefs : they dragged three
waggons loaded with draw to the foot of the walls,
and there fet them on fire •, the fmoke of thefe broke
the aim of the garrifon, while it gave no difturbance
to the more diftant affailants. The befieging multi¬
tude preffed the attack with incredible obftinacy and
vigour for the fpace of four hours ; the garrifon was
in^ confufion •, the officers ferved the cannon in per-
fon, and fired their mufkets in the ranks *, the governor,
in defpair, thrice attempted to blow up the fortrefs. 2
A capitulation, when at laft fought, was refufed to the and fur-
garrifon, and an unconditional furrender took place, rendered
P... 7 ■> rr t t r* o 11 • i • • nnrnndl-
The governor, and M. de Lofme Salbrai his major, a^r-C0Ijjd*_
gentleman of diftinguKhed humanity and honour, be- !0TU
came viftims of popular fury in fpite of every effort
that could be made for their proteftion •, but the French
guards fucceeded in procuring the fafety of the garrifon.
Only feven prifoners were found in the Baftile. A
guard was placed in it, and the keys were fent to the
celebrated M. Briffot de Warville, who a few years be¬
fore had inhabited one of its caverns.
The remaining part of this eventful day was fpent
at Paris in a mixture of triumph and alarm. In the
pocket of the governor of the Baftile a letter was found,
encouraging him to refiftance by the promife of fpeedy
fuccours, written by M. de Fleffelles, the prevot des
marchands, or chief city magiftrate, who had pretend¬
ed to be a moft zealous patriot. This piece of trea¬
chery was punifhed by inftant death } and his bloody
head was carried through the city .on a pole, along with
that of M. de Launay. At the approach of night a
body of troops advanced towards the city, at the Bar-
riere d’Enfef. The new national guard hurried thither,
preceded by a train of artillery, and the troops withdrew
upon the firft fire : barricadoes were every ivhere form- t
ed, the alarm-bells were rung, and a general illumina¬
tion continued during the whole of this night of confu¬
fion. ' . . _ 239
In the mean time, it was obvious that the new mini- A new mi-
dry were entering upon a difficult feene of aftion,n’^r^P*
where one falfe ftep might lead to rum, and where1011‘
their own plan of conduft ought to be maturely digeft-
ed. Marflial Broglio was made minifter of war, the
baron de Breteuil prefident of finance, M. de la Gale-
ziere comptroller-general, M. de la Porte intendant of
the war department, and M. Foulon intendant of the
navv ;,
FRA
France, navy ; but thefe were only meant to aft as official men,
under the Count d’Artois, and the other leaders of the
I7y9- ariftocracy. To thefe leaders there did not even remain
Theirfitu-’ a c^°^ce °i" difficulties j no refource was left but that of
tiondiffi- overawing by military power the national affembly and
cult, and the capital, and of rilking the defperate meafure of a
their con- national bankrupty, which the court had not formerly
dud bad. jpj.gj to encounter, and to avoid which it had convok¬
ed the llates-general. No trace remains, however, of
any attempt to put this criminal, but lalt refource, in
execution. The evening after the departure of M.
Neckar was fpent by the court of Verfailles in feafting
and joy, as if a vidfory had been gained. The courtiers
of both fexes went round among the foldiery, driving
to fecure their fidelity by careffes, largefles, and every
fpecies of flattering attention. The miniftry not only
failed to fupport the Prince de Lambefq in the poll
B which he had been fent to occupy, but they fuffered
the whole of the 13th to pafs in indecifion, while the
capital was in a ftate of rebellion, while an army was
formally muftering within its walls, and the names of
the principal nobility were put up in lifis of profcrip-
tions. They received the news of the capture of the
j Ballile with confufion and difmay, which were increa-
fed, if poffible, by information given by Marlhal Brog¬
lie, that the troops refufed to aft againft Paris or the
national afiembly. In this perplexity they adopted the
miferable device of concealing from the king the Hate
of public affairs } and that unfortunate prince was thus
perhaps the only perfon out of millions around him who
remained ignorant of the convulfions in which his coun¬
try was involved.
At length, at midnight, the Duke de Liancourt
forced his way into the king’s' apartment, and told him
of the revolt of his capital, of his army, and of the fur-
render of the fortrefs of the Baftile. The Count d’Ar-
tois, who was prefent, ftill attempted to retain the mo¬
narch under his fatal delufion; but the Duke de Lian¬
court turning round, exclaimed, “ As for you, Sir,
your life can only be faved by inftant flight; I have
feen with horror your name in the bloody lift of the
proferibed.” Accordingly the count, with the mem¬
bers of his Ihort-lived adminiftration and their adhe¬
rents, fled to the frontiers. And thus an emigration
commenced, the foufee of that terrible conteft which
has covered Europe with bloodihed and mourning.
This miniftry had, no doubt, many difficulties to contend
againft •, but an accurate attention to their conduft ex¬
cites a fufpicion which, while it exculpates them from
many intended crimes that have been laid to their
charge, at the fame time does little honour to their ta¬
lents. It is this, that they had come into office without
having formed any clear plan of conduft ; that they
were men afting without decifion and at random, and
c mfequently became the fport of thofe events which
they wanted Ikill and vigour to direft or controul. By
their introduftion into office, and their mifeonduft while
in it, the royal authority fell proftrate before the popu¬
lar party in the national affembly. The nobles and
the clergy ftill remained, but confounded in one affem¬
bly with the more numerous order of the tiers etat; and
no longer rallying round a throne that was too feeble
to afford proteftion, they foon yielded to that fierce
and levelling fpirit of democracy that now rofe around
them.
FRA
But the perfon of the monarch was ftill beloved.— France.
Early next morning the king went to the affembly, but
with none of the ulna] folemnities. He “ regretted the I7^9*
commotions of the capital, difavowed any knowledge 2|nn r
of an intention againft the perfons of the deputies, and oes tonqlc
intimated that he had commanded the removal of the affcmbly.
troops.” A deep and expreffive iilence prevailed for a
few moments j this was fuccceded by vehement and uni-
verfal ffiouts of applaufe. The king rofe to depart,
and inftantly the whole affembly crowded around, and
attended him to his palace. The queen appeared at a
balcony with the dauphin in her arms; the mufic play¬
ed the pathetic air oi On peut-on etre mieux qii'uu fem
de fa famille. The enthuliafm of loyalty communicated
itfelf to the furrounding multitudes, and nothing was
heard but acclamations of joy.
On the following day, the king declared his refolu-
tion to vifit the city of Paris in perfon. Accordingly ciay vifits
that prince, who never wanted perfonal courage, how- the city of
ever deficient he might be in political ftedfaitnefs, fetPansm
out, attended by fome members of the affembly and by1Jerfon’
the militia of Verfailles. He was met by the celebra¬
ted M. de la Fayette, at the head of a body of the na¬
tional guard, of which he had now been chofen com¬
mander in chief. M. Bailly, in whofe perfon the an¬
cient office of mayor of Paris had been revived, recei¬
ved the king at the gates, and delivered to him the
keys. All this while no ffiout was heard from the crowd
of innumerable fpeftators but that of Vive la nation.
The king advanced to the Plotel de Ville, where the
new cockade tvas prefented to him, which he put on,
and prefented himfelf with it at the window. At the
fight of this badge of patriotifm an univerfal ftiout of
Vwe le Roi burft forth from every quarter ; and he re¬
turned to Verfailles amidft general triumph and ap¬
plaufe.
Much confufion ftill prevaile'd in the capital; butinwych
there was more appearance of regularity than could have much con-
been expefted at the conclufion of fuch importanttufion.fti11
events. Phis arofe from a cafual concurrence of eir- PrcvahwF
cumftances. To conduft with eafe the eleftions to the
ftates-general, Paris had been divided into 60 diftrifts,
each of which had a feparate place of meeting. The
people did not eleft the members to the ftates-general;
but they chofe delegates, who under the name of elec¬
tors, voted for the members. At the commencement
of the difturbances, the eleftors, at the requeft of their
fellow-citizens, affumed a temporary authority; of which,
however, they were foon weary, and as foon as poffible
procured the public eleftion of 120 perfons as munici¬
pal officers for the government of the city. The citi¬
zens having got the habit of affembling in their diftrifts,
grew fond of it: they affembled frequently, made rules
for their own government, and fent commiffioners to
communicate with other diftrifts. The tumultuous na¬
ture of thefe meetings, and the vehemence of debate
which prevailed in them, will beft be conceived from
the ludicrous contrivance of one of their prelidents,
who ftationed a drummer at the back of his chair, and
when the confufion and noife became altogether ungo¬
vernable, gave the fignal for beating the drum, which
fpeedily overpowered every other noife. Thefe meet¬
ings, however, gradually ripened into clubs, in which
much dexterity and intrigue were exerted.
The whole of the late miniftry efcaped excepting M,,
Eoulum -
[ 117 1
FRA
r ii
Trance.
1789.
244
Fate ot M.
Foulon,
and Ber¬
liner.
*45
Confequen-
ces of M.
Neckar’s
return.
246
The com¬
motions,
gtc. of the
capital
roach to the
provinces.
Foulon. His character, it may well be imagined, was
extremely unpopular •, for he is faid to have afferted,
that he would “ make the people of Paris eat hay.’’
He had retired to the country, but was feized by his
own vafials, and brought to Paris with a bundle of hay
tied on his back. In fpite of every effort made by M. M.
Baillv and Fayette to procure him a fair trial at leaft,
he was carried to the P/ace de Greve, and hanged at a
lamp-iron by the enraged multitude. His fon-in-law,
M. Berthier, attempting to defend himfelf againft a
fimilar fate, fell, covered with wounds. Their heads
were carried round on poles } and thus the populace
became habituated to the light of blood and murder :
they were even taught by popular fongs to glory in
fuch actions, and particularly by the well known fong
Ca-ira.
In confequence of an invitation from the king, M.
Neckar returned to France. He was received by the
affembly with great applaufe, and in Paris with infinite
folemnity and triumph. He here, however, committed
a political error that made fome noife. In deploring
the late exceffes and murders, and taking notice of
the arreff of M. Bezenval, an officer of the Swifs
guards, he requefted of the electors at the Hotel de
Ville, in a folemn harangue, that the paft ffiould be for¬
gotten 5 that proferiptions fliould ceafe, and a general,
amnefty be proclaimed. In a moment of enthufiafm
this was agreed to, and the electors decreed what un-
queftionably exceeded their powers. The dill rifts of
Paris were inftantly in commotion •, the eleftors alarm¬
ed, declared that they only meant that “ henceforth the
people would puniffi no man but according to law
and at the fame time, to prove that they themfelves
were free from ambition, they formally renounced all
their own powers. The affembly took up the queftion.
Tally Tolendal, Mounier, Clermont Tonnerre, Garat
junior, and others, declared that no perfon ought to be
arrefted without a formal accufation j while Mirabeau,
Robefpierre, Barnave, and Gleizen, alleged, on the
contrary, that the people were entitled to lay hold of any
man who had publicly appeared at the head of
their enemies. The debate ended, by admitting the
explanation of the eleftors, and by a^ declaration that it
was the duty of the affembly to fee juftice executed in
all cafes.
The commotions and entliufiafm of the capital were
fpeedily communicated to the provinces. In every
quarter the people feized upon all the arms that could
be found, and the military uniformly refufed to aft
againft them. Many afts of outrage were committed
in Brittany, at Straftmrg, in the Lyonnois, and elfe-
where, in which the nobility were the fufferers. The
mifehiefs that occurred were ufually magnified at a dif-
tance} but that very circumftance was an additional
evil. For example : It was ftated in the National Af¬
fembly that M. de Mefmay, lord of Quincey, invited a
number of patriots, among whom were the officers of
a neighbouring garrifon, to a fplendid entertainment at
his houfe, to celebrate the happy union of the three
orders: That in the midft of the feaft the mafter of the
houfe contrived to withdraw unnoticed, and to fet fire
to a train previoufly laid, which communicated with a
quantity of gunpowder in the cellars, in confequence
of which the whole company, by a hidden explofion,
were blown into the air. It was found on inquiry,
5
8 ] FRA
that there was not one word of truth in the whole ftory. ,
But before this inquiry could be made, all trance
had refounded with accounts of the pretended bloody 'A1
tragedy } and the whole nobility of the kingdom fufivr-
ed in a lefs or greater degree, from the prejudices ex¬
cited by this unhappy report, the origin of which has
never been well explained. It would be vain to ftate ail
the idle rumours to which at this time the blind crec.u-
lity of the multitude gave currency. At one time, the
ariftocrats were cutting down the green corn j ^at an¬
other time they were burying flour in common fervors,
or calling loaves into the Seine. One report w as no
fooner proved to be falfe than another arofe, and the
whole nation was agitated by fufpicion and alarm. J he
National Affembly were engaged in framing their cele¬
brated declaration of the rights of man, which was to
form the bafis of the new conftitution, when the aiarmmg
accounts, received from all quarters, ox the ftate of
anarchy into which the kingdom was faning, obliged
them fuddenly to turn their attention to objects of prac¬
tical neceffity. The privileged orders found themfelves
become the objefts of univerfal jealoufy and hatred j
and that fomething muft inftantly be done to iave their
families and property, which were menaced on every
fide with perfecution and pillage. Regarding tne po¬
pular torrent as now become irrefiftible, to fave fome¬
thing they refolved to facrifiee a part. 247
On the afternoon fitting of the 4th of Auguft, the Viscount <!«
Vifcount de Noailles, feconded.by the Duke d’Aguil-*°a^e
Ion, opened one of the moft important ^cenes 4 ne ^gU;;ioa
French Revolution, or in the hiftory of any country. propofe
Thefe noblemen ftated, that the true caufe of the com- that
motions which convulfcd the kingdom exilted in the mi-
fery of the people, who groaned under the double, op-
preffion of public contributions and of feudal fervices.
“ For three months (faid M. de Noailles) the people
have beheld us engaged in verbal difputes, while their
own attention and their wiffies are direfted only to
things. What is the confequence ? They are armed.to
reclaim their rights, and they fee no profpeft of obtain¬
ing them but by force.” He therefore propofed to do
juftice, as the ftxorteft way of reftoring tranquillity, and ^*4^
for that purpofe to decree, that henceforth every tax fliou](1 be
ihould be impofed in proportion to the wealth of the ;n propor-
contributors, and that no order of the ftate ffiould be tion to the
exempted from the payment of public burdens; that wealth 0^
feudal claims fliould be redeemed at a fair valuation j butors>
but that fuch claims as confifted of perfonal fervices on
the part of the vafl'al ftiould be aboliffied. without com-
penfation, as contrary to the impfefcriptible rights of
man. The extenfive poffeffions of the noblemen who
made thefe propofals added much luftre to the difinte-
refted facrifice which they afforded. Their fpeeches
were received with the moft enthufiaftic applaufes by
the Affembly and the galleries, and their propofals
wrere decreed by acclamation without a vote. No na¬
tion is fo much "led by the influence of fudden emotions
as the French. The patriotic contagion now fpread
faft through every bi-eaft, and a conteft of generofity
enfued. The hereditary jurifdiftions poffefled by the
nobles within their own territories were next facrificed.
All places and penfions granted by the court, were fup-
prefled, unlefs granted as the reward, of merit or of ac- ^?mC.
tual fervices. The game laws, which condemned the iaws? &.c.
hufbandman, under fevere penalties, to leave his proper- aboliil^-
ty
FRA [ 119 ] FRA
250
tfany an¬
ient privi-
eges are
oluntarily
.irrender-
R^S1
thes and
renues of
; clergy
ken a-
‘7-
j»252 ■
^ unv mi-
S1 y ap-
P ted.
ty a prey to infinite multitudes of animals referved for
paltime, had always been numbered among the fevere
grievances of the French peafantry. Thefe were there¬
fore renounced, along with the exclufive rights of rab¬
bit warrens, fifheries, and dovecotes. The fale of offi¬
ces was aboliffied, and the fees exadled from the poor,
together with the privilege of holding a plurality of
livings, wrere relinquiffied by the clergy. The deputies
of the Pais d'Etat, or privileged provinces, with the
deputies of Dauphine at their head, next came forward,
and offered a furrender of their ancient privileges, re-
quefting that the kingdom might no longer remain par¬
celled out among Dauphinois, Bretons, Proven^aux, &c.
but that they lliould all form one great mafs of French
citizens. I hey 'were followed by the reprefentatives of
Paris, Marfeilles, Lyons, Bourdeaux, Strafbourg, &c.
who requefted leave to renounce all their feparate pri¬
vileges as incorporations, for the fake of placing every
man and every village in the nation upon a footing of
equality. dims the affembly proceeded, till every
member had exhaufted his imagination upon the fubjcdt
of reform. To clofe the whole, the Due de Liancourt
propofed that a folemn Te Deurn ffiould be performed,
that a medal ffiould be ftruck in commemoration of the
events of that night j and that the title of Restorer
of Gallic Liberty ffiould be bellowed upon the
reigning monarch. A deputation w'as accordingly ap¬
pointed to wait upon the king, refpeclfully to inform
him of the decrees.
Several fucceeding days were neceffary to form into
laws the decrees of the qth Auguft, and committees were
appointed to make out reports for that purpofe. One of
thefe reports having included the tithes and revenues of
the clergy among the abufesthat were to be done away,
and having propofed in lieu of them to grant a certain
ftipend to the different minifters of religion to be pay¬
able by the nation, the clergy attempted to make a
ftand in defence of their property, and violent debates
enfued. In thefe they were ably fupported by the Abbe
Sieyes: but as the clergy had formerly deferted the
nobles, fo they were now in their turn abandoned to
their fate by the hereditary ariftocracy. The popular
party had long regarded the wealth of the church as
an eafy refource for fupplying the wants of the Hate 
Never was there a more complete proof of the influence
of opinion over the affairs of men. The Catholic
clergy of France, though pofieffed of more property
than they enjoyed at the time when princes took up
arms or laid them down at their command, now found
fo few defenders, that they were terrified into a volun¬
tary furrender of all that they and their predeeeffors
had poffeffed for ages. In their overthrow, they fcarcely
enjoyed even the barren honour of having fallen the
lall of thofe privileged orders that fo long had ruled
over this ancient kingdom. They and the nobles, and
the king, ftill poffeffed their former titles and nominal
dignity ; but all of them were now fubdued, and at the
mercy of the commons of France, who fpeedily dif-
miffed them at their pleafure.
As a ffiort feafon of tranquillity in the Court and the
National Affembly lucceeded thefe great popular facri-
fices, the king laid hold of it as a fit opportunity for
the appointment of a new miniffiry. They confifted of
the archbiffiop of Vienne, the archbiffiop of Bour¬
deaux, M. Neckar, the Count de. St Prieft, Count de
Montmorin, the Count de la Luzerne, and the Count France.
de la Tour du Pin Paulin. M. Neckar, as minifter of' '• 
finance, having Hated the diffireffed fituation of the re- I7°9'
venue, prefented the plan of a loan of thirty millions YtTho hm)
of livres. But M. Mirabeau, from a fpirit of rivalffiip, as o-reat dif-
it would feem, to M. Neckar, prevailed with the af-Rculty in
fembly to alter and to narrow the conditions of it in raffing nur-
fuch a degree that very few’ fubferibers were found, andlle-v'
the loan could not be filled up. This failure involved
the affembly in a confiderable degree of unpopularity j
in conlequence of which they allowed M. Neckar to
preferibe his own terms for the purpofe of obtaining a
loan of eighty millions. But the happy inftant of pub¬
lic confidence had been allowed to pafs awray, and this
loan w'as never more than half filled up. Recourfe was
next had to patriotic contributions 5 and great numbers
of gold rings, filver buckles, and pieces of plate, v/ere
prefented to the affembly. The royal family them*
felves font their plate to the mint, either to give counte¬
nance to thefe donations, or, as M. Neckar has finee
afferted, through abfolute neceffity, for the purpofe of
fupporting themfelves and their family. The confufion
into which the nation had been thrown bv the late
events had produced a fufpenfion of the payment of all
taxes. 1 here exifted, in fa<51, no efficient government ,
and if lociety efcaped entire diffolution, it was merely
in confequence of thofe habits of order which are pro¬
duced by a ftate of long continued civilization. The
bufinefs of government could not be tranfadled without
money, and many vain efforts were made by the mini •
ftry to procure it. At length M. Neckar was driven
to the defperate refource of propofing a compulfonj loan,
or that every individual poffeffed of property ffiould ad¬
vance to the ftate a ium equal to one-fourth of his an¬
nual income. This bold propofition was fupported by
Mirabeau, and adopted by the afferobly j but it does
not appear to have ever been cffeclually executed.. 2^4
In the mean time, the affembly w as bufily occupied Difcuffion
in framing the celebrated declaration of the Rights o/°» thc
Man, which -was afterwards prefixed to the new confti °~
tution. I his w’as followed by the difeuffion of a point
of much delicacy and difficulty ; viz. What ffiarc of le-
giilative authority the king ought to poffefs under the
new conftitution : wffiether an abfolute negative or veto, and the.
a fufpenfive veto, or no veto at all ? This queftion opera-king’s vets.
ted like a touchftone for trying the fentiments of eve¬
ry perfon ; and the affembly, confifting of 1200 men,
wras now feen to arrange itfelf into two violent contend¬
ing factions. The debates were vehement and tumul¬
tuous, and continued for many days. As the affembly
fat in public, and as multitudes of people of all deferip-
tions were admitted into the galleries, and even into
the body of the hall among the members, many inde¬
cent feenes took place in confequence of the interfe¬
rence of the fpeflators to applaud or cenfure the fenti¬
ments which were delivered. Thus the public at large
became fpeedily interefted in the difeuffion ; the city of
Paris took a fide in oppofition to the veto, and the
whole empire was thrown into agitation by new’ and
fpeculative queftions. I he diftinguifhed place which
France holds among the nations of Europe rendered'
thefe Angular events and difeuffions the objeft of uni-
verfal attention. The contagious love of novelty fpread
rapidly abroad, and gave rife to that well-founded jea-
loufy on the part of the monarchs of Europe, which.
FRA [
v/as fpecclily to burft forth in a bloody tempefh
I
-In
France.
256
l)ifcuffion
about the
■legiflative
body, whe¬
ther it
might to
conlift of
©ne or two
chambers.
257 ,
The royal
fan (ft ion
granted to
the decrees
of the 4th
Auguft,
SeC.
258
' State of
, parties in
Fans.
the prefent cafe, the people of Paris became moft eager¬
ly interefted. Rumours of plots were, fpread through
the country, and a new ftorm was obvioully gatneiing,
when the queftion was thus got quit of. M. Mounier
remarked, that the executive power could poffefs no
negative againft the decrees of the prefent affembly,
which had been nominated by the nation with lupreme
powers for the exprefs purpofe of framing a conititu-
tion, which was to remain binding over all orders of men
in the Rate ; and with regard to future legiflatures, the
cing declared by a meflage, that he wilhed to poflefs
no more than a fujpenjive veto. It is remarkable that
the popular Mirabeau concluded a fpeech in favour of
the abfolute veto of the crown with thefe "words,
“ That it would be better to live in Conftantinople
than in France, if laws could be made without the
royal fan£tlon.', This political adventurer is, however,
accufed of having taken care to circulate in Paris a ic-
port that he had oppofed the veto with all his influ¬
ence ; and to give credit to the ftory, he is faid to have
quitted the affembly juft before the divifion, that his
vote might not appear on record againft it.
The month of Auguft was fpent in the debates about
the veto ; and in the beginning of September a new
conftitutional queftion was prefented to the-affembly by
one of its numerous committees, his wras, Whether
the legiflative body ought to confift of one or of two
chambers ? Mounier, Tally Tollendal, Clermont
Tonnerre, and others, who were zealous lovers of
freedom upon what were then accounted moderate
principles, fupported eagerly the. idea of eftablifliing
two independent chambers in imitation of the Rritifli
conftitution ; but they were deferted both by the de¬
mocratic and ariftocratic parties. The firft of thefe re¬
garded an upper houfe or fenate as a refuge for the old
ariftocracy, or as the cradle of a new one 5 while the
higher nobles and clergy feared left fuch an arrangement
might prevent the future re-eftablilhment of the ancient
divifion into three orders. Of 1000 members who
voted, only 89 fupported the propofal for dividing the
legiflature into two chambers.
Soon after this, the king gave his fan&ion to the
important decrees of the 4th of Auguft, but not with¬
out feme hefltation, and exprefling doubts of the wif-
dom of fome of them in a letter to the affembly. At
the fame time the inviolability of the perfon of the mo¬
narch wras decreed, the indivifibility of the throne, and
its hereditary defeent from male to male in the reigning
family. Ruf we ftiall not here attempt to enter into a
detail of the various articles of the new conftitution as
conne&ed w ith the circumftances under which they be¬
came the fubjeft of debate. We {hall only ftate thofe
more remarkable circumftances which tend to afeertain
the peculiar changes which the fentiments of the nation
underwent in the progrefs of a revolution the moft re¬
markable that occurs in human hiftory.
In confequence of the debates upon the queftions of
the veto and the twro chambers, the minds of parties
had become much irritated. Paris, wore the fame
threatening afpedl that it had done m the months of
June and of July preceding •, and every thing feemed
tending towards an important crifis. The ariftocratic
party accufed their antagonifts of a defign to excite
new infurredtions j and the charge was retorted, by cir-
20 ] F Pc A
dilating a report that a plot for conveying the king to
Metz was already ripe for execution. . n
From the period of the defection of the. French IV'
guards, who were now in the pay of the capital, the (-onfCqUctl_
proteftion of the royal family had been entrufted to ces 0f their
the militia or national guard of Verfailles, together mutual jea-
wflth the regiment of the gardes du corps, which was ounes.
compofed entirely of gentlemen. Upon the cii dila¬
tion of the report of the intended flight of the king,
the French guards began to with to be reftored to
their ancient employment of attending his perfon, for
the purpofe of preventing any attempt of this nature.
This idea was eagerly cheriftied by the capital 5 and,
in fpite of every effort ufed by M. de la Janette, the
obvious appearance of approaching difturbances- couid
not be prevented. The popular party law the advan¬
tages which they would derive from placing the affem¬
bly and the king in the midft of that turbulent metro¬
polis which had given birth to the revolution, and
upon the attachment of which they could moft fecurely
depend. Every encouragement was therefore given
by the moft adive leaders of what was. now called the
Democratic party to the projeft of eftablifliing the court
at Paris. The miniftry were under no fmall degree of
alarm j and the count d’Eftaing, who commanded the
national guard of Verfailles, requefted the aid of an
additional regiment. The regiment of Flanders was
accordingly fent for : its arrival caufed no fmall de¬
gree of anxiety 5 and every effort was inftantly made
to gain over both officers and foldiers to the popular
OA the firft of Odober the garde du corps, probably
for the purpofe of ingratiating themfelves with the new¬
ly arrived regiment, and perhaps to attach them more
fteadily to the royal caufe, invited the officers of the
regiment of Flanders to a public entertainment. Seve¬
ral officers of the national guard, and others of the mi¬
litary, were invited. The entertainment was given in
the opera houfe adjoining to the palace feveral loyal
toafts were drank : but it is afferted, that when the fa¬
vourite popular toaft The Nation was given, it was
rejeded by the gardes du corps. In ordinary cafes,
fuch a trifling circumftance as this, or. even any other
of the tranfadions of a night of feftiyity, would juftly
be regarded as unworthy of notice in recording the
more remarkable events in the hiftory of a great na¬
tion ; but fuch was now the fingular . ftate of affairs,
that the moft trivial occurrences were inftrumental, by
their combination, in the produdion of important con-
fequences. The queen, having feen from a window. of
the palace the gaiety which prevailed among the mili¬
tary, prevailed with the king, who was juft returned
from hunting, to vifit them along with herfelf and the
dauphin. Their hidden appearance in the faloon kin¬
dled in an inftant the ancient enthufiafm of French
loyalty. The grenadiers of the regiment of Flanders
alono- with the Swifs chaffeurs, had been admitted to
the deffert; and they, as well as their officers, drank
the health of the King, Queen, and Dauphin, with their
fwords drawn. The royal family having bowed with po-
litenefs to the company, retired. Of all nations, the
French are moft liable to the influence of fudden im-
preflions: the mufic played the favourite air, 0 Ricard.
0 mon Roi! Punivcrs dabandonne, “ O Richard . O my
king ! the world abandons thee.” In the eagemefs of
b lovaltv.
?5o
•A multi-
le of
Iwomen of
the loweft
rank march
to Ver-
uilles,
act
ad fend
depu-
ition to
ie aflem-
y-
•F R A [i
loyalty, the national cockade, which had been adopted
by fome of the gardes da corps, was thrown afide, and
white cockades were fupplied as quickly as they could
be made by the ladies of the court.
When thefe events were next day reported at Paris,
accompanied by a multitude of exaggerations, they
gave rife to the moft violent alarm. The capital was
at that time fufi'ering all the horrors of famine 5 and in
fuch a lituation, the news of a feaft which others have
enjoyed, feldom gives much pleafure to hungry men.
To the former report of an intended flight on the part
of the royal family, it was now added, that a counter
revolution was fpeedily to be attempted by force of
arms; and that the prefent fcarcity was artificially cre¬
ated by the court for the purpofe of reducing the peo¬
ple to fubmiffion. \ heir ariftocratic antagoniils have
lince aflerted, that the famine was indeed artificial ; but
that it was created by a portion of the violent party in
the national afiembly, which was then denominated the
Cabal, whole objeft was to excite commotions as the
means of procuring an opportunity of fetting the duke
of Orleans at the head of the Hate, either as regent, or
in lome other form. To this laid party Mirabeau is
faid to have belonged.
For four days no notice rvas taken in the alfembly of
what had palled at the entertainment given by the
gardes du corps. On the 5th of O&ober M. Petion
mentioned it for the firil time, and a violent debate
enfued ; during which Mirabeau rofe and exclaimed,
Declare that the king’s perfon alone is facred, and I
myfelf will bring forward an impeachmentthereby
alluding to the conduft of the queen. While this de¬
bate wras proceeding at Verfailles, the city of Paris was
in commotion. A vail multitude of women of the
lowelt rank, with fome men in women’s clothes, had
affembled at the Hotel de Ville, and were calling aloud
for arms and bread. They refolved to proceed inftantly
to Verfailles to demand bread from the king and from
the national aflembly.. La Fayette oppofed them in
vain } for his own foldiers refufed to turn their bayonets
again ft the women. Upon this one Stanillaus Mail-
lard, \vho had diftinguilhed himfelf at the taking of the
Baftile, offered himfelf as a leader to the infurgents.
He had the addrefs to prevail with them to lay afide
fuch arms as they had procured ; and lie fet out for
Verfailles about noon with as much order among his fol¬
lowers as could well be expected from fuch an affem-
blage. Either becaufe the paflion for going to Ver-
fadles had fuddenly become too infectious to be refilled,
or becaufe the multitude already gone thither was now-
accounted dangerous,, the mayor" and municipality of
Pans thought fit to give orders to La Fayette inftantly
to fet out for that place at the head of the national
guard.
In the mean time, Maillard approached Verfailles
with, his tumultuous troop ; he arranged them in three
divifions, and perfuaded them to behave with tolerable
decency. The king was hunting in the woods of
Mendon when he was informed of the arrival of a moft
formidable band of women calling aloud for bread.
“ Alas ! (replied he) if I had it, I Ihould not wait to
be afked.” Maillard entered the affembly accompa¬
nied by a deputation of his followers to Hate the ob-
jeft of their journey.. The affembly, to pacify them,
lent a deputation of their own number along -with them to
Vol. IX. Part I.
262
21 ] ( F It A
lay their complaints before the king. His majefly France,
received the whole with great pclitenefs, and readily
agreed to go into any meafures for the fupply of the
capital that could be fuggefted. The report of this
behaviour had fuch an effeCt upon the multitude col¬
luded around the palace, that they began to difperfe ;
but they were fpeedily fiicceeded by another crowd not
lefs numerous. A hidden refolution of flight feeins now
to have been propofed by the court; for the king’s
carriages were brought to the gate of the palace which
communicates with the orangery: but the national
guard of Verfailles refufed to allow them to pafs, and
tiie iving himfelf refufed to remove, or to allow any
blood to be ftied in his caufe.
La Fayette with his army at length arrived about La Fayette
10 o’clock at night, and found the affembly in a Very with his
unpleafant fituation. I heir hall and galleries were <irni j
crowded by the Parifian fifh-women and others of the VeSdlles
mob, who, at every inftant, interrupted the debates, at night.
La Fayette w aited upon the king, and informed him
of the proceedings of the day, planted guards in every
quartet j and after a fcanty banquet had been procured
for the multitude, he prevailed with the afiembly to
clofe their fitting for the night. In this laft part of
his condudl M. la layette has been much cenfured,
and probably not without reafon 5 for it could fcarcely
be expected that fuch a night rvould be Ipent in peace
by the immenfe affemblage of turbulent eharaders that
were now brought together. All was quiet, however, DefpeSte
till about fix in the morning of the 6th, when a great attempt 0,
number of women and defperate perfons rulhed forward ^ queen,
to the palace, and attempted to force their way into it.
1 wo of the gardes du corps were killed ; the crowd
afeended the ftaircafe leading to the queen’s apartment,
but were bravely refilled by M. Miemandre a fen tine]'
who gave. the alarm, and defended his port till he fell
covered with wounds, of which, however, he afterwards
fortunately recovered. The ruffians, reeking with his
blood, rulhed into the chamber of the queen, and pier¬
ced with bayonets and poniards the bed whence this
perfecuted woman had but juft time to fly almoft naked,
and, through ways unknown to the murderers, had efca-
ped to leek refuge at the feet of the king, who was
already alarmed, and had gone to feek hea.
The tumult became more violent every moment, and Themyal
Hidden death feemed to threaten the royal family 5 but family fa-
La Fayette was by this time at the head of his troops ^ed blr
whom he befeeched earneftly to fave the gardes duFa3rettC‘
corps from maffacre. In this he was fuccefsful; fome
that had been taken prifoners were furrounded by the
grenadiers of the French guards, who prote&ed them,
and the retreat of the whole corps was eafily fecured!
The crowd was fpeedily driven from the different quar¬
ters, of the palace, which they were already beginning
to pillage ; and the royal family ventured to Ihow them'
felves at a balcony. A few voices now exclaimed
Le Roi a Paris, “ the King to Paris.” The fhout be¬
came general 5 and the king, after confulting with la
Fayette, declared that he had no objection to take up
his refidence at Paris, provided he was accompanied by
the queen and his children. When the mopofai was
reported to the affembly, the popular leaders expreffed
much fatisfa&ion. They ordered a deputation of 100
members to attend the king thither j they voted the
national affembly infeparable from the king. His majefty
Q, fet
France.
s9.
265
Are car¬
ried prifo-
ners to Pa¬
ris.
266
Triumph
of the po¬
pular par¬
ty-
267
The affcm-
bly holds
its firft fef-
fion at Pa-
FRA [12
fet out at two o’clock a prifoner in the cuftody. of the
mob. Two gentlemen were felefted from his body
guard, and, with all the parade of an execution, be¬
headed in the qourt of his palace. i heir heads were
ftuck upon fpears, and led the proceffion 5 whilft the
royal captives who followed in the train, and beheld
this fpcftacle, were conduced fo ilowly, that a Ihort
journey of twelve miles was protracted to fix hours.
The king, the queen, and their children, were lodged
in-the old palace of the Louvre, while Monfieur went
to refide at the Luxemburg. The city was illumina¬
ted, and the evening fpent in triumph by the Pari-
fians.
The removal of the king to Paris was regarded as a
triumph by the popular party. The higher order of
nobles confidered it as completely ruinous to their
hopes ; and even many men of talents, fuch as Mounier
and Lally Tollendal, whom we cannot avoid regarding
as friends to the popular caufe in its outfet, now re¬
garded every profpeft of attaining a happy conflitution-
al freedom as at an end, as the national reprefentatives
mutt be for ever expofed to the infults, and overawed by
the influence of a turbulent capital. Many members of
the affembly took refuge in foreign countries, and ufed
every effort to excite the other nations of Europe to
hoftility againlt France. As the duke of Orleans had
been regarded as a chief agent in promoting the late
difturbances, the marquis de la Fayette waited upon
him, and infilled upon his leaving the kingdom for a
time. The duke was overawed, and, on pretence of
public bufinefs, wrent to England, where he remained
for feveral months. #
On the 19th of Oftober, the National Affembly
held its firft feffion in Paris. The king was clofely
guarded in his own palace ; and no apparent oppofition
now flood in the way to prevent the popular party from
o-iving to their country fuch a conftitution as they might
judge expedient. Much, however, was yet to be done,
and many difficulties remained, refulting from the ha¬
bits of men educated under a very different order of
things. Two days after the affembly came to Paris,
a baker was publicly executed by the mob, upon a falfc
accufation of having concealed a quantity of bread.—
While the affembly was at a diftance, events of this
nature had been little attended to, and the leading party
avoided attempting to check'thefe ebullitions of popular
violence, from which they had derived fo much advan¬
tage } but that party was now all powerful, and fo fla¬
grant an offence committed againft the law was regard¬
ed as an infult upon the fovereignty of the National
Affembly. Two leaders of the mob were therefore
tried and publicly executed, and a fevere law was
paffed, of the nature of the Britifli riot a&, authorifing
the magiftrates to aft by military force againft any mul¬
titude of perfons that fliould refufe to difperfe. 1 hus
the peace of the capital was fecured for feveral months *,
but in the country at large no fmall degree of anxiety
and trouble Hill fubfifted. The fame fufpicious temper
which had prevailed at Paris agitated the provinces
with the dread of plots and monopolies of grain. Add
to this, that the nobleffe in the country were by no
means fatisfied with the liberality with which their re¬
prefentatives had on the 4th of Auguft voted away
their privileges and their property. This produced
violent jealoufies between the peafants and their lords,
]
FRA
France.
and gradually conveyed to every corner of the kingdom
the political ferment which had commenced at Paris. v '
The National Aflembly being now, however, in to- I^ 9*
lerable fecurity, proceeded in the arduous attempt of^e
forming a free conftitution ror the great empire oft]orn
France. The Abbe Sieyes prefented a plan forded into
dividing the. kingdom into Si departments, of abouts.' depart-
3 24 fquare leagues, and each department into leverai
diJiriBs, and each diftrift was fubdivided into cantons
of four fquare leagues in extent. Ihus the whole of
the ancient divifions of the kingdom into governments,
generalities, and bailiwicks, was in an inftant oblite¬
rated. An attempt was alfo made to Amplify in an
equal degree the relative fituation of individuals in civil
life, by a decree which put an end to all diftinftion of
orders and immunities, fo far as any privileges whatever
rvas concerned. At the fame time, a bold and molt im¬
portant meafure was adopted, which has fince proved
the organ of thofe terrible efforts which France has 269
been enabled to make againft the reft of Europe. This The church
was the confifcation of the whole of the lands belong- W*s con-
ing to the church, for the purpofe of Supplying the ! ta c '
exigencies of the ftate. In this tranfaftion, all regard
to juftice was thrown afide. The lands of the church
were as certainly the property of the then poffeffors of
them as any entailed eftate among us is the property of
him who occupies it. The ftate may have had a right
to appropriate to itfelf the church lands upon the death
of the incumbents 5 but it might with equal juftice, and
perhaps greater propriety, have feized the enormous re¬
venues of the duke of Orleans, as have confifcated a
Angle acre belonging to the moft ufelefs abbot without
his own confent. I his nefarious meafure was pro-
pofed by the biffiop of Autun, M. Talleyrand Peri-
gord, a- man of nt> religion, who had been promoted to
the bench in a moil irregular manner to ferve this very
purpofe. The mode in which this property was to tie
expended was by iffuing affignments (ojfignats) upon it j
which affignments were to be received by the fiate for
the payment of taxes, or tor the purchafe of church
lands when fet up to fale. A provifion was at the
fame time made for the national clergy, who w ere for
the future to be paid by the ftate. On the day follow-
ing that on which this important meafure was adopted,
a decree was paffed, fufpending the parliaments of the
kingdom from the exercife of their funftions. . ^ 270
Decrees, in which the interefts of fo vaft a multitude Fruitld*
of individuals were involved, eould not be carried into
effeft without much murmuring and oppofition. Thej^J^
parliaments, in particular, began to exert themfelves
Avith vigour, and, by protefts and other publications,
attempted to invalidate the decrees of the affembly as
illegal j but thefe privileged bodies, avIio had often
been accuftomed to contend Avith fome fuccefs againft
the defpotic adminiftration of their country, and on
that account had been for ages the objefts of public ap-
plaufe, now found themfelves utterly forfaken, and un¬
able to refill the mandate of a popular affembly. Af¬
ter a. few fruitlefs ftruggles, they ay ere all of them un¬
der the neceflity of fubmitting to their fate. _ 2yi
Nothing remarkable noAv occurred for fome time.—— jvtunicipa-
The affembly proceeded to organize the kingdom by lities efta-
the eftabliffiment of municipalities, and by reforming bhflicd,*'
the jurifprudence of the country. It is to be obferved,
however, that Avhen the parliament of Pans Avas abo-
lilhed.
F H A [ i
France, lifhed, the Chatelet, being the fecond court in that
  v 1 city, was retained for the purpofe of trying thofe per-
fons who had become moft obnoxious by their attach¬
ment to the royal caufe. This court had the fpirit to
acquit the Baron de Bezenval, Marfhal Broglio, and
the Prince de Lambefq. But having incuned much
popular odium on this account, they were guilty of the
unworthy meannefs of condemning to death the Mar¬
quis de Favres, for a pretended confpiracy (of which
no tolerable proof was ever brought) to maffacre La
Fayette, Bailly, and Neckar, and to convey the king
to Peronne.
.1790. During the whole of this winter the king had been
very hnctly watched by numerous guards placed round
hi-, palace, infomuch that the other nations of Europe
coniidered him as in a flate of captivity. To do away
this impieflion, if pollible, and to make their king ap¬
pear a voluntary agent in the meafures that had lately
been adopted, was now regarded as a matter of fome
importance. Every effort was therefore made to pre¬
vail with him to come to the affembly fuddenly, and,
as it were, of his own voluntary motion, there to de¬
clare his adherence to the meaiures which had lately
been adopted. For fome time he refitted this propo-
fal *, but at length, on the 4th of February, he did
fuddenly appear in the national affembly, where he
complained of the attempts that had been made to lhake
the neiv conftitution. He declared his ivilh “ that it
Ihould be univerfally known that the monarch and the
reprefentatives of the nation were united, and their
withes were the fame ; that he would defend the confti-
tutional liberty of the Bate; that, in conjun&ion with
the queen, he wmuld early form the fentiments of his
fon for that new order of things which the circumftan-
ces of the empire had introduced.” This declaration
difpirited the ariftocratic party in no fmall degree, and
increafed that unhappy tendency of looking for aid from
foreign countries which they had always been too apt to
indulge.
On the 13th of February, monaftie eftablilhments
were fuppreffed, and their lands confifcated j but the
prefent friars and nuns were allowed penfions for their
fubfiffence, and to continue the obfervance of their mo-
naftic vows, if they thought fit. We may obferve here,
that, in confequence of the evacuation of the monafte-
ries, it is probable that about this time the Breton com¬
mittee began to affume the appellation of the Jacobin
Club, from the hall belonging to the Jacobin friars at
Paris, in which their meetings were now held.
An event occurred at this time which tended in no
fmall degree to increafe the odium under which the old
ie2Red government already laboured. This was the publication
IT ok, or Book, or lift of penfions and donations grant-
i: of pen- by the crown. In confequence of the moft preffing
ns and inftances, it had been communicated by M. Neckar to
Sied’ 3 committee of the affembly, after many entreaties,
e ' and the moft folemn promifes of fecrecy. It afforded,
however, too ftriking an advantage to the popular party
not .to be made ufe of, and in a few days M. Neckar,
to his no fmall furprife, faw this regifter publicly fold
by every bookfeller in Paris. Fie ought not, indeed,
to have been furprifed *, and the giving up of this lift is
one of the many proofs which the tranfa&ions of that
period afford of his great unfitnefs for the office which
he held. With much indignation, however, he de-
23 ] FRA
manded why the committee had publilhed it without France.
the permiflion of the affembly or the king >. But he ' *—a
was told by the committee, that “ as to the affembly, I790*
they were fure of its approbation ; and as to the king, Efre^of its
they were not his reprefentatives.” To give an idea ofpUbliCa-
the effedt of this publication, it is only neeeffaty to re-tion.
mark, that, under the fhort adminiftration of M. Ca-
lonne, the two brothers of the king had received from
the public treafury, independent of their legitimate in¬
come, nearly two millions fterling, and that 6oo,oool.
had been granted to an individual, becaufe he was the
hufband of Madame de Polignae. M. Neckar’s oppo-
lition to this publication tended in no fmall degree to
injure his popularity, and the reft of the miniftry be-
gan to lofe the confidence of the public. Indeed, at Numerous
this time, fertile caules of alarm prevailed on all fides. fources of
X he clergy were attempting to revive in the provinces
the ancient animofities between the Roman Catholics
and the Proteft'ants, aferibing the late decrees of the
affembly to the latter. The German princes who pof-
feffed property in the north of France were complain¬
ing loudly of the violation of their rights by the aboli¬
tion of the feudal fyftem, although the national af-
fcmbly had voted to them a compenfation. The moft
melancholy intelligence was received from their colonies
in the Weft Indies. In regulating thefe, the affembly
had not recognized the right of the free negroes to en¬
joy the fame privileges with other citizens 5 at the
lame time, they did not go the length, of denying thele
privileges. X his uncertain conduct produced infinite
calamities. The whites contended with thbfe common¬
ly called people of colour. Fhefe again fometimes flood
in oppofition to the free negroes, or to the Haves ; and
hence it fometimes happened that no lefs than three ho-
ftile affemblies were held at the fame time in the fame
colony, which made war upon each other with the moft;
inveterate fury. Each party found protestors in the
national affembly of the parent ftate. Thofe who
favoured or oppofed the exiftence of diftindtions at
home, in general followed out the fame principle with
regard to the colonies.
. On the 14th of May, M. de Montmorency com mu-Debate* oft
nicated to. the national affembly the preparations for the royal
Avar in which England and Spain were engaged. This power to
brought forward the conftitutional queftion, “ Whodcclare
ought to poffefs the power of declaring peace and war ? ^CC an4 '
The Count Clermont Tonnerre, Meffrs de Serent, Vi-"
ricu, and Dupont, fupported the royal prerogative £
while on the other fide, the exclufive right of the legifia-
tive body to exercife this important prerogative was
fupported by Meffrs d’Aiguillon, Garat jun. Freteau,
Jellot, Charles Lambeth, Sillery, Petion, Robefpicrre’
&.c. M. Petion propofed a decree “ that the French
nation renounced for ever all idea of conqucft, and con¬
fined itfelf entirely to defenfive war j” which was paffed
with univerfal acclamation. The Count de Mirabeau
at length fuccefsfully propofed that peace and war fhould
be declared by the king and the legiflative body in con-
jun&ion ; and the decree that was paffed on the fubjeft
is a ftrange farrago of contradiftions and abfurdities.' It
enjoined the king to “ guard the ftate from externalJ
attacks. But how could this be done, without repel¬
ling any attack that might be made upon it? This,
however, he could not do, without previoufly inform¬
ing the national affembly 5 and if that body chanced
Q. 2 not
France.
179°.
&c.
278
Abolition
FRA [1
not to be fitting at the time, he was bound to let the
enemy advance without oppofition till be had convened
his orators, difperfed over 20,000 fquare leagues, and
277 liftened to their metaphyfical quibbles in Paris.
Farce a&ed Qn jgtfo June, a very fingular farce was afted
fembPtw ^ie affembly. A Pruffian refugee, who called him-
a^P ruffian fAf Anacharfis Clouts, and who was ft niggling hard to
refugee, bring himfelf into public notice, on an evening fitting
(which, it is to be obferved, was generally ill attended
by the perfons of the higheft rank), introduced to the
afiembly a number of perfons dreffed in the different
habits of all the different countries that could be thought
of. In a formal harangue^ he told the affembly that
lie was come, as the orator of the human race, at the
head of the reprefentatives of all nations, to congratu¬
late them upon the formation of their new conftitution.
He was anfwered by the prefident with abundance of
folemnity, and retired with his motley groupe. This
fantaftical piece of folly, which in any other country
than France would fcarcely, perhaps, have excited a
finile, was treated by the affembly in a ferious light.
Alexander Lameth propofed, that the figures of differ¬
ent nations exhibited in chains at the feet of Louis
XIV. fhould be deftroyed as an infult upon mankind.
  M. Lambel, a lawyer, at this moment propofed the
of heredita- abolition of all hereditary titles. He was fupported by
ry titles. j^a jrayette, St Fargeau, and the Vifcount de Noailles.
The decree was paffed, along with another fuppreffmg
all armorial bearings. It is our intention at prefent
rather to ftate fadls than to hazard any political opinion
concerning the wifdom or folly of the tranfaftions which
we record. It may here, however, be remarked, that
no part of the proceedings of the French national
affembly was received by perfons of rank upon the
continent of Europe with fo much indignation as this.
—The feudal fyftem had been overturned, and the
property of the church wrefted from it, with little
comparative notice 5 but when thofe nominal diftinftions
were attacked which antiquity had fanftioned, and per-
fonal vanity rendered dear, the furrounding nations were
inftantly alarmed, and beheld with terror the levelling
precedent. We may likewife add, that no part of
their proceedings vras more inimical to rational and prac¬
tical freedom. To preferve a perfedl equality of ranks
is knpoftible. In a commercial nation, induftry will
procure wealth, and wealth will every where procure
dependents. Now nothing more contributes to keep
within feme tolerable bounds the infolence of newly
acquired rvealth, than the rank attached to birth and no¬
bility, which time and prejudice have confpired to make
refpeftable. It is not a little remarkable, that of all the
king’s minifters, Neckar alone, a plebeian, a republi¬
can, born and bred in a democracy, advifed his majefty
to refufe his affent to this foolilh decree, as a violent
but ufelefs encroachment upon the prejudices of a
powerful order of the ftate.
In the mean time, the capital was entirely engroffed
by hurry and buftle. M. Bailly had propofed a plan
jatc the ta- £or cotTimemorating the anniverfary of the taking of
Baitile 1 0 the Baftile. It ay as adopted, becaufe it flattered the
vanity of the people, by prefenting them Avith a fplen-
did fpectacle in commemoration of their own exertions.
  The army had been much diforganifed ; and it Avas
refolved to attempt to unite all its branches, as Avell as
the whole departments of the ftate, in one common at-
6
279
Fropofal to
commcmo
rate the ta-
Francc.
1790.
280
24 ]; FRA
tachment to the nerv order of things, by colle&ing into
one place deputations, for the purpofe of fAvearing fide¬
lity to the neAV conftitution. In the middle of the
Champ de Mars, an altar Avas erefted, at Avhich the ci- Ceremony
vie oath, as it Avas called, Avas to be taken. Around 0f the con-
the altar an amphitheatre Avas thrown up capable of con-federation,
taining 400,000 fpe&ators : 2000 A\Torkmen Avere em¬
ployed in this operation 5 and the people of Paris fear¬
ing left the plan might not be completed, affifted in
the labour. All ranks of perfons, the nobles, clergy,
and even ladies, Avith the eagernefs for novelty fo pe¬
culiar to that people, united their efforts. CroAvds of
foreigners as Avell as natives hurried to the capital to be
prefent at this folemnity, Avhich Avas called the Confede¬
ration. The long-expcfted 14th of July at length ar¬
rived. At fix o’clock in the morning the proceflion
Avas arranged on the Boulevards, and confifted of the
electors of the city of Paris, the reprefentatives of the
commons, the adminiftrators of the municipality, a bat¬
talion of children, with a ftandard, inferibed “ The
hopes of the nationdeputies from the troops of
France wherermr quartered, and of every order, along
Avith deputies from all the departments ; to thefe Avere
added immenfe detachments of the military, and of the
national guards, along Avith an almoft infinite multitude
of drums, trumpets, and mufical inftruments. The pro¬
ceflion Avas extremely fplendid, as every diftri£t had its
peculiar decorations. The national affembly paffed
through a grand triumphal arch, and the king and
queen, attended by the foreign minifters, Ayere placed
in a fuperb box. After a folemn invocation to God,
the king approached the altar, and, amidft the deepeft
filence, took the follorving oath : “ I the king of the
French do fAvear to the nation, that I Avill employ the
whole poAver delegated to me by the conftitutional laAV
of the ftate, to maintain the conftitution, and enforce
the execution of the larv.” ffbe prefident of the na¬
tional affembly then Avent up to the altar, and took the
civic oath, I fvvear to be faithful to the nation, the
larv, and the king; and to maintain with all my poAvers
the conftitution decreed by the national affembly, and
accepted by the king.” Every member of the affembly
Handing up, faid, “ That I fAvear.” La layette then
advancing, took the oath for himfelf j the other depu¬
ties of the national guards pronouncing after him,
“ That I fAvear and thefe words Avere folemnly pro- ^
nounced by every individual of this immenfe affembly.
Te Deum Avas then fung. The performance Avas fublime
beyond the poAvers of defeription. Never perhaps be¬
fore Avas there fuch an orcheftra, or fuch an audience :
their numbers baffled the eye to reckon, and their (bouts
in full chorus rent the (kies. It is impoflible to enu¬
merate all the means which Avere employed to add fplen-
dor to this day. It ended with a general illumination,
and no accident difturbed the public tranquillity. ^
The affembly no ay proceeded in the formation of the The ibl-
conftitution Avith confiderable tranquillity; Avhich, how-^^at^.^
ever, was difturbed by an unhappy event at Nancy. anj
Moft of the officers of the army were unfriendly to*he COnfe-
the late revolution, and every means had been employedquencts.
by them to difguft the foldiers Avith it. At Nancy,
in particular, neceffaries had been denied them, and their
pay Avas kept back, under pretence that this was the
Avill of the national affembly. Driven to defpair, the
regiments in garrifon thrcAV off their allegiance, and de¬
manded.
282
Neckar
refigns, and
leaves the
kingdom
without
being re¬
gretted.
283
Attempts
0 re-orga-
dze the
ravy.
F K A [ 1:
mantled loudly the regimental accounts. They feized
at the fame time the military eheft, and fent a deputa¬
tion to date their cafe at Paris to the national affembly.
But the officers were before-hand, and prepolTeffed the
minifter of war againft them ; upon whofe reprefenta-
tion a decree was paffed, authorifing the commander in
chief of the province, M. Bouiile, to reduce the infur-
gents by force. This wras no fooner known, than the
national guard of Nancy affembled, and fent a deputa¬
tion to give a fair ftatement of faffs. But Bouille,
without waiting the refult of an explanation, haftened
to Nancy at the head of all the troops he could fudden-
ly colleci ; and having fallen upon the regiments of
Chateauvieux and Meftre de Camp, after putting an
immenfe multitude to the fword, he took 400 pri-
foners.
The king’s regiment was prevented from acting
againft Bouille by the intrepidity of a young officer of
the name of De/Ji//es, who, however, died of the wounds
which he received on the occafion. The news of thefe
events filled Paris with indignation. The aflembly af¬
terwards reverfed its own decrees againft the infurgents
at Nancy. Public honours wTere decreed to the me¬
mory of Deffilles 5 but Bouille could not be puniffied,
becaufe he had only affed in obedience to authority.
M. Neckar’s popularity had been gradually declin¬
ing, as he was unwilling to go all the lengths that the
ruling party wiffied. He gave in his refignation on
the 4th of September, and fpeedily thereafter left the
kingdom. He was regretted by no party. He was
regarded, on the one fide, as having conducted the king¬
dom to its ruin, by the conceffions which he originally
advifed the king to make in favour of the tiers etat;
while he was defpifed by the oppofite party as a luke¬
warm politician, of narrow views, and a feeble mind.
He departed, however, with the unblemiffied reputa¬
tion of ftrift integrity. M. Neckar does not feem to
have penetrated deeply into the charafters of men, or
to have had any conception of the effeffs of that ter¬
rible and reftlefs energy which is called forth in a na¬
tion which attempts to make important changes in its an¬
cient manners and government. Having no concep¬
tion of the important era which was about to open
upon that country of which he was the minifter, he
was far from being qualified to direct or controul it
amidft the convulfions which it was deftined to en¬
counter. Unable to brook the lofs of his popularity,
he peeviffily retired to Swifferland, where he publilhed
a work, which ffiows to the conviction of every unpre¬
judiced reader the integrity of the French king, and
the wicked projefts of the leading democrats, whom
he himfelf had armed with power.
The remaining part of this year was occupied in at¬
tempts to introduce fome degree of fubordination into
the navy of France, which had been much diforganized,
and in farther regulating the affairs of the clergy. It
was now declared, that fuch clergymen as ffiould not
take the following oath, which had been prefcribed
fome months before, ffiould be confidered as ejefted
from their benefices : “ To watch carefully over the
faithful in the parifh or diocefe which was entrufted to
his care •, to be faithful to the nation, the law, and the
king *, and to maintain to the utmoft of his power the
new conftitution of France, and particularly the decrees
elative to the civil conftitution of the clergy.” This
!5 ] FRA
decree rendered the fituation of confcientious men ex- France.
tremely perplexing j efpecially as the pope teftified in ’ —
marked terms his difapprobation of the oath. The
people were reduced to the dilemma of drooling be¬
tween their new political and their old religious preju¬
dices, and the refult was extremely unfavourable to the
intereft of religion.
The affembly commenced the new year with a decree, 284 *
announcing the termination of its feffion, which was to Hoftile ap-
take place as foon as it ffiould have finiffied the dilcuf- Pearaiice’
fion of a lift of conftitutional articles. In the mean C^nna'
time, on the fide of Germany, Spain, Italy, and Savoy, ^
hoftile appearances began to be exhibited, and bodies
of troops advanced around the French frontier. The
emperor Leopold was, however, too cautious to an¬
nounce his intentions 5 and the king foon communica¬
ted a letter from him, containing proteftations of ami¬
cable difpofitions, but adding, that “ the innovations
occafioned by the decrees of the 4th of Auguft ought
to be done away.” The king treated this merely as
an official meafure on the part of the emperor, that he
might not appear to renounce the claims of certain Ger¬
man princes connefted with Lorraine and Alface. But
the affembly expreffed fome alarm, and voted an aug¬
mentation of the national force. About this period
feveral new efforts were made by the dilaffecled clergy
in various parts of the kingdom to excite difturbances,
which it is unneceffary to mention in detail. On the 20th j)c .
of February the public attention was roufed by a cir- 0f the ”
cumftance that in any other ftate of affairs would have king’s
been accounted unimportant. The king announced to aun.ts ^rom
the affembly, that his aunts, the daughters of Louis XV. f aris*
had that morning left Paris j but as he did not appre¬
hend that the exifting laws laid them under any re-
ftraint in this refpeft, he had not oppofed their depar¬
ture. After fome debate, the affembly agreed that the
king had judged well 5 and thefe plyncefles were left to
purfue their journey to Rome, which they reached af¬
ter fome delays occafioned by the jealoufy of certain
municipalities through which they paffed. Thus the
kingdom was gradually deferted by every branch of the
royal family, excepting the king and his eldeft brother
Monfieur. The affembly, however, continued its la- 286'
hours with confiderable quietnefs. In the end of the Death of
month of March died the celebrated M. de Mirabeau, Mirabeau. .
at the age of 42 years ; a man whofe integrity has for
many good reafons been much fufpeclcd, but whofe po¬
litical addrefs and intrepidity, and whofe fplendid
powers of eloquence, have been feldom equalled. He re¬
ceived from his countrymen.at his death marks of re-
fpeift unparalleled in modern hiftory. During his ftiort
illnefs, his door was befieged by anxious citizens. A
mourning of eight days was decreed by the affembly,
and alfo a grand proceffion, which was attended by all
the public funftionaries. He was the. firft who was
interred in the new magnificent Pantheon, confecrated
to the reception of the remains of illuftrious men. But
his affi.es were afterwards removed, in confequence of
very clear proofs that he had not been incorruptible by
money.
During the whole of this fpring, much fear was en- An emi-
tertained that fome attempts at a counter revolution grant army -
were about to be made. The emigrant army affembled aflembled:
on the borders of Alface was reviewed by the prince of”11 .^he
Conde, Their unifqrua was black, faced with yellow, Aifacet
'with..
238
Jealoufy of
the people
and mili¬
tary left
the king
and his fa¬
mily flionld
emigrate.
289
Behaviour
of Bouille
on the
frontiers.
290
The king,
queen, and
royal fami¬
ly, leave
Baris.
291
Monfieur
-and ma-
dame ar¬
rive at
JBniflels.
FRA [126
'with a death’s head, furrounded by a laurel wreath, on
one cuff, and a fword on the other ; with the motto,
“ Conquer or die.” The king was alfo furrounded by
crowds of nonjuring priefts and other dilaffecled per-
fons. Thus, that popular jealoufy which in every period
of the revolution has ftrikingly marked the Irench
chara&er, was kept on the alarm. On the 18th of
April, therefore, when the royal family was preparing
to go to St Cloud to pafs fome days, a report was in-
ftantly fpread that the king was about to fly from the
country. The carriages were immediately furrounded
by people. La Fayette drew out the national guard,
but they refufed to aft. “ We know (exclaimed they)
that we are violating the laws, but the fafety of our
country is the firfl: law.” 1 he king inftantly went to
the affembly, and with much fpirit complained of the
infult. Fie was anfwered refpeftfully by the prefident,
and continued his journey. As the royal family had
enjoyed a confiderable degree of freedom for fome time
pail, which was demonftrated by the unfuccefsiul oppo-
fition made to this journey—the prefent opportunity
was embraced for intimating to foreign courts his ac¬
ceptance of the conftitution } and all obnoxious perfons
•were difmiffed from about his perfon. The breach of
difeipline on the part of the national guard on this
occalion was fo much refented by La Fayette, that he
refigned his command. Paris wras thrown into con-
ilernation } and it was not till after the moft univerfal
folicitation that he was prevailed upon to refume his
office.
About this time M. de Bouille, to whom the protec¬
tion of the frontiers was entrufted, was employing, as
it is now faid, every means in his power to render the
country defencelefs. The garrifons were left unprovid¬
ed ; difunion was fpread among the national troops ;
they v'ere removed from the frontiers, and their place
was occupied by foreigners, wherever it could be done.
The emigrants abroad, and their friends at home, were
lying in wait for an opportunity of revolt;—when fud-
denly, on the 21ft of June, it was announced from the
Thuilleries, that the king, the queen, the dauphin, with
monfieur and madame, had quitted the palace and the
capital, without leaving any information of their inten¬
tion or their route. The emotion excited by this
news among the multitude rvas a mixture of conffer-
nation and rage. The national affembly, hoAvever, act¬
ed with much coolnefs. They inftantly took upon
themfelves the government, and decreed their fittings
permanent. They fent meffengers, at the fame time,
in all directions, to attempt to lay hold of the fugitives.
Thefe had taken different routs. Monfieur and ma-
damc arrived fafely at Bruffels on the 23d. The king,
queen, and their children, when they came to a confi-
derab’e diftance from the capital, were furniftied by
Boullie Avith a guard of dragoons, under pretence of
protecting treafure for the pay of the troops. At the
diflance of 1 (f6 miles, and Avhen only a feAV leagues
from the frontiers, they Avere arrefted at St Menehould
by the poftmafter, M. Drouet, formerly a dragoon in
the regiment of Conde. At half paft feven o’clock in
the evening the carriages ftopt to change horfes at his
houfe *, he thought he recolleCted the qeeen, and ima¬
gined that the king’s face refembled the impreflions
ftamped upon aflignats. The efcort of dragoons in-
created the fufpieion. He fuffered them to depart at
France.
I79I*
293
] - F B. A
1 x o’clock without notice j but taking a companion
Avith him, he Avent by a fliorter road to Varennes.
With the afliftance of the poftmafter there he gave the
alarm, and overturned a carriage on the bridge, which The k9ing
detained the royal traA’ellers till the national guard of ar,d queen
the place had affembled, and the arreft Avas effefted anefteci at
Avithout bloodlhed. They Avere brought back to ^ arennes.
Paris by a deputation from the affembly.. At his
departure, the king had imprudently left behind him a
memorial, in Avhich he declared, that he never had
thought any facrifice too great lor the reftofation of
order ; but that the deftruCtion of the kingdom, and
the triumph of anarchy, being the only reward of all
his efforts, he thought it neceffary to depart from it.
He then takes a revieiv of the faults ol the new con¬
ftitution, the grievances he has fuft'ered } and protefts
again ft every thing that he had been compelled to do
during his captivity. 293
Different parties Avere very differently affe&ed by Confequen-
this ill-conducted and unfortunate flight of the king.
A fmall republic an party had already begun to appear,
and during the king’s abfence, attempts were made to
induce the public at large to confider the royal au¬
thority as no neceffary part of a free conftitution. But
the minds of men were by no means prepared for the
reception of this neev dodtrine. The idea, hoAvever,
having been thus publicly propofed, left fome impreflions,
which in time contributed to give rife to important
events. By far the greater number of leading men,
however, Avere at prefent convinced, that it avas impof-
fible to condudl a great empire like France, well and pro-
fperoufly, Avithout the afliftance of an hereditary chief.
They therefore determined to pafs oArer the affair Avith
as much filence as poflible, and to haften the period
when their new conftitution fhould be complete. But
there is reafon to believe, that this journey Avas at the
long-run highly inftrumental in producing very fatal ef-
fecls to the perfonal fafety of the monarch.
His flight feemed a ’fignal for emigration. Many
of the ariftocratic party lent in refignations of their
feats in the national affembly. Troops were levied on
the frontiers in the king’s name ; Avho took care, how¬
ever, to difavoAV any connexion Avith fuch a procedure.
Bouille emigrated, and after Awards fent to the affembly
a furious threatening letter : “ You ft > all an fever (fays
he) for the lives of the king and of the queen to all the
monarchs of the univerfe. Touch but a fingle hair of
their heads, and not one ftone (hall be left upon another
in Paris. I knoAV the roads. I will conduit the fo¬
reign armies. This letter is but the forerunner of the
manifefto of the fovereigns of Europe.”
A qonfiderable calm throughout France followed
thefe events, and it might be regarded as in a ftate of
tranquillity. It contained, indeed, parties entertaining
much animofitv againft each other, and many citizenshad
AvithdraAvn to foreign countries-, but the peace Avas not
broken, and moderate men hoped that much profperity
Avould folloAv from the late agitations. But this calm
Avas delufive ; and in the mid ft of it thofe projeils Avere
formed Avhich Avere aftenvards to prove fo fatal to the
peace of France and of Europe. Towards the clofe of Treaty of
this fummer, a convention took place at Pilnitz in Sax- Pilnitz.
ony betAveen the emperor Leopold and the king of
Pruflia. Its objeft was not known at the time, but it
gradually came into view, and is uoav by many under-
^ r flood
294
FRA [i
Erance. ftood to have been intended for the purpofe of conclud-
ing- a league for the invaiion of France, the new-model-
I79I- ling of its government, and the partition of fome of its
faireit provinces. The following paper has been re¬
peatedly publilhed as the copy of a treaty concluded
and figned at Pavia, and is generally underltood to have
been identical with, and therefore known by, the name
of the Treaty of Pilnitz. We are far from vouching for
its authenticity, it may have been fabricated by the
French affembly, to unite all parties in the nation againft
the foreign powers which threatened to invade them.
Eat in Hating the events of this revolution, it is per¬
haps dill more neceifary, for the purpofe of rendering
the actions of men compreheniible, to give an account
of what was at the time believed to have occurred, than
it now is to afcertain what was actually true.
Partition Treaty between the Courts in Concert, conclud¬
ed and figned at Pavia, in the Month of July 1791.
His majedy the emperor will take all that Louis XIV.
conquered in the Audrian Netherlands, will give them
to his ferene highnefs the elector Palatine 5 fo that
thefe new poffedions, added to the Palatinate, may here¬
after have the name of Aufrafa.
His majedy will preferve for ever the property and
poffedion of Bavaria, to make in future an indivifible
mafs with the domains and hereditary pofledions of the
houfe of Audria.
Her ferene highnefs the archduchefs Maria Chridina .
fhail be, conjointly with his ferene highnefs her ne¬
phew the archduke Charles, put into hereditary poffef-
don of the duchy of Lorraine.
Alface (hall be redored to the empire ; and the bi-
(hop of Stradjourg, as well as the chapter, diall recover
their ancient privileges, and the ecclefiadical fovereigns
of Germany (hall do the fame.
If the Swifs Cantons confent to accede to the coali¬
tion, it may be propofed to them tg annex to the Hel¬
vetic league the bidiopric of Porentrui, the defiles of
Franche Comte, and even thofe of Tyrol, with the
neighbouring bailiwicks, as well as the territory of Ver-
foy, which interfects the Pays de Vaud.
Should his majedy the king of Sardinia fubfcribe to
the coalition, La Breffe, Le Bugey,. and the Pays de
Gex, ufurped by France from Savoy, (hall be redored
to him.
In cafe his Sardinian majedy can make a grand di-
verfion, he diall be fufl'ered to take Dauphine, to belong
to him for ever as the neared defcendant of the ancient
dauphins.
Kis majedy the king of Spain (hall have Rouffillon
and Bearn, with the idand of Corfica ; and he (hall have
the French part of the ifland of St Domingo.
Her majedy the emprefs of all the Rudias diall take
upon herfelf the invafion of Poland, and at the fame
time retain Kaminiech, with that part of Podolia which
borders on Moldavia.
_ His majedy the emperor (hall oblige the Porte to
give up Chocfim, as well as the fmall forts of Servia,
and thofe on the river Lurna.
His majedy the king of Prudia, by means of the
above-mentioned invafion of the emprefs of all the Ruf-
fias into Poland, (hall make an acquifition of Thorn
and Dantzic, and there unite the Palatinate on the ead
to the confines of Silefia.
27 ] FRA
His majedy the king of Prudia diall befides acquire France.
Luface 5 and his ferene highnefs the elector of Saxony ' v——
(hall in exchange receive the red of Poland and oc- I79I.
cupy the throne as hereditary fovereign.
His majedy the prefi^it king of Poland diall abdicate
the throne on receiving a fuitable annuity.
His royal highnefs the elector of Saxony diall give,
his daughter in marriage to his ferene highnefs the
younged fon of his royal highnefs the grand duke of all
the Rudias, who will be the father of the race of the
hereditary kings of Poland and Lithuania. (Signed)
Leopold. Prince Nassau. Count Florida Blan¬
ca. Bischoffswerder. 29S
In the mean time, the national aflembly was haden- The new
ing fad to the completion of the new conditution. It conftimtion
was finidied on the 3d of September, and prefented to“n^“d^
the king. It begins with the following declaration of fembly.'1 ~
the rights of a man and a citizen : and thereafter follow
the different branches j the chief of which are here
trandated.
I. All men are born, and remain, free and equal in
rights : focial didinftions cannot be founded but on
common utility.
II. The end of all political affociations is the prefer-
vation of the natural and imprefcriptible rights of man :
thefe rights arc liberty, property, fecurity, and refidance
againd oppredion.
III. The principle of fovereignty refides effentially
in the nation : no body of men, no individual, can exer-
cife an authority that does not emanate exprefsly from
that fource..
IV. Liberty confids in the power of doing every¬
thing except that which is hurtful to another : hence
the exercife of the natural rights of every man has no
other bounds than thofe that are neceffary to enfure to
the other members of fociety the enjoyment of the
fame rights : thofe bounds can be determined by the
law only.
V. The law has a right to forbid thofe aftrons alone
that are hurtful to fociety. Whatever is not forbidden
by the law, cannot be hindered ; and no perfon can be
condrained to do that which the law ordaineth not.
VI. The law is the expreffion of the general will :
all tlie-citizens have a right to concur perfonally, or by
their reprefentatives, to the formation of the law : h
ought to be the fame for all, whether it protect, or
whether it punifh. All citizens being equal in the eya
of the law, are equally admidible to dignities, places,
and public offices, according to their capacity, and
without any other didindlion but that of their virtue
and their talentsi
VII. No man can be accufed, arreded, or detained^
except in cafes determined by the law, and according
to the forms which the law hath preferibed. Thofe
who'folicit, difpatch, execute, or caufe to-be executed,
arbitrary orders, ought to be puniftied 3 but everv citi¬
zen that is fummoned or feized in virtue- of the law,
ought to obey indantly—he becomes culpable by re-
fi dance.
VIII. . The law ought to effablilh fueh puniffnnents
only as are dri&ly and evidently neeeffary: and no
perfon can be puniihed but in virtue of a law eda-
blilhed and promulgated prior to the offence, and le¬
gally applied.
IX. Every man, being prefumed innocent till fuefe
time
FRA [ 123 ] FRA
France, time as lie has been declared guilty, if it rtiall be deem-
v ' ed abfolutely neceffary to arreft a man, every kind of
I791, rigour employed, not neceffary to fecure his perfon,
ought to be feverely repreil’ed by the law.
X. No perfon ihall be molefted for his opinions, even
fuch as are religious, provided that the manifeftation of
thofe opinions does not difturb the public order efta-
blilhed by the law.
XL The free communication of thought, and of
opinion, is one of the moft precious rights of man.
Every citizen, therefore, may freely fpeak, write, and
publiih, his fentiments j fubject, however, to anfwer
for the abufe of that liberty, in cafes determined by the
law.
XII. The guarantee of the Rights of Man and Ci¬
tizens, involves a neceflity of public force : this force is
then inftituted for the advantage of all, and not for the
particular utility of thofe to whom it is confided.
XIII. For the maintenance of public force, and for
the expences of adminiftration, a common contribution
is indifpenfably neceffary : this contribution fhould be
equally divided amongft all the citizens, in proportion
to their abilities.
XIV. Every citizen has a right, by himfelf, or by
his reprefentatives, to decide concerning the neceflity
of the public contribution ; to confent to it freely 5 to
look after the employment of it \ to determine the
quantity, the diftribution, the collection, and duration.
XV. The fociety has a right to demand'from every
public agent an account of his adminiftration.
XVI. Every fociety, in which the guarantee of
rights is not affured, nor the feparation of powers deter¬
mined, has no conflitution.
XVII. Property being a right inviolable and facred,
no perfon can be deprived of it, except when the pub¬
lic neceflity, legally afeertained, Ihall evidently require
it, and on condition of a juft and previous indemni¬
fication.
The conftitution guarantees, as natural and civil
rights,
1. That all citizens are admiflible to places and em¬
ployments without any diftinction, but that of ability
and virtue.
2. That all contributions fhall be divided equally
among all the citizens, in proportion to their means.
3. That the fame crimes (hall be fubjett to the fame
puniflnnents, without any diftinction of perfons.
The conftitution in like manner guarantees, as natu¬
ral and civil rights,
Liberty to all men of going, flaying, or departing,
without being arrefted, or detained, but according to
the forms preferibed by the conftitution.
Liberty to all men of fpeaking, writing, printing,
and “ publiftiing their thoughts, without having their
writings fubjected to any examination or infpeftion be¬
fore publication and of exercifing the religious wor-
fhip to w'hich they are attached.
Liberty to all citizens of affembling peaceably, and
without arms, complying with the laws of police.
Liberty of addrefling to all conftitutional authorities
petitions individually figned.
The conftitution guarantees the inviolability of pro¬
perty, or a juft and previous indemnity for that of
which public neceflity, legally proved, ftiall require the
facxifice.
A public inftruftion ihall be created and organized, France,
common to all citizens, gratuitous with regard to thofe
parts of tuition indifpenfable for all men, and of which I791,
the eftablilhment ihall be gradually diftributed in a pro¬
portion combined w ith the divifion of the kingdom.
“ The kingdom is one and indivifible j” its territory,
for adminiftration, is diftributed into 83 departments,
each department into diftri&s, each diftricl into cantons.
Thofe are French citizens,
Who are born in France, of a French father ;
Who having been born in France of a foreign fa¬
ther, have fixed their refidence in the kingdom.
Who having been born in a foreign country, of a
French father, have returned to fettle in France, and
have taken the civic oath :
In fine, who having been born in a foreign country,
being defeended in whatever degree from a Frenchman
or Frenchwoman, who have left their country from re¬
ligious motives, come to refide in I ranee, and take the
civic oath;
The right of French citizenfliip is loft,
I ft, By naturalization, in a foreign country ;
2dly, By being condemned to penalties which involve
the civic degradation, provided the perfon condemned
be not reinftated ;
gdly, By a fentence of contumacy, provided the fen-
tence be not annulled ;
qthly, By initiation into any foreign order or body
which fuppofes either proofs of nobility “ or diftinftions
of birth, or requires religions vows.”
“ The law confiders marriage only as a civil con-
traft.”
The fovereignty is one, indivifible, “ inalienable, and
imprefcriptible,” and it belongs to the nation : no fec-
tion of the people, or individual, can arrogate the ex-
ercife of it.
The nation, from which alone flow all powers, can¬
not exercife them but by delegation.
The French conftitution is reprefentative : the re¬
prefentatives are the legiflative body and the king.
The National Affembly, forming the legiflative body,
is permanent, and confifts of one chamber only.
It Ihall be formed by new elections every two years.
The legiflative body cannot be difl'olved by the king.
The number of reprefentatives to the legillative body
ftiall be 745, on account of the 83 departments of
which the kingdom is compofed ; and independent of
thofe that may be granted to the colonies.
The reprefentatives Ihall be diftributed among the
departments, according to the three proportions of land,
of population, and of the contribution direef.
Of the 745 reprefentatives 247 are attached to the
land. Of thefe each department fhall nominate three,
except the department of Paris, which Ihall nominate
only one.
Twd hundred and forty-nine reprefentatives are at¬
tached to the population. The total mafs of the aftive
population of the kingdom is divided into 249 parts,
and each department nominates as many of the depu¬
ties as it contains parts of the population.
Two hundred and forty-nine reprefentatives are at¬
tached to the contribution direct. The fum total of
the direft contribution of the kingdom is likewufe di¬
vided into 249 parts } and each department nominates
as .many deputies as it pays parts of the contribution.
FRA [i
In order to fi rm a legidative national affembly, the
active citizens (hall convene, in primary aflemblies, eve¬
ry two years in the cities and cantons.
“ The primary alTemblies (hall meet of full right on
the firit Sunday of March, if not convoked fooner by
the public officers appointed to do fo by,the law.”
To be an a£Hve citizen, it is neceffary,
To be a Frenchman, or to have become a French¬
man ;
To have attained 25 years complete ;
To have refided in the city or the canton from the
time determined by the law ;
To pay in any part of the kingdom a diredl contri¬
bution, at lead equal to the value of three days labour,
and to produce the acquittance ;
Not to be in a menial capacity, namely, that of a fer-
vant receiving wages;
To be inferibed in the municipality of the place of
his refidence in the lift of the national guards ;
To have taken the civic oath.
The primary aflemblies (hall name electors in the pro¬
portion of the number of active citizens redding in the
city or canton.
There (hall be named one elector to the affembly, or
not, according as there (hall happen to be prefent ioo
active citizens.
There (hall be named two, when there (hall be pre¬
fent from 151 to 250, and fo on in this proportion.
The electors named in each department (hall con¬
vene, in order to choofe the number of reprefentatives,
w-hofe nomination (hall beiong to their department, and
a number of fubllitutes equal to the third of the repre-
fentatives.
“ The aflemblies (hall be held of full right on the
laft Sunday of March, if they have not been before
convoked by the public officers appointed to do fo by
law.”
All aftive citizens, whatever be their (late, profef-
fion,or contribution, may be chofen reprefentatives of the
nation.
Excepting, neverthelefs, the miniflers and other agents
of the executive power, &c.
The members of the legiflative body may be re-ele£t-
ed to a fubfequent legiflature, but not till after an in¬
terval of one legiflature.
No adlive citizen can enter or vote in an aflembly if
he is armed.
The reprefentatives (hall meet on the firft Monday
of May, in the place of the fittings of the lad legilla-
ture.
The royalty is indiviflble, and delegated hereditarily
to the race on the throne from male to male, by order
of primogeniture, to the perpetual exclufion of women
and their defeendants.
Nothing is prejudged on the effeft of renunciations in
the race on the throne.
The perfon of the king is inviolable and facred 5 his
only title is king of the French.
If the king put himfelf at the head of an army, and
direct the forces of it againft the nation, or if he do not
oppofe, by a formal aft, any fuch enterprife undertaken
in his name, he (hall be held to have abdicated.
If the king having gone out of the kingdom, do
not return to it, after an invitation by the legiflative
body, within the fpace which (hall be fixed by the pro-
Vol. IX. Part I.
29 ] FRA
clamation, “ and which cannot be lefs than two months,”
he lhall be held to have abdicated the royalty.
After abdication, exprefs or legal, the king fhall be in
the clafs of citizens, and may be accufed and tried like
them, for afts pofterior to his abdication.
The nation makes provifion for the fplendor of the
throne by a civil lift, of which the legiflative body fhall
fix the fum at the commencement of each reign, for the
whole duration of that reign.
The king is a minor till the age of 18 complete ;
and during his minority there (hall be a regent of the
kingdom.
The regency belongs to the relation of the king,
next in degree according to the order of lucceffion to the
throne, who has attained the age of 25; provided he be
a Frenchman refident in the kingdom, and not pre-
fumptive heir to any other crown, and have previoufly
taken the civic oath.
The prefumptive heir fhall bear the name of Prince
Royal.
“ The members of the king’s family called to the
eventual fucceffion of the throne, fhall add the deno¬
mination of French Prince to the name which (hall be
given them in the civil aft proving their birth; and
this name can neither be patronymic nor formed of any
of the qualifications abolilhed by the prefent conftitu-
tion.
“ The denomination of prince cannot be given t*
any individual, and fhall not carry with it any privilege
or exception to the common right of all French citi¬
zens.”
To the king alone belong the choice and difmiffiort
of minifters.
“ The members of the prefent national aflembly, and
of the fubfequent legiflatures, the members of the tri¬
bunal of appeal, and thofe who lhall be of the high
jury, cannot be advanced to the miniftry, cannot receive
any place, gift, penfion, allowance, or commiffion of
the executive power or its agents during the continu¬
ance of their funftions, or during two years after ceafing
to exercife them : the fame fhall be obferved re-
fpefting thofe who ffiail only be inferibed on the lift
of high jurors as long as their infeription fhall con¬
tinue.”
No order of the king can be executed if it be not
figned by him, and counterftgned by the minifter or
comptroller of the department.
In no cafe can the written or verbal order of a king
(belter a minifter from refponfibility.
'['he conftitution delegates exclufively to the legifla¬
tive body the powers and funftions following :
To propofe and decree laws—The king can only in¬
vite the legiflative btidy to take an objeft into confix
deration ;
To fix the public expences ;
To eftabliffi the public contributions, to determine
the nature of them, the amount of each fort, the dura¬
tion, and mode of colleftion, &c.
War cannot be refolved on but by a decree of the
national aflembly, pafled on the formal and neceflary
propofition of the king, and fanftioned by him.
During the whole courfe of war, the legiflative body
may require the king to negotiate peace ; and the king
is bound to yield to this requifition.
It belongs to the legiflative body to ratify treaties of
. K peace;,
France-
1791.
.FRA [130
peace, alliance, and commerce j and no treaty fhall have
’ effect but by this ratification.
The deliberations of the legiflative body fiiall be pub¬
lic, and the minutes of the fittings fliall be printed.
The legiflative body may, however, on any occafion,
form itfelf into a general committee.
The plan of a decree fhall be read thrice, at three
intervals, the fhorteft of which cannot be lefs than eight
days.
The decrees of the legiflative body are prefented to
the king, who may refufe them his confent.
In cafe of a refufal of the royal confent, that refufal
is only fufpenfive.—When the two following legiflatures
fhall fuceeflively prefent the fame decree in the fame
terms on which it was originally conceived, the king
fliall be deemed to have given his fanftion.
The king is bound to exprefs his confent or refufal
to each decree within two months after its prefenta-
tion.
No decree to which the king has refufed his confent
can be again prefented to him by the fame legiflature.
The fupreme executive power refides exclufively in
the hands of the king.
The king is the fupreme head of the land and fea
forces.
The king names ambaffadors, and the other agents of
political negoeiations.
He bellows the command of armies and fleets, and
the ranks of marfhal of France and admiral:
He names two-thirds of the rear-admirals, one-half of
the lieutenant-generals, camp-marflials, captains of ftiips,
and colonels of the national gendarmerie :
He names a third of the colonels and lieutenant-co¬
lonels, and a fixth of the lieutenants of fhips :
Fie appoints in the civil adminiflration of the marine,
the directors, the comptrollers, the treaiurers of the ar-
fenals, the mailers of the works, the under mailers of
civil buildings, half of the mailers of adminillration, and
the under mailers of conllruftion.
He appoints the commilfaries of the tribunals:
He appoints the fuperintendants in chief of the ma¬
nagement of contributions indireft, “ and the admini-
flration of national domains:”
He fuperintends the coinage of money, and appoints
officers entruiled with this fuperintendance in the gene¬
ral commiffion and the mints.
The effigy of the king is Uruck on all the coinage of
the kingdom.
There is in each department a fuperior adminillration,
and in each diltri£l a fubordinate adminillration.
The adminiftrators are fpecially charged with dillri-
buting the contributions direct, and with fuperintending
the money arifing from the contributions, and the pub¬
lic revenues in their territory.
The king has the right of annulling fuch a£ls of the
adminitlrators of department as are contrary to the law
©r the orders tranfmitted to them.
He may, in cafe of obftinate difobedience, or of their
endangering, by their a£ls, the fafety or peace of the
public, fufpend them from their fun£tions.
The king alone can interfere in foreign political con-
neftions.
Every declaration of war fliall be made in thcfe
terms : By the king of the French in the name of the na¬
tion.
] FRA
The judicial power can in no cafe be exercifed either France
by the legillative body or the king.
Jullice ffiall be gratuitoufly rendered by judges chofen 179I
from time to time by the people, and inllitutcd by letters
patent of the king, who cannot refufe them.
“ The public accufer lhall be nominated by the
people.”
“ The right of citizens to determine difputes defini¬
tively by arbitration, cannot receive any infringement
from the a£lsof the legillative power.”
In criminal matters, no citizens can be judged except
on an accufation received by jurors, or decreed by the
legillative body in the cafe in which it belongs to it to
profecute the accufation.
After the accufation lhall be admitted, the facl fliall
be examined, and declared by the jurors.
The perfon accufed lhall have the privilege of chal¬
lenging 20, “ without affignir.g any reafon.”
The jurors who declare the fact lhall not be fewer
than 12.
The application of the law fliall be made by the
judges.
The procefs lhall be public; “ and the perfon accufed
cannot be denied the aid of counfel.”
No man acquitted by a legal jury can be apprehended
or accufed on account of the fame fact.
For the whole kingdom there lhall be one tribunal of
appeal, eltablilhed near the legiflative body.
A high national court, compofed of members of tire
tribunal of appeal and high jurors, lhall take cognizance
of the crimes of minifters, and the principal agents of
the executive pov;er •, and of crimes which attack the
general fafety of the Hate, when the legillative body
fliall pafs a decree of accufation.
It lhall not alfemble but on the proclamation of the
legillative body *, “ and at the diilance of 30,000 toifes
at leall from the place of meeting of the legillative
body.”
The national guards do not form a military body, or
an inllitution in the Hate ; they are the citizens them-
felves called to affill the public force.
Officers are chofen for a time, and cannot
be chofen till after a certain interval of fervice
vates.
None lhall command the national guard of more than
one diftriifit.
All the parts of the public force employed for the
fafety of the Hate from foreign enemies are under the
command of the king.
Public contributions ffiall be debated and fixed every
year by the legiflative body, and cannot continue in
force longer than the lall day of the following feffion, if
they are not exprefsly renewed.
“ Detailed accounts of the expence of the minille-
rial departments, figned and certified by the minilters
or comptrollers-general, ffiall be printed and publiffied
at the commencement of the feffions of each legiila-
ture.
“ The fame ffiall be done with the llatements of the
receipt of the different taxes, and all the public reve¬
nues.”
The French nation renounces the undertaking of any
■war with a view of making conquelts, and will never
employ its forces againll the liberty of any people.
The conftituting national aflfembly declares, “ That
he-
as pri-
F
T>
i-i
[
i ;r
]
FRA
Ffance. the nation has the imprefcriptible right of changing
JfS conftitution; and neverthelsfs coniidering that it
I79I* is more conformable "to the national intereft to employ
only by means provided in the conftitution itfelf, the
right of reforming thofe articles of it, of which expe¬
rience fhall have Ihown the inconveniences, decrees,
that the proceeding by an aiTembly of revifion {hall be
regulated in the form following :
“ When three fucceflive legiftatures fliall have ex-
preffed an uniform with for the change of any conftitu-
tional article, the revilion demanded {hall take place.
“ The next legiflature, and the following, cannot
propofe the reform of any conftitutional article.
“ The fourth legiflature, augmented with 249 mem¬
bers, chofen in each department, by doubling the ordi¬
nary number which it furnifhes in proportion to its
population, ftiall form the aflembly of revifion.”
The French colonies and poffeffions in Afia, Africa,
and America, “ though they form part of the French
empire,” are not included in the prefent conftitution.
With refpedl to the laws made by the national af-
fembly which are not included in the a cl of conftitu¬
tion, and thofe anterior laws which it has not altered,
they {hall be obferved, fo long as they fliall not be re-
voked or modified by the legiflative power,
ind ac- On the 13th of September the king announced, by
:epted by a ]etter to the prefident of the aflembly, his accept-
king. ance 0f the conftitution. This event was ordered to
be notified to all the foreign courts, and the aflembly
decreed a general amnefty with refpefl to the events of
the revolution. On the following day the king re¬
paired in perfon to the national aflembly ; and being
conduced to a chair of ftate prepared for him at the
fide of the prefident, he figned the conftitutional aft,
and took an oath of fidelity to it. He then withdrew,
and was attended back to the Thuilleries by the Avhole
aflembly, with the prefident at their head. On the
30th of September, this national afiembly, which has
fince been known by the name x>f the Conjlituent AJfem-
bhj, diflolvcd itfelf, and gave place to the fucceeding
Legjlative National Ajfembly, which had been elefted
according to the rules preferibed by the new conftitu¬
tion.
On the charafter and the labours of the ConJUtuent
if the^0UrS AJfembhj, we fliall only remark, that it contained many
Htucnt'af- men taIents> anck in all probability, a confiderable
Linbly. number of men of integrity. Towards the clofe of its
feflion, it aflumed a very ftriking charafter of modera¬
tion, and appears to have been completely monarchical,
although its jealoufy of the ancient ariftocracy pre¬
vented it from fufficiently guarding the throne againft
popular violence : for a very ftriking defeft in the new
conftitution foon appeared. The king poflfefltd a veto,
or negative, upon the refolutions of the legiflative
body : but this negative he was bound to exercife in
perfon, without refponfibility, and without the inter¬
vention of his minifters. He had no fenate, or upper
chamber, to ftand between him and popular violence $
and there was fomething apparently abfurd in fetting
the vote of an individual in oppofition to the eolleftive
wdfdom and will of a whole nation. In confequence of
this, he was reduced to the hard alternative of yielding
to every vote of the national afiembly, or of expofing
himfelf perfonally to public odium.
The new affembly was opened by the king on the
Fsi'iee.
297
the af-
embly dif-
olved.
29S
'haradter
1791,
299
new
7th of Oftobcr, with much apparent union on all
lides. His fpeech, recommending unanimity and conft- '
dence between the legiflative and executive powers, was
received with unbounded applauie. 1 he charafter of
the men who compofed the new national affembly was affembly
unaufpicious to the Court. At the commencement of opened by
the revolution, the great body of the people at a dif- t^c ^lnS‘ (
tance from the capital were little interefted in thofe pro-
jefts of freedom which occupied the more enlightened meir)bcr5.
or more turbulent inhabitants of Paris. They had gra¬
dually, however, been roufed from their lethargy. The
Variety of powers conferred by the newr conftitution
upon the people at large, and the multiplicity of offices
of which it gave them the patronage, had kindled in
the minds of men a love of dominion, and a with to
interfere in public affairs. This attached them to the
new order of things. The love of power, which is the
leaft difguifed paffion in the human heart, and equally
ilrong in the breaft of the meanelt and of the highelt
of mankind, was thus, under the name of liberty, be¬
come a leading paffion throughout this wide empire.
They who flattered it moil, and were moft loud in
praife of the rights of the people, became fpeedily the
favourites of the public. The confequence of this rvas,
that the new national affembly was chiefly compofed of
country gentlemen, of principles highly democratic, or
of men of letters who had publiffied popular books,
or condufted periodical publications. The members of
the conftituent affembly had been excluded by their
own decree from holding feats in the new legiflature.—
The members of the latter, therefore, had little regard
for a conftitution which they themfelves had not framed,
and which was not protected by the venerable fanftion
of antiquity.
When this affembly firft met, it ftiorved a very Thcnffiea-*
trifling attention to formalities, and a peeviih jealoufy loufy of
of the minifters of the crown. In the mean time, the the mini¬
treaty of Pilnitz, already mentioned, began to beftcrs 01 ,;'ie
rumoured abroad, and France was thrown into a ftateC10vvn’
of anxious jealoufy for the fafety of its newly-acquired
liberties. Although the Pruffians and Germans (the
eleftor of Mentz alone excepted) all continued to
temporize, the northern powers, Sweden and Ruffia,
entered into ftrift engagements to reftore the old def-
potifm of France. On the 9th of November, a decree
was paffed, that the emigrants who, after the firft of
January next, fhould be found affembled, as at prefent,
in a hoftile manner, beyond the frontiers, ftiould be
confidered as guilty of a confpiracy, and fuffer death j
that the French princes, and public funftionaries, who.
fhould not return before that period, ffiould be punifh-'
able in the fame manner, and their property forfeited
during their own lives. On the 18th, a feries of fe-
vere decrees was alfo paffed againft fueh of the ejefted
clergy as ftill refufed. to take the civic oath. To both
thefe decrees the king oppofed his veto, or negative.—
The moderate party, who were attached to the confti¬
tution, rejoiced at this, as a proof of the freedom of
their fovereign. But, on the other fide, it excited a
moft violent clamour, and became the means of exciting
new fufpicions of the wifhes of the court. At this pacific an-
time anfwers were received from the different foreign fwers are
courts to the notification fent them of the king’s ac- received
ceptance of the new conftitution. Thefe were general-*™1111(J*
ly conceived in a ftile of caution, and avoided giving
R 2 open,
I79I-
FRA [i
France^ open offence. The emperor even prohibited all affem-
 9——1 binges of emigrants within his Hates 5 and the king
intimated to the affembly that he had declared to the-
eleefor of Treves, that" unlefs the emigrants (hould
ceafe before the 15th of January to make hoftile prepa¬
rations within his territories, he would be confidered as
the enemy of France. All this, however, did not pre-
court is (till ferve the court from fufpicion } for although the dilter-
fufpedted. cn|- foreign courts had openly declared pacific inten¬
tions, yet the French emigrants boldly aflerted that all
Europe was aclually arming in their favour. Accord¬
ingly they ceafed not to folicit their equals in rank,
who Hill remained within the country, to leave it to
join with them in what they called the royal caufe.—
The unhappy Louis, placed between a republican
302
But the
32 '] FRA
Maximilian, and the dukes of Vv irteraberg and: Deux-
Ponts, freely negociated. It is unneceffary to Ha;e in
detail the fubterfuges employed, in the mean time, by
the crafty Leopold, for amufing the French with the
appearances of peace. M. Deleflart, miniffer for io-
reign affairs, fell a facrifice to them, and probably to
the undecided character of Louis. Fie was accufcd by
France.
party that was gradually gathering flrength, and an
303
he mi-
nittry
changed.
3°4 .
The Feuil-
ians efta-
blifhed to
©ppofe the
Jacobin
club.
SOS
State of
France in
the end of
1791 and
beginning
of 1792.
ariftocratical party that was rouling Europe to arms
againff a nation of which he was the conflitutional
chief, and a combination of princes juftly fufpedled of
wilhing to feize upon a part of his dominions, flood in
a fituation which would have perplexed the molt Ikilful
flatefman; and it is no proof of incapacity that he fell
a facrifice to circumflanccs which might have over-
wfhelmed any known meafure of human ingenuity. Ad-
dreffes were crowding into the affembly, difapproving
the conduct of the court. M. Montmorin refigned ;
M. Deleffart fucceeded him } and M. Cahier de Ger-
ville became miniffer of the interior. M. du Portail
refigned alfo, and M. Narbonne fucceeded him as mi¬
niffer of war. In the month of November, M. Bailly’s
mayoralty terminated } and the once popular La Fayette
appeared as a candidate to fueceed him. But he was
fuccefsfully oppofed by M. Petion, a violent Jacobin,
and a declared republican, who was elected mayor of
Paris by a great majority.
At this period the moderate men, who were friends
of the conftitution, attempted to counteraft the influ¬
ence of the Jacobin club by the effablifhment of a fi-
milar one. It derived its name from the vacant con¬
vent of the Feuillans, in which it affembled. The moil
aclive members of the Conflituent Affembly belonged
to it, fuch as M. M. D’Andre, Barnave, the Lameths,
Du Port, Rabaud, Sieyes, Chapelier, Thouret, La-
bord, Taleyrand, Montefquieu, Beaumetz, &c. The
Jacobins contrived to excite a riot at the place of their
meeting, which was in the vicinity of the hall of the
National Affembly. This afforded a pretext for ap¬
plying to the affembly for the removal of the new club.
The affembly fliowed their difpofition, by complying
with this requeff.
At the end of this year, the kingdom of France
was by no means profperous. The public revenue had
fallen far ihort of the expenditure. The emigrant no¬
bility had carried out of the kingdom the greater part
of the current coin; and a variety of manufacturers,
who depended upon their oftentatious luxury, were re¬
duced to much diflrefs. The difpofitions of foreign
courts appeared very doubtful. The new year, how¬
ever, opened with delufive profpeCls of tranquillity.—
The German princes appeared fatisfied with the mode
of compenfation which the French had offered for the
lofs of their poffeffions in Alface and Lorraine. The
prince of Loweflein accepted of an indemnification.—
The princes of Hohenlohe and Salm-Salm declared
themielves ready to treat upon the fame terms. Prince
I791<
M. Briffot of not having given timely notice to the Na-
306
tional Affembly of the difpofitions of foreign powers,
and of not preffing proper meafures for leeuring the ho¬
nour and fafety of the nation. A decree of accuiation
paffed againff him in his abfence. He was apprehend¬
ed, tried by the high national court at Orleans, and
executed in confequence of its fentence.
The Hidden death of Leopold on the firft of March The death
gave rife to a tranfient hope that peace might Hill be^J^™'
preferved. A fufpicion of poifon fell upon the French, mur^er 0|
but it was removed by the detail of his difeafe that was the king oi
fpeedily publilhed. On the 16th of the fame month, Sweden,
the king of Sweden was wounded by a nobleman of
the name of Ankerftrom, and died on the 29th. . Jhis
enterprifing prince had overturned the conftitution of
his own country, and he had formed the projeft of con¬
ducing in perfon his troops to the frontiers of France,
and of commanding or accompanying the combined^ ar¬
mies of Europe in their attempt to avenge the cauie of
infulted royalty. It was in a great meafure to counter-
aft this fcheme that he was affafiinated. 307-
The Hidden fall, however, of thefe two enemies ra- The eir.pe-
ther accelerated than retarded the meditated hoftilities.
The young king of Hungary* who fucceeded t;o the y|
empire, made no fecret either of his own intensions or wariike in-
of the exiftence of a concert of Princes againft France, tentions.
M. Dumourier was now at the head of the war-office,
M. Roland was minifter of the interior, and M. Cla-
viere miniffer of finance. The Jacobins were all power¬
ful. The court gave way to the torrent. The pro¬
perty of the emigrants was confifcated, referving the
rights of creditors. The Imperial minifter, Prince
Kaunitz, demanded three things of France j iff., The
reftitution of their feudal rights to the German princes }
2diy, To reftore Avignon to the Pope, the inhabitants
of which had fome time before thrown off their allegi¬
ance, and prevailed with the conftituent ailembly to
receive their country as a part of France } and laltly,
Prince Kaunitz demanded, that “ the neighbouring
powers fiiould have no reafon for apprehenfion from the
prefent weaknefs of the internal government of France.
On receiving thefe demands, the king propofed a decla¬
ration of war, which was decreed by the National Af¬
fembly on the 20th of April, againft the King oj Hun¬
gary and Bohemia. 3C^
The French immediately began the war, by attack- Ami the
ing in three different columns the Auftrian Netherlands.^111^
1VL Theobald Dillon advanced from Lifle to Tour nay,
     \  . - . lands are
where he found a ftrong body of Auftrians ready to re- unfuccefc.
ceive him. The national troops, unaceuftomed to fuf-fully at¬
tain the fire of regular foldiers, were inftantly thrown ^ked^
info confufion, and fled even to the gates of Lille. The 1
cry of treafon refounded on all fides } and their com¬
mander, an experienced and faithful officer, was mur¬
dered by his own foldiers and the mob. A feccnd di-
vilion of 10,000 men, under Lieutenant-General Biron,
took poffeflion of j^Juiverain on the 29th, and marched
towards Mons, General Biron was here attacked by
ths
FRA
r
France.
1792.
3°9
Two par¬
ties in Pa¬
ris at this
period, and
the confe-
quences.
the Auflrians, whom he repulfed. Hearing, however,
of the defeat of Dillon, he retreated. A third party
advanced to Furnes, but afterwards withdrew. La
Fayette at the fame time advanced towards Bouvines,
half way to Namur, from which he afterwards retreated.
The wrhole of thefe expeditions were ill contrived, in as
much as they divided the French undifciplined troops,
and expofed them in fmall bodies to the attack of ve-
teran forces. The Auftrians were fome time before
they attempted to retaliate. At length, horvever, on
the nth of June, they attacked M. Gouvion, who
commanded the advanced guard of La Fayette’s army
near Maubeuge. M. Gouvion was killed by a rolling
bullet 5 but La Fayette himfelf having come up, the
Auftrians abandoned the field. In the mean time,
matters were haftening in Paris towards a violent crifis.
Two parties, both of which were hoftile to the prefent
conftitution, had gradually been formed in the ftate.
The one wiftied to give more effedfual fupport to the
royal authority, by eftabliftnng a fenate or two cham¬
bers, to prevent the king’s vote from being the foie
check upon popular enthufiafm. The other party
wiftied to fet afide royalty altogether, and to hazard the
bold experiment of converting France into a republic.
Thefe laft were fupported by the jacobin club, which
had now contrived, to concentrate in itfelf an immenfe
mafs of influence. Innumerable popular focieties were
eftabliftied in every town and village throughout the
provinces. With thefe a regular correfpondence was
kept up by writing and by emiflaries. Thus fchemes
and notions were inftantaneoufly propagated through a
great empire, and all the violent fpirits which it con¬
tained were enabled to aft in concert : But the more
immediate engine of the republican party confifted of
the immenfe population of the metropolis, whom they
now endeavoured to keep in conftant alarm. For this
purpofe they alleged, that an Aujirian Committee, that
is to fay, a confpiracy in favour of the enemies of the
country, exifted among the friends of the court. M.
M. Genfonne and Briflot even offered in the aflembly to
prove the exiftence of this pretended Auftrian com¬
mittee. A report was next circulated, that the king
intended to abfeond from the capital on the 23d of
May. His majefty publicly contradifted thefe accufa-
tions as calumnies, but they made no fmall impreflion
upon the minds of the public. New decrees were now
made againft the refraftory clergy, but thefe his maiefty
refufed to fanftion. A propofal was alfo made and de¬
creed in the aflembly to form a camp of 20,000 men
under the walls of Paris, and that for this levy every
canton in the kingdom fhould contribute one horfeman
and four infantry. The national guard of Paris dif-
liked the propofal, and the king gave to it his negative.
Indeed at this time the king teems to have come to a
refolution of Handing out againft the Jacobin party, to
which he had for fome time yielded. The miniftry
were therefore difmiffed, excepting M. Dumourier, and
others were appointed in their ftead. By this event
Dumourier loft; the confidence of the Jacobin club. He
faw his error, refigned his office, and joined the army.
In the mean time a decree had been palled, authorxfing
the manufaftory of pikes for the purpofe of arming
cheaply the lower clafs of citizens. All means were
ufed to render the king odious by inflammatory writings
France.
i792.
33 T F R A
and harangues •, and in both of thefe the noted incen-y
diary Marat took the lead.
On the 20th of June, M. Roederer, the procureur
general fyndic informed the national aflembly, that, . n ^rmc^
contrary to law, formidable bodies of armed men were mob march¬
preparing to prefent petitions to the king, and to the cs through
national aflembly. A part of them fpcedily appeared t^e a^'em“
with St Huruge and Santerre a brewer at their head.^’ ^'C'
They marched through the hall in a proceflion that
lafted two hours, at four o’clock in the afternoon, to
the number of about 40,000. They furrounded the
Thuilleries. The gates were thrown open ; and on an <
attempt to break the door of the apartment where the
king then was, he ordered'them to be admitted. His
After the princefs Elizabeth never departed from his
fide during four or five hours that he was furrounded
by the multitude, and compelled to liften to every in¬
dignity. All this while Potion, the mayor of Paris,
was unaccountably abfent. He at length, however,
arrived, and alfo a deputation from the affembly. The
queen, with her children and the princefs de Lamballe,
were in the mean time in the council-chamber, where,,
though protefted from violence, they wefe yet expofed
to much infult. At laft, in confequence of the approack
of evening, and of the entreaties of Petion, the multi¬
tude gradually difperfed. ?II
The indignities fuffered on this day by the royal The more
family were in fome refpefts not unfavourable to their reipetftable
caufe. A great number of the moft refpeftable inha- *I^a^ta^s>
bitants of the capital were alhamed of fuch proceedings, ed of fuck
They complained of them feverely in a petition to the conduct.
affembly, and addrefles to the fame purpofe were re¬
ceived from feveral departments. The direftory of the
department of Paris, at the head of which were M.
Rochefoucault and M. Talleyrand, publilhcd a declara¬
tion difapproving of the conduft of the mayor, and of
M. Manuel the procureur of the commune, whom they
afterwards fufpended from their offices, although they
were fpeedily reftored by a decree of the aflembly. At
the fame time, La Fayette leaving his army fuddenly,
appeared on the 26th at the bar of the national aflem-
bly. Fie declared that he came to exprefs the indig¬
nation which the whole army felt on account of the
events of the 20th : lie called upon the aflembly to
punifh the promoters of thefe events, and to diflolve the
faftious clubs. The fudden appearance of La Fayette
threw the Jacobins into confternation, and from that
period they never ceafed to calumniate him.
On the 1 ft of July, on the motion of M. Jean de The"king
Brie, the aflembly ordered a proclamation to be made, of Fruflia
that the country was in danger. On the 6th, the king marc^ci
gave intimation that the king of Pruffia was marching t j-^ce
with 52,000 men to co-operate againft France. The
French arms were at this time fomewhat fuccefsful in
the Auftrian Netherlands ; but the cabinet fpeedily
thought it neceflary to order the armies to retreat: a
meafure which was afterwards publicly cenfured by
Marftial Luckner.
On the 7th, a lingular feene occurred in the national Moderate
aflembly. At the inftant that M. Briffot was about fpeech of
to commence an oration, M. Lammourette biftiop of t^c bilhop
Lyons requefted to be heard for a few minutes. He°fLyons’
expatiated on the neceffity of union among the members
of the aflfembly, and of facrificing their paflions and pre¬
judices
3G
S
France.
FRA
| it dices on the altar of their country.
r 134 i
FRA
*792.
„ 3T4
.^lanifefto
of the
duke of
•Srunfwick.
\
He concluded an
animated addrefs with lliefe words, “ Let all who hold
in equal deteftation a republic and two chambers, and
who witli to maintain the conftitution as it is, rile !”
The words were fcarcely pronounced when the whole
affembly ftarted from their feats. Men of all parties
folemnly embraced each other, and protefted their ad-*
herence to the conftitution. A deputation announced
this happy event to the king 5 tv ho immediately came
and congratulated them in a Tort fpeech, which was
received with infinite appiaufe. 1 he only good effeft,
however, produced by this temporary agreement was,
that the feftival of the 14th of July, which wms cele¬
brated with the ufual magnificence, paffed over in tran¬
quillity.
On the 25th of July, the duke of Brunfwick iffued
at Coblentz his celebrated manifefto. It declared the
purpofe of the intended invafion of France to be the re-
iteration of the French king to full authority. It de¬
clared the national guard of France refponfible for the
prefervation of tranquillity; and threatened Avith the
punifhment of death, as rebels to their king, thofe who
Ihould appear in arms againft the allied powers. All
men holding- offices, civil or military, were threatened
in the fame manner, as well as the inhabitants of all
cities. The city of Paris in particular, and the national
aiTembly, were declared refponfible for every infult which
might be offered to the royal family. It was declared,
that if they were not immediately placed in fafety, the
allies were refolved to inflicl “ on thofe who fhould de-
ferve it the moft exemplary and ever memorable aven¬
ging puniffiments, by giving up the city of Paris to
military execution, and expofing it to total deftruction ;
and the rebels who ffiould be guilty of illegal refiftance
315 ffiould fuffer the puniffiments which they ffiould have
Injurious deferved.” This fanguinary and imprudent manifefto
fi0Uls’ operated as a warrant for the deftruction of the unfor¬
tunate Louis XVI. It left no middle party in the
nation. All who wHlied to preferve freedom in any
form, and all who loved the independence of their
/ country, wrere inftantly united. At the fame time, the
reproaches caft on the king by the Jacobins now gained
univerfal credit. The kings of Pruffia and of Hungary
told the French nation, that their monarch wras fecretly
hoftile to the conftitution ; and the reftoration of him
and his family to defpotic power was made the foie pre-
^ tence for'a bloody and dangerous Avar.
But'advan- The republican party faAV the advantage which they
tageous to had noAv gained, and refolved upon the depofition of
the republi- the king. The chief engine which they meant to em-
can party, pj0y ffi this fervice confifted of about 1500 men, Avho
had come to Paris at the period of the confederation on
the 14th of July, and therefore called foederis, and who
Avere alfo fometimes denominated Marfeillois, from the
place from Avhich the greater number of them came.
Next to thefe, dependence Avas placed in the populace
of the fuburbs of the capital. The defigns of the re¬
publicans were not unknoAVn to the court, and both
parties Avere forming plans of operation. It is faid
that the royal party intended that the king and his
family ftiould fuddenly leave the capital, and proceed to
as great a diftance as the conftitution permitted. The
republicans are faid to have intended to feize the perfon
of the king, and to confine him in the caftle of Vin-
oennes -till a national convention ffiould decide upon his
who re-
folvc to dc-
pofe him.
1792.
3i7
fate. Both allegations are probably true. Every motive ( Fraace.
which can influence the mind of man muft have induced
Louis to Avifh to be at a diftance from the factious and
fanguinary capital. And the iubfequent conduct of the
republicans authorife us to believe them capable of the
Avorfl: crime that vvas laid to their charge.
Various charges had been brought forAvard m the af-La l ayette
fembly againft La Fayette, and the 8th of Auguft was ^ufedjni
appointed for their difeuffion. In the mean time, on
the 3d of Auguft, Potion the mayor, at the head of a
deputation from the fechons of Paris, appeared at the
bar, and in a folemn fpeech demanded the depofition of
the king. The difeuffion of the accufation againft La
Fayette vvas confidered as a trial of ftrength between
the parties": he Avas acquitted, hoAvever, by a majority
of nearly 200 ; and the republican party, defpairing of
carrying their point by a vote of the national ahembly,
refolved to have recourfe to infurreclion and force. 31S
On the evening of the 9th of Auguft, about 1300Horrid plot
gentlemen, officers" of the army, and others, repaired to^jje re--
the palace, refolved to pro ted the royal family or topu 3 lcan5*
die in their defence : added to thefe Avere 700 SAvifs
guards, Avith a body of cavalry amounting to about
1000. Mandat, the commander of the national guards,
a man who Avas firmly attached to the conftitution, had
procured 2400 of that body and 12.pieces of cannon.
With fuch a force, it has been generally thought that,
by vigorous and fteady councils, the palace, which is a
kind of caftle, might have been fuccefsfully defended ;
and Avhat is noAV called a revolution might have born
the name of a rebellion. MeanAvhile the affembly de¬
clared its fittings permanent. Petion Avas at the palace
late on the evening of the 9th. Seme apprehenfions a
Avere entertained, or pretended to be entertained, for his
fafety (for the Avhole of this bufinefs Avas, on the part
of the republicans, the moft infernal plot), and a depu¬
tation from the affembly brought him aAvay. At mid¬
night the toefin or alarm bell Avas founded, and the
drums beat to arms through the city. At this inftant
a number of the moft active leaders of the republican
party afiembled, and elected a neAV common council or
commune. The perfons thus irregularly chofen inftantly
took poffeffion of the common hall, and drove out the
lawful members ; Avho, with that weaknefs Avith which
men are apt to ftirink from ftations of refponfibility in
perilous times, readily gave place to the ufurpers. The
neAv commune fent repeated meffages to M. Mandat,
requiring his attendance upon important bufinefs. He
Avas occupied in arranging the troops in the beft order
around the palace ; but fufpe&ing nothing, he Avent to
the common hall, and Avas there aftoniffied to find a dif¬
ferent affembly from what he expefted. He Avas
abruptly accufed of a plot to maffacre the people, and
ordered to prifon ; but as he defeended the flairs, he
AVas {hot Avith a piftol, and Santerre Avas appointed in
his ftead to command the national guard.
On this eventful night no perfon in the palace Avent
to bed. About fix o’clock in the morning of the 10th
the king defeended into the gardens to revieAV the
troops. He Avas received Avith ffiouts of Vive le roi, ex¬
cepting from the artillery, AATho fhouted Vive le nation.
The king returned to the palace, and the multitude
continued to collcft. The national guard feemed un¬
determined about Avhat they were to do, as they affem-
bled in divifions near the palace ; and had a fteady re-
fiftanee
FRA f i
France, fiftanca been made from within, it is probable they
* * ' would have joined the royal party. But towards eight
I792* o’clock M. Roederer procured admittance to the pa¬
lace, and told the king that armed multitudes were af-
fembling in hoftile array around the Thuilleries 5 that
the national guard was not to be depended upon ; and
that, in cafe of refiftance, the whole royal family would
molt certainly be maiTacred. He therefore advifed the
2I king to feek protection in the hall of the national af-
Thc royal fembly. With this advice the king, vdth his ufual fa-
family fly cility of temper, was ready to comply ; but the queen
for fafety 0ppofed with vehemence the humiliating propofal. Be-
afthena- coming gradually, however, alarmed for the fafety of
tional af- her children, Ihe gave her confent; and the king and
fembly. queen, the princefs Elizabeth, with the prince and
princefs royal, went on foot to the hall of the aiTembly.
“ I am come hither (faid his majefty) to prevent a
great crime. Among you, gentlemen, I believe myfelf
in fafety.” By an article of the conllitution the affem-
bly could not deliberate in prefence of the king. The
royal family were, therefore, placed in a narrow box fe-
parated from the hall by a railing, where they remain¬
ed for 14 hours without any place to which they could
retire for refrelhrnent, excepting a very fmall clofet
adjoining. Here they fat liftening to debates, in which
the royal character and office were treated with every
mark of infult.
When the king left the palace of the Thuilleries,
he unfortunately forgot to order it to be immediately
furrendered. He recollected this as foon as lie reached
the aiTembly, and fent orders for this purpofe j but it
was now too late. The infurgents amounted to about
20,000 effeflive men. They were drawn up in tolera¬
ble order by Wefterman a Pruffian, and had about 30
pieces of cannon along with them. The gentlemen
within the palace, who had ailembled to protect the
king’s perfon, were now difpirited, and knew not what
A bloody part to aft. The commander of the Swifs, M. Affry,
conflidt in was abfent, and the captains knew not what to doj and
the palace, the national guard had no leader in confequence of the
moft'of'the death of Mandat. About nine o’clock the outer gates
Swifs- were forced open 5 and the infurgents formed their line
guards arc in front of the palace. A bloody combat commenced
maffacrcd. chiefly between the Marfeillois and the Swifs. After
a brave reft It an ce of about an hour, the Swifs were over¬
powered by numbers, and gave away. All of them that
could be found in the palace were maffiacred fome
even while imploring quarter on their knees. Others
efcaped into the city, and were protefted by individu¬
als. Of this brave regiment, however, only 200 furvi-
ved } but every human being, even the loweft fervants
found in the palace, were put to death. The Swifs
taken prifoners in various quarters were conducted to
the door of the affembly, and taken by a decree under
the proteftion of the date. But the fanguinary multi¬
tude inlifted upon putting them to inftant death 5 and
the affembly would, in all probability, have been unable
to proteft them, had not the Marfeillois interfered in
their favour.
The royal The fufpenlion of the royal authority was now de¬
authority creed, and the nation was invited to eleft a Convention
fufpended, to determine the nature of its future government. On
family im ^is uncommon occafion all Frenchmen of 21 years of
jiriibned. age were declared capable of elefting, and of being
eleftej}, deputies to the new national convention. Com-
3^ J ^ K A
miffionerS were, in the mean time, fent on the lame France,
evening to give to the armies a falfe and favourable ac- ~v
count of thefe tranfaftions. The royal family were 1792'
fent to the old palace of the Temple in the midft of the
city, to remain there under a drift guard \ and all per-
fons of rank who had been attached to them were fei-
zed and committed to the different prifons. 322
To give an idea of the temper of the people of Pa- Bloody
ris at this time, it is proper to remark, that at the fame ^
indant when the multitude with a bloody fury was maf- * ^
facring the menial fervants in the palace, and could
fcarcely be redrained from offering violence to the
Swifs who were made prifoners, they would differ no
aft of pillage to pals unpunilhed. Several attempts of
this kind wrere accordingly followed by the indant
death of the criminals. The plate, the jewels, and
money found in the Thuilleries were brought t© the
national affembly, and thrown down in the hall. One
man, wffiofe drels and appearance befpoke extreme po¬
verty, cad upon the table an hat full of gold. But the
minds of thefe men were elevated by enthuliafm 5 and
they conceived themfelves at this moment the cham¬
pions of freedom, and objeft of terrors to the kings of
the earth. 323
In the mean time, the fituation of France Avas ex- Critical fi-
tremely critical, and it appeared very doubtful if the tuation of
new convention would ever be differed to affemble.
La Fayette had accidentally got fpeedy notice of the e
events of the 10th of Augud. He advifed the magi-
drates of the town of Sedan to imprifon the commiffion-
ers from the national affembly when they fliould arrive
there •, which was accordingly done. He, at the fame
time, publiflied an addrefs to his army, calling upon
them to fupport the king and the conditution } but La p^ette
finding that they were not to be depended upon, on the withdraws
19th of Augud he left the camp in the night, accompa-from the
nied only by his daff and a few fervants. They took
the route of Rochefort in Liege, which was a neutral charadler.
country 5 but were met by a party of the enemy, who
took them prifoners, and La Fayette was detained for
feveral years in Pruffian and Audrian dungeons. The
fevere treatment of this man was probably a confider-
able error in policy on the part of the allies. His fide- -
lity to his king is very generally admitted 5 though fome
have entertained drong fufpicions-of his having afted a
very bafe part to that unfortunate monarch \ and in the
Britifh houfe of commons he has been called an abandon¬
ed' ruffian. The expreffion is certainly too drong. His
errors feedi to have been thofe of the head rather than of
the heart j and at all events, he ffiould have been pro¬
tefted by the allies, if for no other reafon than to en¬
courage fubfequent defertions among the officers of the
republican army.
To return from this digreffion. The commiffioners
were foon fet at liberty at Sedan, and received with ap-
plaufe by the army of La Fayette. General Arthur
Dillon at firff entered into the fentiments of La Fayette j
but the politic Dumourier diverted him from his pur¬
pofe, and by this means regained his credit with the
Jacobins, and was appointed commander in chief. The
other generals, Biron, Montefquieu, Kellerman, and-
Cudine, made no oppofition to the will of the national
affembly.
Meanwhile, the combined armies of Audria and
Pruffia bad entered France. The duke of Brunfwick’s
army
France.
1792.
325
The com¬
bined ar¬
mies enter
France
in great
force.
* 326
Alarm at
Paris on
account of
their fuc-
cefs.
327
Horrid
maflacres
FRA
army was above 50,000 ftrong.
joined him with 15,000 Auftrians, and a confiderable
body of HelTians, along with 20,000 French emigrants j
amounting in all to 90,000 men. T o oppofe thefe,
Dumourier had only 17,000 men collefted near the
point from which the enemy were approaching in
Luxembourg. The French emigrants had given the
duke of Brunfwick fuch an account of the diftraded
hate of their own country, and of the pretended difaf-
fedion of all orders of men towards the ruling faction
in Paris, that no refiitance of any importance was ex¬
pected. When the combined troops, conlilling either
of heady Auhrian or Hungarian battalions, or of thofe
well difeiplined Pruflians which the great Frederick
had inured to the beh military difeipline, were reviewed
in Germany before fetting out on their march, it is
faid that the fpeCtators, among whom the French caufe
was not unpopular, beheld them with anxiety and re¬
gret, and pitied the unhappy country againh which
this irrefihible force was direded. The foldiers^ and
their officers regarded themfelves as departing for a
hunting match, or an excurlion of pleafure 5 and many
of the ufual accommodations of an army were ill attend¬
ed to, fuch as hofpitals, &c. The beginning of their
progrefs into France julfified thefe expedations. Long-
wy&furrendered after a fiege of 15 hours, although well
fortified, poffeffed of a garrifon of 3 500 men, and de¬
fended by 71 pieces of cannon. I he news ot this
event irritated the affembly fo much, that they decreed,
that, when retaken, the houfes of the citizens iliould
be razed to the ground ; and, diftruftful of the officers
of the army, they decreed that the municipal officers of
a town ffiould hereafter have power to controul the de¬
liberation of the council of war. Verdun was next
fummoned •, and here the municipality compelled the
governor M. Beaurepaire to furrender. That officer,
difappointed and enraged, ffiot himfelf dead with a pi-
ftol in prefence of the council, and on the 2d of Sep¬
tember the Pruffian troops entered the town.
The news of this fecand capture, and of the ap¬
proach of the Pruffians, fpread an inftant alarm
through Paris. It was propofed to raife a volunteer
army, which ffiould fet out immediately to meet the
enemy. The common council, which was now led by
Robefpierre, Danton, Marat, and others of the mod
fanguinary character, ordered the alarm-guns to be fired,
and the populace to be fummoned to meet in the
Champ de Mars to enroll themfelves to march againft
the enemy. The people aflembled, and either in con-
fequence of a premeditated plan, or, which is not very
probable, of an inftantaneous movement, a number of
voices exclaimed, that “ the domeftic foes of the na¬
tion ought to be deftroyed before its foreign enemies
were attacked.”
Parties of armed men proceeded without delay to
the prifons where the non-juring clergy, the Swifs offi¬
cers, and thofe confined fince the 10th of Augufl on
account of praftices againft the ftate, v?ere detained in
cuftody. They took out the prifoners one by one,
gave them a kind of mock trial before a jury of them¬
felves, acquitted fdme few, and murdered the reft. A-
mong thefe. laft was the princefs de Lamballe. She
was taken from her bed before this bloody tribunal, and
maflacred ; her head wTas carried by the populace to the
Temple, to be feen by the queen, whofe friend ffie was.
1792.
328
[ 136 1 FRA
General Clairfait had Thefe malfacres laded for two days, and upwards or, r™ct,_
1000 perfons were put to death. I here is Icarce any
thing in hiftory that can be reprefented as parallel to
them } they were committed, it is faid, by lefs than
300 men, in the midft of an jmmenfe. city, which
heard of them with horror, and in the vicinity of the
national affembly, which, by going in a body, could
have put an end to them. But iuch was the confufion
and difmay of thefe two difgraceful days, that no man
dared to ftir from his oivn houfe •, and every one belie¬
ved that the whole city, excepting his own ftreet,. was
engaged in maffacre and bloodlhed. d he national
guards were all ready at their reffpeaive polls, but no
man directed them to add : and there is too much rea-
fon to fufpedl that Santerre and the chiefs of the com¬
mune connived, atleaft, at the tranfadlion.
In the mean time, G eneral Dumourier was taking State of
the beft meafures to protraft the march of the enemy
till the army of Kellerman, confifting of 20,000 men, con(li;a of
could join him from Lorraine, and that of BournonviLe Dumou-
from ‘Flanders, amounting to 13,000; together with Her.
whatever new levies Luckner might be able to fend
him from Chalons. The foreft of Argonne extends
from north to fouth upwards of 40 miles; it lay diredl-
ly in the route of the duke of Brunfwick, who mull
either force his wray acrofs it, or make a circuit of 40
miles by the pafs of Grandpre on the north, or by Bar-
leduc on the fouth. The pafs that lay directly in his
route was that of Biefme. After furveying Dillon’s
pofition here, he left a party of 20,000 men to watch
it ; and with the main body of his army took the cir- ^29
cuitous rout by Grandpre on the north. Here Du-The PnA
mourier waited to receive him, and was attacked on 1 jie t° ^
12th and 13th w ithout fuccefs : but on the 14th, q16 treat) but
attack of the Pruffians was irrefftible, and Dumourier ci0 rot f0l-
retreating, gave up the pafs. On his march he was folow up
violently preffed by the advanced cavalry of the Pruf' ^age
fians, that his army, at one time, was feized with a pa- ‘ & *
nic, and fled before 1500 men ; who, if they had puffi-
ed their advantage, might have difperfed it. On the
15th, however, Dumourier encamped at St Menehould,
and began to fortify it. Bournonville’s army joined
Dumourier on the 17th. 1 he duke of Brunlwick
formed a plan of attacking Kellerman before his junc¬
tion could be completed. That general arrived on. the
19th within a mile of Dumourier’s camp ; the project¬
ed attack took place ; the Pruffians manoeuvred with
their ufual coolnefs and addrefs; they attempted to
furround Kellerman’s army, but this could not be^ ac-
complifhed. The French troops preferved excellent
order, while the national vivacity wTas conftantly ffiow-
ing itfelf in their ffiouts and patriotic fongs: 400
French were killed, and 500 wounded ; the lofs of
the Pruffians was much greater : and, in the face of
the enemy, Kellerman joined Dumourier at the end of
the engagement without oppofition. At the time that
the attack wras made on the army of Kellerman, an at¬
tempt rvas made to force Dillon’s camp, at .Biefme by
the 20,000 men that had been left in its vicinity, but
without fuccefs ; and this large detachment Avas thus
prevented from croffing the foreft of Argonne and join¬
ing the duke of Brunfwick. It is to be obferved,. that
in thefe engagements the French oAved their fuperiority
chiefly to the excellence of their artillerya circum-
ftance Avhich ferved to convince their enemies that they
had
France.
1792*
The Pruf-
Ifians di-
reffed by
Bcknefs
,nd fa-
FRA [i
had to contend with regular military bodies, and not
with undifciplined multitudes, as they ex peeled.
The duke of Brunfwiek encamped his army at La
Lun, near the camp of Dumouner. And here the
Prullians began to be in extreme diftrels both from
ficknefs and famine. No temptation could induce the
inhabitants of the country to carry provisions to the
hoitile camp, while at the fame time the French army
was abundantly Supplied.
Bournonvilie, with a body of 4000 men, intercepted
Several droves of cattle and other convoys of proviiions
deftined for the PrulTians. The rain fell in torrents,
and the roads were uncommonly deep. Expofed to the
cold, the moifture, and want of proviiions, the Pruffians
rafhly ate great quantities of the grapes of Champagne.
The confequence of this was, that an epidemical diitem-
per commenced and Spread through the army to Such an
extent, that 10,000 men at onetime were unfit for duty.
The duke of Brunfwick, however, ftill commanded a
force much more numerous than that of Dumourier 5
and he has been much cenfured for not attacking his
camp, and forcing him to engage. It has been Said
that the veteran and numerous force which he com¬
manded would have marched to certain victory againft
the raw troops that oppofed themthat, having
defeated Dumourier’s army, there was nothing to
oppofe their march to Paris. But the duke of Brunf¬
wick had entered France upon the fuppofition, that
in its prefent did rafted date no regular army could
be brought into the field againd him, and that the
people at large were hodiie to the ruling faftion. The
contrary of all this had turned out to be true. He
found himfelf in the midd of an hodiie people, and
oppofed by Ikilful military chiefs. A defeat in Such a
lituation would have brought certain ruin to his army j
and even the lofs fudained in the acquifition of a victo¬
ry might have proved equally fatal. The remains of
the French armv -would not fail to hang upon his rear j
and from the difpofition of the people it appeared im-
podible to afeertain to what amount that army might
be Suddenly increafed. After propofing a truce, there-
’ fore, which laded eight days, he commenced his retreat
towards Grandpre, and no advantage -was gained over
him in the courfe of it. Verdun was retaken by the
French on the 1 2th of Oftober, and Longwy on the
18th •, the fiege of Thionville was at the fame time raifed.
That Small, but drong fortreSs, under the command of
General Felix Wimpfen, had held in check an army of
15,000 men.
While the Prudxans were advancing from the north-
Imoned and the Audrians under the duke of Saxe 'Tefchen
laid fiege to Lide. The council-general of the com-
the Auftri- murie anfwered the Summons of the befiegers thus: “ We
ms, but in have jud renewed our oath to be faithful to the nation,
and to maintain liberty and equality, or to die at our
pod. We will not perjure ourfelves.” Such was the
cant of thefe men, who had already perjured themfelves
by contributing to overturn the conditution which they
had repeatedly Sworn to defend. The Andrian batteries
began to play upon the town on the 29th, and were
chiefly direfted againd that quarter which was inhabited
by the lower clafs of citizens, for the purpofe of making
them mutinous and Seditious. This procedure was ill
judged. The lower clafles of mankind are always much
accudomed to harddiips, and they go farthed in Support
Vol. IX. Part I.
France.
1792.
■ . 333
Lille fum
334
37 1 . F A
of any enlhufiadic principle they have been perfuaded
to adopt. Accordingly, though a great part of the <city '
was reduced to a heap of ruins, the citizens of Lifie
became daily more obdinate. They received each
other into the houfes that were Still danding, and every
vault and cellar was occupied. Although upwards of
30,000 red-hot balls and 6000 bombs were thrown
into the city, befides the efforts made by an immenfe
battering train of artillery, yet the lofs both to the
garrifon and people did not exceed 500 perfons, mod of
whom were women and children. After a fortnight
of fruitlefs labour, the Audrians raifed the fiege.
War had been declared againd the king of Sardinia War de-
on account of the threatening appearances exhibited in cla.re^ ^
that quarter. On the 20th of September General 0f
Montcfquieu entered the territories of Savoy, and was Sardinia,
received at Chambery and throughout the whole Savoy ta-
country with marks of unbounded welcome. On the ken> ^~c‘
29th General Anfelm, with another body of troops,
took poffeflion of Nice and the country around it. On
the 30th General Cudine advanced to Spires, 'when he
found the Audrians drawn up in order of battle. He
attacked and drove them through the city, taking 3000
of them prifoners. The capture of Worms Succeeded
that of Spires ; Mentz Surrendered by capitulation ; and
Franckfort fell into the hands of the French on the 23d.
Out of this lad place, however, they were afterwards
driven on the 2d of December. 335
On the 20th of September the French National Con- The na-
vention affembled. It was found to contain men of all tional con-
charafters, orders, and ranks. Many didinguilhed
members of the ConJUtuting Affembly were elefted into ’
it, and alfo Several that had belonged to the Legijlative
Affembly 5 even foreigners were invited to become
French legifiators. The famous Thomas Paine and Dr
Priedley of England were elefted by certain depart¬
ments *, but the latter declined accepting. Clouts, a
Pruflian, whom we formerly noticed as bringing a de¬
putation to the bar of the condituent affembly, confid¬
ing of perfons reprefenting all the nations of the earth,
Avas alfo chofen. The general afpeft of the nerv conven¬
tion dioAved that the republican party bad acquired a de¬
cided Superiority. On the fird day of meeting M. Collot 336
d’Herbois, who had formerly been an aftor, afeended and de-
the tribune, and propofed the eternal abolition of royalty crecs t/ic1
■ r -pi a- • j u ^ eternal aha-
7// trance. I he quedion was carried by acclamation, jjtjon 0f
and the houfe adjourned. Meffages Avere Sent to all r0ySlty ii*
parts of the country to intimate the decree, and by the France,
influence of the Jacobins they Avere everyAvhere received
Avith applaufe. It Avas next day decreed, that all public
afts fliould be dated by the year of the French republic j
and all citizens Avere declared eligible to all the vacant
offices and places. The rage of republicanism Soon
AVent So far, that the ordinary titles of Monfieur and
Madame Avere aboliflied, and the appellation of Citizen
fubftituted in their ftead, as more Suitable to the prin¬
ciples of liberty and equality.—It may be remarked,
that in this laft trifling eircumftance an attachment to
the form of Speech to Avhieh they had been accuftomed
appears even in its abolition : For, although the Roman
orators addreffed their countrymen when affembled by
the honourable appellation of Cit%ens, yet they never,
in accofting an individual, called him Citizen Cato,
or Citizen Csefar, according to the mode noAV adopted
in France.
S It
France.
1792.
337
Two op-
pofite fac¬
tions in the
convention.
33s
®ecree a-
gainft the
emigrants,
&c.
33P
Battle of
Jemap;.e,
and furren
tier of the
Ault ri an
Nether¬
lands.
F It A [ 13
It was Toon difeovered that the leading republicans^
had divided into two oppofite factions The one ot
thefe was called Girondip, becaufe Vergniaud, Gen-
fonne, Guadet, and feme others of its leaders, vvere mem¬
bers from the department of La Gironde. The cele¬
brated Condorcet belonged to this party •, and they were
fometimes denominated Brijjbtines, from M. Briii'ot de
Warville their principal leader. Ihey fupported the
miniftry now in office, at the head of which was Ro¬
land } and the majority of the convention was obvioufly
attached to them. In oppofition to thefe was the
fmaller party of the Mountain : fo called from its mem¬
bers ufually fitting in the convention on the upper leats
of the hall. They were men poffeffed of lefs perfonal
refpeftability, and fewer literary accompliffiments, but
of daring and fanguinary characters, whom the revolu¬
tion had brought into public notice.. At the head of
this party were Danton and llobefpierre } and fubor-
dinate to theie were Couthon, Lazire, 1 huriot, Mer¬
lin de Thionville, St Andre, Camille Demoulins, Cha-
bot, Collot D’Herbois, Sergent, Legendre, Fabre
d’Lglantine, Panis, and Marat.
Thefe two parties ffiowed the diverfity of their charac¬
ters in the manner in which they treated the maffacres of
the 2d and 3d of September. The BriiTotines, with
the majority of the convention, wiffied to bring the
murderers to trial •, but the quell ion was always eluded
by the other party, with the affiftance of the Jacobin
club and of the populace.
On the 9th of October it was decreed, that all emi¬
grants, when taken, ffiould fuller death j and on the 15th
of November, in confequence of an infurredlion in the
duchy of Deux Fonts, and an application on the part of
the infurgents to the convention for aid, the following de¬
cree was naffed : “ The national convention declare, in
the name of the French nation, that they will grant fra¬
ternity and affiftance to all thofe people who wiffi to
procure liberty } and they charge the executive power
to fend orders to the general* to give affiftance to fuch
people as have fuffered, or are now fuffering, in the
caufe of liberty.” Of this decree foreign nations, with
great reafon, complained much, as will Ihortly appear.
Tb return to the military affairs of the new repub¬
lic. On the 12th of Oftober General Dumourier
■ came to Paris, and was fpeedily fent to commence a
winter campaign in the Netherlands. He luddenly at¬
tacked the Auftrians at the village of Boflu, and drove
them from their ground. On the 5th of November he
came in fight of the enemy upon the heights of Je-
mappe. Three rows of fortifications arofe above each
other, defended by 100 pieces of cannon. Their right was
covered by the village and a river, and their left by
thick woods. The French were by their own account
30,000, whilft others, with great probability of truth,
compute them at double that number, and the number
of the Auftrians was at leaft 20,000. At feven in the
morning of the following day a heavy cannonade com¬
menced on both fides, and at noon a clofe attack was
determined on by the French, whofe right wing was
commanded by Generals Bournonville and Dampierre,
and the centre by Generals Egalite (fon to the duke of
Orleans who had affumed that name), Stetenboffe,
Defporets, and Drouet. The mufic played the popu¬
lar march of the Marfellois, and the foldiers ruffied on
with enthufiafm, fliouting “ Vive la nation,” The en-
‘ *
1792.
34o
8 ] FRA
gagement was warm and bloody ; the French were ^France,
twice repulled j but their impetuofity w as at laft irre-
fiitible, and about two o’clock the enemy fled from
their laft entrenchments. T he lols on both lides
was very great, that of the Auftrians amounting to
4000. This victory was decifive of the fate oi the
Netherlands. Mons and Bruflels furrendered to Du¬
mourier j Tournay, Malines, Ghent, and Antwerp,
were taken polfeffion of by General Labourdonnaye $
Louvaine and Namur were taken by General \ alcncc j
and the whole Auftrian Netherlands, Luxembourg only
excepted, fell into the hands of the French : Liege
was taken on the 28th of November after a fuccefsiul
engagement, in which the Auftrians loft 5 or 600 men
and an immenfe train of artillery. _
France vras now in a lituation not unufual in the hi- Violent
ftory of thofe nations that either are free, or are at-conwfts
tempting to become fo j fuecefsful in all quarters abroad,
but diitra&ed by faftions at home, lire two partiesancj tjie
in the convention were engaged in a ftruggle, which Mountai*.
daily became more implacable. 1 he party called the
Mountain did not hefitate about the nature of the means
they rvere to employ to bring about the ruin of their
antagonifts. They are even fufpeaed of having, through
the medium of Pache the war-minifter, retarded the
fupply of the armies, to render the ruling party odious
bv want of fuccefs. They were for fome time, how¬
ever, unfortunate in this refpeft j and the daily news of
vibfories fupported with the public the credit of the
Girondifls. A new fubjedl was therefore fallen upon,
which was the queftion, how the dethroned king was
to be difpofed of ? The moderate party wiffied to lave
him ; and this was a fufficient reafon for their antago¬
nifts to refolve upon his ruin. A committee was ap
pointed to give in a report upon his con duel. A va¬
riety of accufations were brought againft him } and the
convention infamoufly refolved to aft the part of accufers
and of judges. , , 341
It was on the nth of December when the rll-tated The king
monarch was ordered to the bar of the convention : the brought t.
aft of accufation was read, and the king was fummoned
by the prefident, Barrere, to anfwer to each leparate
charge. .
Pref. “ Louis, the French natron accules you ot
having committed a multitude of crimes to eftabliffi
your tyranny, in deftroying her freedom. V ou, on the
20th of June 1789, attempted the fovereignty of the
people, by fufpending the affemblies of their reprelen-
tatives, and expelling them with violence from the places
of their fittings. I his is proved in the procefs verbal
entered at the Tennis-court of Verfailles by the members
of the eonftituent aflembly. On the 23d June you
rvanted to diftate laAvs to the nation ; you furrounded
their reprefentatives Avith troops •, you prefented to
them tAvo roval declarations, fubverfive of all liberty,
and ordered them to feparate. Your oavia declarations,
and the minutes of the affembly, prove tnefe attempts.
What have you to anfwrer ?”
Louis. “ No larvs Avere then exifting to prevent me
from it.”
Pref. “ You ordered an army to march againft the
citizens of Paris. Your fatellites have {lied the blood
of feveral of them, and you Avould not remove this army
till the taking of the Baftile and a general infurreftion
announced to you that the people Avere viftonous T he
fpccches.
FRA [
France, fpeecbes you made on the 9th, 12th, and 14th of July
.—-v—-J to the deputations of the'conftituent affembly, Ihew what
1792. were your intentions j and the mailacres of the i huille-
ries rife in evidence againft you.—What have you to
anfv/er ?”
Louis. “ I wTas mailer at that time to order the
troops to march j but I never had an intention of Ibed-
ding blood.”
Pref. “ After thefe events, and in fpite of the promifes
which you made on the 15th in the conftituent aflem-
bly, and on the 17 th in the town-houfe of Paris, you
have perfifted in your projefts againft national liberty.
You long eluded the execution of the decrees of the
nth of Auguft, refpe&ing the abolition of perfonal
fervitud'e, the feudal government, and tythes: you
long refufed acknowledging the rights of man : you
doubled the number of the life-guards, and called the
regiment of Flanders to Verfailles : you permitted, in
orgies held before your eyes, the national cockade to
be trampled under foot, the rvhite cockade to be hoift-
ed, and the nation to be flandered. At laft, you ren¬
dered neceflary a frefli infurreftion, occafioned the death
of feveral citizens, and did not change your language
till after your guards had been defeated, when you re¬
newed your perfidious promifes. The proofs of thefe
facts are in your obfervations of the 18th of Septem¬
ber, in the decrees of the nth of Auguft, in the mi¬
nutes of the conftituent aflembly, in the events of Ver¬
failles of the 5th and 6th of Oftober, and in the con-
verfation, you had on the fame day with a deputation of
the conftituent aflembly, when you told them you would
enlighten yourfelf with their councils, and never recede
from them. —What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I have made the obfervations which I
thought juft on the two firft heads. As to the cockade,
it is falfe •, it did not happen in my prefence.”
Pref. “ You took an oath at the federation of the
14th of July, which you did not keep. You foon tried
to corrupt the public opinion, with the affiftance of Ta¬
lon who a6ted in Paris, and Mirabeau who was to have
excited counter-revolutionary movements in the provin¬
ces.—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I do not know what happened at that time j
but the whole is anterior to my acceptance of the con-
ftitution.”
Pref. “ You lavifhed millions of money to effetl this
corruption, and you would even ufe popularity as a »
means of enllaving the people. Thefe fails are the re-
fult of a memorial of Talon, on which you have made
your marginal comments in your own hand writing, and
of a letter which Laporte wrote to you on the 19th of
April •, in which, recapitulating a converfation he had
with Rivarol, he told you, that the millions which you
had been prevailed upon to throw away had been pro-
duilive of nothing. For a long time you had meditat¬
ed on a plan of efcape. A memorial was delivered to
you on the 28th of February, which pointed out the
means for you to effedl it; you approve of it by mar¬
ginal notes.—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I felt no greater pleafure than that of re¬
lieving the needy : this proves no defign.”
Pref. “ On the 28th a great number of the nobles
and military came into your apartments in the caftle of
the Thuilleries to favour that efcape 3 you wanted to
£■0 to St Cloud. — Frarcp,
1792.
139 1 F 11 A
quit Paris on the loth of April to h
What have you to anfwer ?”
LiMiis. “ This accufation is abfurd.”
Pref. “ But the refiftance of the citizens made you
fenfible that their diftruft was great y you endeavoured
to difcard it by communicating/to the conftituent af¬
fembly a letter, -which you addreffed to the agents of
the nation near foreign powers, to announce t6 them
that you had freely accepted the conftitutional articles,
which had been prefented to you 3 and, not wit lift anding,
on the 21 ft you took flight with a falfe palfport. \ ou
left behind a proteft againft thefe felf-fame conftitutional
articles 3 you ordered the minifters to lign none of the
acts iflued by the national affembly; and you forbade
the minifter of juftice to deliver up the feals of ftate.
The public money was lavilhed to infure the fuccefs of
this treachery, and the public force was to proteft it,
under the orders of Bouille, who fliortly before had
been charged with the maffacre of Nancy, and to whom
you wrote on this head, “ to take care of his popularity,
becaufe it Avould be of fervice to you.” Thefc fails
are proved by the memorial of the 23d of February,
with marginal comments in your ow n hand-writing 3 by
your declaration of the 20th of June, wholly in your
own hand-writing 3 by your letter of the 4th of Septem¬
ber 1790 to Bouille 3 and by a note of the latter, m
which he gives you an account of the ufe he made of
993,000 livres, given by you, and employed partly in
trepanning the troops who were to cfcort you.—W hat
have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ 1 have no knowledge whatever of the me¬
morial of the 23d of February. As to what relates to my
journey to Varennes, I appeal to my declaration to the
commiffaries of the conftituent aflembly at that period.”
Pref. “ After your detention at Varennes, the exer-
cife of the executive power wTas for a moment fufpend-
ed in your hands, and you again formed a confpiracy.
On the 17th of July the blood of citizens was Ibed in
the Champ de Mars. A letter, in your own hand¬
writing, written in 1790 to La Fayette, proves that a
criminal coalition fubfifted between you and La Fayette,
to which Mirabeau acceded. The revifion began under
thefe cruel aufpices; all kinds of corruptions were made
ufe of. You have paid for libels, pamphlets, and newf-
papers, defigned to corrupt the public opinion, to dif-
credit the aflignats, and to fupport the caufe of the emi¬
grants. The regifters of Septeuil ftmw what immenfe a
fums have been made ufe of in thefe liberticide ma¬
noeuvres.—What have you to anfwer ?
Louis. “ What happened on the 17th of July has no¬
thing at all to do with me. I know nothing of it.”
Pref “ You feemed to accept the conftitution on the
14th of September; your fpeeches announced an inten¬
tion of fwpporting it, and you were bufy in overturning
it, even before it was completed. A convention was
entered into at Pilnitz on the 24th of July, between
Leopold of Auftria and Frederic-William of Branden-
burgh, who pledged themfelves to re-ereft in France the
throne of abfolute monarchy, and you were filent upon
this convention till the moment when it was known by
all Europe.—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I made it known as foon as it came to my
knowledge 3 befides, every thing that refers to this fub-
ieft concerns the minifter.”
S 2 Pref
fra
[
Prance. Pref. “ Arles Lad boifted the flandard of rebellion ;
v 11 you favoured it by fending three civil cornmillaries,
l792‘ who made it their bufmefs not to reprefs the eounter-
revolutionifts, but to juftify their proceedings.—What
have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ The inftmftions which were given to the
commiffaries mull prove what was their million j and I
knew none of them when the minifters propoied them
to IH6«^
Pref. “ Avignon, and the county of Venaiffin, had
been united with France ; you caufed the^ decree to be
executed •, but a month after that time civil war delo-
lated that country. The commiffaries you fent thither
helped to ravage k.—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ 1 do not remember what delay has been
caufed in the execution of the decree ; befides, this oc¬
currence has no perlbnal reference to me ■, it only con¬
cerns thofe that have been fent, not thofe who fent
them.”
Pref. “ Nimes, Montauban, Mende, dales, felt great
{hocks during the firft days of freedom. \ ou did nothing
to hide thofe germens of counter-revolution till the mo¬
ment when Saffiant’s confpiracy became manifeftly no¬
torious.—What have you to anfwer ?
Louis. “ I gave, in this refpeft, all the orders which
were propofed to me by the miniliers.
Pref. “ You fent 22 battalions againft the Marfcil-
lois, who marched to reduce the counter-revolutioniils
of Arles.—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I ought to have the pieces referring to this
matter, to give a juft anfwer.”
Pref. “ You gave the fouthern command to Wit-
genftein, who wrote to you on the 2ift of April 1^92,
after he had been recalled : ‘ A few inftants more, and
I (hall call around the throne of your majefty thoufands
of French, who are again become worthy of the withes
vou form for their happinefs.’—vVhat have you to an¬
fwer ?”
Louis. il This letter is dated lince his recall} he
has not been employed lince. I do not recollect this
letter ?”
Pref. 44 You paid your late life-guards at Coblentz }
the regifters of Septeuil atteft this j and general orders
iigned by you prove that you fent conliderable remit¬
tances to ' Rouble, Rochefort, Vauguyon, Choifeul,
Beaupre, Hamilton, and the wife of Polignac.—What
have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. 44 When I firft learned that my life-guards
aflembled beyond the Rhine, I flopped their pay : as
to the reft, I do not remember.”
Pref. 44 Your brothers, enemies to the ftate, caufed
the emigrants to rally under their banners : they raffed
regiments, took up loans, and concluded alliances in
your name ; you did not dxfclaim them j but at the mo¬
ment when you were fully certain that you could no
longer crofs their projects, your intelligence with them
by a note, written by Louis Staniflaus Xavier, figned
by your two brothers, was conceived in thefe words :
4 I wrote to you, but it was by poft, and I could
lay nothing. We are two here, who make but one }
one in fentiments, one in principles, one in zeal of
ferving you* WTe keep filence j becaufc, "were we to
break it too foon, it would injure you: but we {hall
fpeak as foon as we {hall be certain of general fupport,
and that moment is near. If Ave are fpoken to on the
40 ] FRA
part of thofe people, we {hall hear nothing 5 but 11 on
your part, we will liiten: Ave fliall purfue our road
ftraight. It is therefore defired that you Avill enable us
to fay fomAhing. Do not {land on ceremonies. Be eafy
about your fafety : Ave only exift to ferve you j we are
eagerly occupied with this point, and all goes on ivell}
even our enemies feel themlelves too much mterefted in.
your prefervation to commit an ufelefs crime Avhieh
would terminate in their own dell ruction.
4 L. S. Xaa^ier and
4 Charles Philippe.’
44 What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. 44 I difowned all the proceedings of my bro¬
thers, according as the conftitutioh preferibed me to do,
and from the moment they came to my knowledge. Of
this note I knoAV nothing.”
Pref 44 The foldiers of the line, Avho were to be
put on the Avar eftablffhment, confifted but of 100,coo
men at the end of December, you therefore neglected
to provide for the fafety of the ftate from abroad. Nar-
bonne required a levy of 50,000 men, but he flopped
the recruiting at 26,000, in giving affurances that all
was ready ; yet there Avas no truth in-thefe affurances.
Servan propofed after him to form a camp of 20,000
men near Paris 5 it Avas decreed by the legiilative affem-
blv 5 you refuted your fan61 ion.—What have you to
anfwer ?”
Louis. 44 I had given to the minifters all the orders
for expediting the augmentation of the army : in the
month of December laft, the returns ivere laid before
the affembly. If they deceived themfelves, it is not
my fault.”
Pref. 44 A flight of patriotifm made the citizens re¬
pair to Paris from all quarters. You iffued a procla¬
mation, tending to flop their march ^ at the fame time
our camps were Avithout foldiers. Dumourier, the fuc-
ceffor of Servan, declared that the nation had neither
arms, ammunition, nor provifions, and that the polls
Avere left defencelefs. Y ou waited to be urged by a re-
queft made to the minifter Lajard, when the legiflative
affembly wiftied to point out the means of providing
for the external fafety of the Hate, by propofing the
levy of 42 battalions. You gave commiflion to the
commanders of the troops to difband the army, to force
whole regiments to defert, and to make them pafs the
Rhine, to put them at the difpofal of your brothers,
and of Leopold of Auftria, Avith whom you had intel¬
ligence. This fa£l is proved by the letter of Toulou-
geon, governor of Tranche Comte.—W hat have you to
anfwer ?”
Louis. 44 I know nothing of this circumftance 5
there is not a word of truth in this charge.”
Pref. 44 You charged your diplomatic agents to
favour this coalition of foreign powers and your bro¬
thers againft France, and efpeeially to cement the peace
between Turkey and Auftria, and to procure thereby a
larger number of troops againft France from the latter.
A letter of Choifeul-Gouffier, ambaffador at Con-
ftantinople, verifies the fadl.—What ha\re you to an¬
fwer ?”
Louis. 44 M. Choifeul did not fpeak the truth : no
fuch thing has ever been.
Pref 44 The Pruflians advanced againft our fron¬
tiers : your minifter Avas fummoned on the 8th of July
to give an account of the ftate of our political relations
wit h
France.
1792.
FRA [ i
France- with Pruflia ; you anfwered, on the 10th, that 50,000
 v1 *—; Prufhans were marching againft us, and that you gave
I792, notice to the legillative body of the formal acts of the
pending hoftilities, in conformity to the conftitution.—
What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ It was only at that period I had know¬
ledge of it: all the correfpondence paffed with the mi-
niiters.”
Pref. “ You entrulted Dabancourt, the nephew ot
Calonne, with the department of war 5 and fuch has
been the fuccefs of your confpiracy, that the polls of
LonGrwy and Verdun were furrendered to the enemy at
the moment of their appearance.—What have you to
anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I did not know that Dabancourt was M.
Calonne’s nephew. I have not diverted the polls. I
would not have permitted myfelf fuch a thing. I know
nothing of it, if it has been fo.”
Pref. “ You have deftroyed our navy—a vaft num¬
ber of officers belonging to that corps had emigrated *,
there fcarcely remained any to do duty in the harbours j
meanwhile Bertrand was granting paffports every day.;
and when the legillative body reprefented to you his
criminal conduft on the 8th of March, you anfwered,
that you were fatisfied with his fervices.—What have
you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I have done all I could to retain the offi¬
cers. As to M. Bertrand, fince the legiflative affembly
prefented no complaint againft him that might have
put him in a ftate of accufation, I did not think proper
to turn him out of office.
Pref. “ You have favoured the maintenance of ab-
folute government in the colonies; your agents foment¬
ed troubles and counter-revolutions throughout them,
which took place at the fame epoch when it was to
have been brought about in France, which indicates
plainly that your hand laid this plot.—What have you
to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ If there are any of my agents in the colo¬
nies, they have not fpoken the truth ; I had nothing to
do with what you have juft mentioned.”
Pref. “ The interior of the ftate was convulfed by
fanatics ; you avowed yourfelf their protestor, in mani-
fefting your evident intention of recovering by them
your ancient power.—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I cannot anfwer to this ; I know nothing
of fuch a project.”
Pref. “ The legiflative body had palled a decree
on the 29th of January againft the factious priefts ;
you fufpended its execution.—What have you to an¬
fwer ?”
Louis. “ The conftitution referved to me the free
right to refufe mv famftion of the decrees.”
Pref. “ The troubles had increafed ; the minifter
declared, that he knew no means in the laws extant to
arraign the guilty. The legiflative body enafted a frefli
decree, which youlikewife fufpended. What have you
to fay to this ?”
[Louis replied in the fame manner as in the preced¬
ing charge.]
Pref “ The uncitizen-like condufl of the guards
whom the conftitution had granted you, had rendered it
necelfary to diiband them. The day after, you fent
them a letter expreffive of your fatisfa&ion, and con-
41 ] FRA
tinued their pay. This fa<ft is proved by the treafurer
of the civil lift.—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I only continued them in pay till freffi
ones could be raifed, according to the tenor of the de¬
cree.”
Pref. “ You kept near your perfon the Swifs
guards : the conftitution forbade you this, and the legif¬
lative aflembly had exprefsly ordained their departure.
—What have you to anfwer ?”
Louis. “ I have executed all the decrees that have
been enabled in this refpeet.
Pref. “ You had private companies at Paris, char¬
ged to operate movements ufeful to your projects of a
counter-revolution. Dangremont and Gilles were two
of your agents, who had falaries from the civil lift.
The receipts of Gilles, who was ordered to raife a com¬
pany of 60 men, ftiall be prefented to you.——V/hat
have you to anfwer ?”
I.ouis. “ I have no knowledge whatever of the pro¬
jects laid to their charge : the idea of a counter-revolu¬
tion never entered into my mind.”
Pref. “ You wiftied to fuborn, with conftderable
fums, feveral members of the legiflative and conftituent
affemblies. Letters from St Leon and others evince
the reality of thefe deeds.—What have you to an¬
fwer ?”
Louis. “ Several perfons prefented themfelves with
fimilar decrees, but I have waved them.”
Pref. “ Who are they that prefented you with thofe
projefts ?”
Louis. “ The plans were fo vague that I do not re-
colleCt them now.”
Pref “ Who are thofe to whom you gave money.”
Louis. “ I gave money to nobody.”
Pref “ You fuffered the French name to be revil¬
ed in Germany, Italy, and Spain, fince you omitted to
demand fatisfaCtion for the bad treatment which the
French fuffered in thofe countries.—What have you to
anfwer ?”
Louis. “ The diplomatical correfpondence will prove
the contrary ; befldes, this was a concern of the mini-
fters.”
Pref. “ You reviewed the Swifs on the 10th of Au-
guft at five o’clock in the morning ; and the Swifs were
the firft who fired upon the citizens.”
Louis. “ I went on that day to review all the troops
that were affembled about me ; the conftituted authori¬
ties were with me, the department, the mayor, the mu¬
nicipality ; I had even invited thither a deputation of
the National Affembly, and I afterwards repaired into
the midft of them with my family.”
Pref. “ Why did you draw troops to the caftle ?”
Louis “ All the conftituted authorities faw that the
caftle was threatened ; and as I was a conftituted au¬
thority, I had a right to defend myfelf.”
Pref “ Why did you fummon the mayor of Paris
in the night between the 9th and 10th of Auguft to
the caftle ?”
Louis. “ On account of the reports that were circu¬
lated.”
Pref “ You have caufed the blood of the French to
be ffied.”
Louis. “ No, Sir, not I.”
Pref. “ You authorized Septeuil to carry on a
confiderabla
France.
1792.
France.
France.
1792.
FRA [ H2 1 F ^ A
Confiderable trade in corn, fugar, and coffee, at Ham¬
burg. This fact is proved by a letter of Scpteuil.”
Louis. “ I know nothing of what you fay.”
Pref. u Why did you affix a veto on the decree
which ordained the formation of a ^amp of 20,000
men ?”
Louis. “ The conftitution left to me the free right
of refuting my fanttion of the decrees ; and even from
that period I had demanded the affemblage of a camp
at Soiffons.”
P reft dent, addrefling the convention. “ The que-
ilions are done with.” (To Louis)—“ Louis, is there
any thing that you wilh to add ?”
Louis. “ I requeft a communication of the charges
which 1 have heard, and of the pieces relating thereto,
and the liberty of choofing courifel for my defence.
Valaze, who fat near the bar, prefented and read to
Louis Capet the pieces, viz. The memoir of Laporte
and Mirabeau, and feme others, containing plans of a
counter-revolution.
L^ouis. “ I difown them.”
Valaze next prefented feveral other papers, on which
the a£t of accufation was founded, and alked the king
if he recognized them. Thefe papers were the follow¬
ing :
Valu%e. “ Letter of Louis Capet, dated June 29th
1790, fettling his connexions with Mirabeau and La
Fayette to effedt a revolution in the conftitution.”
Louis. “ I referve to myfelf to anfwer the con¬
tents”—(Valaze read the letter.)—“ It is only a plan,
in which there is no queftion about a counter-revolu¬
tion *, the letter was not to have been fent.”
Valn-ze. “ Letter of Louis Capet, of the 2 2d of
April, relative to converfations about the Jacobins,
about the prefident of the committee of finances, and
the committee of domains ; it is dated by the hand of
Louis Capet.”
L^ouis. “ I difown it.”
Vala%e. “ Letter of Laporte, of Thurfday morn¬
ing, March 3d, marked in the margin in the hand¬
writing of Louis Capet with March 3d 1791, implying
a pretended rupture between Mirabeau and the Jaco¬
bins.”
Louis. “ I difown it.”
Vala%e. “ Letter of Laporte without date, in his
hand-writing, but marked in the margin by the hand
of Louis Capet, containing particulars refpedting the
laft moments of Mirabeau, and exprefling the care that
had been taken to conceal from the knowledge of men
fome papers of great concern which had been depofited
with Mirabeau.”
Louis. “ I difown it as well as the reft.”
Vala%e. “ Plan of a conftitution, or revifion of the
conftitution, figned la Fayette, addreffed to Louis Ca¬
pet, April 6th 1790, marked in the margin with a line
in his own hand-writing.”
Louis. “ Thefe things have been blotted out by the
conftitution.”
Valasted. “ Do you know this writing ?”
Louis. “ I do not.”
Vala-ze. Your marginal comments ?”
Louis. “ I do not.”
Valaze. “ Letter of Laporte of the 19th of April,
marked in the margin by Louis Capet April 19. 1791,
mentioning a converlation with Rivarol.”
Louis. “ I difown it.”
Valaze. “ Letter of Laporte, marked April 16.
1791, in which it feems Complaints are made of Mira-
beau, the abbe Perigord, Andre, and Beaumetz, who
do not feem to acknowledge facrifices made for their
fake.”
Louis. “ I difown it likewife.”
Valaze'. “ Letter of Laporte of the 23 d of Febru¬
ary 1791, marked and dated in the hand-writing of
Louis Capet; a memorial annexed to it, refpe&ing the
means of his gaining popularity.”
Louis. “ i know neither of thefe pieces.”
Valaze. “ Several pieces without fignature, found
in the caftle of the Thuilleries, in the gap which was
fhut in the walls of the palace, relating to the expences
to gain that popularity.”
Prefident. “ Previous to an examination on this fub-
jeft, I wilh to alk a preliminary queftion : Have you
caufed a prefs with an iron door to be conftructed in the
caftle of the Thuilleries, and had you your papers
locked up in that preis ?”
Louis. “ I have no knowledge of it whatever.”
Valaze. Here is a day-book written by Louis
Capet himfelf, containing the penfions he has granted
out of his coffer from 1776 till 1792, in Avhich are
obferved fome douceurs granted to Acloque.”
Louis. “ This I own, but it confifts of charitable
donations which I have made.”
Valaze. “ Different lifts of fums paid to the Scotch
companies of Noailles, Gramont, Montmorency, and
Luxembourg, on the 9th of July 1791.”
Louis. “ This is prior to the epoch when I forbade
them to be paid.”
Pref. “ Louis, ■where had you depofited thofe pie¬
ces which you own ?”
Louis. “ With my treafurer.”
Valaze. “ Do you know thefe penfion-lifts of the
life-guards, the one hundred Swifs, and the king’s guards
for 1792 ?”
Louis. “ I do not.”
Valaze'. “ Several pieces relative to the confpiracy
of the camp of Jales, the original of which are depo¬
fited among the records of the department of L’Ar-
deche.”
Louis. “ I have not the fmalleft knowledge of
them.”
Valaze. “ Letter of Bouille, dated Mentz, bear¬
ing an account of 993,000 livres received of Louis Ca¬
pet.”
Louis.* “ I difown it.”
Valaze. “ An order for payment of 168,000 livres,
figned Louis, indorfed Le Bonneirs, with a letter and
billet of the fame.”
Louis. “ I difown it.”
Valaze. “ Two pieces relative to a prefent made
to the wife of Polignac, and to Lavauguyon and Choi-
fetd”
Louis. “ I difown them as well as the others.”
Valazd. “ Here is a note figned by the two bro¬
thers of the late king, mentioned in the declaratory
aa.”
Louis. “ I know nothing of it.”
Valaze. “ Here are pieces relating to the affair of
Choifeul Gouffier at Conftantinople.”
Louis. “ I have no knowledge of them.”
Valaze.
F U A [ i
Valaxe. “ Here is a letter of the late king to the
bifhop of Clermont, with the anfwer of the latter, of the
16th of April 1791.” _
Louis. “ I difown it.”
P reft dent. “ Do you not acknowledge your writing
and your fignet ?”
Louis. “ I do not.”
P ref dent. “ The feal bears the arms of France.”
Louis. “ Several perfons made ufe of that feal.”
Vala%e. “ Do you acknowledge this liif of fums
paid to Gilles ?”
Louis. “ I do not.”
FRA
Franc®.
Vaia’ze. “ Here is a memorandum for indemnifying
34*
He is allow¬
'd to nomi
.nate his
•jvvn coun-
icl:
343
hut is con¬
demned to
-t.h by a
tmall maio
rity.
the civil lift for the military penfions *, a letter of Du-
frefne St Leon, which relates to it.”
Louis. “ I know none of thofe pieces.”
When the whole had been inveftigated in this man¬
ner, the preftdent, addrefting the king, faid, “ I have
no other queftions to propofe—have you any thing more
to add in your defence —“ I defire to have a copy of
the accufation (replied the king), and of the papers on
which it is founded. 1 alfo deftre to have a counfel of
my own nomination.” Barrere informed him, that his
two firft requefts were already decreed, and that the de¬
termination refpedfing the other would be made known
to him in due time.
It would have been an excefs of cruelty to refufe a
requeft fo reafonable in itfelf; it was therefore decreed
that counfel fhould be allowed to the king, and his
choice fell upon M. M. Tronchet, Lamoignon, Male-
fherbes, and Defeze j he had previoufly applied to M.
Target, who excufed himfelf on account of his age and
infirmity. On the 26th of December, the king ap¬
peared for the laft time at the bar of the convention •,
and M. Defeze read a defence which the counfel had
prepared, and which was equally admired for the folidi-
ty of the argument and the beauty of the compofition.
When the defence was finiftied, the king arofe, and
holding a paper in his hand, pronounced in a calm man¬
ner, and with a firm voice, what follows : “ Citizens,
you have heard my defence; I now fpeak to you, per¬
haps for the laft time, and declare that my counfel have
afferted nothing to you but the truth ; my confcience
reproaches me with nothing. I never was afraid of ha¬
ving my conduct inveftigated •, but I obferved with
great unealinefs, that I was accufed of giving orders for
{bedding the blood of the people on the 10th of Auguft.
The proofs I have given through my whole life of a
contrary difpofition, I hoped would have faved- me from
fuch an imputation, which I now folemnly declare is en¬
tirely groundlefs.”
The difeuflion was fatally clofed on the 16th of Ja¬
nuary. After a fitting of near 34 hours, the punifti-
ment of death was awarded by a fmall maiority of the
convention, and feveral of thefe differed in opinion from
the reft, refpefting the time when it fhould be inflifted*,
fome contending that it fhould not be put in execution
till after the end of the war, while others propofed to
take the fenfe of the people, by referring the fentenee
to the primary affemblies.
M. Defeze then folemnly invoked the affembly in
the name of his colleagues, to confider by what a fmall
maiority the punifhment of death was pronounced
againft the dethroned monarch. “ Do not afflifl
France (added this eloquent advocate) by a judgment
that will appear terrible to her, when fve voices only
344
43 1
were prefumed fufficient to carry it.” He appealed to ^
eternal juftice, and facred humanity, to induce the con¬
vention to refer their fentence to the tribunal of the
people. “ You have either forgotten or deftroyed (faid
the celebrated M. Tronchet) the lenity which the law
allows to criminals, of requiring at leaft two thirds of
the voices to conftitute a definitive judgment.”
The fentence wyas ordered to be executed in twenty-
four hours.
The king jfnd his family had been for fome time kept And cxe-
feparate from each other j but he was now allowed to fee cutcd*
them, and to choofe an ecclefiaftic to attend him. lie
meeting, and, above all, the feparation from his family,
Avas tender in the extreme. On Monday the 21ft Ja¬
nuary, at eight o’clock in the morning, the unfortunate
monarch was fummoned to his fate. He afeended the
fcaffold Avith a firm air and ftep. Raifing his voice, he
faid, “ Frenchmen, I die innocent *, I pardon all my
enemies; and may France”—at this inftant the inhuman
Santerre ordered the drums to beat, and the ^ execu¬
tioners to perform their office. When they oftered to
bind his hands, he ftarted back as if about to refill ; but
recollected himfelf in a moment, and fubmitted. When
the inftrument of death defeended, the prieft exclaimed,
“ Son of St Louis, afeend to heaven.” The bleeding
head was held up, and a few of the populace {houted
Vive la Repub/ique. His body Avas interred in a grave
that Avas filled up Avith quicklime, and a guard placed
around till it fhould be confumed. 34S
Thus fell Louis XVI. He poffeffed from nature charadter
a o-ood underftanding, Avhich, hoAvever, Avas blunt-of this lin¬
ed ^by the early indulgences of a court. He had
ftrong fenfe of juftice, and his humanity was perhapsmonarc ^
extreme. One defeCl rendered his virtues of little va¬
lue, Avhich Avas the poffeffion of an irrefolute and un-
fteady character. Unambitious, and eafily advifed, he
was Avithout difficulty induced to change his purpofes,.
efpecially by his queen, Avbofe connexion Avith the
houfe ©f Auftria had always tended to render his eoun-
fels unpopular. Whether he ivas or Avas not conneCled
Avith the foreign invaders of his country, pofterity muft
decide ; but all men of fenfe and moderation muft be
convinced that he Avas murdered by a band of ruffians.
Indeed a fentence fo infamous, and in all refpeds un¬
juft, is not to be found in the records of hiftory. Ihe
greater part of the charges brought againft him Avere
trifling. Thofe ivhich feem to be of importance relate
to condudft authorized by the conftitution under which
he afted ; and that conftitution declared his perfon in¬
violable. The fevereft punifhment that he could incur
by law,. Avas not death, but depofition ; and there is no
doubt, that in putting him to death the French natio-n
broke the focial compaCt Avhich their reprefentatives-
made Avith him. In a political view, this tragical event
Avas injurious to the republican caufe throughout Eu¬
rope. No man out of France ventured to iuftify it;
and in all countries it excited the moft violent indigna¬
tion againft the rulers of the new republic. ^ 346
Neiv enemies Avere uoav haftening to join the general 1,l‘pmre
league againft France. We do not mean here to enter
into a detail of the political ftruggles that occurred in
any other country, than that in the narrative of Avhofe
revolution avc are norv engaged. It ivill therefore only
be neceffary to remark in general, that the Britifh go¬
vernment at this time thought itfeli endangered by the
propagation of thofe fpeculaliye opinions Avhich had
evertumcch
F Pt A [ 144 ] FRA
France, overturned the French monarchy. Almoft all the men
v of property in the kingdom concurred with the miniftry
i793’ in thinking a war with France neceflary lor the pur-
pofe of fecuring the conftitution at home. After the
I Oth of Auguft the Britilh minifter had been recalled 5
but the new republic Hill fuffered the former ambaffa-
347 dor from France, M. Chauvelin, to remain in England.
Grounds of The oftenfible grounds of quarrel on the part of
the quarrel Qreat Britain were chieHy two ; the decree of the 15th
of Greatait of November 1792, by which it was truly obferved that
Britain. encouragement to rebellion was held out to the fubjecls
of every Hate, and that war was thereby waged againft
every eftabliflied government. Of this decree the French
executive council gave explanations, denying the fair-
nefs of the interpretation put upon it, and alleging,
that the intention of the convention was only to give
aid to fuch countries as had already acquired their free¬
dom, and by a declaration of the general will requelled
aid for its prefervation. But this explanation cannot be
admitted. The decree exprefsly fays, that the French
nation will grant ajjijlance to all who wifhto procure liber¬
ty ; and when it is confidered what their notions of li¬
berty are, it cannot be doubted but that their intention
was to excite rebellion in foreign nations. The fecond
point of difpute referred to the opening of the Scheldt.
This river runs from Brabant through the Dutch territory
to the fea. The Dutch had Ihut up the mouth of it, and
prevented any maritime commerce from being carried on
by the people of Brabant by means of the river. To ren¬
der themfelves popular in Brabant, the French had de¬
clared that they would open the navigation of the
Scheldt. But Great Britain had fome time before bound
herfelf by treaty with the Dutch to affill them in ob-
II rlifting this navigation, and now declared to the
French, that the projeft of opening the Scheldt mull be
renounced if peace with Great Britain was to remain.
The French alleged, that by the law of nations navigable
rivers ought to be open to all who relide on their banks j
but that the point was of no importance either to
France or England, and even of very little imporiance
to Holland ; that if the people of Brabant themfelves
chofe to give it up, they would make no objeftion.
It has Been thought remarkable, that the Dutch gave
themfelves no trouble about the matter. They did not
alk the allillance of England ; and with that coolnefs
which is peculiar to their charafter, the merchants in¬
dividually declared, that if the Scheldt, was opened, they
could manage their commerce as well at Antwerp as
at Amfterdam. But in all this there is nothing
ftrange. Among the Dutch were many republicans,
who wifhed for the downfal of the lladtholder. Thefe
rejoiced at every thing which dillrefled him, or had a
tendency to render his office ufelefs in the eyes of the
people. Others, who thought differently, were afraid
to fpeak their fentiments, as Dumourier was in their
neighbourhood with a viftorious army. The refult of
the whole was, that M. Chauvelin was commanded by
the Britiffi government to leave this country. The
,T, French executive council gave powers to another mini-
»^iraecla- nT, rr
red apniift Her, ivl. Maret, to negociate, and requeued a paiiport
the king of for him •, but he was not fuffered to land. The haughty
England republicans having thus far humbled themfelves before
hokbr of" t^e government, at laft, on the iff of Febru-
Hoiland. aiT x793> on the motion of Briffot, the national con¬
vention decreed, among other articles, that “ George
king of England had never, ceafed lince the revolution
- - • 5
of the I Oth of Auguft 1792 from giving to the France.
French nation proofs of his attachment to the concert v——■
of crowned heads j that he had drawn into the fame 1793*
lake the ftadt holder of the United Provinces ; that,
contrary to the treaty of 1783, the Engliih miniftry
had granted proteftion to the emigrants and others who
have openly appeared in arms againlt France j that they
have committed an outrage againft the I rench repub¬
lic, by ordering the ambaliador of France to quit Great
Britain*, that the Engliih have flopped divers beats
and veffels laden with corn for France, whilft, at the
fame time, contrary to the treaty of they con¬
tinue the exportation of it to other foreign countries }
that to thwart more efficaeioully the commercial tranf-
aftions of the republic with England, they have by an
aft of parliament prohibited the circulation of affignats.
The convention therefore declare, that in conlequence
of thefe afts of hoftility and aggreffion, the French re¬
public is at war with the king of England and the fladt-
holder of the United Provinces.
The abfurdity of pretending that any treaty with
France made in 1783 could be violated by protefting
the emigrants who fled from the fury of the convention,
mull be obvious to every reader. The convention was
itfelf a rebellious ufurpation of the government with
which fuch a treaty was made. The prohibition of
affignats was certainly contrary to no law, and was fanc-
tioned by every motive of expediency, unlefs the con¬
vention could prove that all nations were bound by
the law of nature to rifk their own credit upon the cre¬
dit of the French republic. _ 349
About a fortnight after this abfurd declaration againft And again
Britain, war was likewife declared againft Spain j and sPam-
in the courfe.of the fummer France was at war with all
Europe, excepting only Swifferland, Sweden, Den¬
mark, and Turkey. _ 35°
In the mean time General Dumourier, who was pro- Pro refs oj
ceeding agreeable to his orders, made an attack upon Dumouru:
Holland but in doing this he difperfed his troops in
fuch a manner as to expofe them much to any attack
on the fide of Germany. He commanded General Mi¬
randa to inveft Maeftricht, while he advanced to block
up Breda, and Bergen-op-zoom. The firft of thefe places,
viz. Breda, furrendered on the 24th of February \ Klun-
dert was taken on the 26th ; and Gertruydenberg on the
4th of March. But here the triumphs of Dumourier
ended. The fieges of Williamftadt and Bergen-op- 3SI
zoom were vigoroufly but unfuccefsfully prefled. On He is de-
the ill of March General Clairfait having paffed thefeated.
Roer, attacked the French polls, und compelled them
to retreat with the lofs of 2000 men.
The following day the archduke attacked them anew
wifh confiderable fuccefs. On the 3d the French Avere
driven from Aix-la-Chapelle, with the lofs of 4000 men
killed and 1600 taken prifoners.
The fiege of Maeftricht was now raifed, and the
French retreated to Tongres, where they were alfo at¬
tacked, and forced to retreat to St Tron. Dumourier
here joined them, but did not bring his army along
with him from the attack upon Holland. After fome
fkirmilhes, a general engagement took place at Neer-
winden. It was fought on the part of the French
with great obftinacy j but they were at length over¬
powered by the number of their enemies, and perhaps
alfo by the treachery of their commander. This de¬
feat was fatal. The French loft 3000 men, and 6000
immediately
FRA
[ H5
FRA
France.
3j2'
And joins
the allies;
3^3
but his ar¬
my refufe
Immediately deferted and went home to France. Du-
mourier continued to retreat, and on the 22d he was.a-
gain attacked near Louvain. He now, through the
medium of Colonel Mack, came to an agreement with
the Impcrialifts that his retreat fliould not be ferioufly
interrupted. It was now fully agreed between him
and the Imperialiils, that while the latter took poifeffion
of Conde and Valenciennes, he fhould march to Paris,
diHelve the convention, and place the fon ol the late
king upon the throne.
The rapid retreat and fucceffive defeats of General
Dumourier rendered his conduct fufpicious. Commif-
fioners were fent from the executive power for the pur-
pofe of difeovering his defigns. They didembled, and
pretended to communicate to him a fcheme of a counter¬
revolution. He confeded his intention of diffolving the
convention and the Jacobin club by force, which he faid
would not exifl: three weeks longer, and of reftoring
monarchy. On the report of thefe commiffioners the
convention fent Bournonville the minifter of war to
fuperfede and arreft Dumourier, along with Camus,
Blancal, La Marque, and Quinette, as commiffioners.
The attempt on the part of thefe men was at leait
hazardous, to fay no more of it 5 and the relolt was, that
on the firlt of April Dumourier fent them prifoners to
General Clairfait’s head quarters at Tournay as hoftages
for the fafety of the royul family. He next attempted
to feduce his army from their fidelity to the convention}
to ad with }ie fpeedily found that he had much miftaken the
charafter of his troops. Upon the report that their
general was to be carried as a criminal to Paris, they
were feized with fudden indignation } but when they
found that an attempt was making to prevail with
them to turn their arms againif their country, their
Proclama- fentiments altered. On the 5th of April, two preda¬
tions of the mations were iffued ; one by General Dumourier, and
Imperial the other by the prince of Saxe Cobourg, declaring that
their only purpofe was to reftore the conftitution of
1789, 1790, and 1791. Prince Cobourg announced
that the allied powers wifhed merely to co-operate with
General Dumourier in giving to France her conftitu-
tional king and the conftitution ftie had formed for
herfelf, declaring, on his word of honour, that he came
not to the French territory for the purpofe of making
conquefts. On the fame day Dumourier went to the
advanced guard of his own camp at Maulde. He there
learned that the corps of artillery had rifen upon their
general, and were marching to Valenciennes; and he
foon found that the whole army had determined to
Hand by their country. Seven hundred cavalry and 800
infantry was the whole amount of thofe that deferted
with Dumourier to the Auftrians, and many of them
afterwards returned.
By the defection of Dumourier, however, the whole
army of the north wTas diffolved, and in part difbanded,
in prefence of a numerous, well-difciplined, and victo¬
rious enemy. The Pruffians 'were at the fame time ad¬
vancing on the Rhine with an immenfe force, and about
to commence the fiege of Mentz. In the interior of
the republic more ferious evils if poffible wSre ariftng.
in the departments of La Vendee and La Loire, or
the provinces of Brittany and Poitou, immenfe multi¬
tudes of emigrants and other royalifts had gradually
aflembled in the courfe of the winter. They profefled
to aft in the name of Monfieur, as regent of France.
VOL. IX. Part I.
commander
in chief.
c 355
State of
France at
this period.
356
About the middle of March they advanced againft Franco.
Nantz to the amount of 40,000. In the beginning
of April they, defeated the republicans in two pitched
battles, and poffeffed themfelves of 50 leagues of coun¬
try. They even threatened by their own efforts to
fhake the new republic to its foundation. On the 8th Congrefs of
of April a congrefs of the combined powers affembled the com¬
at Antwerp. It was attended by the prince of Orange bjm;d
and his two fons, with his excellency Vander Spiegel, cov,els'
on the part ol Holland ; by the duke of ork and
Lord Auckland on the part of Great Britain ; by the
prince of Saxe Cobourg, Counts Metterinch, Staren-
berg, and Mercy Dargenteau, with the Pruflian, Spa-
nilh, and Neapolitan envoys. It was here determined
to commence aftive operations againft Frahce. The
prince of Cobourg’s proclamation was recalled, and a
fcheme of conqueft announced. 357
Commiffioners from the convention now' fet up the The repuh-
ftandard of the republic anew, and the fcattered bat-
talions flocked around it. General Dampierre was
appointed commander, and on the 13th he was able to
refill a general attack upon his advanced polls. On
the 14th, his advanced guard yielded to fuperior num¬
bers, but on the 15th was victorious in a long and
well-fought battle. On the 23d, the Auftrians -were
again repulled, and on the ill of May General Dam¬
pierre was himfelf repulfed in an attack upon the
enemy. On the 8th, another engagement took place, in
which the Fiench general was killed by a cannon ball.
On the 23d, a very determined attack was made by the
allies upon the French fortified camp of Fam'ars, which
covered the town of Valenciennes. The French were
overcome, and in the night abandoned their camp. In.
confequence of this the allies were enabled to commence
the fiege of Valenciennes ; for Conde had been block¬
aded from the ill of April.
About the fame time General Cuftine on the Rhine
made a violent but unfuccefsful attack upon the Pruf¬
fians, in confequence of which they were foon enabled ^
to lay liege to Mentz. The Corfican general Paoli Revolt of
revolted at this period ; and the new republic, affaulted Pa°L
from without by the whole flrength of Europe, was un¬
dermined by treachery and faftion within. ^59
While the country was in a Hate verging upon utter statu 0f
ruin, parties in the convention wrere gradually waxing parties in
more fierce in their animofity •, and regardlefs of what France, and
was palling at a diftance, they feemed only anxious for
the extermination of each other. In the month of kunai
March, the celebrated Revolutionary Tribunal was efta- bliflied.
bliftied for the purpofe of trying crimes committed
againft the Hate ; and the Girondiil party, the mildnefs
of whofe adminiftration had contributed not a little to
increafe the evils of their country, began to fee the
neceffity of adopting meafures of feverity. But the
public calamities, which now rapidly followed each other
in fucceffion, were aferibed by their countrymen to their
imbecility or perfidy. This gave to the party of the
Mountain a fatal advantage. On the 15th of April
the communes of the 48 feftions of Paris prefented a
petition, requiring that the chiefs of the Girondifts
therein named fliould be impeached and expelled from
the convention. This was "followed up on the ill of
May by another petition from the fuburb of St Antoine.
The Girondift party in the mean time impeached Ma¬
rat, but he was acquitted by the jury at his trial. The
T Mountain,
FRA r 146 ] FRA
Ivraser. Mountain, by the a (Tift an cc of the Jacobin club, had
1 now acquired a complete afcendancy over the city of
4 793* Paris. The Girondifts or JJrilTotines propofed there¬
fore to remove the convention from the capital 5 and to
prevent this, the Mountain refolved to make the fame
ufe of the people of the capital againft the Girondift
party that they had formerly done againft the monarch
on the 10th of Auguft. It is unneceflary to ftate in
detail all the tumults that occurred either in Paris or in
the convention during the remaining part of the month
of May. On the 31ft, at four o’clock in the morning,
the toefm was founded, the generate was beat, and the
alarm guns fired. All was commotion and terror. The
citizens flew to arms, and aflembled round the conven¬
tion. Some deputations demanded a decree of accufa-
tion againft 350!’its members. The day, however, was
fpent without decifion. On the afternoon of the ift
of June an armed force made the fame demand. On
the 2d of June this was repeated, the toefin again
founded, and an hundred pieces of cannon furrounded
the national hall. At laft Barrere mounted the tri¬
bune. He was confidered as a moderate man, and re-
fpected by both parties} but he now artfully deferted
the Girondifts. He invited the denounced members
voluntarily to refign their character of reprefentatives.
Some of them complied, and the prefident attempted
to diiTolve the fitting; but the members rvere roav
imprifoned in their own hall. Henriot, commander of
the armed force, compelled them to remain ; and the
obnoxious deputies, amounting to upAvards of 90 in
number, rvere put under arreft, and a decree of denun-
„(5o ciation againft them figned.
The Moun- It is obvious, that on this occafion the liberties of
tain party Trance Avere trodden under foot. I he minority of the
get the up- national reprefentatives, by the afliftance of an armed
ryr hand. £orce rajfcti {n the capital, compelled the majority to
fubmit to their meafures, and took the leading members
prifoners. 1 hus the city of Paris affumed to itfelf the
Avhole poAvers of the Trench republic ^ and the nation
Avas no longer governed by reprefentatives freely chofen,
but by a minority of their members, Avhofe fentiments
the city of Paris and the Jacobin club had thought fit to
approve of. Human hiftory is a mafs of contradictions.
The Mountain party came into poAver by preaching li¬
berty, and by violating its fundamental principles.^ Hoav
far the plea of political neceflity may excufe their con-
du6t, Ave ftiall not venture to decide explicitly. Certain
it is, hoAvever, that they foon commenced, both at home
and abroad, a career of the moft terrible energy that
is to be found in the annals of nations.
The firft refult of their viftory in the capital Avas ca¬
lamitous to the republic at large. Briffot and fome
.j other deputies efcaped, and endeavoured to kindle the
Several ci- flames of civil Avar. In general, hoAvever, the influence
ties and de-of the Jacobin club, and of its various branches, AAras
par meats fuch, that the north of Trance adhered to the conven-
revjit m t;on ^ ft0()d . but the fouthern departments Avere
confe- fpeedily in a ftate of rebellion. The department of
ijuence. Lyons declared the Mountain party outlaAved. Mar-
feilles and Toulon followed the example of Lyons, and
entered into a confederacy, Avhich has fince been knoAvn
by the appellation of Fcederalifn. The departments of
La Gironde and Calvades broke out into open revolt.
In ftiort, the whole of Trance Avas in a ftate of violent
smnvulften. Still, hoAvever, the enthuliaftic garrifons
of Mentz and Valenciennes protested it againft the im- t ~ranee,
mediate entrance of a foreign force, and alloAVed leifure
for one of its internal factions to gain an afcendancy,
and thereafter to protect its independence. In the
mean time, the political enthufiafm of all orders of per-
fons Avas fuch, that even the female fex did not efcape
its contagion. A young Avoman of the name of Char- Marat nmr-
lotte Corde, in the beginning of July, came from the dered by a
department of Calvades to devote her life for what the w oman*
thought the caufe of freedom and of her country. She
requefted an interview Avith Marat, the moft obnoxious
of the Mountain party. Having obtained it, and con-
verfed Avith him calmly for fome time, Hie fuddenly
plunged a dagger in his breaft, and'Avalked earelefsly
out of the houfe. She Avas immediately feized and
condemned. At the place of execution ftie behaved
Avith infinite conftancy, ftiouting Vive la repuklique. The
remains of Marat Avere interred Avith great fplendor,
and the convention attended his funeral. His party
perhaps derived advantage from the manner of his
death, as it feemed to fallen the odious charge of aflaf-
fination upon their antagonifts, and gave them tlm ap¬
pearance of fuffering in the caufe of liberty. Ihe
truth is, that affaffination Avas fanclioned by both par¬
ties under pretence of defending the liberties of the re¬
public. _ # 363
One of the firft acts of the Mountain junto after The repub.
their triumph Avas to finilh the republican conftitution.
Previous to their fall, the Girondifts had brought for-^
Avard the plan of a conftitution, chiefly the Avork of tp,e Moun.
Condorcet ; but it was never fanCtioned by the conven- tain,
tion, and Avas too intricate to be praftically ufeful.
The new conftitution norv framed, Avhich Avas after-
Avards fanclioned by the nation, but was never put
in praftice, abolilhed the former mode of eledling
the reprefentatives of the people through the medium
of ele&oral affemblies, and appointed them to be chofen
immediately by the primary afiemblies, Avhich Avere
to confift of from 200 to 600 citizens, each man vo¬
ting by ballot or open vote at his option. There Avas one
deputy for every 40,000 individuals, and population Avas
the foie bafis of reprefentation. The elections Avere to
take place every year on the 1 ft of May. Tit61 oral aflem-
blies Avere, hoAvever, retained for one purpofe. Every
200 citizens in the primary affemblies named one debtor •,
and an affembly of all the debtors of the department AAras
aftenvards held, which debt ed candidates for t lie executive
council, or miniftry of the republic, i he legillative body
chofe out of all this lift of candidates the members of
the executive council. One half of this council Avas re-
nevved by each legiflature in the laft month of the fef-
fion. Every law, after being paffed by the legiflative
body, Avas fent to the department. If in more than half
of the departments the tenth of the primary affemblies
of each did not obiebl to it, it became effebtual. I rial
by jury Avas eftablithed. National conventions might be
calied for altering the conftitution, and Avere to be call¬
ed, if required by the tenth of the primary affemblies
of each department in a majority of the departments.
The publication of this conftitution procured no
fmall degree of applaufe to the convention and the
Mountain party. The rapidity with which it was
formed (being only a fortnight) feemed to call a juft
reproach upon the floAvnefs of their antagonifts, and it
Avas regarded as a proof of their being decidedly fe—
nous'.
Trance
1793-
3^4
Fall of
Conde and
Valencien¬
nes. *
3*5
The allied
powers di¬
vided as to
their fu¬
ture pro¬
ceeding.
366-
Unfortu¬
nate confe-
quences of
the divition
of their
forces.
FRA [ 1+7
nous in the caufe of republicanifnrn No regard, how¬
ever, was paid to it by the convention, which declared
itfelf permanent, nor indeed did it feem pollible to carry
it into execution.
We have mentioned that'Conde was myeited from
the beginning of April. It did not yierd till the icth
of July, when the garrifon was fo much reduced by fa¬
mine'and difeafe, that out of 4000 men, of which it
originally confided, only 1500 were fit for fervice. The
eyes of all Europe were in the mean time fixed upon
the ficge of Valenciennes. Colonel Moncrietf had con¬
tended^ that batteries ought immediately to be placed
under the Avails without approaching it by regmai pa¬
rallels *, but the Imperial engineer Mr Ferraris afierted,
that the work of the great Vauban mult be treated with
more refpect; and his opinion was adopted by the
council of Avar. The trenches were opened on the
14th of June. Few {allies were attempted by the gar¬
rifon, on account of the fmallnefs of their number.
The inhabitants at firfl wiftied to furrender ^ but the
violence of the bombardment prevented their affem-
bling or giving much trouble on that head to General
Ferrand tiie governor. Much of the labour of the
fiege confided of mines and countermines. Some of
thefe having been fuccefsfully fprung by the allies, the
toAvn was furrendered on the 27th of July by capitula¬
tion to the duke of York, who took poiTeflion of it in
behalf of the emperor of Germany. 1 he fiege of
Mentz was at the fame time going on. It differed much
from famine. At lad, after an unfuccefsful attempt by
the French army on the Rhine for its relief, it furren¬
dered on the 22d of July.
At the termination of the fiege of \ alenciennes it
would appear that the allied powers Avere at a lofs how
to proceed next. The Audrian commanders are faid
to have prefented Iavo plans : The fird was to penetrate
to Paris by the aflidance of the rivers Avhieh fall into
the Seine j the other was to take advantage of the con-
dernation occafioned by the furrender of Valenciennes,
and Avith 50,000 light troops to penetrate fuddenly to Pa¬
ris, Avhile a debarkation fhould be made on the coad of
Brittany to afiid the royalids. The propofal of the
Britidi minidry ivas, however, adopted, which Avas, to
divide the grand army, and to attack Wed Flanders,
beginning with the fiege of Dunkirk. This determi¬
nation proved ruinous to the allies. The French found
means to vanquilli in detail that army, which they could
not encounter ivhen united.
It has been faid that the duke of York Avas in fecret
correfpondence Avith Omeron the governor of Dunkirk ;
but the latter Avas removed before any advantage could
be taken of his treachery. On the 24th of Augud the
duke of York attacked and drove the French outpods
into the toAvn, after an action in which the Audrian
general Dalton was killed. A naval armament Avas
expe&ed from Great Britain to co-operate in the fiege,
but it did not arrive. In the mean time, a drong re¬
publican force menaced the covering army of the allies,
Avhich Avas commanded by General Freytag. He Avas
foon attacked and totally routed. The fiege Avas rai¬
led. The Britidi lod their heavy cannon and baggage,
with feveral thoufand men •, and the convention, belie¬
ving that their general Houchard could have cut off the
duke of York’s retreat, tried and executed him for this
neglect of duty.
Franc*.
179T
3 FRA
Prince Cobourg and General Clairfait In the mean
time unfuecefsfully attempted to befiege Cambray and
Bouchain. Quefnoy was, however, taken by General
Clairfait on the uthof September; and here finally
terminated for the prefent campaign the fuccefs of the
allies in the Netherlands.
A confiderable part of the French army of the
north took a drong pofition near Maubeuge, Avhere
they Avere blockaded by Prince Cobourg ; but upon
the 15th and 16th of October he was repeatedly at¬
tacked by the French troops under General Jourdan,
Avho fucceeded Houchard. The trench had norv re¬
covered their vigour.. I hey brought into the field a
formidable train of artillery, in which Avere many 24
pounders. Commiffioners from the convention ha¬
rangued the foldiers, threatened the fearful, and ap¬
plauded the brave. Cnmds of Avomen, without con-
fulion, Avent through the ranks, didributing fpirituous li¬
quors in abundance, and carrying off the Avounded.
The attacks Avere repeated and terrible on both fides j
but the Auftrians had confiderably the difadvantage,
and Prince Cobourg retired during the night. The
French nmv menaced maritime Flanders. They took
Fumes and befieged Nieuport. Adetachment of Britiih
troops ready to fail to the Weft Indies Avere haftily fent
to Offend, and preA'ented for the prefent the farther
progrefs of the French.
Such Avas the multiplicity of the events that iioav oc¬
curred in France, that it is difficult to ftate the out¬
lines of them with any tolerable perfpicuity. We have
already mentioned the extenfive diflenfions that occur¬
red throughout the republic in confequenee of the tri¬
umph of the Mountain party on the 31ft of May. I he
department of Calvades Avas firft in arms againff the
convention under the command of General Felix Wimp-
fen j but before the end of July the infurrettion Avas ^ _
quieted, after a few flight fkirmilhes. But the foedera- Lyoas be-
lifm of the cities of Marfeilles, Lyons, and Toulon,
remained. Lyons Avas attacked on the 8th of Auguft tional
by the conventional troops. Several a£1 ions folioAved, troops, and
•which were attended Avith great lofs both on the part taken,
of the affailants and of the befieged. The city Avas re¬
duced almoft to ruins-, but it held out during the
whole month of September. The befieging general
Kellerman Avas removed from his command, on account
of his fuppofed inactivity and the city furrendered on
the 8th of October to General Doppet, a man who had .365
lately been a phyfician. Such was the rage of party
zeal at this time, that the walls and public buildings ofrJ of the *
Lyons Avere ordered to be deftroyed, and its name conqueror.!
changed to that of Villa Affranchie. Many hundreds
of its citizens were dragged to the fcaffold on account
of their alleged treafonable refiftance to the convention.
The victorious party, Avearied by the Aoav operation of
the guillotine, at laft deftroyed their prifoners in multi¬
tudes, bv firing grape-fliot upon them. Such indeed
was the unrelenting charadler of the Mountain at this
time, not only here but through the whole republic,
that they themfelves pretended not to excufe it, but
declared that terror was Avith them the order of the
day. . 369
In the end of July General Cartaux was fent agamft The Mar-
Marfeilles. In the beginning of Auguft he gained Mdois obli-
fome fucceffes over the advanced foederalift troops. . On jA^t0 u ’
the 24th he took the toAvn of Aix, and the Marfeillois
T 2 fubraitted.
3*7
france.
r793*
37°
Toulon con-
flitionally
fubmits
to Lord
Hood,
37r
wdio is at
length obli¬
ged to eva¬
cuate it.
37*
'.?roeecd-
mgs ol the
toy anas ui
V enoee.
FRA [
fubmitted. Sut the leading people of the important
town and harbour of Toulon entered into a negoeia-
tion, and fubmitted to the Britiflr admiral Lord Hood,
under condition that he Ihould preferve as a depolit the
town and (hipping for Louis X\ IL and under the fti-
pulation that he ihould affift in reftoring the conftitu-
tion of 17Bp. The liege of Toulon was commenced
by General Cartaux in the beginning of September.
It continued without much vigour during that and the
whole of the lucceeding month. Neapolitan, Spanilh,
and Englilli troops, were brought by fea to aflift in its
defence.' In the beginning of November, General Car¬
taux was removed to the command of the army in Italy,
and General Dugommier fucceeded him. General O’
Hara arrived with reinforcements from Gibraltar, and
took upon him the command of the town, under a
commiflion from his Britannic majefty. On the 30th
of November, the garrifon made a powerful fally
to deftroy fome batteries that were erecting upon
heights which commanded the city. Ih6 French were
furprifed, and the allies fucceeded completely in their
objedt j but, elated by the facility of their conqueft, the
allied troops rallied forward in purfuit of the flying
enemy, contrary to their orders, and were unexpected¬
ly met by a Itrong French force tliat was drawn out to
proteft the fugitives. General O’Hara now came from
the city to endeavour to bring off- his troops with regulari¬
ty. He wTas wounded in the arm and taken prifoner. Ihe
total lofs of the allies in this affair was eftimated at nearly
one thoufand men. Fke Irench had now muftered in
full force around Toulon, and prepared tor the attack.
It was begun on the ipth of December in the morn¬
ing, and was chiefly directed again!! Fort Mu!grave?
defended by the Britilh. This fort was protefted by
an entrenched camp, 13 pieces of cannon, 36 and 24
pounders, &c. 5 mortars, and 3000 troops.. Such was
the ardour of affault, that it was carried in an hour,
and the whole garrifon was deftroyed or taken. The
allies now found it impoflible to defend the place 5 and
in the courfe of the day embarked their troops, after
having let on fire the arfenal and Ihips. A feene of
confulion here enfued, fuch as has not been known in
the hiftory of modern wars. Crowds of people of eve¬
ry rank, age, and fex, hurried on board the Ihips, to
avoid the vengeance of their enraged countrymen.
Some of the inhabitants began to fire upon their late
allies ; others in defpair were feen plunging into the
fea, making a vain effort to reach the Ihips ; or putting
an end at once to their own exiftence upon the fliore.
Thirty-one Ihips of the line were found by the Britilh
at Toulon j thirteen were left behind j ten were burnt;
four had been previoufly fent to the French ports of
Breff and Rochefort, with 5000 republicans who could
not be entrufted ; and Great Britain finally obtained
by this expedition only three Ihips of the line and five
frigates.
On the fids "of Spain the war produced nothing of
imnortance and in the mountainous country of Pied-.
Oiont it went on llowly. Nice and Chamberry were
Hill retained by the French •, but more terrible fcenes
-were a fling in other quarters. In La Vendee a moll
bloody war was perfifted in by the royalilts. In that
quarter of the country the language of the reft of France
is little underftood. The people were fuperftitious, and
had acquired little idea of the new opinions that had
48 j F R - A
lately been propagated in the reft of the empire. J hey trance
Were chiefly headed by priefts, and regarded their caufe ^
as a religious one. Their mode of warfare ufually was, 1793
to go on in their ordinary occupations as peaceable citi¬
zens, and fuddenly to tdTemble in immenfe bands, info-
much that at one time they were faid to amount to
150,000 men. They befieged Nantz and the city of
Orleans, and even Paris itfelf was not thought altoge¬
ther fate from their enterprifes. The war was incon¬
ceivably bloody. Neither party gave quarter ; and La
Vendee proved a dreadful drain to the population of
France. On the 28 th of June, the conventional gene¬
ral Biron drove the royalifts from Lucon 5 and Nantz
was relieved by General Beyffer. After fome fuccefs,
General Wefterman was furprifed by them, and com¬
pelled to retreat to Parthenay. In the beginning of
Auguft the royalifts were defeated by General RolTig-
nolj but on the 10th of that month, under Charette
their commander in chief, they again attacked Nantz,
but fuffered a repulfe. It would be tedious to give a
minute detail of this oblcure but cruel war. I he roy¬
alifts were often defeated and • feemingly difperfed,
but as often arofe in crowds around the aftonilhed re¬
publicans. At laft, however, about the middle of Oc¬
tober, they were completely defeated, driven from La
Vendee, and forced to divide into feparate bodies. One
of thefe threw itfelf into the ifland of Noirmoutier,
where they were fubdued j another took the road of
Maine and Brittany, where they ftruggled for fome
time again!! their enemies, and were at laft cut to
pieces or difperfed.
The royalifts had long expefted afliftance from Eng¬
land j and an armament under the earl of Moira rvas ac¬
tually fitted out for that fervice, but it did not arrive till
too late, and returned home without attempting a land- ^
The Mountain party always difgraced their fuc- Horrid
mg.    v ^   
ceffes by dreadful cruelties. Humanity is Ihocked, and cruelty of
hiftory would almoft ceafe to obtain credit,, were we to the Moun-
ftate in detail the unrelenting cruelties which Avere ex- t-u“
ereifed again!! the unfortunate royalifts, chiefly by Car¬
rier, a deputy from the convention, fent into this quar¬
ter with unlimited powers. Multitudes of prifoners
Avere crowded on board \reffels in the Loire, after Avhich
the veffels Avere funk. No age or fex Avas fpared j and
thefe executions Avere performed Avith every circumftance
of Avanton barbarity and infult. . 3-4
On the fide of the Rhine a great variety of events pr0grefs of
occurred during the months of Auguft and September, the aUies on
Several engagements at firft took place, in which the the Rhine-
French AA'ere, upon the Avhole, fuccefsful. In Septem¬
ber, however, Landau Avas invefted by the combined
poAvers j and it Avas refolved to make every poflible ef¬
fort to drive the French from the ftrong lines of Weil-
fembourg, on the river Lauter. On the 13th of Oc¬
tober, the Auftrian general Wurmfer made a grand
attack upon thefe lines. 1 he French fay that their
generals betrayed them, and fuffered the lines to be ta¬
ken almoft Avithout refiftance. The general of the al¬
lies confeffed that the lines might have held out for
feveral days. The French retreated to Hagenau, from
Avhich they were driven on the 18th j and fuffered two
other defeats on the 25th and 27th. Some of the prin¬
ciple citizens of Stralburg iioav fent a private deputa¬
tion to General Wurmfer, offering to furrender the
town, to be preferved as a depofit to be reftortd to
FRA [ 149 J F R A
France. Louis XVII. General Wurmfer refufed to accept of
.—it upon thefe terms, inlifting upon an abfolute furren-
1793- der to his Imperial Majefty. In confequence of the
delay occaftoned by difagreement, the negociation was
difcovered, and the citizens of Stralhourg engaged in
the plot were feized by St Juft and Lebas, commifljon-
ers from the convention, and brought to the fcaffold.
Prodigious efforts were now made by the French to
recover their ground in this quarter. General Irem-
bert was fhot at the head of the army on the 9th of
November, upon a charge, probably ill-founded, of
treachery in the affair of the lines of Weiffembourg.
On the 14th, however, Fort Louis was taken by the
allies, not without fufpicion of treachery in the gover¬
nor. But here the fuccefs of General Wurmfer might
be faid to terminate. On the 21ft the republican ar¬
my drove back the 'Auftrians, and penetrated almoft to
Hagenau. An army from the Mofelle now advanced
to co-operate with the army of the Rhine. On the
17th the Pruftians were defeated near Sarbruck. Next
day their camp at Bliefcaftel was ftormed, and the
rhe French French advanced to Deux Fonts. On the 29 th and
It length cpth the French were repulfed with great lofs in two
luccefiful -n vj0]ent attacks made on the duke of Brunfwick near
nat quar- Lautern. But it now appeared that the French had
come into the field with a determination to conquer
whatever it might coft. Every day was a day of battle,
and torrents of blood were fhed on both fides. The
allies had the advantage of poffefling the ground, which,
in that quarter, at fuch a late feafon of the year, is very
ftrong on account of its inequalities and moraffes. In
military fkill, the French officers and thofe of the allies
were perhaps nearly equal 5 but the French army was
by far the moft numerous 5 and although not a match
in point of difcipline, yet it derived no fmall fuperiority
from the enthufiafm with which the troops were ani¬
mated. On the 8th of December, under the command
of General Pichegru, the French carried the redoubts
which covered Hagenau by means of the bayonet.
This modern inftrument of deftruflion, againft which
no defenfive weapon is employed, is always moft fuccefs-
ful in the hands of the moft intrepid •, and it was now a
dreadful engine in the hands of French enthufiafm.—
The fineft troops that ever Europe produced were un¬
able to withftand the fury of the republicans, which
feemed only to increafe in proportion to the multitude
of companions that they loft. On the 22d the allies
were driven with immenfe {laughter from Hagenau, not-
withftanding the immenfe works they had thrown up
for their defence. The entrenchments on the heights
of Reifhoffen, Jauderfhoffen, &c. were confidered as
more impregnable than thofe of Jemappe. They were
ftormed by the army of the Mofelle and the Rhine,
under Generals Hoche and Pichegru. On the 23d and
24th, the allies were purfued to the heights of Wrotte.
On the 26th, the entrenchments there were forced by
the bayonet, after a defperate conflict. On the 27th,
the republican army arrived at Weiffembourg in tri¬
umph. General Wurmfer retreated acrofs the Rhine,
and the duke of Brunfwick haftily fell back to cover
Mentz. The blockade of Landau, which had lafted
four months, was raifed. Fort Louis was evacuated
by the allies, and Kaiferflatern, Germerfheim, and
Spires, fubmitted to the French.—During this laft
aionth of the year 17935 the lofs of men on both fides
in this quarter was immenfe, and unexampled in the France.
hiftory of modern war. It is even faid that it might a- ' " "_v
mount to more than 70,000 or 80,000 men. I^6^*
Thus far we have attended to the military affairs of violent ef-
the republic for fome time paft. Very violent efforts forts, of the
were in the mean time made at Paris by the new admi-Mountain
niftration, eftabliftted under the aufpices of the Jacobin
club, and of the party called the Mountain. The new
republican eonftitution had been prefented to the people
in the primary affemblies, and accepted. The buiincfs,
therefore, for which the convention was called toge¬
ther, that of forming a conftitution for France, was
at an end 5 and it was propofed that they thould dif-
folve themfelves, and order a new legiflative body to al-
femble, according to the rules preferibed by that con¬
ftitution. This was, no doubt, the regular mode of
procedure j but the ruling party contidered it as hazar¬
dous to convene a new affembly, poffeffing only limited
powers, in the prefent diftrafted ftate of the country.
It was indeed obvious, that France at this time ftood in
need of a diclatoriliip, or of a government poffeffed of
more abfolute authority than can be enjoyed by one
that aifts, or even pretends to aft, upon the moderate
principles of freedom. It was therefore determined
that the convention Ihould remain undiffolved till the
end of the war and that a revolutionary government^
to be conducted by its members, ihould be eftabliftied,
with uncontrouled powers. Committees of its own
body were felefted for the purpofe of condufting every
department of bufinefs. The chief of thefe commit¬
tees was called the committee of public ffety. It fuper-
intended all the reft, and gave to the adminiftration of
France all the fecrecy and difpatch which have been ac¬
counted peculiar to a military government, together,
with a combination of fldll and energy hitherto un¬
known among mankind. A eorrefpondence was kept
up with all the Jacobin clubs throughout the king¬
dom. Commiflioners from the convention were fent
into all quarters, with unlimited authority over every
order of perfons. Thus a government poffeffed of infi¬
nite vigilance, and more ablolute and tyrannical than
that of any fingle defpot, was eftablifhed *, and the
■whole tranfaftions and refources of the ftate were
known to the rulers. On the 23d of Auguff, Barrere, Fiance cfo_
in name of the committee of public fafety, procured creed to be
the celebrated decree to be paffed for placing the whole 'n'a ftatc
French nation in a Jlute of reyuifition for the public rcffu4lU0U*
fervice. “ From this moment (fays the decree) till that
when all enemies (hall have been driven from the terri¬
tory of the republic, all Frenchmen {hall be in perma¬
nent readinefs for the fervice of the army. The young
men (hall march to the combat 5 the married men thall
forge arms, and tranfport the provifions • the women
fhall make tents and clothes, and attend in the hofpi-
tals ; the children {hall make lint of old linen *, the old
men (hall caufe themfelves to be carried to the public
fquares, to excite the courage of the warriors, to preach
hatred againft the enemies of the republic j the cellars
(hall be waffled to procure faltpetre •, the faddle-horfes
{hall be given up to complete th cavalry ; the unmar¬
ried citizens, from the age of 18 to 2?, fliall march
firft, and none (hall fend a fubffitute; every battalion
fhall have a banner, with this infeription, The French
nation rifen again ft tyrants” The decree alfo regulates
the mode of organizing this mafs. A decree more ty¬
rannical
FRA
[
rannical than this was never made l>y an eaftcrn defpot •,
and when it wafc fir It publithed, foreigners were at a lofs
whether to regard it as a fublirae effort of a powerful
37s
General
Cuftine
tried and
executed.
379
Murder of
the queen.
3S0
Execution
of the heads
•of the Gi-
rondift
party,
3S1
■ and of the
duke of Or¬
leans.
38a
Executions
become
prodigioufly
common.
3S3
A new table
of weights
and mea-
fures efta-
bliflied.
1793-
government, or as a wild project which could produce
nothing but confufion; The effefts of it, however,
have been truly terrible. We have already mentioned
fome of them in the bloody conteft which occurred
upon the Rhine, and Europe was foon deilined to bear
witnefs to ftill more extraordinary events.
In the end of July, General Cuftine was brought to
trial, and executed, in confequence of a variety of ac-
cufations of infidelity to his truft and difrefpedt to the
convention. T he queen was next brought to trial be¬
fore the revolutionary tribunal, on the 15th of October.
The charges againft her were very various ; but the
chief tendency of them was to prove that {he had always
been hoftile to the revolution, and had excited all the
efforts that had been made by the court againft it.
On the 16th of OSober, this beautiful woman, whom
fortune once placed fo high, ended her days on a Icaftold,
after a mock trial, in which no regard was paid either
to juftice or decency. She behaved with much dignity
and compofure, and appeared deeply impreffed _ with a
fenfe of religion. The members of the convention who
had been at the head of the Girondift party, and had
either been detained in prifon fince the 31ft of May, or
feized in the departments to which they had retired,
were afterwards brought to trial. On the 30th of
October, 21 of them were executed, viz. Briffot,
Vergniaud, Genfonne, Duprat, Lebardi, Ducos, Fon-
frede, Bolieau, Gardien, Duchatel, Sillery, Fauchet,
Dufriche, Duperret, La Source, Carra, Beauvais,
Mainville, Antiboul, VigfSe, and Lacazm Seventy-
one were ftill detained in confinement. The duke of
Orleans was afterwards condemned, on a charge of
having afpired to the fovereignty from the beginning of
the revolution. His execution gave fatisfadtion to all
parties. His vote for the puniihment of death upon
the trial of the late king had done him little honour
even in the opinion of the Mountain, and had rendered
him odious to all the reft of mankind.
The execution of perfons of all ranks, particularly
of priefts and nobles, became now fo common, that it
would be in vain to attempt to give any detail\of them.
Every perfon brought before the revolutionary tribunal
was condemned as a matter of courfe. The Jacobins
feemed infatiable in their thirft after blood, and the
people at large appeared to regard their conduft with
unaccountable indifference. _ _ .
When the human mind is once roufed, its a£hvity
extends to every objeft. At this time a new table of
weights and meafures was eftablifhed by the conven¬
tion, in which the decimal arithmetic alone is employ¬
ed. ' The court of Spain had the liberality, notwith-
ftanding the war, to fuffer M. Mechain to proceed in
his operations for meafuring a degree of the meridian
in that country. He carried on his feries of triangles
from Barcelona to Perpignan •, and from this place the
menfuration was continued to Paris. M. de Lambre,
and his pupil M. la Francois, alfo meafured a degree of
latitude in the vicinity of the metropolis. In all, 12
deo-rees of the meridian were meafured j of which the
mean is 57027 toifes, and by this the univerfal ftandard
of meafure is calculated. IV1. 1VI. de Borda and Caffini
determined the length of a pendulum that fwings fe-
5I3243°
5T324
5I3
•3 243
_ „ [3243
Inch. Lines.
S5'-3*
l 5-I3
0 J FRA
conds, in vacuo, and in a mean temperature at Paris, to France,
be 3 feet and 8,06 lines. M. M. Lavoifier and Hauy '~v
found that a cubic foot of diftilled water at the freezing-
point weighs in vacuo 70 pounds and 60 gros French
weight. We fhall infert a table of the meafures and
weights now eftablifhed.
Long Measure.
Metres. _ French Toifes.
10,000,000 = a quadrant of the meri¬
dian, which is the prin¬
ciple on which the neAV
meafure is founded
100,000 ~ an hundredth part of a
quadrant, or decimal de¬
gree of the meridian
IOOO = a mil Hare, or mile
100 a ftadium") Agrarian
10 “ a perch f meafure
Feet.
I — a metre, or redilineal
unit 3
to or o. 1 — a decimetre, or palm O
TI._or 0.01 ~ a centimetre, or di-
git O
TcToo or 0-001 = a millemetre o
Superficial Measure.
Sq. Metres.
10,000 — an are, or fuperficial unit, being
a fquare the fide of which is 100
metres in length
1000 ” a declare, or tenth of an are ; a
fuperficies an hundred metres
long, and ten broad
100 =: a centiare
Measures of Capacity.
Cub. decimetres. Pans Pints. Paris Buju.
1000 =r the cubic metre, or cade
or tun 1051T
100 = dedicade, orfetier iOjt
10 ~ centicade, or buftiel ic-^-
1 — cubic decimetre, or ItV
Weights.
Cub. decimetres
of water.
1000 = the weight of a cubic metre, or
cade of water, is called a bar or
millier _ 2044*4
IOO = To of a bar, or decibar, or quintal 204.44
10 °f a bar, or centibar, or decal 20.444
11.44
8*344
4*434
•443
Sq. Feet.
9483
9483.1
948.31
78.9
7.89
.789
.0789
French Pounds.
1 =: the weight of a cubic
decimetre of water
is called a grave, or
pound
.1 — Tcf of grave, or de¬
c/grave, or ounce
.01 — t^o of a grave, or
centigrave, or dram
.001 = the weight of a cubic
centimetre of water,
is named a gravel,
or maille
.0001 rz decigravet, or grain
.00001 = centigravet
6
lb. 0%. gros. grains.
2 8 5 49
12.1
44-41
18.841
1.8841
0.18841
A
FRA
[ i5
p'-anee.
1793*
334
A naw ka-
lendar
formed.
385
Decay of
religion.
A piece of filver coin weighing a centigrave, and a
‘franc of filver, according to the former Itandard, will
be worth 40 fols xoj- deniers. The mil hare, or thou-
fand metres, is fubftituted for the mile ; and the are
for the arpent in land-meafure. 1 he latter two are
to each other as 49 to 25. The aftronomical circles
with which M. M. de Borda and Caflini made the ob-
fervations, are divided according to this plan. The
quadrant contains 100 degrees, and each degree 100
minutes. Hence the minute of a great circle on our
globe is equal to a milhare, or new French mile. If,
for the redudion of this meafure, we eftimate the Paris
toife, according to the comparifon made with the fiand-
ard kept in the Royal Society of London, at 6.3925
Englifii feet, the milliare or minute will be equal to
1093.633 yards, and the metre 3.280899 feet.
At the fame period a new kalendar was formed.—
By it the year is made to begin with the autumnal
equinox, and is divided into 12 months. 1 hefe are
called Vindemiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire, Nivofe, Ven-
tofe, Pluviofe, Germinal, Floreal, Prairial, Meffidor,
Thermidor, and Frudidor. The months confift of 30
days each, and are divided into three decades. The
days of each decade are known by the names of Primidi,
Duodi, Tridi, &c. to Decadi •, and the day of reft is
appointed for every tenth day, inftead of the feventh.
The day (which begins at midnight) is diftributed into
ten parts, and thefe are decimally divided and fubdi-
vided. Five fupernumerary days are added every year
after the 30th of Frucftidor. To thefe is given the
abfurd appellation of Sans Culotides, a word borrowed
from a term of reproach (fans calottef which had
often been beftowed on the republican party from the
meannefs of their rank and fortune •, but which that
party now attempted to render honourable and popular.
The childilh folly of this innovation has ftruck every
perfon with furprife, as it can ferve no good purpofe
whatever. It is a wonderful inftance of the wayward-
nefs of the human mind, which can occupy itfelf one
moment with deeds of favage barbarity, and the next
with a matter fo unimportant as the artificial divifion
of time.
The religion of France had been gradually lofing its
influence •, and on the 7th of November, Gobet, biihop
of Paris, along with a great multitude of other eccle-
fiaftics, came into the hall of the convention, and folemn-
]y refigned their funflions and renounced the Chriftian
religion. All the clergymen, whether Proteftant or
Catholic, that were members of the convention, followed
this example, excepting only Gregoire, whom we for¬
merly mentioned as having been one of the firft priefts
that joined the Tiers Etat after the meeting of the
States General. He had the courage to profefs himfelf
a Chriftian, although he faid that the emoluments of his
bifhopric were at the fervice of the republic. With the
acclamations of the convention, it was decreed that the
only French deities hereafter ftiould be Liberty, Equa¬
lity, Reafon, &c. and they would feem to have confe-
crated thefe as a kind of new obiefts of worfhip..—
What political purpofe the leaders in the convention in¬
tended to ferve by this proceeding does not clearly ap¬
pear ; unlefs, perhaps, their objedl was to render the
French manners and modes of thinking fo completely
new, that it ftiould never be in their power to return to
She lfafe from which they had juft emerged, or to unite
1794.
386'
i ] FRA
in intercourfe with the other nations of Europe. The t I ranee.
populace, however, could not at once relinquifh en¬
tirely the religion of their fathers. The commune of
Paris ordered the churches to be flmt up, but the con¬
vention found it neceflary to annul this order : and
Robefpierre gained no fmall degree of popularity by
fupporting the liberty of religious worlhip on this
ocealion. Hebert and Fabre d’Eglantine, who led the
oppofite party, haftened their own fall by this ill-judged
contempt of popular opinion.
For, now that the republic faw itfelf fuccefsful in Quarrels
all quarters, when the Mountain party and the J acobins
had no rival at home, and accounte d themfelves in no a^n
immediate danger from abroad, they began to fplit into jacobins,
factions, and the fierceft jealoufies arofe. The jacobin
club was the ufual place in which their contefts were
carried on ; and at this time Robefpierre adted the part
of a mediator between all parties. He attempted with
great art to turn their attention from private animofities
to public affairs. He fpread a report that an invafion
of Great Britain was fpeedily to take place. He there¬
fore propofed that the Jacobin club Ihould fet themfelves
to work to difeover the vulnerable parts of the Bntifh
conftitution and government. ft hey did fo : ft hey
made fpeeches, and wrote effays without number. And
in this way was the moft fierce and turbulent band of
men that ever perhaps exifted in any country occupied
and amufed for a very eonfiderable time. What is no
lefs Angular, a great number of Britiftr fubjects favour¬
ed the plans of thefe reforming Atheifts, and, under
the fpecious appellation of the Friends of the People,
adled in concert with the French Jacobins. 387
ft'he winter paffed away in tolerable quietnefs, and A provi-
no military enterprife was undertaken either by the ac-
allies or by the French. On the ift of February,
Barrere afferted in the convention that the confederate t’m. repUi3.
powers were willing proviftona/lij to acknowledge the lie by the
French republic, to confent to a ceffation of holtilities allies re¬
fer two years, at the end of which a lading peace ftiould
be ratified by the French people. But this propofal tlon>
the convention declared itfclt determined to rejeeft, as
affording to the other nations of Europe the means of ^sg
undermining their new government. In the mean time, Vigorous
the revolutionary government was gradually becoming Hate of the
more vigorous, ft hirty committees of the conventionrevolutlon'
managed the whole bufinefs of the ftate, without (haring ^n^overn’'
much of the direft executive government, which refted
in the committee of public fafety. Thefe different
committees were engaged in the utmoft variety of
objccls. The ruling party had no competitors for
pow7er. Without confufion or oppofition, therefore,
the moft extenfive plans were rapidly carried into effedt. .
The convention was little more than a court in which
every project was folemnly regiftered. In the fame fef-
fion 30 decrees would fometimes be paffed upon obi eels
the moft widely different, ft'he finances were under 089
one committee, at the head of which was Cambon.— nientof"
This committee found refources for the moft laviili ex- the finan-
penditure. The aflignats were received as money ces and
throughout the ftate ; and thus a paper mill was faid to°t^er re-^
have become more valuable than a mine of gold. Their ^
credit was fupnorted by an arbitrary law regulating the
maximum or higheft price of all provifions, and by the
immenfe mafs of wealth which had come into the hands
of the convention by feizing the church lands, and by
confifcating?
FRA
[ 152 3
FRA
Trance.
1794.
39°
2>iffenfions
of the Ja¬
cobins in-
creafe.
cotifircatmg tlie property of royal ill s, emigrants, and
perfons condemned by the revolutionary tribunal. . So
unequally had property been divided under the ancient
government, that by means of thefe confifcations about
feven-tenths of the national territory was fuppofed to
be in the hands of the public. To this was added the
plunder of the churches, confiding of gold and filver
faints, and utenfils employed in divine worlhip, along
AVith other articles of lefs value 5 among which may be
mentioned the innumerable church bells, which were re¬
garded as fufficient for the manufaclure of x 5,000 pieces
of cannon. Thefe refources formed a mafs of property
fuch as never was poffefled by any government.
Other committees were engaged in very different ob-
ie&s. Highways were conftru&ed, and canals planned
and cut throughout the country. Immenfe manufacto¬
ries of arms were everywhere eftabliflied. At Pans
alone ixoo mufjeets were daily fabricated, and xco
pieces of cannon call every month. Public fchools
were afliduoully inftituted, and the French language
taught in its purity from the Pyrenees to the Rhine.
The French convention poffeffed immenfe refources,
and they did not hefitate to lavilh them upon their
fchemes. Every fcience and every art was called upon
for aid, and the molt accomplilhed men in every pro-
feflion were employed in giving fplendour to their coun¬
try. The chemifts, in particular, gave effential aid by
the facility with which they fupplied materials for the
manufadlure of gun-powder *, and in return for their
fervices, Lavoifier, the greateft of them, fuffered death
by a moft iniquitous fentence. Not fewer than 200 new
dramatic performances were produced in lefs than two
years 5 the obieft of which was to attacli the people to
the prefent order of things. The vigour with which
the committees of fubfiftence exerted^ themfelves is par¬
ticularly to be remarked. As all Europe W'as at war
with France, and as England, Holland, and Spain, the
three maritime powers, were engaged in the conteft, it
had been thought not impoffible to reduce France to
great diftrefs by famine, efpecially as it was imagined
that the country had not refources to fupply its immenfe
population. Peat the prefent leaders of that country
afted with the policy of a befieged garrifon. They
feized upon the whole provifions of the country, and
carried them to public granaries. They regiftered the
cattle, and made their owners refponfible for them.—
They provided the armies abundantly, and, as the people
were accurately numbered, they dealt out in every diftricl,
on dated occafions, what was abfolutely neceffary for fub¬
fiftence, and no more. I o all this the people fubroitted 5
and, indeed, throughout the whole of the mixed feenes
of this revolution, the calm judgment of the hiftorian is
not a little perplexed. We cannot avoid admiring the
patience with which the people at large endured every
hardftiip that was reprefented as neceffary to the common
caufe, and the enthufiaftic energy with which they la-
viftied their blood in defence of the independence of
their country. At the fame time we muft regard with
indignation and difguft the worthlefs intrigues by means
of which the fanguinary factions in the convention and
the capital alternately maffacred each other.
During the winter the diffenfions of the Jacobins
ftill increafed. They were divided into two clubs, of
which the new one aflembled at a hall which once be¬
longed to the Cordeliers. The leaders of it were He-
Francc.
1794.
bert, Ronfin, Vincent, and others •, but the old foexety (
retained its afcendency, and Robefpierre was now de¬
cidedly its leader. This extraordinary man had gradu¬
ally accumulated in his own perfon the confidence of the
people and the direction of the government. As the
committees were above the convention, which was be¬
come little more than a filent court of record, fo the
committee of public fafety was above the other commit¬
tees. Robefpierre was the leader of this ruling com¬
mittee. Barrere, St Juft, Couthon, and others of its
members, only afted a fecondary part. They laboured
in the bufinefs of the ftate, but the radical power was
with Robefpierre. Fie furrounded the members of the
convention with fpies. He was jealous and implacable,
and fet no bounds to the fhedding of blood. On the
25th of March he brought to trial the following adive
Jacobins, who were condemned and executed on the
following day : Hebert, Ronfin, Momoro, Vincent,
Du Croquet, Koch, Col. Laumur, M. M. Bourgeois,
Mazuel, La Boureau, Ancard, Le Clerc, Proly, Dei-
fieux, Anacharfis Cloots, Pereira, Florent,. Armand,
Defcombles, and Dubuiffon. Not fatisfied with this, on
the 2d of April he brought to trial nine, of thofe who
had once been his moft vigorous affociates, Danton,
Fabre d’Eglantine, Bazire, Chabot, Philippeaux, Ca¬
mille Defmoulins, Lacroix, Delaunay d’Angers, He-
rault de Seehelles, who, along with Wefterman, were
executed on the evening of the 5th. —
Still, however, the preparations for the enfumg Prepura.
campaign were proceeding with unabated vigoxir. The ^ catTU
committee for military affairs, at the head of which ^g,, 0f
were Carnot, La Fitte, d’Anifli, and others, was bufy 1794; and
in arranging along the frontiers the immenfe force which plan of tho
the requifition had called forth. Plans of attack and alUes-
defence were made out by this committee j and when ap¬
proved by the committee of public fafety they were fent
to the generals to be executed. On the other fide, the
allies wrere making powerful preparations for another
attempt to fubiugate France. The emperor himfelf
took the field at the head of the armies.in the Nether¬
lands. The plan of the campaign is faid to have been
formed by the Auftrian colonel Mack. Weft t landers
was to be protected by a ftrong body of men *, the
main army was to penetrate to Landrecies, and getting
within the line of French frontier towns, it was to cut
them off from the interior by covering the country from
Maubeuge to the fea. The plan was bold. It belongs
to military men to judge whether.this w'as not.its only
merit. When attempting to put it into execution, the
allies muft have been'ill informed of the immenfe force
which the French were colle&ing againft them. Even
the town of Lifle alone, which vTas capalfte of contain¬
ing a numerous army within its walls, and which was
to be left in their rear, ftiould have feemed an inlur-
mountable ob] eft ion to the plan. 39*.
39i
mntaDie omecuon me ^ . 0(A„f
On the 16th of April the Axiftrian, Britilh, and ^
Dutch armies aflembled on the heights above Cate.au, .iralie5>
and were reviewed by the emperor. On the following
day they advanced in eight columns againft the French,
drove in their whole polls, and penetrated beyond Lan¬
drecies ; which place the French attempted to relieve,
but without fuccefs. The allied army now amounte
to 187,000 men, who were difpofed in the. following
manner-, 15,000 Dutch and 15,000 Auftrians, under
the prince of Orange and General Latour, formed the
France.
l 794.
39.3
Fall ot
Landre-
'.ies.
394
Succefs of
Pichegru
jin Weft
Flanders.
P R A [ 15
fieo-e of Landreeies j 15,0^0 Britilli, and 15,000 Auflri-
commanded by the duke of 'dork and Creneral Otto,
encamped towards Cambray. The emperor and the
prince of Saxe-Cobourg, at the head of 60,000 Auf-
trians, were advanced as far as Ouife} 12,000 ficfii-
ans and Andrians under General Worms were ixation-
cd near Douay and Bouchaxn j Count Kaumtz r\xth
15,000 Audrians defended the Sambre and the quar-
t^r near Maubeuge j and, lailly, General Clairtait, with
^,000 Andrians and Hanoverians, protected Flanders
from Tournay to the fea 5 60,000 Pruflians, for whom
a fubfidy had been paid by Great Britain, were expeH-
ed.in addition to thefe, but they never arrived.
The French now commenced their active operations.
On the morning of the 26th of April they attacked
the duke of York near Cateau in great force. After
a fevere conflict they Were repulfed, and their general
Chapuy wras taken prifoner. At the fame tune they
attacked the troops under his Imperial majedy, but
were there alfo repulfed in a fimilar manner ; lofmg in
all 57 pieces of cannon. On the fame day, however,
General Pichegru advanced from Lille, attacked and
defeated General Clairfait, took 3 2 pieces of cannon j
and, in the courfe of a few days, made himfelf mader
of Vervic, Menin, and Courtray. On the 29th of
April, the garrifon of Landrecies furrendered to the al¬
lies. When this event was known in the convention,
it excited a confiderable degree of alarm. It was, how¬
ever, the lad effeaual piece of fuccefs enjoyed by the
allies during this difadrous campaign. General Clair¬
fait was again completely defeated by Pichegru in a
general engagement ; and it was found neceflary to
fend the duke of York to his aflidance. This move¬
ment was no doubt unavoidable j but the effea of it
was, that it fplit down the allied army into a variety
of portions, capable of carrying on a defultory war¬
fare, but unfit for the vigorous objects of conqued. On
the 10th of May the duke of York was'attacked near
Tournay by a body of the enemy, whom he repulfed j
but he was unable to join Clairfait, upon whofe de-
dru&ion the French were chiefly bent: _ for at the
fame time that the duke of York was occupied by the
attack upon himfelf, Pichegru fell upon Clairfait with
fuch irrelidible impetuofxty, that he was compelled to
retreat in confufxon, and a part of his army appears to
have fled to the neighbourhood of Bruges. While Pi¬
chegru was thus advancing fuecefsfully in Wed Flan¬
ders, General Jour dan advanced in Ead Flanders from
Maubeuge, eroded the Sambre, and forced Geneial
Kaunitz to retreat. On the 18th, however, General
Kaunitz fuccceded in repulfing the enemy in his turn,
and they re-crofled the Sambre with confiderable lofs.
The allies now found that no progrefs could be made
France while General Pichegru was advancing fuccefs-
fully and occupying Wed Flanders in their rear. The
emperor, therefore, withdrew the greater part of his
army to the neighbourhood of Xournay, and refolved
to make a grand effort to cut off the 'communication
between Courtray and Lille, thus to prevent complete¬
ly the retreat of Pichegru. On the night of the 16th,
the army moved forwards in five columns for this pur-
pofe. Clairfait was at the fame time directed to crofs
the Lys, to effeft a general junftion, if poffible, and
•complete the plan. The attempt during that evening
Itemed to promife fuccefs j But, in the courfe of next
Vol. IX. Part I.
3 J F 11 A
day, the divifion under the duke of York was over- Franc*,
powered by numbers and defeated. The progrefs of
the red of the columns was dopped, and Clairfait
completely defeated. In the coniulion of the day,
when attempting to rally the different parts of the di¬
vifion which he commanded, the duke ot X ork was ie-
parated from his own troops by a party of the enemy’s
cavalry, and only efcaped being made prifoner by the
fwiftnefs of his horfe. The plan of the allies being
thus frudrated, their army withdrew to the neighbour¬
hood of Tournay.
Pichegru fpeedily attempted to retaliate againd the
allies. On the 22d of May he brought down at day¬
break his whole force againd them, ihe attack xvas
commenced by a heavy fire of artillery, and all the ad¬
vanced pods were forced. The engagement foon be¬
came general j the attacks Avere repeatedly reneAved
on both fides j the whole day was fpent in a iuccel
fion of obdinate battles. All that military Ikill could
do ay as ^performed on both fides. J. he French and
the allied foldiers fought Avith equal courage and
equal difeipliue. At xxine o’clock in the eArening the
French at' lad reluctantly withdrew from the attack'.
The day on Avhich a vanquiihed enemy flics from the
field is not always that on Avhich the victory is Avon.
In this engagement the French Avere unfuccefsful in
their immediate objeft j but the weight of their fire,
their deady difeipline, and their violent obdinaey of
attack, raifed their military character high in the edi-
mation of the officers and foldiers of the allied army.
It Avas foon perceived, that in addition to thefe they
poffeffed other advantages. Their numbers Avere im-
menfe j they implicitly obeyed their generals ; who,
being men newly railed from the rank of fubalterns,
as implicitly fubmitted to the directions of the com¬
mittee of public fafety. A combination of efforts was
thus produced Avhofe operation was not retarded by
divided counfels. On the other fide the numbers of
the allies Avere daily declining ; their leaders were in¬
dependent princes or powerful men, Avhofe fentiments
and intereds Avere often very hodile to each other, and
their exertions Avere confequently difunited.
On the 24th the French again croffed the Sambre,
but were driven back with much lofs. On the 27th
an attempt was made to befiege Charleroi, but the
prince of Orange on the 3d of June compelled them to
raife the fiege. On the 12th a fimilar attempt was ^
made, and they Avere again repulled. In Wed Flan-He lays
ders, however, Pichegru was fufficiently drong to com-fie <e to
mence the, fiege of Ypres. He Avas foon attacked by YPres> an<1
General Clairfait for the purpofe of relieving it, but
Avithout .fuccefs. Ypres was garrifoned by 7000 men 3
reinforcements were therefore daily fent from the grand
army to Clairfait for the purpofe of relieving it. It is
unneceffary to mention the bloody conteds in Avhich
that unfortunate general was daily engaged Avith the
French. It is fufficient to fay, that they were uni¬
formly unfuccefsful, and Avere the means of Avading,
in a great degree, the armies of the allies. Ypres held takes it...
out till the 17th of June, Avhen it capitulated : and fuch
was the difeipline of the French army at this time, that
no notice could be obtained, for feveral days, of that
event. But in confequence of this and of other events,
the duke of York found it neceffary to retreat to Oude-
narde j for Jourdan, after dorming the •Audrian camp
IT ’ of
F 11 A
[ T54 ]
FRA
France.
1794-
397
Charleroi
furrender-
of Betignies, now advanced with fuch ftrength upon
Charleroi in the call that its immediate iall Avas fear¬
ed. As this would have enabled the two French ar¬
mies to encircle the whole of Flanders, the prince of
defeated.
398
Further
Coboury advanced to its relief. Charleroi furrendered
o
ed, and the at diferetion on the 25th. This circumftance was not
Andrians known by the prince of Cobourg when he advanced on
the 26th to attack in their entrenchments the army that
covered the liege near Fleurus : but the covering army
being by this time reinforced by the acceffion of the be-
fieging army, the allies were repulfed. Jourdan then
drew his men out of their entrenchments ; and, in his
turn, attacked the Aultrians. He was three times re-
pulfed, but was at lall fuecefsful : the lofs of the van-
quidied army is laid to have been prodigious 5 but no
regular accounts of it have been publilhed. The French
unquedionably exaggerated their own fuccefs, when
they faid that it amounted to 15,000 men.
The allies now retreated in all quarters. Nieuport,
'fucceftes of Odend, and Bruges, were taken •, and Tournay, Mens,
the trench Qudenarde, and Bruffels, opened their gates. At this
CliTad place, the French armies of Ead and Wed Flan¬
ders united. Landrecies, Valenciennes, Conde, and
Quefrioi, were fruitlefsly left with garrifons in them.
The allied troops, evacuating Namur, formed a line
from AntAverp to Liege to protect the country behind.
The French advanced in full force, and attacked Ge¬
neral Clairfait, cut to pieces half the troops that
noAV remained under him, and broke the line, i he al¬
lies retreated before them. The duke of York Aval joined
by fome troops under the earl of Moira that Avith much
difficulty had made their Avay to him from Odend; and
with thefe and the Dutch troops he retired to the
neighbourhood of Bergen-op-zoom and Breda for the
proteftion of Holland The prince of Cobourg eva¬
cuated Liege, eroded the Maefe, and placed a garri-
fbn in Maedricht. He foon, however, fent back a part
of his troops to the neighbourhood of Tongres ; for
here, to the adonilhment of all Europe, the French
armies made a voluntary paufe in their career of vic¬
tory, and ceafed to purfue their retiring foes. Sluys in
Dutch Flanders Avas the only foreign pod that they con¬
tinued to attack, and it furrendered after a liege of 21
days.
On the Rhine the Avar Avas equally fuccefsful on the
part of the French. On the 12th, 13th, and 14th of
July, repeated battles Avere fought; in Avhich the
French enjoyed their ufual fuccefs. They had nume¬
rous armies in every quarter. Their mode of fighting
Avas to make full preparation for accomplilhing their
objeft, and to fight in great bodies day after day till it
Avas obtained. The Palatinate was then overrun, and
Treves taken, by General Michaud. Flanders and the
Palatinate have always been accounted the granaries of
Germany ; and both of them, at the commencement of
the harved, noAV fell into the hands of the French.
During the courfe of this fummer Corfica Avas fub-
dued by Great Britain ; and the Avhole of the French
Wed India iflands, excepting a part of Guadaloupe,
yielded to the Britiffi troops under the command of Sir
Charles Grey and Sir John Jarvis. On the fird of June
the Britiffi fleet, under the command of Earl Howe,
gained a mod fplendid victory over the French Heet to
the wedward of Ulhant. The French committee of
fafety Avere know'n to ha\re purchafed in America hn-
399
And on the
Jthine.
400
Qcrfica
fubdued
by Great
Britain.
1794.
4CI.
Splendid
menfe quantities of grain and other dores. Thefe Avere France,
embarked on board 160 fail of merchantmen, convoyed
by fix fail of the line. Lord Hotve. failed to intercept
this valuable convoy. The French fleet failed' at the L
fame time to protect it. On the morning of the 28th viftory of
of May the fleets came in fight of each other. The the Britilk
Britifti admiral had previoufly defpatched fix fhips of dect un-
the line under Admiral Montague to intercept the
French convoy, while he ftiould engage and detain the
grand fleet. The French difpatched eight fail to de¬
feat this attempt. In the courfe of the 29th Lord
Hoavc got to AvindAvard of the French fleet. His
force Avas 25, and theirs Avas 26, fail of the line. The
folloAving day he bore doAvn upon them, and broke
their line. The engagement Avas one of the fevered
ever fought. The French admiral, in lefs than an hour
after the clofe aftion commenced in the centre, croAvded
off with 12 of his (hips. The Britidi fleet Avasfo much
difabled, or feparated, that feveral of the French dif-
mantled ffiips got aAvay under fails raifed on the flump
of their fore-mads. Seven fail of the line, hoAcevcy, re¬
mained in poffeffion of the Britidi, and Iavo Avere un¬
quedionably funk. In the mean time, Admiral Mon¬
tague fell in with the French commy, but it Avas noAV
guarded by 14 fail of the line. As he could not en¬
counter fuch a force, he returned home, and it Avas fafe-
ly conveyed into port. Thus, by one of thofe contra-
diflions Avhich fo often occur in human adairs, the Bri-
tifli fleet was vidforious, and the French Avere left in
fome meafure mailers of the fea. As this engagement
however tedified that the Britilh feamen had not lod
their ancient fuperiority on their oAvn element, the
nation regarded the prefent victory as a pledge of its
independence, and very general rejoicings took place
in confequence of it. ^ ^02
In the mean time, the revolutionary fydem of go- Tbc horn*
vernment in the hands of committees of the convention executions
at Paris, and of committees of the popular Ibeieties
throughout the country, Avas arrived at its highed per-C0E
fed!ion, and proceeded Avithout oppofition in its fevere
and fanguinary mcafures.
On the 10th of May Madame Elizabeth, fider of the
late king, Avas facrificed by it in confequence of a decree
of the reAmlutionary tribunal. Multitudes of others of
every rank and fex Avere daily facrificed in a fimilar
manner ; the rich in particular AtTere the great objedls
of perfeeution, becaufe the confifcation of their proper- 403
ty added to the drength of the ruling powers. But immenfe
neither Avere the poor fafe from the bloody vigilance of power of
this neAV and fingular government. By the.different ^obc"
executions Robefpierre bad contrived to dedroy every Fmu
avowed rival. All the condituted authorities confided
Avholly of perfons nominated with his approbation ; and
as the committees which condufted the bufinefs of the
date Avere at his difpofal, his Avill was irrefidible through¬
out the republi . He met Avitb no oppofition in the
convention ; for that body Avas no longer the turbulent
popular affembly Avhicb it had once appeared ; it Avas
little more than a name employed to give fome fort of
refpe&ability to fuch fchemes as Avere propofed to it. ^
Amidd this accumulation, hoAvever, of feemingly ir-Verging
refidible authority, Robefpierre Avas at the brink ofruin.
ruin. The whole of the old Girondid party Avas indeed
fubdued and filent; but many members of the conven¬
tion dill remained attached to it. The party of the
Mountain,
France.
1794.
405
Particulars
f ef his fall.
FRA [15
Mountain, by means of whom Robefpierre had rilen to
power, with little fatisfadion uoav found themfelves
not only difregarded, but ready at every inftant to fall
a faerilice to that fyftem of terror which they had con¬
tributed to ereft. Even the Jacobins themfelves, though
neither timid nor cautious in the (bedding of blood, be-
rran to murmur when they law that awful privilege con-
bned exclufively within a few hands, or rather monopo¬
lized by an individual. In this ilate things, remained
for fome time *, and it appeared how pollible it is lor an
individual to govern a great nation even while the whole
of that nation is hoftile to his power. . The banilhment
or imprifonment of all foreigners, which had long been
rigoroufly praclifed, prevents us from pofiefling much
accurate information concerning the internal hate of
France ‘at this period ; but it is certain, that one fcir-
cumftance in particular tended much to accelerate the fall
of Robefpierre. He had procured a decree to be palled,
authorifing the committee of public fafety to imprifon
at its pleafure, and bring to trial, any member of the
convention. All the individuals of that body found
themfelves placed by this decree in the hands of a man
whofe fevere and fufpicious temper they well knew.
Still, however, they were fo much furrounded by fpies,
that it was difficult to form a party or plan of opera¬
tions j even the majority of the committee of public iafe-
ty wore among the number of the difcontented, but they
dared not to withftand their chief. At laft, on the 25th
of July, the convention began to exhibit figns of agita¬
tion. " It was underftood, that in the courfe of a few
days Robefpierre would facrifice a number of the mem¬
bers to his fufpicions. On the following day the fitting
of the convention was Hill more tempelluous. In a long
fpeech Robefpierre defended his own eonduci againft
thofe who had reproached him rvith afpiring to the dic-
tatorlhip of France. He attacked the party whom he
fly led Moderates, as wifhing to overturn the revolution¬
ary government, and to reftore the feeble fyilem of the
Briffotines. The refult of a long debate was, that Ro¬
befpierre was apparently viftorious, and his fpeech was
ordered to be printed. On the 27th the convention
appeared ripe for a change : St Juft, a member of the
committee of public fafety, in attempting to defend
Robefpierre, was repeatedly interrupted ; and Billaud
Varennes flood fonvard and enumerated the crimes,
and proclaimed the tyranny, of Robefpierre. The
fpeech was received with burfls of applaufe. Robe¬
fpierre in vain attempted to defend himfelf; he w as
filenced by fliouts of execration from every part of the
hall. Tallien feconded the former fpeaker in his ac-
cufation. The fitting rvas declared permanent, and a
decree of arreft was paffed againil Robefpierre and a
vounger brother of his, along with St Juft, Couthon,
and Lebas. Thefe men left the convention, and found
fecurity in the hall of the commune of Paris ; where
the municipal officers agreed to protedl and ftand by
them. The toefm was founded •, the armed force was
under their command; an infurrection was therefore
attempted againft the convention : but the feftions of
Paris refufed their fupport. Very few of the troops
could be colledled, and thefe were not firm ; the late
tyranny had become odious. The hall of the commune
was therefore fpeedily furrounded} and about three o’clock
in the morning of the 28th Robefpierre and his affoci-
ates were made prifoners. They had been outlawed
5 ] F R A
by the convention on account of their refiftance. They
were not therefore tried, unlefs for the purpofe of iden¬
tifying their perfons j and, in the courfe of that day,
they were executed : 60 of the municipal officers were
alfo executed for joining in the rebellion and in this
way a florin palled over, which at one time threatened
to involve the French capital in ruin, and filled all Eu¬
rope with aftonifhment. Thus alio terminated the ca¬
reer of the moil extraordinary man that the French re¬
volution had brought forward. His talents were un¬
doubtedly confiderable, and his ambition knew no
bounds, bidding defiance to the ordinary feelings of hu¬
manity. Had Humourier poffelTed his coolnefs and cau¬
tion, or had he poffeffed the military talents of Humou-
rier, the convention would certainly have been over¬
turned, and we ftiould have feen a fecond Cromwell on
the throne of his murdered fovereign.
After the fall of Robefpierre, the convention exhi-
France.
1794.
40O
The fyftem
bited no fmall change of appearance. Inftead of that of terror
iilence which formerly prevailed, all was buftle and gbres place
noife 5 all accufed each other. There was no longer
any leader, and there was no formed party. The former tpirii
fyftem of terror was declared to be at an end, and a
new fyftem of moderatifm fucceeded. I his was carried
to as great a height as the fyftem of terror had former¬
ly been ; and all means were taken to render popular
the fall of their late tyrant. The committees were or-
ganifed anew, and their members ordered to be fre¬
quently changed. The correfpondence between the af¬
filiated Jacobin clubs was prohibited, and at laft the
Jacobin club itfelf was abolifhed. This laft event was
accompliihed with eafe ; and that fociety which had
been the great engine of the revolution, was itfelf with¬
out refiftence overturned. Seventy-one deputies of the
Girondift party, who had been imprifoned fince the 31ft
of May 1793, were fet at liberty. The name of Lyons
was reilored to it. Some of the agents of Robefpierre
were punifhed, particularly the infamous Carrier, whofe
cruelties in La Vendee we formerly mentioned. Still,
however, the convention appeared fo little united and
fo little decided with regard to objedfts of the firft im¬
portance, that in all pobability they would not have
conduced the important ftruggle againft the nations
of Europe with more fuccefs than the Girondift party
had formerly done, if the revolutionary government
and the late fyftem of terror had not already accumu¬
lated in their hands fuch vaft refources, and traced out
fuch a plan of procedure, as rendered it an eafy matter
to preferve their numerous armies in the train of fuccefs
to which they were now habituated. . ^c„
The allies in their retreat had left ftrong garrifons The French
in the French towns which had furrendered to them, towns
Thefe were Conde, Valenciennes, Quefnoi, and Lan-.
drecies. They now furrendered to the republican ar-^1^11^
mies with fo little refiftance, that the conduft of the em-iies furren.
peror began to be confidered as ambiguous, and he tvas der with-
fufpedled of having entered into fome kind of com-out: rcfift-
promife with the French. This idea proved erroneous }rnce*
and as foon as the army which had befieged thefe towns
was able to join the grand army under Pichegru and
Jourdan, the operations of the campaign were refumed
after a fufpenfion of almoft two months. The French
army divided itfelf into two bodies. One of thefe un¬
der Jourdan advanced againft General Clairfait, who
had fucceeded the prince of Cobourg in the command
U 2 in
F R A [ is
France, in the neighbourhood of Maeftricht. On the 15th of
™    September the French attacked the rvliole Auftrian
1794- poits in an extent of five leagues from Liege to Mae-
Pur^her fti'iclit. On that and the following day the lofles were
fucceffes of nearly equal. On the 17th the French with 50 pieces
the French, of cannon attacked General Kray in his entrenched
camp before Maelfricht. M. de Kray was already re¬
tiring when General Clairfait arrived with a ftrong re¬
inforcement, and after a fevere combat the French
were once more compelled to retire. On the 18th
the French renewed the attack with tenfold fury uppn
every part of the Auftrian line, ana the whole was
compelled to fty to the neighbourhood of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle. General Clairfait now chofe a ftrong pofition
on the banks of the Roer, where he even declared it
to be his wilh that he might be attacked. But by this
time the fpirit of his army was humbled, defertions
became numerous, and the want of difeipline was ex¬
treme. On the firft of OSober the French crofted the
Maefe and the Roer, and attacked the whole Auftrian
polls from Ruremond down to Juliers. After a bloody
engagement, the brave and aSive, though unfortunate,
General Clairfait was compelled haftily to crofs the
Rhine, with the lofs of 10 or 12,coo men. The French
general did not attempt to crofs that river, but one de¬
tachment of Ins army took pofleffion of Coblentz, while
others laid clofe fiege to Venlo and Maeftricht, which
409
And their
progrefs in
the coE-
queft of
Holland.
foon furrendered.
The divifion of the French army, in the mean time,
under General Pichegru came down upon Holland,
and attacked the allied army under the duke of York
between Bois le-duc and Grave. They forced the ad¬
vanced poll of Boxtel. Lieutenant-general Abercromby
was fent to attempt to recover this poll on the 15th
of September, but he found the French in fuch force
that he was obliged to retreat. Indeed the French
were difeovered to be no lefs than 8o,oco ftrong in that
neighbourhood. The duke of York was unable to
contend againft a force fo fupenor, and retired acrofs the
Maefe with the lofs qf fomewhat lefi than 1500 men.
Pichegru immediately laid liege to Bois-le-duc. On the
qOth of September, Crevecoeur was taken, and Bois-le
due furrendered in 10 days thereafter. In it 408 French
emigrants wrere taken prifoners } and thefe, as wed as
T'ocd that had been taken at Nieuport, 500 at Sluys, and
1100 at Valenciennes, were all put to death, agreeable
to the rigorous law formerly made by the convention.
The French now followed the duke of York acrofs the
Maefc. Upon this the greater part of the allied army
under his royal highnefs crofted the Rhine and took poll
at Arnheim. The remaining part of the army fol¬
lowed foon after, and Nimeguen was occupied by the
French on the 7th of November. The duke of Brunf-
wick was at this time requefted to take the command
of the allied army, to protect Holland, if poffible. . He
came to Arnheim for that purpofe •, but after examining
the ftate of things there, lie declined the undertaking.
The allied troops had now fo. often fled_ before their
victorious and almoft innumerable enemies, they had
fo often been in want of every necefiary, and had
been received fo ill by the inhabitants of the countries
through which they patTed, among whom the French
eaufe was extremely popular, that they had loft that
regularity of conduft and difeipline which alone can
Hford a fecure profpect of fuccefs in military affairs.
S
6 ] F R A
The French, on the contrary, well received, abounding France,
in every thing, and proud of fighting in a popular caule, v"—J
now acted with much order, and fubmitted to the ftricteft 1794*
difeipline. In addition to all thefe advantages, the French Cor^^
leaders had the dexterity to perfuade the world that
new and unknown ai'ts ivere employed to give_aid to ai d ft; te
their caufe. At this period the telegraphe was firft of the
ufed for conveying intelligence from the frontiers to u." ^
the capital, and from the capital to, the frontiers. (See
Telegraph). Balloons Avere alfo uled by the French
during this campaign to procure knorvledge of the po¬
fition of the enemy. An engineer afeended Avith the
balloon, Avhich Avas fuffered to rife to a great height,
but prevented from flying away by a long cord. He
made plans of the enemy’s encampment j and during
an attack he font doAvn notice of every hoftile move ¬
ment. In the affairs of men, and more efpccially in
military tranlaclions, opinion is of more importance -
than reality. The French foldiers confided in their
own officers as men pcffefied of a kind of omnifcience,
while the allied troops, no doubt, beheld Avith anxiety a
nerv contrivance employed againft them, Avhofe import¬
ance Avould be readily magnified by credulity and igno¬
rance. With all thefe advantages, however, after the 1
capture of Nimeguen, they once more made a halt in
their career, and abftained from the attack of Holland,
which noAv feemed almoft proftrate before them.
While thefe events occurred in the north, the French Their fue-
arms were fcarcely lefs fuccefsful on the fide of Spain, cefles in
Bellegarde Avas taken ; in the Weftern Pyrenees, Fon-Spam.
tarabia furrendered, and alfo St Sebaftian j the whole
kingdom of Spain feemed panic ftruck. I hat feeble
government, with an almoft impregnable frontier, and
the moft poAverful fortreffes, could make little refiftance ;
and the difficult nature of their country a\ as their only
protection, i he hiftory of this Avar is only a hiftory of
victories on the part of the French. In the Eaftern
Pyrenees, on the 17th November, the French gene¬
ral Dugommier Avas killed in an engagement, in which
his army Avas fuccefsful. On the 20th of that month
the French again attacked the Spaniards, and routed
them by means of the bayonet, without firing a fingle
mulket-fliot. Tents, baggage, and cannon, for an ar¬
my of 50,000 men, fell into the hands of the conquerors,
along with a great part of the province of Navarre.
Towards the end of the year, an army of 40,000 Spa¬
niards, entrenched behind 80 redoubts, the labour of fix
months, fuffered themfelves to be completely routed ,
their general Count de la Union Avas found dead on
the field of battle, and the Avhole Spanilh artillery ay us
taken. In three days thereafter, the fort Fernando
de Figuieres, containing a garrifon of 9107 men, fur¬
rendered, although it mounted 171 pieces of cannon,
and poffeffed abundance of provifions. The French
continued their conquefts 5 Rotas Avas taken, and the
whole province of Catalonia Avas left at the mercy of the
invaders. # 412
The fucceffes of this Avonderful campaign were not The con-
yet terminated 5 and the laft part of them is perhaps the queft of
moft important, although no great effort was neceffary HoUand^
to its execution. ri he Avinter iioav fet in with uncom¬
mon feverity. For fome years paft the feafons of Eu¬
rope had been uncommonly mild ; there hati been lit¬
tle froft in avinter, and no intenfe heat in fummer. But
during the late feafon the weather had long been re¬
markably
F 11 A
L 157 1
FRA
Trance.
1795*
mark ably dry till the latter part of harveft, when there
fell a confiderable, though by no means unufual, quan-
tily of rain. Howards the end of Decemoer a fevere
fruit bound up the whole of the rivers and lakes of
Holland. The Waal was frozen over in the beginning
of January j a circuniftance which had not occurred for
14 years part. Taking advantage of this, ‘the. French
crofled that river, and with little oppofition feized the
important pafs of Horaruell, which at other feafons is
fo itrong by its inundations. The allied army had been
joined by 17,000 Andrians, and had received orders to
defend Holland to the lad. They did fo, and were
fuceefsful in repulfing the French for fome days between
the Waal and the Leek j but the republican army,
amounting to 70,000 men, having at lad advanced in full
force, the allied troops were compelled to retire acrofs
the Yffel into Wedphalia. In the courfe of their march
through this defert country, in the midd of fevere frod
and a deep fnow, they are laid to have differed incredi¬
ble hardlhips, and to have lod a very great number of
men. The French, in the mean time, advanced rapidly
acrofs the country to the Zuyder fea, to prevent the in¬
habitants from dying, and carrying off their property.
On the 16th of January 1795, a party of horle, without
refidance, took poffedion of Amderdam. The other
towns furrendered at diferetion. In confequence of an
order from the dates general, the drong fortreffes of
Bergen-op-zoom, Williamdadt, Breda, &c. opened their
gates to the French. The deet and the dripping were
fixed by the'intenfe frod in their dations, and fell a prey
to the enemy ; who thus, with little effort, made a com¬
plete conqued of this populous and once powerful coun¬
try. The French'were well received by the people at
large. The power of the dadtholder had been fupport-
ed among them merely by the induence of Pruffia and
England. Through hatred to this office, wdiich had
now become odious cliiedy to the mercantile aridocracy
of Holland, they were little attached to their allies, and
gave them, during the prefent war, as little fupport as
poffible. The dadtholder and his family now ded to
England. The French declared, that they did not
mean to make fubjects but allies of the Dutch, and in¬
vited them to call together popular affemblies for fettling1'
their own government; under the protection of the
French republic.
Thus terminated a campaign, the mod adonidiing,
perhaps, that has been known in the hidory of mankind.
In the courfe of it, even before the conqued of Hol¬
land, the French had taken 2000 pieces of cannon and
60,000 prifoners. After that event, the conquered ter¬
ritories added to them a population of nearly 14 millions
of people. Luxembourg and Mentz were the only
places on this fide of the Rhine that redded them. The
former was clofely blockaded, for the purpofe of com¬
pelling it to furrender*-, the latter was feveral times
t affaulted, but fuccefsfully held out.
The diet of At this period Europe feemed to be weary of fuch a
ptatifixm bloody conted, and the Diet of Ratiibon intimated its
refolution to adopt fuch meafures as might tend to
bring about a general pacidcation. A treaty was con¬
cluded between the grand duke of Tufcany and France.
The convention declared their readinefs to treat for
peace with any of the powre'rs of Europe upon honour¬
able terms. Great Britain and Audria, however, feem¬
ed to be perfuaded, that an honourable and permanent
France.
ivfolve on
p^ace.
1795-
dednite length of time.
As the
year 1793
peace could not be obtained with France, while her
government was lubjeCt to fuch perpetual changes. For
indance, fuch w!as the enmity of the Mountain party
againd the Gironde, that any treaty entered into by
the latter would have been trampled upon by the for¬
mer ; and fuch, it was obierved, might continue to be
the afpeft of affairs in that didradled country for an in-
. ° ' . 4*4
conditution rvhich had been framed in the A new con-
during the tyrannical dominion of Robef- —tutlon-
pierre was judly deemed imprafticable, a committee
was appointed to frame one entirely new. It was com-
pofed of Sieyes, Cambaceres, Merlin of Douay, Thi-
baudau, Mathieu, Le Sage of Eure and Loire, and
Latouche. On the report of Cambaceres, the 19th of
April, that the committee thought that a commiffion
diould be appointed for this important budnefs, a num¬
ber of qualided perfons were accordingly chofen, while
ail citizens were invited to communicate their fentiments
upon the fubject, and the committee was to give orders
for the bed plans to be publiffied. The feelings of the
nation at large received additional gratidcation from
the conduct of the convention towards Fouquier I ain-
vilie the preddent, and 15 judges and jurors, of the re¬
volutionary tribunal. They were fully convicted on
the 8th of May, and executed on the 9th, launched in¬
to eternity amidd the jud execrations of a vad multi¬
tude of fpeblators. -
Although the Jacobins were defeated on the id and infurrec-
2d of April, they did not condder themfelves as en- tion of th«j.
tirely fubdued. They were plotting a more extendve T-xobmi.
infurreftion, which was not to be confined to the capi¬
tal, and £xed on the 20th of May as the period of
revolt. On the mornii»g of that day, the toedn was
accordingly founded, and drums beat to arms in the
fuburb of St Antoine, in which the Jacobins had al¬
ways enjoyed the greated influence.. Upon this the
convention met 5 and although the infurre&ion Avas far
from being a fecret, the committee of public fafety did
not appear to have taken any meafures to prevent it.
It was only at the moment Avhen the infurgents ivere
approaching that General Hoche was appointed to the
command of the armed force, and fent to collebl the
military and citizens for the protection of the conven¬
tion. The hall was prefently furrounded, the guards
Avere ovex-poAvered, and the mob forced their Avay into
the midd of the affembly. The multitudes of women
Avho met upon this occafion ffiouted for bread, and the
conditution of 1793. Vernier the prefident, a man far
advanced in years, quitted the chair to BoiiTy d’Anglas,
Avho kept it xvith commendable fortitude during the re¬
mainder of the day. The mob had cockades with this
infeription upon them, “ Bread, and the conditution of
1793.” One fcof the party attached to the convention
imprudently tore off the hat of one of the infurgents,-
whom the multitude attacked with fwords ; and as he
fled towards the chair of the prefident, he Avas killed
by a- muiket flrot. The majority of the members gra¬
dually retired from this feene of lawlefs intrufion, and
left the multitude maders of the hall. Four of the
members who remained efpoufed the caufe of the in¬
furgents, Avhofe triumph, hoAvever, Avas of very fhoifc
continuance. A large body of the military and the
peaceable citizens vanquiffied them in the evening, the
powers of the majority were redored, and the four de-
£utlei
'EVance.
1795-
416
Mean com¬
pliance of
the con¬
vention.
4i7
Defeat of
the Jaco¬
bins.
418
Hope to be
fuccefsful.
F It A [15
puties Vv'lio efpoufed the caufe of the mob tverc ar-
refted.
It would appear that the convention and the citizens
of Paris now believed their triumph to be complete, as
no meafures were adopted by them fufficient to prevent
the repetition of a fimilar outrage. The Jacobins,
however, were .not yet determined to view their caufe
as defperate, for next day they collected in the fuburbs,
and in the afternoon made a fecond attempt. The
Caroufal was taken by them without oppofition, when
they pointed feme pieces of cannon again ft the hall of
the convention, the members of which being wholly
unprotefted, endeavoured to gain over the mob by flat¬
tery,—by promifing them bread, and the conftitution of
1793, or whatever elfe they thought proper to demand 5
and the prefident even gave the deputation the frater¬
nal embrace. On the 23d, the citizens aflembled, and
went to the Thuilleries to defend the convention from
infult and violence. The military collected in conftder-
able force ; and the convention was at length encour¬
aged to adt on the offenfive. It was decreed that if the
fuburb of St. Antoine did not immediately furrender its
arms and cannon, with the murderer of Ferrand, it
would be declared in a ftate of rebellion. The generals
of the convention received orders to reduce it by force ;
and the infurgents finding themfelves unequal to the
conflict:, were forced by the inhabitants to make an un¬
conditional furrender, to preferve their property from
the depredations of the military. The foldiers found
among the prifoners were put to death, on which oc-
cafion fix of the members were tried and condemned by
a military commiflion. Three of them were guilty of
fuieide, and the other three were publicly executed.
In the fouthern parts of France, the Jacobins vTere
equally turbulent as their brethren in Paris, and form¬
ed an infurredftion at Toulon on the 20th of May,
feizing on the gates, upon which they planted cannon ;
they fet at liberty fuch of their aflociates as had been
incarcerated, and detained the fleet which was about to
put to fea. From Toulon they proceeded to Marfeilles,
at which time they V'ere 3000 ftrong, and had 12 pieces
of cannon. On their march they were oppofed by
Generals Charton and Paftod, by whom they were de¬
feated, 300 of them being fent prifoners to Marfeilles,
and Toulon was liberated.
The Mountain party, who were anxious to revive the
terrific reign and mcafures of Robefpierre, wrnre now
very much reduced, and expofed in many places to
violent perfecution. Affociations were formed for the
purpofe of avenging the crimes they committed during
the continuance of their power. When we refleft on
the character of Robefpierre’s government and what all
ranks of men fuffered under it, we muft confider it
truly aftonithing that any number of men ftiould hazard
their lives in attempting its reftoration. The party
•was of courfe gradually abandoned by its adherents on
the fall of its tyrant, and it funk in the eftimation of
every one who examined it with attention. Still, how¬
ever a fmall party remained, the members of which
were men of fuperior activity and enterprife. They
confifted of ferocious republicans who thought they be¬
held the revival of royalty and ariftocracy in every at¬
tempt to eftablifti a mild, fober, and regular govern¬
ment. Yet, amidft the umverfal odium caft upon them,
the Jacobins expedled to rife once more into power
8 ]
Franc*
c795'
FRA
but what is rooft Angular, the revival of their ftrength ^
is to be dated from their unfuccefsful infurre&ion juft '
now mentioned. Their want of popularity began to
affeil the convention, as the people remembered how
tamely that body fubmitted to the tyranny of Robef¬
pierre, ot whofe power the majority of the members
had been the fervile inftruments. The prefs therefore,
being now free, the moft hideous picture of their con-
du£t was held up to the public. I he greater part of
them now began to repent of their victory over the
Jacobins, as they forefaw that the confequences in the
end might prove fatal to themfelves.
On the 23d of June, Boiffy d’Anglas prefented the New com
report of the committee relative to the plan of a new ftitution,
conftitution. It was, like its predeceffors, prefaced with
a declaration of the rights of man, confifting beiides of
14 chapters on the following fabjeels :—the extent of
the republican territories, the political ftate of citizens,
primary affemblies, electoral affemblies, the legiflature,
the judicial authority, the public force, public inftruc-
tion, the finances, foreign treaties, the mode of reyifing
the conftitution, and an aft that no rank or fuperiority
ftiould exift among citizens, but what might arife from
the exercife of public functions. _ 420
The legiflature was compofed of two aflemblies, the made up of
council of the Ancients, confifting of 250 members, as two affem-
none but married men and widowers turned of 40 utS*
could be chofen members of it j the other council con¬
fifted of 500 members, and enjoyed the exclufive privi¬
lege of propofing the law's, while the council of Ancients
might rejeft or oppofe, ^without having power to alter
the decrees. The executive power was intiufted to
five perfons who were to be 40 years of age at leaft,
and to be denominated the Executive DireBonj. The
two councils had the power of electing its members',
the council of five hundred propofing 10 times as many
candidates as could be chofen, and the council of two
hundred and fifty felefted the five members from among
thefe 50 candidates. One member of the direftory was
to go annually out of office, by which they were all
changed in the courfe of five years. In enafting laws
the directory had no vote, being appointed purely to
fuperintend "the execution of them, regulated the coining
of money, and had the ddpofal of the armed force.
The treaties made by the direftory. with foreign courts
were not binding without the fandlion of the legiflature,
and wTar could not be made without a decree of the
two affemblies. The whole articles of the new con¬
ftitution underwent a feparate difeuffion, when they
were to be tranfmitted to the primary affemblies for
their approbation. Prior to this event, however, it was
agreed on by a majority of the convention, in order to
avert the danger v'hich now threatened themfelyes,
from the lofs of public favour, that at the approaching
general election, the electors ftrould be bound to return
two-thirds of the prefent members, and if this failed,
that the convention themfelves might fill up the. va¬
cancies. Thefe decrees accompanied the conftitution j
but at Paris the idea of re-ele6ling two-thirds of the
old members was rejected with contempt, and the ab-
furdity of it pointed out with every expreffion of acri-
mony. . . 421
The convention in the mean time did not tail to Freedom
publiffi the approbation of the decrees by the primary abridged by
affemblies, as well as 6f the conftitution, although it is“e con'€ ‘
certain
42i
acobins
jurted by
le conven
I jh.
4*3
Jri»Sglc
twee a
I e conven-
>n and
' Lilians.
F II A [ 1
certain that vaft numbers bad confounded the two to¬
gether, and given their approbation accordingly. Such
was the rage of many againft the convention in confe-
quence of the decrees already mentioned, that it was
even propofed to try the whole members before a new
revolutionary tribunal, and punilh each in proportion
to his crimes. The fections remonllrated againft the
decrees to the convention, and the more eager they ap¬
peared in the bufinefs, the more perfuaded was the con¬
vention of its own imminent danger. Every remon-
ftrance, however, was difregarded, and the contend¬
ing parties formed the refolution of fettling it by force
of arms. About 103 electors of Paris met in the hall
of the theatre in the fuburb of St Germain before the
day of meeting which had been appointed by the con¬
vention, and having chofen De Nivernois for their pre-
lident began their debates, abfurdly concluding that
the fovereignty was veiled in the hands of the electors,
after thefe had been chofen by the primary fe61ions. A
body of troops was fent to diflblve them as an illegal af-
fembly, which was accompliihed without any difficulty,
the citizens not having been unanimous in their fenti-
ments refpe&ing it.
This, however, did not prevent the fe61ions from
prefuming that by Heady perfeverance they Avould be
finally victorious, having always found that the party
favoured by the co-operation of the Parifian populace,
had carried their point ever fince the commencement of
the revolution. The armed force with which the con¬
vention Avas furrounded gave the people very little
alarm, as they endeavoured to perfuade themfelves that
the military could never be brought to aCl againft the
citizens. As the members of the convention alfo ap¬
peared to fufpecl their fidelity, they applied for affift-
ance to thofe very Jacobins whom they had humbled on
the 24th of May. If the feClions of Paris detefted
the members for their connexion with the atrocities of
Robefpierre, the Jacobins admired them from this very
circumftance } a fet of reftlefs, broody men, who were
never fatisfied with Avars abroad nor revolutions at
home. Hundreds of them Avere releafed from prifon,
and put in a ftate of requifition for affitling the legiflative
bodv.
The feflions of Paris having beheld the convention
furrounded by men Avho had jtiftly obtained the ap¬
pellations of terrorifts and men of blood, they exhibited
a defire of engaging them which Avas altogether un¬
bounded. Their leader defigned to make the members
prifoners, till they could be conveniently brought to
trial, and in the interim conduCl public affairs by com¬
mittees of the feCIions, till a new legiflative body could
be chofen. General Miranda Avas to have the com¬
mand of the armed force after the overthrow of the
convention, but as it was ffill problematical which party
Avould be triumphant, he retired to the country till the
event ftiould declare it, refolving to {hare the re Avar d
of a connueft to Avhich he Avas to contribute nothing.
The fuperior officers of the convention Avere unfaithful,
yet the fubalterns and foldiers might have continued
firm, to Avhich they Avould, no doubt, be ftrongly ex¬
horted by their Jacobin auxiliaries. What Avas greatly
in favour of the convention was, that the firft moments
of enthufiafm Avere permitted to pafs aAvay, after Avhich •
the ledtions exhibited a conduct both undecided and
weak,
6,
59 ] FRA
Barras Avas appointed on the 4th of October by the trance,
convention to the command of the troops, Generals « '
Menon, Raffet and fome others, having been difmiffed I79S*
from office. Barras called in the aid of the molt able
officers, among Avhom Ave find Brune and Bonaparte, appointed
and made ipeedy preparations for a vigorous defence, to the chief
Troops Avith cannon Avere placed in every avenue lead-C0111 aiand
ingto theThuilleries, and malked batteries were placed d1 ^ na"
in lituations of a more retired nature, if any of thefe tro0pSt
fhould happen to be forced. The precaution Avas alfo
taken of tranfporting the provifions and military ftores
to St Cloud, if the convention ihould be obliged to re¬
treat from Paris. On the 5th of October botli parties
continued on the defeniive for feveral hours, but about
three o’clock in the afternoon, overtures Avere made
by the general of the infurgents, Danican, in Avhieh he
declared that the intention ot the citizens was for peace,
only they apprehended a maflacre Avas to be begun by
the armed terrorifts furrounding the convention, and
that if thefe Avere removed they Avould return to their
duty ; but it Avas refolved to try the ifiue of the dif-
pute at the point of the fword, as the Jacobin party in
the convention Avere noAV more fully perfuaded of ulti¬
mate fuccefs. On this occafion the armed Jacobins
without are generally.underitood to have been the firft
aggreffors. The citizens on the fouth fide of the rivet
made an effort to reach the convention by the (^uay
de Vokaire, but Avere completely prevented by the
cannon of the convention, Avhile the conflifl was ex¬
tremely obftinate on the other fide of the river, near
the convention, m After air engagement of four hours
continuance, the fections Avere repuHed, and driven to
ihe poll of St Roche, which being alio taken after an
obftinate reliftance, trie infurgents fled to their head
quarters at the ferftion of Pelletier j but the troops of
the convention were, about midnight, in poffeffion of
the whole city.
The victors attributed this infurrection to the in- The violent
fluence of the royalifts j and whether they Avere right Jacobins
in their judgment or not, it is certain that the caufe of
royalty was hoav become lefs odious to the people in ge¬
neral than the bloody extravagance of republicanifm ;
but the mob in fail feem to have looked no farther
than the difarming of the Jacobins, and obtaining new
reprefenlatives. The attempt failed, and the Mountain
Avere a^ain at the head of the ftate. The fittino-s of
0 . . O
the convention were terminated on the 2yth of Ofto-
ber, and was fucceeded uy the new ligiflature in terms
of the conftitution. Among its laft decrees, Avas one
granting a general amnefty for all crimes and pro¬
ceedings of a revolutionary nature, but the emigrants,
tranfported priefts, and every one concerned in the laft
infurrection, Avere excluded from the benefit of it. The *
agents of Robefpierre in Paris and t he departments Avere
liberated from prifon, and promoted to lucrative offices
under the neAV government
The next ftep of the new legiflature Avas to divide Mealures of
itfelf into tAvo councils, and proceed to the ele£Tion oflfie new
an executive dire61 ory. The council of five hundred legiflature, ■
Avas bound to prefent to the other council 50 candi¬
dates, of which a lift Avas accordingly made out, con-
ftfting of no more than five Avhom they Aviflied to be
ehofen, the other 45 confifting of obfeure perfons, far¬
mers and peafants, Avhich left no more poAver to the
council of ancients than the form of an ckftion, which
Kiuft :
T ranee.
*19 S-
4*7
Treaty of
peace with
Pruffia.
428
Death of
Louis
XVII.
FRA
mutt fall on Sieyes, Barras, Rewbell, La
Lepaux, and Letourneur de la Manche, none of the
reft being qualified for the office. J he intriguing
Sieyes, however, did not deem it prudent to venture
on the pofleflion of power j and on his declining to ac¬
cept of this new’ dignity, Carnot was appointed in his
ftead. The form of government now eftablifhed did
not promile to be productive of much happinefs or tran¬
quillity, as the moft important offices in the ftate were
tilled by men whom the people could not endure. I he
members too of the executive diredtory, except only
Reveillere Lepaux, had always been connected with
the Mountain party, and they employed the Jacobins
in almoft every official department, which could not fail
to render the government peculiarly obnoxious. It was
feared that a diredtory chofen by the Jacobins, and new
legiffators appointed by the people, might one day.be
the means of totally fubverting the conftitution, which
actually took place.
On the 10th of April a treaty of peace with the
king of Pruffia was prefented to the convention, in order
to be ratified. By virtue of this treaty, it .was agreed
that the republican troops fhould be immediately with-
drawn from the territories of Pruflia on the right bank
of the Rhine, having powder to retain, till a. general
peace, the territories which France then poffeiTed on
the left bank of that river. There was to be a mutual
exchange of prifoners of war, and the intercourfe be¬
tween the two countries was to be placed in its former
lituation. Meafures tvere alfo adopted to fhift the
theatre of hoftilities from the northfrn parts of Ger¬
many. At the fame time the king of Sweden acknow¬
ledged the French republic, whofe ambaflador tvas re¬
ceived at Paris with.great folemnity. Another treaty
was concluded with Pruffia in the month of 1VTay,
which had a fpecial reference to the line of neutrality.
The cantons of Switzerland followed the example of
the king of Sweden, and a treaty of peace was con¬
cluded at Bafle on the 22d of July, between the repub¬
lic and the court of Spain, in confequence of. which
France gave up all the conquefts flie had made in that
country, and the original frontier was reftored j in re¬
turn for which the republic received all the Spanilh part
of St Domingo. In this treaty the Dutch republic
-was included, and the mediation of the king of Spain,
in favour of Portugal and the Italian princes, was ac¬
cepted by France.
On the 9th of June, the dauphin, the heir to the
throne of the unfortunate Louis XVI. and his only fon,
died in the prifon of the Temple, where he was confined
with his fifter fince the death of the king. Some think
that his death u'as the confequence of difeafe, although
it is much more probable that he W'as poifoned, fince
there is no crime in the annals of human depravity
which the French rulers would have trembled to per¬
petrate, of which the numerous murders already detail¬
ed afford indubitable evidence. Flis death, however,
interefted the French nation fo deeply in favour of his
barbaroufly ufed family, that the convention found it
prudent to liberate the princefs. The committee (.£
public fafety propofed to the emperor to give her up m
exchange for the commiflioners whom Dumourier had
font prifoners to the Auftrians, together. with Semon-
ville and Marat, who were feized on their way to Tur¬
key as envoys extraordinary from the French republic.
[ 160 J FRA
Reveillere The propofal eras agreed to, and the exchange took
place at Baffe in Switzerland. s _ 17Q.
If Britain was unfortunate in her affairs on the con- ^
tinent, flie ftill retained her fupenority on the watery Britain fu_
element. A fleet under Admiral Hotham engaged a perior by
French fleet on the 14th of March, and took two tail-~<t,
of the line, the Ca Ira and Genfeur j but this was
nearly counterbalanced by the lofs of the Berwick and
Illuftrious. Three French flnips of the line vere cap¬
tured by Lord Bridport on the 23d of June, in an at¬
tack on the enemy’s fleet off Port L’Orient, the reft of
the fleet effecting its efcape. As Britain thus evinced
upon all occafions her fuperiority by lea, advantage was
taken of this circumftance to fend afliftance to the royal-
irts in the weftern departments, which unfortunately
for them came too late, for the convention had offered
them a treaty w hich was accepted and figned at Nantz
on the 3d of March, on the one part by deputies from
the convention, and on the other by Charette, Sapi-
neau, and other chiefs of the infurgents of La Vendee,
and by Cormartin, as reprefentatives of the part) called
Chouans or night owls. Stofflet fubmitted to the repub¬
lic on the 20th of April. The countenance given by
Britain to the royalifts made them difregard thefe trea¬
ties. The troops fent to their aid were compofed of
emigrants in the pay of Great Britain, and^a number
of prifoners who agreed to join the royal caufe. Puifaye
commanded this motley army, and Count de Sombreuil
afterwards joined him with an inconfiderable reinforce¬
ment. This expedition arrived in the bay of Ouiberon
on the 25th of June. Arms were put into the hands of
the inhabitants of tbe country, but it was foon found
that they could not be of much advantage to legular
troops. A refolution was therefore adopted to withdraw
the emigrant army within the peninfula of Quiberonj
the fort of which name was taken on the 3d of July,
the garrifon of which confifted of about 600 men, and
was afterwards occupied by the emigrants. All the
polls without the peninfula were carried by an army
under General Hoche, the emigrants and Chouans ef-
caping into the boats of the Britifh fleet, or flying for
protection under the cannon of Ouiberon fort. I he re¬
publicans then began to ereft formidable works on the
heights of St Barbe, which commanded the entrance of
the peninfula. To prevent thefe operations, a tally on
the 7th was made from the fort, but without eftec.,
and another with ftill greater force had no better fuc-
cefs. The whole forces in the peninfula amounted, in¬
cluding Chouans, to about 12,000 men, 5000 of whom
were fent to make an attack on the heights of St Barbe,
where the republicans were entrenched in three camps,
two of which were taken without difficulty ; but as the
emigrants ruffied forward to attack the third, a mafked
battery was opened upon them with grape ffiot, m con¬
fequence of which a dreadful (laughter enfued, and very
few of the emigrants would have effefted their efcape,
had not the fire from the Britiffi fhips compelled the re¬
publicans to abandon the purfuit. Failure of
It was now evident that a complete and ultimate fai- ^ ^uibe
lure would be the fate of this expedition, and defei.tion ron expg.
amon<T the emigrants became very frequent, efpecia.lly diuon.
thofe who had been liberated from prifon on condition
of ferving againft the republic. 1 he weather was very
tempeftuous on the evening of the 20th, which induced
the emigrants to indulge in a fatal fecurity. a he troops
43<
Crtnt mental
.flairs.
432
Treaty
tvith Gcr-
naa
rrinces.
433
|\bfurd
ondudt of
he direc-
ory,
F R A [1
ox th6 republic were conduced in filence along an un¬
guarded quarter of the (bore, and furprifed one of the
polls, where they found the artillery men aflftep.
They extinguiihed the lanthorn which was intended to
give* the Brililh fleet the alarm, and feized on their
matches. Some of the emigrants threw down their
arms and ioined the republicans, while others maintained
an obilinate conteft befole they furrendered. Count de
Sembreuil was taken and put to death, together with
the bilhop of Dol and his clergy, none being fpared
but fuch as pretended that their appearing againil the
republicans was purely owing to compulfion.
But to return to the affairs on the continent. The
fort of Luxembourg furrendered on the yth of June,
after having been befieged fmee the preceding cam¬
paign, which put the French in pofleflion of the whole
left bank of the Rhine, Mentz only excepted, becaufe
the Auftrians could conveniently fupply it with every
neceflary from the oppofite bank of the river. The
republicans therefore determined to crofs the river, to
inveft it ,on every fide ; but for fume time the attempt
was delayed, till the refult of the Quiberon expedition
fliould be fully known. The paffage of the Rhine at
DuiTeldorf was effected by General Jourdan in the
month of Auguft, as commander of -what was denomi¬
nated the army of the Sambre and Meufe. Having
driven three Auitrian polls before him, he eroded the
Maine, and inverted Mentz and Caffel, and Pichegru
at the fame time took poffeffion of Manheim, having
croffed the river near that city with the army of the
Rhine and Mofclle. A ftrong detachment of this army
having driven Marlhal Wurmfer from an important port,
began to plunder, and confequently run into confufion,
of which the Ault wans took a proper advantage, re¬
turned to the charge, and the republicans were vartquilh-
ed. Jourdan was purfued by Clairfait to Duffeldorf,
where the former general made a Hand, and Pichegru
recroffed the Rhine near Manheim, leaving a garrifon in
that city of 8000 men, which, after a vigorous liege,
furrendered to the Auftrians 5 and the republicans were
driven from the vicinity of Mentz. Little more was
either loft or won by the contending parties at this time,
and they mutually agreed to an armiftice ox three months.
The landgrave of Heffe Caffel entered into a'treaty
of peace with France on the 28th of Auguft, which
was agreed to, on condition that he would furnifh
Britain with no more troops during the war. Peace
upon fimilar terms was granted to the elector of
Hanover 5 and the duke of Wirternberg and fome other
princes of the German empire began to treat; but the
negociations •were broken off in confequence of the
reverfe of fortune which the French now experienced.
The directory, however, ft ill refolved to profecute
the Avar Avith vigour, and therefore made vaft prepara¬
tions during the A\unter for another campaign. The
Mountain party being again poffeffed of power, foon
began to difeover their reltlefs, turbulent difpofition,
which could not long fubmit peaceably to any govern¬
ment AAhatever, and became difgufted Avith that very
direftory which they themfelves had eltablilhed. They
Avere perpetxxally difturbing the public tranquillity.
The people of Paris, after the 5th of October, durft not
Openly avow their abhorrence of the Jacobins, but it
■was underltood that their Avearinsf green cravats Avas a
token of contempt. This piece of drefs Avas prohibited
Voi.. IX. Part I.
Frau re.
4 795'
434
61 ] V It A
by the directory as a mark of attachment to royalty.
Of this they were foon alhamed, and recalled their edict
in a feAv Aveeks. In the fouthern parts of France, the
prefent authority of the Jacobins produced very ferious
effects. Freron, by Avhom they had been abandoned
after the death of Robefpicrre, returned to their caufe
before the 5th of October, andhvas font to Toulon Avitb
full poAvers of adminiftration. He difmiffed the mftni-
cipality which had been chofen by the people, reftored
the Jacobin clubs, and every perfon Avhom he fufpedted
he caufed to be imprifoned. The directory Avas alarm¬
ed at the numerous complaints Avhieh were made from
every quarter againft the conduct of thofe turbulent
and bloody men, and refolved to obtain the confidence
and affections of the people by deferting them entirely.
Freron Avas recalled from Toulon, and more moderate
men Avere made choice of to fucceed the reftlefs, fangui-
nary Jacobins.
The directory alfo made a public declaration that its which takes
confidence had been abufed. The police minifter Avas f
charged Avith the removal from Paris of the members '
of former revolutionary, tribunals, and fuch as were ac¬
tive leaders of the Jacobins. Ten thoufand men, called
the legion of police, who aCted againft the Parifians on
the 5th of OCtober, and were decidedly the favourers
of the Jacobins, received orders from the directory and
kgiflative body to join the armies on the frontiers,
Avhich orders they refufed to obey, but were compelled
to fubmit by the interference of other troops brought
from a diftant quarter' to provide againft that event.
This led the violent Jacobins to concert a plan for the
ruin of the directory and the majority of the councils,
Avho had noAV abandoned them. But as they Avere ?
considerable time in being ready for aCtion, their de-
figns were difeovered and completely defeated. The
guards Avere increafed on the 10th of May, and bodies
of caA’-alry were Rationed round the Luxembourg and
Thuilleries. The council of five hundred was inform¬
ed by the directory, that a terrible plot Avas ready to
burl! forth on the enfuing morning. The confpirators
at the ringing of the morning bell, Avere to proceed in.
fmall parties of three or four men each, to the houfes
of thofe perfons whom" they had fingled out for deftruc-
tiou. Having murdered thefe, they Avere then to unite
in one body againft the directory, whofe guard they
conceived themfebves qualified to \ranquifh. The Jaco¬
bins in the mean time had nominated a new directory
and legiflature, from among the moft turbulent and
abandoned of their oavu perluafion. Some of the lead¬
ers bf this' confpiracy Avere arretted, among Avhom Avas
Drouet Hhe poftmafter of Varennes, Avho flopped the
unfortunate Louis on his Avay to the frontiers, and Avith
him ten others, who Avere condemned at Vendome, but
Drouet made his efcape.
Thefe defeats which the Jacobins experienced, and Moderate
the difgrace into Avhich they Avere again brought, de- arty,
termined the moderate party in the two councils to at¬
tempt to procure the repeal of the concluding decrees
of ti e convention, v.hich had granted them an amnefty,
ar d co a firmed the laxvs againft emigrants, excluding
thur friends from fueceeding them. A number of
davs xvere employed in the difeuflion of thefe topics,
but the moderate party gained nothing in favour of the
emigrants, and nothing againft the Jacobins but this,
that fuch as ’owed their prefervation to the amnefty,
X Ihould
F Pt A [ 162 ] FRA
France, flioulcl not be deemed competent to bold any public of-
v fices.
I79^- Another matter of no lefs a ferious nature now called
-n A6 ki f°r the attention of the republican government, which
Itate of the was the deplorable date of the finances. While the
finances. tyrannical ufarpation of Robefpierre continued, terror
fupported the credit of the afiignats, which joined to
tile fale of the church lands, and the property of the
emigrants, furnithed ample refources in the mean time j
and no provilion was at all thought of for future exi¬
gencies. If money was wanted, more alii gnats were
fabricated, and no enquiry was made concerning the
public expenditure, as no taxes were demanded from
the people. The directory complained to the councils
of the great didrels under which they laboured, and of
the want of fufficient funds to meet the unavoidable ex-
pences of the enluing campaign. A law was in conle-
quence palled on the 25th of March, giving authority
to difpole of the remainder of the church lands at the
value formerly fixed on them, which was 22 years pur-
chafe. A new paper currency, termed mandats, was to
be received in payment, but government had now loft
its credit. Thefe rapidly loft a great part of their va¬
lue, which increafed the demand for national property \
and to prevent this, the legiflature decreed that one-
fourth of every purchafe ftiould be paid in calh, which
prevented the lale of the national property, and the cir-
dilation of mandats.
.National During their preparations for the approaching cam-
ioftitutc paign, the direftory attempted to render themfelves po-
citablilhed. pUp|r at home, by the eftablilhment of the National
InJHtute, or fociety of men of letters under the protec¬
tion of government. Every man of erudition who had
efcaped the bloody perfecution of the Mountain party,
was invited to be a member. It was opened on the
4th of April, in the hall of the Louvre, when the am-
baffadors of Spain, Pruflia, Sweden, Denmark, Hol¬
land, America, Tufcany, Genoa, and Geneva, were
prefent, and the members of the diredory in their robes
of ftate. The prefident expreffed the determination of
the executive power to afford every encouragement to
the improvement of literature and the arts’, and the pre¬
fident of the inftitute replied that it was the determina¬
tion of the members to endeavour to give luftre to the
republican government by the exercile of their talents,
•and by publications. The fpeeches were enthufiaftical-
ly applauded by 1500 fpedators, and the general ex-
pedation was, that France was now to enter on a career
s of glory and profperity wholly unprecedented.
?ro^fal of About this time an approach towards a negotiation
pear c by with France was made on the part of Great Britain, by
Britain. ]y[r Wickham, ambaflador to the Swifs Cantons*, and on
the 8th of March, a note was communicated to M. Bar-
thelemv, ambaflador from the French republic. It was
alked, whether France would be willing to fend minifters
to a congrefsto negotiate peace with his Britannic majefty
and his allies ? Whether France would be inclined to
communicate the general grounds on which ftie would
be willing to conclude peace, that his majefty and his
allies might confider them in concert ? Laftly, whether
France would defire to communicate any other mode of
accompliftiing a peace ? Whatever anfwer Ihould be re¬
turned was to be tranfmitted to the Britilh court; but it
was at the fame time declared that Mr Wickham had
no authority to difeufs thefe fubjedts. An anfwer was
returned on the 26th of the fame month, by Barthelemy Trance,
in the name of the directory, complaining of the infin- ' j
cerity of the Britifli court, as its ambaffador had no au- I79®*
thority to negotiate, and that the propofal of a congrefs
made negotiation endlefs. It ftated the wilh of the di- p
redlory to obtain peace, but. that no portion of territory
would be relinquifhed, which formed part of the repub¬
lic by the conftitutional decree. To this note no reply
was made *, but it was complained of to the foreign mi¬
nifters refident at the court of London, and conlidered
as leaving Britain no other alternative than the prolccu-
tion of the war, at once both juft and neceffary. 439
During the winter feafon, the directory found means Royalifts
to reduce the weftern departments to proper fubjection. weft
The expedition from England had tempted the royaliftslub ue(1,
once more to try their fortune in the field of battle 5 but
after a number of defeats, their leaders Charette and
Stofflet were apprehended, and put to death on the 29th
of March, which tended to fupprefs the infurgents in
every quarter. Domeftic enemies being thus iubdued,
the republican government was enabled to make the
more vigorous exertions on the frontiers. I heir mili¬
tary force was divided into three armies j the army of
the Sambre and Meufe under Jourdan was principally
ftationed about Dufieldorf and Coblentz , the army of
the Rhine and Mofelle, commanded by the celebrated I
General Moreau, ftationed on the Upper Rhine, and
from Landau to Treves ; and the third army occupied
the Italian coaft from Nice towards Genoa, the. com¬
mand of which was beftowed on Bonaparte, a native of
Corfica, and one of the moft extraordinary men that
ever lived in any country, as our readers will perceive in
the fequel. _ 44a
The army of Italy about this time was 56,000 ftrnng, Bonaparte
which Bonaparte, at his arrival, found very ill equipped, takes the
and in a ftate of mutiny for want of pay and neceflaries.
Wilhing them to prepare for immediate aftion, he ad- ofIuly>
dreffed them in the following manner : “ 11 we are to
be vanquished, we have already too much, and if v'e
conquer, we {hall want nothing.” He was anticipated
by the enemy. The Auftriansemployed in the defence
of Italy under Beaulieu were more numerous than the
army of Bonaparte, to which were added 60,000 re¬
gular troops belonging to his Sardinian majefty, the
militia of the country, and about 2500 .Neapolitan ca¬
valry. On the 9th of April the campaign was opened
by General Beaulieu, who attacked a poll called Voltn,
in the pofleflion of the republicans, fix leagues from
Genoa. They defended themfelves till the evening,
after which they retreated to Savona. Next day Beau¬
lieu fucceeded in all his attempts, till he reached Mon-
tenotte, the laft republican entrenchment, which con¬
tained 1 <;oo men. Rampon, their commander, prevail¬
ed with them in a moment of enthofiafm, to fwear that
they would not furrender, in confequence of which they
fucceeded in arrefting the progrefs of the Auftrian . ge¬
neral for the remaining part of the day. . I he right
wing of the French army was, during the night, ftation¬
ed in the rear of the redoubt of Montenotte, under La
Harpe, while Bonaparte, Maffena, Berthier and SalL
cetti, advanced by Altara, to take the enemy on. their
flank and rear. 'Powerful reinforcements w*ere in the
mean time fent to Beaulieu, v bo, on the morning of the
nth again made an attack on La Harpe 5 but the ap¬
proach of Maffena foon made the Auftrians and Sard!,
* nians .
c p- o
442
443
^rn/iftice
ith Sar-
•iuia.
FRA- [ 1
nians give way on all fides. Two of their generals
were wounded, 2500 were made prifoners, and the re¬
publicans purfued them beyond Cairo, which, on the
following day, fell into their hands.
General Angereau, on the 13th, forced the defiles of
Milleiimo ; and by a rapid movement General Provera
■was furrounded at the head of 1500 grenadiers*, but
inftead of furrendering, this brave officer forced his way
through the enemy, and entrenched himfelf in the ruins
of an old caftle at the top of the hill. Angereau, with
his artillery, endeavoured to diilodge him j after which
he arranged his troops into four columns, and made an
attempt to carry Provera’s entrenchments by ftorm,
which proved unfuecefsful, but the French had two
generals killed, and Joubert was wounded. The ad-
verfe armies faced each other on the 14th, while a di¬
vision was left to continue the blockade of Provera.
The Auilrians made an unfuccefsful attack on the re¬
publican centre, Avhile Mafiena turned the left flank of
their left wing in the vicinity of Dego, and La Harpe
turned the right flank of the fame wing. One column
kept in check the centre of the Auftrians, another at¬
tacked the flank of their left wing, and a third column
gained its rear. The republicans took 8000 prifoners,
and General Provera at lalt furrendered.
General Beaulieu, after he was defeated at Millefimo,
made an effort fimilar to thofe which have been fre¬
quently found to change the fortune of Avar. With
7000 of his bell troops he made an attack upon the
village of Dego, where the republicans after their
fuccefs Avere indulging in fecurity. He made himfelf
mafter of the village, and the troops having rallied
under Maffena, that general employed the greater part
of the day in his efforts to retake it. The republicans
were three times repulfed, but Bonaparte having ar¬
rived in the evening Avith reinforcements, the poll Avas
retaken, and 1400 men Avere made prifoners. Bona¬
parte eras now, by defign, betAveen the Auftrian and
Sardinian armies, his right Aving being fecured by the
village of Dego againfi: the efforts of Beaulieu, Avhile
he could adl again!! the Piedmontefe troops with the
greater part of his force. Angereau poAverfully fe-
conded his exertions, Avho had opened a communication
with the Tanaro, where Serrurier Avas approaching the
toAvn of Ceva, in the vicinity of which there Avas a
Piedmontefe entrenched camp of 8000 men. The re¬
doubts covering this camp Avere, on the 16th, attacked
by General Angereau, capturing the greater part of
them, on Avhich the Piedmontefe evacuated Ceva during
the night, and, on the 17th, Serrurier entered it in
triumph. Count Colli repulfed Serrurier on the 20th $
but Bonaparte, on the 22d, defeated him at Mondovi.
The flying army endeavoured to make a ftand at Fof-
fano, its wings being at Coni and Cherafei, Avhich latter
place Avas taken by Maffena on the 25th, Avhen Foffano
Avas taken by Serrurier, and Alba by Angereau.
Prior to thefe movements, an armiftice Avas requefted
by Count Colli on the 23d, Avhich General Bonaparte
granted, on condition that the fortreffes of Coni, Ceva,
and Tortona, ffiould be given up to him, with their
magazines and artillery, and that he fhould Im-e per-
mifiion to crofs the Po at Valentia. The armiftice Avas
figned on the 29th of April, and a definitive treaty Avas
concluded at Paris on the 17th of May. The condi-
lions, in fo far as they concerned his Sardinian majefty.
3 ] FRA
Avere unqueftionably humilitating. The duchy of Savoy France.
Avas given up to France for ever, as Avere alio the conn- u“—v—; 1
ties of Nice, Jende, and Bretueil. An amnefty Avas I79°*
granted to all his fubjects Avho Avere perfecuted for poli¬
tical opinions, and lie agreed that the French troops
ffiould have free accefs to Italy through his territory.'
He Avas to erect no fortreffes on the fide of France, to
demolilh thofe of Brunette and Sufa, and coniels that
his conduct to the laft republican ambaffador had been
difrefpectful. 444
The republican army, in the mean time, advanced A- formd
toAvards the Po *, but Beaulieu Avas deceived refpedting trcaty*
one article of the armiftice, which granted permiffion
to Bonaparte to crofs that river at Valentia. Con¬
cluding that the republican chief feriouily intended to
crofs at this place, he made every poflible preparation
to oppofe him, while Bonaparte haftily penetrated into
Lombardy, and, on the 7th of May, Avas 60 miles doAvn
the river to Placentia before the enemy could obtain
information of his route. He paffed the river AA'ithout
difficulty. Six thoufand infantry and 2000 cavalry
Avere difpatched by Beaulieu to oppofe the pafl’age of
Bonaparte acrofs the river Avhen it Avas too late, by
AA’hom they were met and defeated on the folloAving
day, at the village of Fombio. As 5000 more ad¬
vanced to the afliftance of thefe, they were repulfed bv
La Harpe, at which time that officer was killed. An
armiftice A\Tas granted by General Bonaparte on the 9th
to the duke of Parma, on condition that he paid
2,000,000 of French money, and delivered 10,000
quintals of wheat, 5000 quintals of oats, and 2000 oxen
for the ufe of the army. He likeAvife agreed to give up
20 of his beft paintings, to be made choice of by the
republicans. This laft meafure Avas ftrongly objected
to by feveral men of literature and artifts as foon as it
was known } but the directory difregarded every remon-
ftrance, and gave orders for fimilar ftipulations to be
inferted in every fubfequent treaty. .
As General Beaulieu Avas forced to abandon the Po, Victory at
he crofled the Adda at Lodi, Pizzighitine, and Cre--GfU.
mona, leaving fome troops to defend the approaches to
Lodi, Avhich Avere attacked by the advanced guard of
the republicans on the 10th, w ho drove them into the
toAvri, and purfued them fo rapidly, that there w as no
time left to break doAvn the bridge over the Adda.
Here the Auftrians defended the paffage Avith 30 pieces
of cannon, and the republican officers, after holding a
confultation, were of opinion that the bridge could not
be forced. Bonaparte, hoAvever, having demanded of
his grenadiers Avhether they ivere willing to make the
attempt, they commended the propofal, on Avhich he
formed them into a clofe column, when they availed
themfelves of the darknefs occafioned by the fmoke of
the enemy’s artillery, and reached the middle of the
bridge unperceived, Avhere 700 of them perifhed by the
Auftrinn cannon : but a number of republican officers
fleAV to the head of the column, urged on the brave
foldiers, broke into the Auftrian ranks, and made them
fly in all directions.
It appears that nothing more was expected from the And confts
campaign of Bonaparte in Italy, than to induce the dif- quences 0*
ferent princes and ftates to abandon the coalition againft ft*
France, which every one of them affifted either Avith
troops, or Avith money and provifions. He made him¬
felf inafter of Ferrarra, Bologna, and Urbino, granting
X 3 t*
m
FRA [164] FRA
Trance, to liis Uolinefs and the duke of Modena an armifticc
v s——1 on the ufual terms, rve mean large contributions, paint-
*79^' ings, and curiofities. rihe Neapolitan cabinet u’as fo
terrified in confequence of his march into the Roman
territory, that it requefted a peace ; and Bonaparte
agreed to an armiftice without any oi the humiliating
conditions demanded from the other Hates of Italy.
He next proceeded to Leghorn, in the neutral Hate of
Tufcany, in order to drive out the Engliih, and confif-
cate their property. In this manner did he finilh the
talk afligned him, before the commencement of the
campaign on the Rhine. It is true that IMantua was
Hill in poffeflion of the Imperial troops 5 but it was in a
Hate of fiege, and the reft of Italy was fubmiflive to the ,
447 French republic.
Succels of With a view to leffen the exertions of the republicans
the French jn jta|v^ tiie COnteft in Germany was renewed by the
^er' Auftrians. General Jourdan was of confequence in¬
formed, that the armiftice would terminate, and the war
be renewed, on the 31ft of May. Jourdan at this time
had to contend with General Wartenfleben, while the
archduke w as at the head of the army in the Hundf-
ruck, to oppofe General Moreau on the Upper Rhine.
A lingular ftratagem diftinguilhed the commencement
of the campaign on the part of the French, with a view
to decoy the whole of the Auftrian forces to the Lower
Rhine, that an opportunity might thus be afforded to
General Moreau of fuddenly entering.Swabia, and car¬
rying the war to the hereditary territories of Auftria.
Jourdan began to make vigorous exertions, and Moreau
remained inactive. 1 he lines of Duffeldorf were left
on the 31ft of May by the left wing of Jourdan’s army,
under the command of General Kleber, who defeated
the Auftrians in marching towards the Sieg. Ad¬
vancing with his centre and right wing, Jourdan forced
the Auftrian polls on the Nahe, effeaed the paffage
of the Rhine, blockaded Ehrenbreitftein, and haftened
forward as if he defigned to form the fiege of Mentz.
Thefe move ments brought the archduke into the pe¬
rilous fituation of having Moreau in his front, and
Jourdan in his rear. He therefore croffed the river in
hafte, leaving the fortreffes of Mentz and Manheim to
retard the progrefs of Moreau. I he archduke attacked
the advanced guard of General Jourdan, which, after
an obftinate and bloody conflift, he forced to retiie.
Jourdan, upon this retired to his former pofitions ; and
Kleber, on the 20th, entered the lines of Duffeldorf,
448 from which he had taken his departure.
Defeat of The archduke had no fooner withdrawn from the
the arch- palat|nate to force Jourdan down the Rhine, than Mo-
SfV reau marched fpeedily towards Stralhurgh, by which
' ai S* the hoftile armies feemed as fall as poflible to be flying
from each other. The paffage of the river oppolite to
Kehl was effefled by Moreau on the 24th of June,
which wras attended with confiderable difficulty, a hidden
fvvell having prevented the Auftrians from being taken
by furprife, which appears to have been the primary
intention of the republican commander. The entrench¬
ments on the ihands occupied by troops, were inftantly
carried at the point of the bayonet, and 2600 republi¬
cans effe£led a landing on the oppolite Ihore, where
they were expofed to the Auftrian cannon from the
camp of Wilftedt, and to the cannon of the fort; Hill,
however, they maintained their ground, and likewife
aftedon the offenfive, till the boats returned with rein-
forcements, when the fort and redoubts were carried France,
by ftorm, and the Auftrians retreated towards Often-' v""-*'
burgh. OS*-
In confequence of the archduke’s departure to the Allftrjgns ;
Lower Rhine in purfuit of General Jourdan, and the defeated
detachments fent to Italy to check the victorious career by Moreau,
of Bonaparte, General Moreau was in a lituation for
entering Swabia with a fuperior force. On the 26th of
June he fucceeded in compelling the Auftrians to aban¬
don their camp at Wilftedt, and next day proceeded
with his army in three columns, againft another body of
15,000 men before Offenburgh. A detachment from
General Wurmfer was fent to their affiftance, but thefe
were defeated on their march by two republican co¬
lumns, and Offenburgh was evacuated during the night.
The mountain of Knubis was feized on the 2d of July
by a body of French under General Laroche. This is
the lofticft point in that ridge of mountains denominated
the B/ack Forejl. The Auftrians were next day driven
from the pafs of Friedenftadt, after an, obftinate refift-
ance, by which their communication with the emigrants
under the Prince of Conde was entirely cut off. The
Auftrians were attacked at Raftadt on the 8th by the
left wing of the republican army, commanded by the
gallant General Deffaix, and, after a moft obftinate re¬
finance, were obliged to retreat to Ettingen.
The archduke now arrived with his army on the xhe French
Lower Rhine, leaving Wartenfleben to check the pro- enter
grefs of General Jourdan, who began to aft upon the1 uuikfott.
offenfive as foon as the archduke departed. General
Kleber, as before, fet off from the lines of Duffeldorf,
and the centre and right wing crofled the Rhine in the
vicinity of Coblentz. The French forced the pofts of
Ukareth and Altenkirchen, and the whole army under
General Jourdan croffed the Lahn on the 9th of July,
and next day Wartenfleben was defeated with great
{laughter, and the lofs of 500 men taken prifoners j and
the republicans entered Frankfort on the 12th. The
two imperial armies were now not far from each other,
being in the centre between thofe of Moreau and Jour¬
dan. Had the archduke found it practicable to refift
for a little one of thefe two armies of the French by a
detachment, while he ruflied upon the other with the
main body of his army, it is not improbable that an end
might thus have been put to any further invafion of the
Germanic empire ; but the aftivity of the republican
officers was not fo egfily checked, nor could their pro¬
grefs be arrefted by any partial exertions. His laft re-
fource, therefore, was to give battle to Moreau, which
was moft obftinately fought on both„fides. 1 he French,
in their endeavours to force the heights of Rollenfolhe,
were four times repulfed, and, after a moft terrible
{laughter, they carried the field at the point of the
bayonet. _ 451
In confequence of the lofs they fuftamed at the battle The arch- 1
of Ettingen, the two imperial armies retired eaftward, hike re-
the archduke retreating through Swabia towards Ulm,
where he had magazines. At every poft of any ftrength
he made a {land, in order to obftruft General Moreau’s
progrefs as much as poflible. Wartenfleben, in his re¬
treat through Franconia, made a fimilar oppofition to
the march of Jourdan. 1 he archduke was forced by
Moreau to erofs the Neckar, and afterwards the Da¬
nube, by which means the whole circle of Swabia was
in the rear of the republicans. Wartenfleben was forced
\
F R A [ i
France, to retreat through Afchaffenbourg, Wartfburg, Schwein-
 v ' fm-t, and was obliged to crofs the Rednitz, in order
1796. to fliun the army of Jourdan, which waspreffing on his
rear. Jourdan continued to advance, till his right
wing, commanded by General 'Rernadotte, was ported
at Neumarck, his advanced ports at Teining, and the
main body of the army purfued Wartenrteben beyond
the Nab, having arrived at Amberg on the 22d of
Auguft.
452 The three republican armies commanded by Moreau,
hrmm Bonaparte, and Jourdan, were pofleffed of the whole
Germany, country from the frontiers of Bohemia to the Adriatic,
excepting only a part of the mountains of -Tyrol,
which caufed an alarm through the whole of Ger¬
many. The payment of 4,000,000 of French money
procured a peace for the duke of Wirtemberg } and the
circle of Swabia obtained it, on condition of paying
12,000,000 of livres, and delivering 8400 horfes,
5000 oxen, 100,000 quintals of wheat, 50,000 quintals
of rye, 100,000 facks of oats, x 00,000 pairs of rtioes,
and a large quantity of hay. Peace was granted to the
margrave, of Baden upon fimilar terms. Negociations
were alfo entered into by the eleftor of Bavaria and the
circle of Franconia, having offered large fums in order
to procure it. Even the diet of Ratiibon fent a depu¬
tation to the republican generals to treat for a neutrality.
Spain made a treaty with France, both offenrtve and
defenfive, and war was in confequence foon after de¬
clared againit Great Britain.
453 ^ Bonaparte was detained ilill in Italy, whereas had it
IfAuftria been in his power to crofs the Tyrol at Infpruck, and
L danger, reach the Danube, it is more than probable that the
emperor of Germany would have been obliged to accept
of a peace upon any terms which the conquerors thought
proper to propofe. Fie was now abandoned by every
member of the coalition, Britain alone excepted, whofe
pecuniary aid enabled him to extricate himfelf from
the dangers which furrounded him. A command of
money raifed one army after another to check the
career of Bonaparte in Italy, while his German armies
were recruited by extenrtve levies, and mercenary
troops belonging to the ftates which had made peace
^ with France.
tble con- The archduke Charles having received ftrong rein-
ucl of the forcements, came to the refolution of oppofing Moreau
rchduke. at Umerfheim. A defperate battle was of confequence
fought, of 17 hours continuance, when one of the wings
of the Auftrian army fucceeded in gaining about four
leagues of territory in the rear of the republican army ;
but as the archduke was informed that Wartenfleben
could not maintain his ground againft the efforts of
General Jourdan, he deemed it prudent to retreat, and
adopt new meafures. On the 17th of Auguft, he left
General La Tour to be a check upon Moreau, and
crofting the Danube at Ingolftadt, he marched to the
relief of General Wartenfleben, and with united forces
determined to fall upon Jourdan. On the 23d he made
an attack upon Bernadotte at Teining, whom he com¬
pelled to retreat towards Nuremberg. The archduke
was now on the right of Jourdan, and Wartenfleben
was in front of him, which induced the French com¬
mander to retreat on the 24th. Such was the ftate
of the French finances at the beginning of this cam¬
paign, that the armies of Jourdan and Moreau were
under the neceftity of plundering wherever they came,
5.] F R A.
to fupply their immediate wants. T his was particu- France.
larly the cafe with Jourdan’s army, which, when it be- ^ .
gan to retreat, fuffered almoft as much from the ex- I791-
afperated inhabitants as from the oppofing army. The
archduke and W artenfleben having united their forces,
the former w'as enabled to difpatch General Nauendorf
with reinforcements to La Tour, to keep Moreau in
cheek, while he continued his purfuit of Jourdan to¬
wards Wurtzburg, where the French made a Hand, and
a fevere engagement took place on the 3d of September.
In this, General Jourdan w-as the greateit fufferer, and
he continued his retreat during the night. Having
crofted the Lahn, he made a feeble refiftance, and
marched along the banks of the Rhine, till his army, on
the 17th, arrived at Coblentz and Duffeldorf, from
which it had formerly departed. 455
The army of Moreau was nowT in a fituation ex- Moreau’s
tremely perilous, yet he maintained his pofition till the ||tur'tl0n .
17th of September, the very day on which Jourdan tAj y U'
reached Duffeldorf 5 but he rvas obvioufly in a waver¬
ing condition as to his future movements, and one of
the greateft generals Eurhpe ever beheld was now at
a lofs what ftep to take. He made an unfuccefsful ef¬
fort to draw the archduke from the purfuit of Jourdan.
Many attacks wrere made upon him, but without effebl j
and the Auftrian generals gave way to him wherever
he turned. But finding that the retreat of Jourdan
was irretrieveable, and that General Bonaparte vTas ftill
detained in Italy, he finally refolved to retreat. To
pr< pare for this arduous undertaking, he had croffed the His un-
Lech, which he fuddenly repaffed, as if fully determin- paralleled
ed to penetrate farther into Auftria, and compelled Larc,:reat'
Tour to fall back to Lanfberg. Having thus obtain¬
ed a free paffage for his future movements, he began his
ever memorable and unexampled retreat, parting be¬
tween the Danube at Ulm and the lake of Conflance,
while La Tour continued prefling upon his rear. T he
paffes of the Black Foreft were occupied by numerous
bodies of Auftrians and armed peafantry, while his
right flank was haraffed by Generals Nauendorf and
Petrafch, at the head of 24,000 men. Fie turned once
more upon La Tour with terrible impetuolity, defeated
him, and took 5000 prifoners, whom he was able to
carry to France. He after this continued his retreat,
checking Nauendorf and Petrafch with the right wing
of his army under General Deffaix, and the reft of the
army cleared the paffages in front, till he reached the
Valley of Hell, a narrow defile extending for fome
leagues between lofty mountains, and in particular parts
of it not more than a few fathoms broad. This paffage
was forced by the centre of his army in a mafs, and the
wings oppofed the enemy under Nauendorf and La
Tour. After this dreadful effort, he’ arrived at Fri¬
bourg on the 13th of Oftober. The archduke, on his
arrival from the purfuit of Jourdan, forced him to aban¬
don his pofitions on the Swabian fide of the Rhine,
Kehl excepted, and a temporary fortification at Hun-
ingen, called a bridge-head. 457
As the F'rench frontier at this time was in a defence-FreRCfi
lefs fituation, the Imperial troops took advantage of it^^f^
to crofs the Rhine at Manheim, and, march in diflerent 4cienceief;
detachments to Weiffemburg, Seitz, Hagenau, and
nearly to the very gates of Stralburgh, levying
contributions, and demanding hoftages wherever they
came. When thefe detachments were recalled, the
archduke
458
Jkmaparte
Vidtorious
in Italy.
... 459
Siege of
Mantua.
V n A [ 166 ]
Srcliduko formed the refolution of terminating the
campaign by the reduction of Kehl and the fortification
at Hunlngen, which he found to be no eafy talk. At
both thele places a communication was open with the
French fide of the river, and the divifions of General
Moreau’s army did duty at them alternately. Much
of the winter was fpent by the Aultrians in endeavour¬
ing either to carry them by ftorm, or to reduce them
in confequence of a regular liege. The French at laft
agreed to evacuate Kehl on the loth of January, and
the fortification at Huningen was furrendered in the
month of February.
Although the republicans in Germany experienced
very confiderable reverfes of fortune, as we have jult
now feen, yet Bonaparte in Italy continued viclorious.
Having laid all Italy under contribution, he enjoyed
the means of preferving a fecure and Heady difeipline
over a well paid army. The mode of fighting which
he adopted in all defperate cafes, was that of the clofe
column •, the favourite method of Epaminondas and
Gullavus Adolphus. The ftile, too, in which he ad-
dreffed his army before any great aftion, was well a-
dapted to infpire them with enthufiafm. His fpeech to
his army 'when he firft entered Lombardy, deferves to
be remembered. “ Soldiers, you have rulhed like a
torrent from the fummit of the Appenines, you have
driven back and difperfed all who oppofed your march.
Your fathers, your mothers, your wives, your fillers,
your fweethearts, rejoice in your fuccefs, and boall with
pride of being related to you. But remains there no¬
thing more for you to effect: Shall pofterity reproach
us with having found a Capua in Lombardy ? But I
already fee you rulhing to arms •, an unmanly repofe
fatigues you, and the days loll to glory are loll to your
felicity. * But let the people be tranquil; we are the
friends of all nations, and more particularly of the def-
cendants of the Brutufes, the Scipios, and the illultrious
perfonages whom we have chofen as models. To re-
Hore the capitol, to replace with honour the llatues of
the heroes who rendered it renowned, and to roufe the
Roman people, become torpid by fo many ages of
llavery, fuch will be the fruit of your victories; they
will form an epoch to pollerity, and you will have the
immortal glory of renovating the fairell portion of
Europe. The French nation, free and refpe&ed by all
the world, will give to Europe a glorious peace. You
will then return to your homes, and your fellow-citizens,
v7ho, when pointing to you, will fay, “ He was of the
army of Italy.”
Bonaparte took up the firft part of the month of July
in commencing a regular fiege againft Mantua, expell¬
ing to be mafter of that city towards the end of the
month. In this, however, he proved too fanguine, for
the military efforts of Auftria were very great, and the
pecuniary aid of Britain was not refufed. Twenty
thoufand troops were fent from the Rhine, befides vaft
numbers from different quarters, fo that he Avas obliged
to raife the fiege, and provide for his own fafety in the
bell manner he could. Maffena was driven from his
poll at La Corona on the 29th of July, while 15,000
Auftrians drove the republicans from Salo, and next
from Brefcia, with the whole of the ftores and maga¬
zines belonging to the army of General Bonaparte.
The Imperial troops, however, committed a fatal blun¬
der in their plan of operations, by dividing into two
6
1796,
FRA
parts an army which, when united, was a match for the France,
enemy, and placing Bonaparte between them. Of this
blunder the republican chief was fully aware, and did
not fail to take advantage of it. He unexpectedly rail¬
ed the fiege of Mantua, and leaving a imall body of
troops to check the Auftrians, he marched rapidly weft-
ward, and retook Brefcia, with the magazines and hof.
pitals, on the lit of Auguft. As he had the mafs of
his army with him, he exceeded his enemies in numbers
wherever he attacked them. Forming a large body of
his troops into elofe columns, the Auftrians extended
their line with the view of furrounding him, being not
yet acquainted with his manner of fighting, by which
means he penetrated their line in all directions, and
threw them into the greateft confufion. He made 40CO
prifoners, and took 20 pieces of cannon. A divifion of
them finding Salo in poffeffion of the republicans,
w andered about in fearch of a road, by which to make
their efcape, when they fummoned Lonado to furrender,
believing that the bulk of the French army had gone in
fearch of Wurmfer to give him battle. T his w as in¬
deed the cafe *, but Bonaparte was in Lonado with no
more than 1200 men. Although this event no doubt
gave him much uneafinefs, yet with great prefence of
mind he threatened to deftroy their whole divifion for
infulting the French army, by fummoning its com¬
mander in chief to furrender. The Auftrian officers
believed that the whole army wras in the place, fo that
by this Angular ftratagem 4000 men wTere induced to
throw dorvn their arms. 460
Marfhal Wurmfer Avas attacked by Bonaparte on theTc eat of
5th and 6th, and driven from Pefchiera and the river Yurmfer.
Mincio. The Auftrians Avere obliged to quit Verona
on the 7th, and again to betake themfelves to the
mountains of Tyrol j lofing in a conteft of fix days up-
Avards of 20,000 men, but fortunately three-fourths of
them Were prifoners. The fiege of Mantua Avas again
begun by the French, whofe works the enemy had en-
ftroyed in their abfence, and taken 140 pieces of can¬
non into the city Avhich they had left behind. By this
lofs, the French could not undertake a regular fiege,
and General Wurmfer Avas in a condition to attempt the
relief of it by the beginning of September, Bonaparte
having been apprifed of his approach, left troops behind
him to carry on the blockade, Avhile he diredled his
march northAvard with the main body of his army, drove
the Auftrians from St Marco and Roveredo to the pafs
of Galliano, Avhere they made a ftand. Here an en¬
gagement enfued, in Avhich the Auftrians loft 6000
men taken prifoners, and the French entered Irent in
triumph. Inftead of retiring from the hero Avho had
vanquiffied him, Wurmfer threAV himfelf into Baffano,
upon the flank and rear of Bonaparte, and then march¬
ed with rapidity toAvards Mantua. He endeavoured to
make a ftand at Baffano, but Avas defeated Avith the lofs
of 5000 men taken prifoners. Fie crofted the Adige
at Porto Legnago, and entered Mantua Avith no more
than 8500 men, infantry and cavalry. Great as this
Veteran’s lofs was, it had' the effedl of detaining Bo¬
naparte in Italy, to Avatch the numerous garrifon of
Mantua. He expedled that its numbers would very
foon reduce it by famine to the neceffity of capitulating,
but in this he. found himfelf difappointed, as the fleffi of
the 4500 horfes Avhich Wurmfer carried into it, af¬
forded fubfiftence to the troops for a long time.
Such
FRA
[
Trance.
1796.
461
Revolt of
Corfica
rrom Bri-
46a
The Auf-
rians par-
ially fuc-
•elsful.
463
) ‘gotia-
ions be-
'veen
|ritain and
fance.
Such was the fame of Bonaparte as a general, on
' account of the victories he obtained over the Auftrians,
that his countrymen, the Corlicans, dilcovered an in¬
clination to throw off the Britiih yoke, and be united
to France. They became of courfe, fo mutinous, that
the viceroy deemed it neceffary to evacuate the ill and,
the fubmiilion of Italy to the republic having greatly
diminilhed its value. The imperial lubjects of Italy, to¬
gether with the inhabitants of Bologna, Ferrara, and
Modena, now began to form themfelves into republics,
under the patronage of General Bonaparte ; they lent
deputies to the convention, railed troops, and abolilhed
all orders of nobility.
The emperor loon after endeavoured to relieve Man¬
tua, by fending another army into Italy, under the
command of General Alvinzi, who having eroded the
Piava, w7as met by the republicans, and compelled to
repafs the river. Davidovich with his divifion having
driven the French down the Adige towards Verona,
General Bonaparte found it neceifary to concentrate his
forces. He therefore left General Vaubois as a check
to the progrefs of Davidovich, and marched in perfon
againft General Alvinzi, and was met by the Aultrians
at the village of Arcole. As this village could not be
turned fpeedily, on account of a canal, the French
were obliged to attempt the paffage of a narrow bridge
in the face of the Auftrian fire. Their officers rulhed
to the head of the column which had undertaken it, but
in vain endeavoured to rally them. Angereau advan¬
ced to the end of the bridge with a ftandard 5 but he
■was followed by none, when the commander in chief
haftened to the bridge and exclaimed, Grenadiers, fol¬
low7 your general! They followed till within 30 yards
of the bridge, when they were intimidated by the tre¬
mendous fire of the Auftrians, and Bonaparte judged
it proper to fall back. In the evening General Guieux
took the village at the head of 2000 men, but again
left the Auftrians in the poffeftion of it. On the 16th
of November a defperate engagement took place in the
vicinity of Arcole } and next day the Auftrians prefting
on the centre of the republican army, were unexpected¬
ly taken on their flank by the left wing of the enemy,
which w7as lying in ambufeade. Bonaparte fent a party
of horfe and 25 trumpeters round to the rear of the
Auftrians, who concluded from the terrible noife, that
they were furrounded, and fled on all fides in the utmoft
confufion.
Having driven Alvinzi acrofs the Brenta, Bonaparte
returned ; the pofitions of Rivoli and La Corona were
refumed, and Davidovich driven back into Tyrol. Ge¬
neral Wurmfer ftill defended Mantua during the re¬
maining part of the year y fo that nothing farther may
be faid to have been gained by fo many victories, but
to confider Bonaparte as their only invincible com¬
mander.
During thefe tranfaflions in the field of battle, Great
Britain made a laudable elfort to negotiate with France.
Paffports were obtained from ghe directory, and Lord
Malmefbury fet out as ambaffedor to Paris. He began
the negotiation with De la Croiz, the minifter for fo¬
reign affairs ; but his lordfhip foon found that the di-
reftory had no ferious intention of concluding a treaty
■with Britain. While the Britiffi miniftry, as individuals,
did not approve of a peace at that time, yet officially
ffiey confidered it as proper, if it could be obtained up-
67 ] FRA
on honourable terms. It was propofed by Lord Malmef- France.
bury, that the principle of mutual reftitutions fliould be 1 v y
agreed upon as the bafts of the treaty, and the directory I79^*
withed that the objects Ihould be fpecified. Lord
Malmefbury therefore faid, that the French ihould give
up the Auftrian Netherlands, for which Britain would
give up the foreign fettlements belonging to the repub¬
lic. Many of the Dutch poffeffions abroad were alfo
to be relinquiffied, on condition that the authority of
the ftadtholder Ihould be acknowledged. He Avas next
required to give in the ultimatum of his conditions in 24
hours 5 and on complaining of this demand, he was in¬
formed on the 19th of December, that the diredtory
Avould agree to no conditions repugnant to the French
conftitution } and he Avas informed that his farther refi-
dence Avas unneceflary. ^
During this year Great Britain maintained her ac- Cape of
cuftomed fuperiority at fea. The Cape of Good Hope Go0(l Hope
Avas taken by Admiral Elphinftone on the 16th of Sep-
tember 1795, which the Dutch Avere extremely anxious
to recover, for which purpole they advanced money to
the French to fit out a fquadron to combine Avith them
in an attempt to reduce it. Seven fhips of Avar were
fent to retake the Cape, under the command of Admi¬
ral Lucas, but having been caught betAveen tAvo fires,
he could not effect his efcape, and therefore he furren-
dered to the Britifti admiral without firing a gun.
Although Britain Avas fuperior by fea, yet an inva- The French
fion of Ireland Avas attempted by the French in the end makc 2n
of 1796 but as folly feemed to have concerted the uil('uccc^fid
plan, it avas of confequence abortive. The Avhole Avas °U
committed to one man, General Hoche, Avithout any
fecond to occupy his place in the event of an accident.
The difaffedled party in Ireland had received no infor¬
mation of their approach, and the fleet was fent toAvards
a part of the country Avhere the people Avere not very
much difpofed to receive them. In this expedition 18
fail of the line, ] 3 frigates, 12 Hoops, and tranfports
with 25,000 men, Avere employed. It Avas detained for
fome time Avhen ready for failing, in confequence of a
mutiny. Hoche fet fail on the 10th of December, but.
in working out of Breft, a fhip of the line Avas loft, and
fome more of them confiderably damaged. The frigate.
Avhich had on board the commander in chief Avas fepa-
rated from the fleet by a gale of Avind, in confequence
of Avhich, when moft of the fleet arrived at Bantry
Bay, they Avere Avithout in [tractions how to proceed.
The officers and troops wiftred to land, but Admiral
Bouvet refufed to comply. After remaining for fome
days on the coaft, he failed for France, and reached
Breft Avith part of the fleet on the 31ft. General
Hoche reached Bantry Bay when it Avas too late, and
confequently could not land. One ffiip of the line, and
two frigates foundered at fea, a frigate Avas captured by -
the Britiflr, and, a ftiip of the line av as run aftrore, to
prevent her from being taken.
In the beginning of the year 1797, the archduke Advantages
Charles was ftill employed in his endeavours to reduce gained by
Kohl, and the fortifications oppofite to Huningen, Mo-r A-Uf-
reau being.ftill his antagonift. General Hoche was ap-tnans’
pointed to fucceed Jourdan on the Rhine, and Bona¬
parte was ftill engaged in the fiege of Mantua, Avhile
powerful efforts were making to recruit the army of
Alvinzi. The youth of Vienna were tequefted to grant
their affiftance, Avhen 6ooq of them volunteered their:
fetvichas
1797-
4^7
They are
defeated.
FRA [ i
Trance, fervlces for Italy. General Alvinzi’s army was now
50,000 ftrong, with which he continued to alarm the
republicans in all directions, in order to conceal from
them the plan of his future operations. Bonaparte Avas
Hill at Bologna, to prevent the efcape of General Wurm-
fer by that quarter, Avhich he underftood, by an inter¬
cepted letter, was his defign. Having been informed
of the approach of the Aultrian army, he haftened to
Mantua, and from that city to Verona, where the
centre of his line was oppofed to Alvinzi} but as the
Auftrians continued to attack all quarters at once, he
could not penetrate the defign of their commander. On
the 13th of January the movements of the enemy be¬
came more ferious on the lower part of his line near
Porto Legnago } but in the evening being informed
that the upper extremity of it under Joubert, had been
attacked by vaftly fuperior numbers, there he concluded
that the Auftrians were in greateft force. Still the
Auftrians perfifted in the abfurd plan of dividing their
army—an abfurdity which melancholy experience had
not taught them to correCl. Ten thoufand troops, in¬
cluding the Vienna volunteers, received orders to pro¬
ceed to Mantua by Porto Legnago, at the lower end
of the republican line, while Alvinzi in perfon advanced
again ft Joubert, who was forced to retreat, and, was re¬
duced to fuch a fituation, that the capture of his whole
divifion on the following day (the 14th) feemed highly
probable.
Bonaparte having received information refpeefing the
ftate of affairs, left Verona on the 13th, having order¬
ed Maffena to follow him with the centre to Rivoli as
fail as poffible. On the 14th, at the break of day, the
divifion of Joubert made an attack on the Auftrians,. at
which they were very much furprifed, not knoAving
that Bonaparte had arrived Avith reinforcements. The
fuperior numbers of the Auftrians defeated all. the en¬
deavours of the French troops to turn their divifions j
and the two Avings of the republican army Avere driven
back upon the centre in coniiderable confufion. Al¬
vinzi engaged the centre, Avhich with difficulty main¬
tained its ground ; and the Auftrian Avings advancing
on both fides, entirely furrounded the French. The
victory feemed already Avon, and it is even reported
that General Alvinzi fent a courier to Vienna, to an¬
nounce the approaching capture of Bonaparte and all
his army. There can be no doubt that the republican
chief was now greatly alarmed, yet he ftill confidered
it in his power to make a laft effort. Forming three
ftrong columns, he difpatched them againft the right
wing of the Auftrians, Avhich they penetrated at various
points, and made it fly in luch confufion that, having
met a party of republicans which had not arrived in
time to join the army, 4000 Auftrians laid doivn their
arms, and furrendered themfelves prifoners of Avar.
Bonaparte apprehending that this part of his line AA’as
no longer in danger, left Joubert to profecute the vic¬
tory, and Avent to oppofe the march of Provera. A
party under General jMurat having continued their
inarch all the night of the 14th after the battle, feized
on Montebaldo in the rear of the pofition at Corona, to
Avhich part of the Auftrians retreated, Avhile Joubert
on the folioAving morning attacked them in front. Be¬
ing thus furrounded, they were thrown into confufion,
6000 of them were taken prifoners, and numbers pe-
riftied in attempting to crofs the Adige.
68 ]
F R A
1797,
4&S
Surrender
During this bloody conflift on the upper part of the France,
river, General Provera forced his pafiage acrofs the
lower part of it hear Porto Legnago, and obliged the
republican general Quieux to retreat to Ronco. Asoi[ii(.imcr
Provera Avas marching rapidly to Mantua, General An~0f Mantua,
gereau came up with his rear, and made 2000 prifon¬
ers ; but the Auftrian general reached the neighbour¬
hood of that city on the 15th, Avhich Avas blockaded at
St George and La Favourite. He fummoned the re¬
publican commander here to furrender, but he having
refufed to comply, Provera endeavoured, Avithout fuc-
cefs, to carry it by affault. He next made an attack
upon La Favourite, and wasfeconded by Wurmfer Avith
the troops in the garrifon, Avho had perceived his arri¬
val ; but as Bonaparte had arrived Avith reinforcements,
General Wurmfer Avas defeated, and Provera being
furrounded by the French, furrendere'd himfelf and his
troops as prifoners of Avar. In confequence of thefe en¬
gagements at RAoli and Mantua, the Auftrians loft
23,000 men taken prifoners, and 60 pieces of cannon.
The furrender of Mantua Avas uoav inevitable, on ac¬
count of abfolute famine, and therefore it capitulated
on the 2d of February. T hat Bonaparte might allow
the French emigrants to efcape, he alloAved General
Wurmfer to feleft and take out of the garrifon 700
men Avho Avere not to be examined, nor vieAved as pri¬
foners of Avar, and the general himfelf Avas to depart un¬
conditionally.
The moft active and vigorous preparations were mak- y-pe p0pC>s
ing by the emperor and the French, for recommencing forces fub-
their bloody conteft on the German frontiers, and there-dued.
fore it Avas of importance for Bonaparte to leave Italy
in his rear in a ftate of tranquillity. He fent General
Vidor on the ift of February, together Avith the Lom¬
bard legion, to enter the papal territories; and after
the furrender of Mantua, General Bonaparte followed
in perfon. The Lombard legion, after ftorming the
entrenchments of the pope’s troops, made 1000 of them
prifoners, and took all their cannon. General Colli
had carried away moft of the treafure from the chapel
at Loretto \ but the republicans ftill found articles of
gold and filver Avorth a million of livres, and the image
of the virgin Avas fent to Paris as a curiofity. At io-
lentino the republican chief Avas met by a meffenger
from the pope Avith an overture of peace, and a. treaty
Avas concluded on the 19th. rJ he pope promifed to
pay 15,000,000 of livres, and to deliver 800 cavalry
horfes, with a like number of draught horfes and oxen.
He alfo agreed to vpay 300,000 livres to the family of
the French ambaffador Baffeville, Avhom the rabble had
murdered at Rome, and to make an apology by his mi-
nifter at Paris for that event. . _ 47o
The French having been fo unfortunate in their in- Reinforce-
vafion of Germany by the way of Swabia and Fran-ments fent
conia, noAV determined to make their principal at-t0^°na
tempt from Italy under the command of General Bona-1*1
parte. Vaft bodies of troops Avere therefore detached
by the directory from thofe avIio had ferved under Mo¬
reau, and fent as fecretly as poffible tOAvards Italy by
the Avay of Sa\roy. The impending danger Avas Iioav-
ever perceived by the court of Vienna, and therefore
gaA?e the command on the fide of Italy to the archduke
Charles, he being the only Auftrian who had hitherto
been fuccefsful againft the republicans.. I he Avar was
noAV about to be carried into neAV territories, Avhere a
foe
Fran**-
1797.
471
rror of
he court
Vienna.
472 r
rogrefs of
Bonaparte’s
rmy.
473
urrender
f Gradifca.
FRA [ 1
foe Ivad fcarcely ever been feen by the boufe of Auftria,
It was necefl'ary that Bonaparte ihould once more f(;rce
his way over the Alps, that immenfe chain of moun¬
tains which rifes in the neighbourhood oi Toulon, and
firetching northward, obtains the names of Piedmont
and Savoy. It then takes an eafterly direction, form¬
ing the countries of Switzerland, Tyrol, Carinthia, and
Carniola. The three lad of thefe palling along the
Adriatic, conftitute the frontier, in this quarter, of the
hereditary Hates of Auftria. The fertile and level
country, which belonged to Venice, lies between the
mountains and the fea. It is eroded by many dreams
which are increafed by the melting fnows of the Alps,
and whofe peculiar charafteridic is this, that they are
greatell in fummer, and lead in winter.
The archduke, indead of making a dand in the de¬
files of the mountains, was fent into the plain to guard
the padages of the rivers; a very important blunder
which entered into the plan of defence adopted by the
council of war at Vienna.
While Bonaparte continued to advance to the terri¬
tories of the pope, the arrangement of the Audrian
army was going forward along the eadern bank of the
Piava. The republicans v,Tere on the oppofite fide, and
Bonaparte, after quitting the papal territories, hallened
to join them. Plaving effefted the paffage of the Piava
on the X 2th of March, the Audrians retired, fkirmilh-
ing for feme days, till they eroded the Tagliamento,
where they halted with their whole force. The repub¬
lican army reached, on the 17th, Valvefone, on the op¬
pofite fide of the river, which after fome hefitation they
determined to crofs. The dream having been diminilh-
ed by the frod, the French eroded it in columns at dif¬
ferent points. Joubert with the left wing received
orders to pafs along the valley of the river Drave,
beyond the highed chain of the Noric Alps. Madena
at the head of the centre divifion, paded into the defiles
of thefe mountains, and the right divifion, commanded
by Bonaparte, marched along the coad of the Adriatic.
On the 19th, the town of Gradifca, on the river
Lifonzo, furrendered to the right wing of the army j
and its garrifon, confiding of 3000 men, were made
prifoners. The fame divifion entered Goritz on the
21 ft, where it found the principal magazines and hofpi
tals belonging to the Audrians. Triede was taken on
the 23d, and materials worth 2,000,000 of livres were
fent off by the French from the quickfilver mines of
Ydria. On the 24th a large body of Audrians was
confined by Maffena, and a part of the right wing
commanded by General Guieux ; but they having pro¬
cured reinforcements from the archduke, engaged the
French next day, and were defeated, having lod 5000
prifoners and 400 baggage waggons. Equal fuccefs
attended the left wing under Joubcrt, Baraguay, D’
Hilliers, and Del mas. Four thoufand Audrians wrere
taken on the banks of the Lavis, and they were defeat¬
ed at Clauzen, with the lofs of I $00 prifoners. This
divifion then direfted its march eadward, along- the val-
ley of the Drave towards Clagenfurt, the metropolis of
Carinthia, where it was met by General Maffena, that
officer having obliged the archduke to evacuate his head¬
quarters, and proceed nearer to the capital of the em¬
pire, which now began to be in danger. In 1 5 days
General Bonaparte took 20,000 prifoners, and effefted
the paffage of the Alps, after which there was no place
Vox., IX. Part I.
France.
1797.
474
69 ] F R A
of fufficicnt drength to arred bis progrefs to Vienna.
Yet it mud be confeffed that his own fituation was not
free from danger, and therefore he prudently embraced
this moment of unprecedented fuccefs to make overtures
of peace. He wrote to the archduke on the 3id of
March, deprecating the continuance of the war, and
entreating him to ufe his influence for putting a period
to its ravages. This prince evafively replied, that it
did not belong to him to invedigate the principles on
which the w ar was carried on, and that he had no power
to negotiate.
The Audrians raifed the peafantry in the Tyrol, to Partial fuc-.
harafs the rear of the French army, by which they ce‘s ()f ,’no
gained fome advantages under General Laudohn, and A‘u^rianS‘
drove out the republican troops which had been left at
Botzen and Brixen. The people of-the Venetian dates
a61ed a fimilar part againlt the troops left in them, and
with the affidance of xo Sclavonian regiments, they
murdered every Frenchman they could find, not (paring
even the fiek in the hofpitals, of whom 500 wrere mai-
facred at Verona. The Audrians attempted to fur-
round the invading army ; but Bonaparte knew that
the embarraffment of the court of Vienna was at lead
equal to his owrn. He was at the head of 95,000 men^
hitherto irrefidible •, and the Audrians could not but
know that to furround his army was not to vanquilh it,
on which account he perfided in advancing. On the
2d of April, after a bloody conflift, he forced the
drong defiles between Freifach and Newmark, making
600 prifoners. His advanced guard reached Hunfmark
on the 4th, wdiere they again defeated the Audrians,
which induced the cabinet of Aultria to treat for peace,
there being no place where the army of the archduke
could make a dand, till it came to the mountains in
the neighbourhood of Vienna. Bellegarde and Mor-
veld requeded a fufpenfion of hodilities from Bona¬
parte, while care was taken to remove the public trea-
fure and effedls into Hungary. The French command¬
er corifented, on condition of getting poffeflion of
Gratz and Leoben, about 50 miles from Vienna. This
was on the 7th of April, and the armidice which was
to expire on the 13th, vras afterwards renewed for a
longer period. A preliminary treaty followed this on
the 19th, by which the French were to retain the Auf-
trian Netherlands, and the republic of Lombardy
fiiould be called the Cifalpine republic, comprehending
the Milanefe, Mantua, Modena, Ferrara, and Bolog¬
na. Bonaparte contented to return to Italy, if his army
dxould be fupplied with provifions during its march, and
all farther difputes were to be fettled by a definitive
.treaty of peace. He brought an accufation againd the
Venetian government for conniving at the murder of
the French during his abfence, and having poffeffed
himfelf of the city and territories, he diilblved that
ancient aridocracy. 47^
During the approach of Bonaparte towards Vienna, Peace con-
the republican armies on the Rhine were prefling on the clucled bc”
Audrians, that they might not have it in their power an(j
to fend reinforcements againd him. An armidice was Auttria.
offered by the Audrians, but fince the French required
Ehrenbreitdein as a compenfation, both parties refolv-
ed to profecute the wTar. The left wing of the army of
General Hoche proceeded from Duffeldorf, while the
centre and right wing croffed the river near Coblentz.
On the 18th of April a fierce conted took place be-
Y tween
>797-
47<5 .
Changes in
the direc-
iery.
FRA.
prance, tween tKe hoftile armies near the Lahn,
Auilrians loft 4000 taken prifoners. General Moreau
having forced the pali’age of the Upper Rhine near
Straftmrg, attacked and carried the village of Dierfheim.
Next day the conflift was renewed with fuch vigour
on the part of the republicans, that the fort of Kehl
was taken, and 5000 Auftrians were made prifoners.
They were next purfued towards the Danube, when all
military operations were inftantly fufpended by meffen-
gers difpatched through Germany from the archduke
and Bonaparte, with the joyful news that peace was
concluded. On the arrival of thefe meffengers, the
army of General Hoche was making a defperate attack
upon Francfort on the Maine, which General Warnecht
was employing every effort to protect. Both armies
fuddenly received the news, the hoftile troops threw
down their arms, and congratulated each other on the
happy event.
A conteft of an alarming nature was now faft ap¬
proaching between the legiflative and executive branches
of the French government. A third part of the legifla-
tive body was now to be changed. On the 19th of
May, Letourneur went out of the directory by lot; on
the 20th, the new third took their feats, and on the 21ft
Barthelemy was chofen a member of the direftory in
the room of Letourneur. Pichegru, Jourdan, and Wil-
lot, were amomg the members of the new third, fo that
a decided majority of both councils was of the moderate
party ; and two members of the directory, Carnot and
Barthelemv, were underftood to be men of the fame de-
feription. Every meafure was adopted which tended to
render the Mountain party odious, or embarrafs the
direCfory.
Gilbert Defmolieres, on the 14th of June, brought
I up a report from a committee on the ftate of the finan¬
ces, in which he inveighed againft the prodigality and
profufion of the directory and its agents in the ftrongeft
language. A new plan of finance was propofed by the
fame committee on the 18th, which went to take from
the dire£tory the adminiftration of the public money.
On the preceding day Camille Jourdan prefented a re¬
port of great length on the fubjedft of religion, wherein
he infifted on the impropriety of forbidding its ceremo¬
nies to be publicly difplayed, and the iniquitous nature
of that perfecution which its minifters had fuffered, be-
caufe they could not take the oaths preferibed by the
legiflature. The council of five hundred decreed, on
the 15th of July, that all the laws againft refra£tory
priefts (liould be repealed ; and on the following day a
decree requiring from them an oath of fidelity to the
conftitution, was carried by a majority of no more than
and lenient fix members. Emery, a new member, propofed the re-
ineafures iwpeal 0f thofe laws by which the property of emigrants
had been confifcated, and that their relations (hould be
confidered as competent to fucceed them. Such as had
fled into foreign countries from Toulon and other parts
of the nation, received encouragement to return home,
and allowed to eherith the expectation that their names
would be expunged from the lift of emigrants.
The difeuflion which thefe topics underwent made
the directory and the councils profeffed enemies to each
other. The latter wilhed the former to be changed be¬
fore the expiration of the legal time, and the directory
wilhed to deprive many new members of their feats who
had been elefted by the people. As Barras was rather
5
477
[New plan
#f. finance
478
favour of
the priefts.
479 ,
Tire royal-
ifts alfurne
frefh cou¬
rage.
N [ 170 ] FRA
in which the the moft odious member of the directory, an effort was
made to deprive him of his feat, under the pretence that
he was lefs than the legal age of 40 } but his colleagues
maintained that he was born in the year I755> an^ ft
feems no proof of the contrary could be produced.
Still tbe direftory did not want a number of adherents.
The refolution of the councils in favour of the priefts
had the appearance of a counter-revolution, which in¬
duced the royalxfts to refume courage, and journals were
rapidly publilhed in defence of their caufe. I he councils
received information on the 20th of July, that a divi-
fion of "the army under General Hoche was within a
few leagues of Paris, w'hile the conftitution declared
that the directory incurred the penalty of ten years im-
prifonment, if it brought any troops nearer the refidence
of the legiflative body than twelve leagues without its
confent. An explanation was'demanded, when the di-
rectory declared their ignorance of the march, having
been undertaken without any orders from them, and
purely owing to a miftake of the officer by whom it
was conducted : but tbe comicils paid little regard to
fuch an allegation, ft he mutinous fuburb of St An¬
toine adhered to the majority of the diredtory, which
encouraged them fo much, that they loft no time in
proceeding to adlion. General Angereau had been
fent for from Italy, under the pretext of delivering to
the directory fome ftandards taken from the enemy.
The Thuilleries was furrounded by Angereau on the
morning of the 4th, with a divifion of the troops, when
the guard of the councils refufed to act againft them,
and Ramel their commander was made prifoner. On
entering the hall, he found Pichegru and twelve more
of the chiefs of the oppofite faction, whom he immedi¬
ately fent prifoners to the T emple. Carnot, made his
efcape on the preceding evening, but Barthelemy re¬
mained and was put under arreft. W hen feveral mem¬
bers of the councils came to the hall at the ufual hour,
they were aftoniffied to find that feals had been put
upon the doors, and that they could not find admit¬
tance. They wrere ordered to go to the furgeons hall,
where the directory, it was faid, had appointed them to
meet. Of both councils not more than 1 2C members
affembled, who fent to obtain from the directory an ac¬
count of the late proceedings. They were given to un-
derftand that what had been done was abfolutely necef-
fary for the falvation of the republic, congratulating the^
duped councils on their efcape from the machinations of
the royalifts. According to the report of Boullay de
la Meurth, a vaft royalift confpiracy, the centre of
which was in the bofom of the councils, was endeavour¬
ing to fubvert the conftitution, but that the indefati¬
gable diligence and activity of tbe. direftory had defeat¬
ed all their attempts ! It was propofed to tranfport the
confpirators without a trial, and the councils were fo
completely impofed upon as to vote the tranfportation
of 53 of their own members, and twelve other perlbns,
among which number were included the diredlors Car¬
not and Barthelemy.
During the whole of thefe tranfa&ions the city of Paris
remained in a ftate of tranquillity. its unfortunate;
ftruggle on the 5th of October had fo completely fub-
dued tbe ardour of the inhabitants, that they allowed
the national reprefentation to be violated with im¬
punity, and liberty to be trampled under foot, without
a finsde exertion in its defence.. I he directory ea-
& • ouied.
France.
1797.
FRA
I 71
France.
1797.
4S0
Treaty of
Campo
Formic.
f */
cufed their conduft to the nation under pretence oi the
' exigence of a royalift confpiracy. General Pichegru,
it was faid, had offered to join the emigrants under the
prince of Conde, and the Auftrians commanded by
General Wurmfer, and with this aggregate force to
march direcUy to Paris, for the re-eftabliihment of
royalty. There are certain circumftances which lead
us to 1'ufpecl that this was a fabrication : for at the time
when this fuppofed correfpondence became public, it
wras denied to be genuine 5 and Moreau who was impli¬
cated in this confpiracy, was afterwards employed in the
fervice of the republic, to whofe military fkiil and fide¬
lity the French rulers feemed willing to commit the fal-
vation of the country.
The directory was now very powerful, but its mem¬
bers foon became giddy from the elevated nature of
their fituation, and feemed to aft under the dangerous
conviftion, that there was nothing in which they might
not venture to engage, whatever might be the rapacity
or ambition attached to it. While contending with
the councils, they prolonged the negotiations with Lord
Malmefbury, afting in a fimilar manner refpefting
thofe which had been entered into between Bonaparte
and the imperial ambaiTadors at Campo Formio. Great
Britain offered to make peace with France, if permitted
to retain poffefiion of the Cape of Good Hope, together
with the Spanilh ifland of Trinidad. The negotiations
with the emperor were fpeedily terminated, and on the
j 7th of Oftober a definitive treaty was figned at Campo
Formio. The Netherlands were given up to the repub¬
lic, the Milanefe to the Cifalpine republic, and his
territories in the Brifgaw to the duke of Modena, to
compenfate for the loft of his duchy in Italy. It was
likewife agreed by the emperor that the French fhould
poffefs the Venetian iflaads in the Levant, namely, Corfu,
Zante, Cephalonia, Santa Maura, Cerigo and others.
The emperor was to have the city of Venice with its
remaining territory, from the extremity of Dalmatia,
as far as the Adige and the lake Garda. The Auftrians
accordingly left the Rhine, by which means the repub¬
licans were enabled to furround Mentz and Ehrenbreit-
ftein, the former of which was captured in a fliort
time, but the latter required a very tedious blockade
before 'it would furrender. Venice was at the fame
time entered by the Auftrians, the French having left
it, and Bonaparte, wThen about to march out of Italy,
left 25,000 men to garrifon Mantua, Brefcia, Milan,
and fome other places, and to preferve this new republic
in a ftate of dependence upon France.
It is faid that the direftory about this time endea¬
voured to force America to purchafe a forbearance
L°Wa]«an<1 ^rom war ky a large fum of money together with a pri-
‘ vate prefent of 50,000!. to the members of the direc¬
tory. The laft part of this charge was denied by the
minifter Talleyrand, but the general impreflion it pro¬
duced could not be effaced, and the direftory was thus
very much injured in the eftimation of fuch countries
as were otherwife difpofed to view it in a very favour¬
able light. To leffen its reputation ft ill more, it caufed
the councils to pafs two laws, by which all neutral
Ihips on their way to Britain, or returning from it, fhould
be liable to be feized. This, however, produced an
effeft very different from that which was intended 5 for
having put all the trade of the wTeftern world into the
pjwor of the Britifh, they enriched the very people
]
F R A
481
A body of
French
whom they were meant to ruin. Britain at this time France,
held the empire of the feas in fuch an eminent, and per- w ^ *
haps we may add, unprecedented degree, that the re- I797*
publican fleets lay blockaded in their own ports during
the greater part of the year. This expedition againlt
Ireland having completely failed, the dixeftory was at
a lofs how to difpofe of the galley ilaves who had made
a part of Hoche’s army deftined againft Ireland. It
would have been cruel to remand them back to punifh
ment j the troops would not ferve with them in the ar¬
my, and by the neAV laws of France they could not re¬
ceive a pardon, neither was it prudent to give ft) many
criminals liberty. Thus perplexed, the direftory at.
laft determined to fend them over to England. They
were landed from two frigates and fome fmall veffels
on the coaft of Wales, with mufkets and ammunition,
but deftitute of artillery. On the evening of the day
on which they landed (23d of February), they were
made prifoners of Avar by a party of militia, yeomanry,
cavalry, colliers and others, under the command of Lord
Cawdor. . .
Although the navy of France continued in port, and Defeat of
therefore out of danger for the remainder of this year, a French
yet the Dutch and Spanilh allies of that country luftain-
ed very ferious Ioffes by fea. A Spanifti fleet of 27 fail v;s<
of the line, oppofed to a Britith fleet of only 15 fail,
under the gallant admiral Sir John Jervis, Avas complete¬
ly defeated on the 14th of February, off Cape St Vin¬
cent. The Britilh admiral paffed tAvice through the
enemy’s line, and cut off part of their fleet from the
reft. Four fliips Avere taken, and the admiral’s own
flap made her efcape with confiderable difficulty. This
fleet was on its Avay to Breft in order to effeft a junc¬
tion Avith the French fleet, but Jervis’s viftory render¬
ed tills objeft unattainable. In confequence of this me¬
morable viftory, Sir John Avas created earl St Vin¬
cent, and had an annuity of 2000I. fettled upon him,
receiving at the fame time the thanks of both boufes of
parliament.
The Dutch, if poffible, were ftill more unfortunate, A Dutch
Admiral Duncan having blocked up the Texel Avhere fleet de-
their fleet lay, during the whole fummer, Avith the af-^. ^
fiftance of Avhich it appears that the French meant to
try the fate of another attack upon Ireland. A refolu- Campcr-
tion having at length been adopted of rifking an en-down.
gagement Avith the Britiffi at fea, De Winter received
pofitive orders to fail, a ftep againft which he remon-
ftrated, but without effeft. Admiral Duncan was at
this time refitting at Yarmouth, but on receiving in¬
telligence of the failing of the Dutch fleet, he fet out
in fearch of, and came up Avith it on the nth of Oc¬
tober, conflfting of a force rather inferior to his oavu
fleet, Avhich amounted to 16 fail of the line and three
frigates. The Britifh admiral ran his fleet immediate¬
ly through the Dutch line, commencing the attack be-
tAveen them and their own coaft, about nine miles from
CamperdoAvn. As the Dutch are defperate fighters
by fea, our readers Avill naturally conclude that this
Avas a fanguinary conflift. It lafted for three hours,
at which time the greater part of the Dutch fleet had
ftruck j but oAving to the flialloAvnefs of the water on
the coaft they could not all be feized. Eight fhips of
the line, two of 56 and one of 44 guns, were taken, be-
fides a frigate aftenvards loft near the coaft of Britain.
Admiral De Winter was captured Avith his fhip, and
Y 2 Vice-
France.
1798.
4S4
Great dif-
turb,'inces
at Piome.
48S
t.'he conti¬
nental
pQwers de¬
cline affilt-
ing the
pope.
F U A [ 172 ] FRA
Vice-admiral Rentjies. . Admiral Duncan received ho¬
nours fmiilar to tiiofe which were bellowed upon Earl
St Vincent, and an annuity to the fame amount.
After the ratification of the treaty with the emperor
at Campo Formio, Jofeph Bonaparte, one of the bro¬
thers of the general, was fent to the city of Rome as
plenipotentiary from the French republic. The pope
having now no expectation of foreign affiftanee, fub-
mitted to every demand for the reduction of his troops,
and for emancipating every perfon confined in prifon on
account of their political fentiments. On the 26th of
December 1797, three men waited upon the ambaftador,
and requelted the co-operation of France in bringing a-
bout a revolution which a party at Rome was anxious
to eltablhh. lie rejefted the propofal, and did every
thing in his power to diffuade them from it •, but he ne¬
glected to communicate the intelligence to the papal
government, which was certainly his duty. He went
to the fecretary of Hate on the 28th, and Ihewed him a
lift of perfons under his protection who had a legal au¬
thority to wear the French cockade, and confented at
the fame time that all others wearing it Ihould be pu-
niftied. He offered to give up fix of the infurgents who
had taken refuge in the palace. In the evening of the
28th a more ferious tumult happened in the courts and
vicinity of the French ambaffador’s palace, with which
the pope, it is believed, was not perfonally acquainted •,
but the governor of the city endeavoured to difperfe the
infurgents by parties of cavalry and infantry. General
Duphot, in attempting to make the military defift from
firing upon the infurgents, rvas (hot by a petty officer
belonging to the troops of his holinefs. The ambaffador
and his other friends now made their efcape to the
palace through a bve-way. The Spanifii ambaffador
having been informed of this event, fent to the fecretary
of ftate, and protefted againft fuch a daring violation of
the privileges of plenipotentaries. The palace of the
French ambaffador was ftill furrounded by the military,
when at laft he demanded paffports to enable him to
leave the territories of the pope, which were loon grant¬
ed, and accompanied by many proteftations of the inno¬
cence of government, and its forrow that fuch an unfor¬
tunate event Ihould have taken place.
Jofeph Bonaparte went to Florence and from thence
to Paris. The protedlion of Vienna, Spain, Naples,
and Tufcany was earneftly folicited by the pope, but
they all feemed difpofed to keep at a diftance from his
misfortunes. General Berthier experienced little or no
oppofition on his march to Rome, where he fubverted
the dominion of the pope, and proclaimed the fove-
reignty of the Roman people, with too many marks of
wanton, unprovoked infult. The tree of liberty was
planted on the very day on which the anniverfary of
the pope’s election to the fovereignty was celebrated }
intended, no doubt, to make him feel ftill greater mor¬
tification. While in the Siftine chapel receiving the
congratulations of the cardinals, the commiffioner gene¬
ral, and Cervoni, who commanded the troops within the
city, during this ceremony entered the chapel, and an¬
nounced to the fovereign pontiff on his throne, that his
reign was at an end. He was removed to the territory
of Tufcany, where he dwelt in great obfeurity, till his
enemies being in their turn driven from Rome, were
pleafed to remove him farther from the capital, to ter-
Ulinate his exiftence beyond the Alps.
1798.
The great eft curiofities found in Rome were con- France,
veyed to Paris, and fold by public auction, the direc¬
tory having faerificed national vanity at the ftuine of
avarice. Pafsports wrere offered to the natives of coun¬
tries at war with France, if they inclined to become
purchafers.
But feenes of a different and fanguinary nature were c0nqueft 0{
in the mean time exhibited in Switzerland, a country Swit^er-
which had preferved its neutrality during the confiifl of land re-
France with the combined powers, thus defending the on
weakeft part of her frontiers, and as a grateful return ^
for paft favours, it was now determined to fubjugate
Switzerland. About the end of the year 1797, an in-
furredtion broke out in the Pays de Vaud, fubjedt to the
canton of Berne, which made the government perceive
its critical fituation, and iffue a proclamation on the
5th of January 1798, requiring the people of the Pays
de Vaud to appear in arms, renew their oath of al¬
legiance, and reform e^ery exilling abufe. A com-
miffion of the fenate at Berne was empowered to ex¬
amine every complaint, and redrefs every grievance j
but their motions were confidered as too tardy by po¬
pular impatience, and the infurgents endeavoured to be¬
come mafters of the ftrong places. Troops were font
againft them by the government of Berne, but General
Weifs adled with hefitation, if not even with treachery,
and a body of republicans appeared under General Me¬
nard, who fent an aid-de-camp and two huffars to Ge¬
neral Weifs. As the meffengers returned, one of the
huffars was killed, moft probably by accident, but it
was inftantly magnified into a horrid breach of the law
of nations. The French, therefore, continued to ad¬
vance, and -were mafters of the whole Pays de Vaud
by the end of January. The government of Berne
prepared for war, while it at the lame time ufed every
effort in order to maintain peace. A truce was entered
into w ith General Brune, the fucceffcr of Menard, and
thofe who killed the huffar were delivered up. An
army of 20,000 men was collected, the command of
which w'as given to M. d’Erlach, once a field marfhal
in the fervice of France. But there wyas a prevailing
difaffedlion in his army, and the people were far from
being united among themfelves. With this circum-
ftance the French were well acquainted, and therefore
they demanded a total change of government. As
M. d’Erlach wras apprehenfive of a ftill greater defec¬
tion in his army, he requefted penniftion to put an end
to the armiftice. The French now refilled to negotiate,
and General Sehawenberg on the 2d of March took
poffeffion of Soleure at the head of 13,000 men. Brune
afterwards made himfelf mafter of Friburg, and forced
the Swifs army to retreat. The government of Berne
being now greatly alarmed, decreed the landjlkurm, or
riling of the people in a mafs, which their ancient cuf-
toms juftified in the time of neccffity. The people af-
fembled, diffolved the government, and offered to dif-
mifs the army, if the republican troops -would retire.
This offer was reje&ed, without admitting a French
garrifon into Berne, and therefore they continued to ad¬
vance. About 6000 from the army of M. d’Erlach
had deferted, leaving him at the head of no more than
14,000 men ; and although the riling had abundantly
fupplied him with numbers, yet he had not time fuffi-
cient to get them properly arranged. He v’as attacked
on the 5th of March, and driven from Ncwenbeg and
Favenbrun,
4s 7
e inva-
m of E-
pt pro-
tied by
direc-
FRA [17
Favenbrun, but having rallied his troops, he made a
Hand for feme time at Uteren. The contlicl was re¬
newed at Grauholtz, from whence they were driven
four miles nearer the capital. Being completely de¬
feated, they murdered many of their officers in a fit of
defpair, among whom was their commander in chief.
Berne capitulated to the French, which induced the
more wealthy and populous itates to follow the example j
but the poorer cantons made a dreadful effort to pre-
ferve their fmall poffeffions, and the independence of
their country. They compelled Schawenberg to retire
with the lofs of 3000 men, but were at laft totally van-
qui died by the fuperior Ikill and numbers of the repub¬
lican army. The public magazines were plundered,
and a new confutation was forced upon them after the
model of France.
If the direftory made no fcruple to violate the inde¬
pendence of other nations, it was very reafonable to
conclude that they would pay little regard to the liber¬
ties of their countrymen at home. A third of the le-
giflature was changed in the month of April; one mem¬
ber of the directory went out by ballot, and Treilhard
was cliofen to fucceed him. Nothing was left unat-
tempted by the direffory to influence the election in fa¬
vour of their friends, but their fuccefs was not great.
They complained to the council of five hundred on the
2d of May 5 they complained of plots of royaliits, by
which it was faid that eleftions had been made to fall
on men who were inimical to the intereft of the repub¬
lic. It was propofed on the 7th by the committee who
reported on the meffage of the directory, that many
electoral affemblies finould be annulled ; but General
Jourdan oppofed this plan as incompatible with the free¬
dom of election, and as proceeding upon the fuppofition
of confpiracies which had no exittence.
We are now to be prefented with the moft extrava¬
gant project which perhaps the directory ever attempt¬
ed to execute 5—to fend a formidable army to take pof-
feiTion of Egypt, and from thence to proceed by the
Red fea to the Eaft Indies, to take poffeffion of the
Britifli fettlements in that quarter of the globe. After
peace was proclaimed between France and Germany,
the dire&ory made no fecret of their determination to
invade Great Britain. Whether this project was of Bo¬
naparte’s own devifing, or intended as a fnare in order
to get rid of him and his victorious army, feems to be
a matter which our readers muft be left to determine
for themfelves. It might not be his projeft, and he
might accept the command of the army of Egypt from
this conviction, that he would be fafer abroad in the
moft perilous undertaking, than be expofed at home to
the malice of a government become jealous of his repu¬
tation, and which was far from being fcrupulous of its
condmft.
The meditated attack upon Egypt was certainly con¬
duced with fuch a decree of fecrecy as was calculated
to miflead. Prodigious ftories were circulated concern¬
ing large rafts of timber, by means of which the army of
England, as it was called, was to be conveyed over to
Britain •, and to give the greater probability to this re¬
port, General Bonaparte, the commander in chief, made
a journey to the weftern coaft. The fleet was getting
ready in the harbour of Toulon, and troops were colleft-
ed in its vicinity. But Bonaparte embarked with 40,000
uf his veteran troops, and on the 9th of June reached the
6
]
FRA
ifland of Malta. He quarrelled with the grand-mafter, E-arira. ^
becaufe he would not permit fo large a fleet to water ^
all at once in his ports. The French commander land- ‘'
ed his troops in difterent places, and attempted to make
himfelf matter of the ifland. It is laid that many of the
knights belonged to the Illuminati, and were therefore
ready to betray their government. After a very feeble
oppofition the grand-mafter capitulated, and thus gave
up iu a few days a fortrefs which, it is faid, might have
held out for weeks againft all the troops of the French
republic. Bonaparte left in the ifland a garrifon of
4000 men, and failed for Alexandria on the 21ft.
Rear-admiral Nelfon having diftinguifhed himfelf in Admiral
a very eminent degree, while in the ftation of commo- Nelfon goes,
dore under Lord St Vincent, was lent in purfuit of Bo-
naparte. Being wholly ignorant of the deftination °f ° ^ *
the French, he failed for Naples, where he obtained in¬
formation of the attack upon Malta, to which accord¬
ingly he fleered his courfe. On his arrival, however,
he found that Bonaparte was gone but conjecturing
that he had (ailed for Alexandria, he immediately pre¬
pared to follow him. The French commander, inftead
of keeping a direct courfe towards that city, flood along
the Grecian coaft, till he made the eafternmoft point of
the ifland of Candia. Then fleering to the fouthward,
he fo protrafled his voyage, that he did not reach the
Egyptian coaft till Admiral Nelfon had left it. Having
landed his troops, he took the city of Alexandria by
florin on the 5th of July. It was defperately defended
by the inhabitants, but without military (kill. The re¬
publican tranfports were drawn up within the inner
harbour of Alexandria, and the (hips of war caft anchor
along the Chore of the bay of Aboukir. The republi¬
can army marched on towards the Nile, and in pro¬
ceeding along the banks of that river, they fuffered
much from the intenfe heat of the climate. They foon
came to action with the Mamelukes, or military rulers
of the country ; but the fmall degree of (kill poffeffed
bv thofe barbarians, was by no means a match for Eu¬
ropean tactics. Cairo furrendered on the 23d, and two
days after, another battle was fought, in which the in¬
habitants were defeated. They made a laft effort on
the 26th, near the celebrated pyramids, when 2000 of
them were killed, 400 camels with baggage were taken,
and 50 pieces of cannon.
Having proceeded thus far in his conqueft of Egypt, Tyranny
Bonaparte framed for it a provifional government, and and dupli-
iffued proclamations in the Arabian language, proteft-Clty 0 Bo~
ing that the French were friendly to the religion of1 ‘111
Mahomet, owned the authority of the grand fignior,
and were only come to inflict puniihment on the Mame¬
lukes for doing fo much injury to their trade with E-
gypt. Thus far the good fortune of Bonaparte feemed
(till to attend him ; but on the xft of Auguft the fleet
under Admiral Nelfon appeared off the mouth of the
Nile, who having difeovered the pofition of the French
fleet, prepared to attack it. In point of numbers the
two fleets were upon a level, but as to weight of metal
the French fleet was the ftronger of the two. Admiral
Nelfon, by running fome of his (hips between the ene¬
my and the land, furrounded one part of the fleet,
while the reft were thus rendered entirely ufelefs. The
Culloden ran aground while this plan was carrying into
effeifl an advantage upon the whole, as it pointed out
to the reft where the danger lay concealed. This me¬
morable ;
FRA
r 174 ]
F R A
■Praftce.
1798.
490
Battle of
the Nile.
491
General
Humbert
invades
Ireland.
492
Imprudent
condiuft of
the king of
Naples.
morable action commenced with the fetting of the fun,
and continued, with occalional intervals, till the break
of day. Nine fail of the line belonging to the French
were taken j a {hip of the line wras burnt by her own
commander, and the admiral’s flag fhip, L Orient, v'as
blown up during the action, few of her crew, confifting
of 1000 men, having efcaped deftruftion. Two fhips
of the line and two frigates were faved by flight, but
afterwards captured.
If we confine ourfelves to modern times, it will be
difficult to point out any naval engagement productive
of more interefting effedls than this. 1 he military ex¬
ertions of France had by degrees deftroyed the combi¬
nation which the princes of Europe formed againft her.
The victories of Bonaparte had humbled the pride of
Auftria •, the continent looked with dilmay tow ards the
new republic, and when the directory feized on Rome
and Switzerland, no power ventured to interpofe in
their behalf. The afpect of aifairs, however, had now
undergone an almoft total revolution. X he once trium¬
phant Bonaparte w!as fhut up in a barbarous country,
from which the fleets of Britain might prevent his re¬
turn. Propofals were made by Great Britain to the
northern powers, for the recommencement of hoftilxties
againft France, as it was not conceived poffible that ihe
could make fuch refiftance as formerly. The ftates of
Italy, too, determined to make a bold effort for the re¬
covery of their independence. The court of Naples re¬
joiced at the deftru&ion of the French fleet, and the
king himfelf went to meet Admiral Nelfon on his return
from the Nile.
It is well known that the French had long promifed
encouragement to the Irifh rebels ) but as their expec¬
tations were not gratified in time, they broke out into
open rebellion without the promifed affiftance •, and
when the fpirit of rebellion was almoft wholly fubdued,
the dire&ory attempted to land troops in fmall divifions,
fuch as that under General Humbert on the 22d of Au-
guft, confifting only of 1100-men, who landed at Kil-
lala. Yet this force, fmall as it was, would have pro¬
ved formidable but a month before. They were joined
by a party of the moft defperate of the rebels in the vi¬
cinity, and defeated General Lake at the head of a fu-
perior force, taking from him fix pieces of cannon.
Their next ftep was to march in different direftions to
announce the arrival of the republicans, and maintain¬
ed their ground for three weeks. J his able general re¬
ceiving no reinforcements from I ranee, finding the
rebellion in a great meafure cruflied, and being inform¬
ed that General Cornwallis was about to furround him
with 25,000 men, he laid down his arms to a Britifti
column, four days after he had difmiffed his Irifli affo-
ciates, that they might provide for their own fafety.
Aclive meafures were now taken by the directory to
fend troops to Ireland when too late, as the vigilance
of Britifti cruizers defeated all their endeavours. I a
Hoche, a ftiip of 84 guns, and four frigates, were cap¬
tured by Sir John Borlafe Warren on the I2th of Oc¬
tober, in attempting to reach Ireland with 3000 men.
On the 20th another frigate was taken, deftined for the
fame country, which induced the directory to abandon
the attempt as altogether defperate.
The victory obtained by Admiral Nelfon at the
mouth of the Nile, made the king of Naples aft the
very imprudent part of preparing to commence hoftili-
Franre.
[798.
ties againft; I’rance. Without even waiting till the
Auftrians Ihould commence the attack on the republi¬
can troops in^the Roman territory, he procured General
Mack to affume the command of his army. He began
the wrar without any foreign aid, except the Britifti "
fleet, and thus brought upon himfelf the vengeance of
the French republic. The direftory had no idea that
he would adopt fuch conduft, and of confequence when
General Mack appeared at the head of 45,000 men,
the troops of France in that quarter were unable to
contend with him. General Championet having juftly
complained of the attack made upon his polls, eircum-
ftanced as he w^as, he received for anfwer from the ho-
ftile commander, that his majefty had refolved to take
poffeflion of the Roman territory, and advifed the
French to retire quietly into the Cifalpine ftates, main¬
taining that their entrance into Tufcany would be con-
fidered as a declaration of war. Championet accord¬
ingly evacuated Rome, as he had no force againft fuch a
formidable army. He left a garrifon in the caftle of
St Angelo, and concentrated what troops he could col-
left in the northern parts of the Roman ftate. General
Mack entered the city of Rome without oppofition in
the end of November. _ ^
Thefe tranfaftions having been known at Paris, w ar The French
was immediately declared againft their Neapolitan and declare war
Sardinian majefties, the latter of whom had committed againft Na
no aft of hoftility againft the French j but he w as ac-
cufed of difaffeftion to the republic, a charge which
could fcarcely fail to be true. He found himfelf placed
in a very humiliating fituation fince the firft entrance of
Bonaparte into Italy, his ftrongeft fortreffes being in
poffeflion of the French, who levied on him what con¬
tributions they thought proper, and even placed a gar¬
rifon in his metropolis. Being unable to go to war, he
made a voluntary furrender of his continental dominions,
and agreed to retire to the illand of Sardinia.
A period was foon put to the difpute with Naples.
As the French retreated, the country people gave them
much trouble and uneafinefs, and the Neapolitan troops
fcarcely obferved the modern rules of war refpefting
fuch as they had taken prifoners. When General Bou¬
chard, by orders from General Mack, commanded the
caftle of St Angelo to furrender, he maintained that he
wamld view' the prifoners in the light of hoftages for the
conduft of the garrifon, and that a man fliould be put
to death for every gun fired from the caftle. It is
fcarcely to be imagined that the Neapolitan officers
would have expreffed themfelves in fuch a {hocking
manner, if they had not calculated on the vigorous co¬
operation of the Auftrian forces, in which, how’ever,
they were very much deceived. I he confequence was,
that the territory of Naples very foon fell into the
hands of the French. Either the terror of the republi¬
can name was fo great in Italy, or the cowardice of the
Neapolitan troops, that they were defeated by one-
fourth of their own numbers, at Term, Porto Xermo,
Civita Caftellana, Otricoli, and Calvi. As the army
of General Mack was gradually reduced to 12,000
men, in confequence of defertion and frequent defeats,
he advifed the king of Naples and his family to take re¬
fuge on board the Britifti fleet, which was then lying at
Leghorn. 1 his advice was adopted, and they reached
Palermo in Sicily on the 27th of ^December, in Admiral
Nelfon’s fiiip. General Mack having requefted an ar-
miftice,
F H A [ 175 ] FRA
Lance, miftlce, it was refufed by the French commander. Be-
f —v ’ ing driven from Capua, the only remaining pod of any
j l799- confequence in the territory of Naples, and being in the
greateft danger from the difaffedlion of his troops, he
furrendered him fell and the officers of his ftaff to the
republican general. 1 he governor of Naples offered a
contribution of money if the French troops would not
enter that city, which was agreed to, and they remained
at Capua. General Serrurier, at the head of a French
column, drove the Neapolitans out of Leghorn, and
404 took poffeffion of that place.
}Operate Such is the mildnefs of the climate in the Southern
I ndueft of parts of Italy, that the people can fubfiff with fewer
■e Lazza- ^ffortg 0f induftry than in almoit any other country of
j Europe. This naturally begets an indolent difpofition,
which is cheriffied by a number of charitable inftitutions
originating from the Catholic religion. In Naples there
had long been a body of men called Lazzaroni, or beg¬
gars, amounting to the alloniihing fum total of near
40,000, who entirely fubfifted on charity. I hey fre¬
quently threatened the Hate if they did not receive an
immediate fupply of their wants, which procured them
very liberal contributions. Having been informed that
. the French, wherever they came, deftroyed all monaf-
teries and other fources of charity, they determined to
oppofe them to the utmoft of their power, and appear
the advocates for royal government. In the beginning
of January 1799, they exhibited marks of difeontent,
and at laid broke out into an open infurredlion. They
appointed Prince Militorni their commander in chief,
who made many fruitlefs efforts to reftrain their vio¬
lence and love of plunder. I hey declared war agamft
the French, forced the prifons open, and murdered all
who had been incarcerated for difaffedlion to the kingly
government. T heir ravages now became fo dreadful
and boundlefs, that Prince Militorni abandoned them,
fet out to Capua, and requefted Championet to take
poffeffion of the city, in order to refeue it from utter
, deftrudlion. It was agreed that a column of French
troops ffiould take a circuitous route, and enter the
city from the oppolite quarter. Before this plan could
be carried into execution, two-thirds of the Lazzaroni
marched out on the 19th and 20th of January, with
the daring refolution to attack the French in the forti¬
fications of Capua. Multitudes of them perifhed by
the French artillery ; and in order to favour the cap¬
ture of Naples by the party fent on that expedition,
Championet made no fally out upon them, but conti¬
nued on the defenfive. The Lazzaroni being informed
on the 21ft that a French column had marched for
Naples, returned to the city *, and although Champio¬
net clofely purfued them, they arrived in time to barri¬
cade the ftreets, and prepare for the defence of differ¬
ent quarters. A terrible conflift now commenced,
which lafted from the morning of the 22d to the even¬
ing of the 23d of January. Jiaving been driven from
ftreet to flreet, they finally rallied at one of the gates
of the city, where they were almoft totally cut off. It
is certainly a reproach to the Neapolitan government,
not to have been able to give a better diredlion to the
^ undaunted courage of fuch men.
I fVdirec- We may view thi-j triumph as the laft which the di-
f y t>e- re£fory enjoyed, for the confequences of their part eon-
j; nes juft- 4^ were now rapidly gathering around them. They
]'ar^°" were with the greateft juftice unpopular at home, both
from their mode of conducting public affairs, and their France,
repeated violations of the conltitution of their country,
Their profufion was unlimited, as well as the exorbitant
demands \vhich they made upon conquered countries.
Championet was fo afhamed of them, that in Italy he
endeavoured to reftrain them, in confequence of which
he was deprived of his command, and thrown into pri-
fon *, Scherer, the «war miniiter, being appointed his fuc-
ceffor. Under him the rapacity of the government a-
gents, and the embezzlement of the public ftores, were
carried as high as poffible. Yet France ftill continued
to be dreaded by foreign nations, to whom the true ftate
of internal affairs was but obfeurely known. An army
of 4 i;,ooo Ruffians had arrived to the affiftance of Aui-
tria, yet that cabinet was at a lofs whether to declare
war or not. Britain folicited the aid of Pruffia with an
offer of large fubfidies \ but Sieyes, the plenipotentiary
at Berlin, artfully Contrived to defeat the negotiation,
and counteraft the unpopularity of his country in Ger¬
many, by giving to the world the fecret convention of
Campo Formio. This determined the greater number
of the German princes to maintain their neutrality un¬
der the guardianlhip of Pruffia.
A note was prefented to the congrefs at Raftadt on
the 2d of January by the French plenipotentiaries refi-
dent there, intimating that if the entrance of Ruffian
troops into Germany was not prevented, it would be
confidered as tantamount to a declaration of war. To
this no fatisfaftory anfvver was returned. The ftrong
fortrefs of Ehrenbreitftein furrendered on the 26th of
that month, after being blockaded finee the treaty cf
Campo Formio. This poffeffion, together with Mentz.
and Duffeldorf, made the French a very powerful ene¬
my on the Rhine. Switzerland alfo belonged to them,
and all the fortified places of Italy, on which account
they were qualified to commence adlive operations. At
this period Jourdan commanded -on the Upper Rhine
from Mentz to Huningen ; the eaftern frontier of
Switzerland was occupied by General Maffena; Scherer
had the chief command in Italy ; Moreau adled under
him, and Macdonald commanded the troops in the ter¬
ritory of Rome and Naples. Yet all thefe armies fa
fcattered, did not exceed 170,000 men, a force greatly
inferior to that of Auftria, altogether independent of
the Ruffian army. The directory, however, trufting to War de-
the unity of its own plans, the wavering politics of the dared a-
court of Vienna, and the flow movements of the im-Sainft t!i0
perial armies, was anxious to renew the Avar, a deciara- grand
tion of Avhich againft the emperor of Germany and the duke of
grand duke of Tufcany, was made on the 13th ofTufcany,
March. Jourdan had actually croffed the Rhine at
Strafburg on the ill of that month, and occupied
many ftrong pofitions in Swabia. Manheim was taken,
and General Bernadette fummoned Philiplburg to fur-
render, while General St Cyr entered Stutgard. In
order to oppofe the march of this army, the archduke
Charles croffed the Lech on the 4th of March ; Maf-
fena marched into the territory of the Grifons, and fur-
prifing a ftrong body of Auftrians, made the whole of
them prifoners, together with their general and the
Avhole of his ftaff, in confequence of which the country
of the Grifons was reduced.
The republican plan of procedure Avas not completed
AA’ithout the junction of Maffena’s and Jourdan’s armies,
to accomplifh Avhich it Avas neceffary to carry the im ¬
portant
497 ,
Succcfs of
the Auf-
trians in
Italy.
4^8
The Ruf¬
fians and
imperialifts
united un¬
der Su-
warrow.
FRA [i
portant poft of Feldkirch, tvliich was lield by General
Hotze. Defeated in his firft attempt, Maffena renew¬
ed the attack five times with freih forces, but the de¬
termined bravery of the Auilrians rendered them inef-
feftual. But as the French were in pofleflion of the
Grifons, the invafion of live Engadine was facilitated,
where the Auftrians being too weak to refill, retreated
into the Tyrol, and were purfued by the republicans,
who forced fotne of the defiles, and extended their in¬
roads as far as Glurentz and Nauders.
The vanguard of the principal Auftrian army pulh-
ed on to meet the French. It was attacked by Jourdan
on the 20th of March, by whom the outpoils were
driven in •, but the centre of his army was attacked on
the following day, and forced to retire to Stockach
during the night. The archduke encamped before
Stockach on the 24th, and the republicans attacked him
on the following day. His right wing under General
Meerfeldt was their main objeft, which they fucceeded
in driving into a wood between Liptingen and Stock¬
ach. Meerfeldt renewed the contlicl without fuccefs.
The left wing having maintained its ground, fent rein¬
forcements to General Meerfeldt, who in his turn
obliged the French to retire. The French, however,
made 4000 prifoners during the various movements of
the day. Yet their lofs w'as fo great, and the Auilrian
force fo vaftly fuperior to their own, that General Jour-
dan durll not hazard another engagement. He retreat¬
ed on the following day, arid feeling that he was not a
match for the enemy, he fent a part of his army to
cover Kehl and Strafburg, and marched with the re¬
mainder towards Switzerland. By this event General
Maflena, who was forcing his way to the lyrol and
Engadine, was obliged to return to the protedlion of
Switzerland. He was appointed to the chief command
in this quarter, and Jourdan was removed.
The Auftrians were no lefs fuccefsful in Italy, not-
withftanding they were attacked by the French before
the termination of the armiftice. General Kray ob¬
tained a complete viftory over them at Legnago, and
forced them to flee for protection under the walls of
Mantua. On the 15th of April they were again at¬
tacked by the Auftrians at Memiruolo, and again
forced to retreat after an obftinate refiftance. The
lofs fuftained by the French in thefe different engage¬
ments was unqueftionably great, but we fliould appre¬
hend that the account which ftates it at 30,000 men in
killed, wounded and prifoners, muft furely be exagge¬
rated. But the Auftrians may be faid to have pur-
chafed thefe vidtories at a dear rate. Scherer at firft
gained fome advantages over them, but he had not (kill
to improve them, elfe they would have unqueftionably
given a new turn to tne afpedl of affairs. I lie Auftrian
polls were forced by a divifion of his army on the 26th
of March, and 4000 prifoners taken ; but on the other
divifion being repulfed, he withdrew his troops, and
thus relinquilhed the advantages he had obtained. On
the 5th of April the divifion under Moreau performed
■wonders, and took 3000 prifoners ; but by the unlkil-
ful meafures of Scherer, he was not fupported, and
the triumph of the Auftrians was of courfe complete.
Prior to this period, a body of Ruflians joined the
imperialifts, and the command of this combined army
was given to Field-marlhal Suwarrow Rimnilki, who
advanced towards the Adda on the 24th of April j and
Iwai
799
76 ] FRA
after carrying the outpofts of General Moreau, Suwab-
row determined to attack him in his entrenchments. —
He maintained the appearance of attack along the
whole line of Moreau, while he fecretly threw a bridge
over among the rocks at the upper part of the river,
where fuch a thing had been confidered as impcffihle.
By means of this bridge a part of the combined army
next morning turned the republican fortifications, and
attacked their flank and rear, while the reft of the army
forced the paffage of the river at different points. The
French fought with their ufual intrepidity, but were
foon driven from all their pofttions, and forced to re¬
treat to Pavia, with the lofs of 6000 men killed, 5000
made prifoners, including four generals, and 80 pieces
of cannon.
General Moreau now eftablilhed the poor remains of
his army, amounting to 12,000 men, upon the Po, be¬
tween Aleffandria and Valentia. He forced, on the
nth of May, a body of Auitrians to retreat, and took
a number of them prifoners. On the 12th, about 7000
Ruflians croffed the Po at Bafignano, and marched on
towards Pecetto, when Moreau fell upon them with
fury ; and they refufing to lay down their arms, about
2000 of them were drowned in repafling the river, and
a few were taken prifoners. On the advance of Su-
warrow, General Moreau was under the neceflity of
retiring to occupy the Bochetta, as well as other paffes
which lead to the territory of Genoa, when the com¬
bined army began the lieges of the fortified places in
Italy then occupied by the French. Beliegarde drove
the French from the Engadine ; Maffena was obliged
to retire to the vicinity of Zurich, he was fo preffed by
the archduke •, and nearly the whole of Piedmont had
rifen again ft the republicans. They received no rein¬
forcements from the interior of France, and their officers
were obliged to aft on the defenfive, to defend the
frontiers as long as poihble. In one inilance only they
had the power of making offenfive war, and it was cer¬
tainly done with great vigour. General Macdonald
had Hill a conliderable army in the fouthern parts of
Italy, in the territories of Naples and Rome-. Ihe
combined powers had made no effort to cut off his re¬
treat, convinced, perhaps that this could fcarcely be
accompliflied in the mountainous countries of Tufcany
and Genoa. Knowing his fituation to be fecure, he
was in no hurry to remove, although nearly the whole
country between him and France w as occupied by the
combined army. His army amounted to about 30,000
men, and he received orders from the direftory to leave
the territories of Rome and Naples, and unite, if poffible,
with the army of Moreau. From the fituation of the
allies, however, he refolved to hazard an aftion by
himfelf. With* Moreau he had concerted a plan for
dividing their enemies, and vanquiffiing them in detail,
as Bonaparte had fo often done in Italy before. Mac¬
donald alone was in a fituation for ftriking an important
blow, yet it Avas neceffary for Moreau to draw upon
himfelf as many of the Auftro-Ruflian forces as poffible,
that the remainder might be more completely expofed
to the attack of Macdonald. _ ^
Moreau availed himfelf of the circumftance of the Artful
French and Spaniffi fleets being in the vicinity of Genoa, t i cm
to fpread a report that they had brought him a very Morca
powerful reinforcement, intending thereby to Avithdraw
the attention of SuAvarrow from Macdonald. I he
Ruffian
49
498
'he French
efeated by
uwarrow.
499
ruitlefs
iege of
Vcre by
Sonaparte,
F R A [
Ruffian general was at Turin, his advanced polls
Sufa, Pignerol, and the Col d’Affiette, while General
Hohenzollern was Rationed at Modena with a conlider-
able force, and General Ott at Reggio with 10,000
men. General Macdonald began his operations on the
12th of June, when his advanced diviiions attacked
and defeated Hohenzollern, taking 2000 of his men
prifoners. General Ott was attacked at the lame
time, and being compelled to retreat, the french made
their entry into Parma on the 14th. He was again
attacked on the 17th, and forced to retire towards
Giovanni, where the progrefs of General Macdonald
was arrefted.
Suwarrow having received information of his ap¬
proach, and of his fuccefles, left Turin on the 15th
of June, at the head of 20,000 men, and came up
with Macdonald on the banks of the Tidone. i he
centre and right wing of Su war row’s army were com¬
manded by Rofenberg and Foerfter, the Aullrian ge¬
neral Melas commanded the left wing *, Prince Pro-
cration was at the head of the advanced guard, and
Prince Lichtenftein of the referve. An adfion imme¬
diately commenced, which was fought with defperate
fury on both Tides for three fucceffive days, when victory
declared in favour of Suwarrow. Driven from Tidone
to the Trebbia, the French were finally vanquilhed on
the 19th, after a greater daughter on both Tides than
the oldeft officer prefent recollected to have witneffed.
Victory remained doubtful, till General Kray arrived
Avith large reinforcements from the army befieging
Mantua, and, in direct contempt of his orders, decided
the fate of the day.
The republicans retreated during the night, and the
next day they were purfued by the army of Suwarrow
in tivo columns. Seldom could the French be over¬
taken in a march, but the army of SuivarroAv accom-
plilhed this, when he furrounded the rear-guard of the
fugitives, and obliged them to lay down their arms.
The reft of the army defended themfelves in the paffes
of the Appenines and territory of Genoa, after lofing,
it is faid, no fewer than 17,000 in killed, Avounded,
and prifoners. Moreau, in the mean time, gave battle
to the Auftrians under Bellegarde, and though far fu-
perior to him in numbers, they w'ere totally defeated.
This temporary advantage, hoAvever, availed little, in
confequence of the rapid return of Suwarrow from the
purfuit of Macdonald. The fortreffes in Italy fur-
rendered in clofe fucceffion, and it appeared as if the
combined powers would foon be able to enter the ter¬
ritory of France.
The affairs of the republic became equally critical in
Paleftine. After having defeated the Mamelukes,
made himfelf mafter of Alexandria and Cairo, and
avowed himfelf a Mahometan in Egypt, Bonaparte led
an army into Paleftine, to take poffeffion of Jerufalem,
and by rebuilding the temple, and reftoring the Jew's,
to give the lie to the" prophecies of the Chriftian re¬
ligion. At the head of 10,000 men, Avith officers emi¬
nently {killed in the art of Avar, he reached the toAvn of
Acre on the fea-coaft, 28 miles fouth of Tyre, and 37
north of Jerufalem. He laid fiege to this toAvn in due
form, Avhich Avasbut indifferently fortified, and defended
by a fmall garrifon of Muffulmans, Avhich the go\rernor
Avould have unconditionally furrendered, had he not
Vol. IX. Part I.
France*
3 799'
509
177 J £ R A
at been advifed to make a vigorous refiftance by an Eng-
liili naval officer. Sir Sidney Smith having received
the command ol the garriion, detained Bonaparte before
Acre 69 days, although the number of the allies by
whom it Avas defended did not exceed 2000 men. The
French commander made eleven attempts to carry it
by affault, all of Avhich proved uniuccefsful. He was
at laft obliged to raife the fiege, after he had loft eight,
of his generals, 85 inferior officers, and almoft one half
of his army. His unfuccefiful attempt upon Acre muft
indeed appear important, efpecially to Britain, if it be
true that the Drufes, to the number of 60,000 men,
had promifed to join him on the redmftion of that towm.
Had this junction been effected, it is believed that
Conftantinople would have become their prey, which
Avas firft to have been plundered, and then reduced to
allies.
While France experienced fueh reverfes abroad, (lie The direo
was much difturbed alfo by internal commotions, and tovy finks
the directory found itfelf in a very critical fituation.int0 con*
Ncav elections were ftill unfriendly to their intereft,U/n^t;'
and they could no longer fecure a majority in the
councils, they Avere funk into fuch contempt. When
they fought money, they obtained reproaches on ac¬
count of their OAvn profufion, and the agents they em¬
ployed. Infurreclions in the AVeft and fouth were
formed by the friends of royalty, and thefe were with
difficulty fubdued, on account of the abfence of the
military. In the midft of all thefe difficulties, the
occurrence of one event feemed to promife the direc¬
tory the return of their former influence. On the 28th
of April, the French plenipotentiaries received orders
to quit Raftadt in 24 hours. Having demanded a
paffport from Colonel Barbafey, they received for an-
fwer that none could grant it but the commander in
chief. They at laft began their journey, the three mi-
nifters, Bonnier, Roberjot, and Jean Debry, Avere in
feparate carriages, Roberjot having his Avife, and Jean
Debry his wife and daughters along w itli him, attended
by the minifters of the Cifalpine republic. At a fliort Murek-r of
diftance from Raftadt they Avere met by 50 Auftrian the French
huffars, who flopped the carriage of Jean Debry, and ambafla-
demanded his name. Of this he informed them, adding
that he AA'as a French minifter returning to France. He
Avas immediately torn from his carriage, defperately
Avounded Avith fabres, and throAvn into a ditch for
dead. Bonnier and Roberjot Avere murdered on the
fpot. When the ruffians departed, and the carriages
returned to Raftadt, Jean Debry wandered all night
in the Avoods, and next day returned to Raftadt. He
demanded the reftitution of the papers Avhich the hh'ed
affaffins had carried off when they plundered the car¬
riages, but they Avere refufed. Raftadt and its vici¬
nity Avas occupied by French troops during the long
fitting of congrefs, of Avhich the Auftrians had ob¬
tained poffeffion but a ferv days before. The difeipline,
therefore, of the Auftrian army Avas fcverely reproached
by this event; but it is probable that more than the
Want of fubordination rvas at the bottom of a crime fo
atrocious, unprecedented, and totally repugnant to the
Fiavs of nations. It is true, the archduke loft no time
to declare his utter ignorance of the matter in a letter
to Maffena •, but this Avas far from giving fatisfa£lon to
the French direttory. In a meffage to the councils on
Z the
F R A
[ I78 ]
FRA
1799.
504
Sieyes
chofen a
tory.
France., the 5tli of May, they made it the premeditated acl of
” ^ the Auiliian government, to intuit France by the mur¬
der of her ambaJadors.
A violent oppolition to the directory commenced by
the introduction of the new third of this year. Sieyes,
member of who was ambalfador at Berlin, and had poflefied conti-
the direc- demlde influence over all parties, was elected a member
of the directory. This it at ion, we have already feen,
he refuted to occupy at the firit eftabliihment of the
confutation, and therefore his acceptance of it at fuel)
a critical juncture, excited great furpriie. Treiihard
was removed from the directory, as it was faid that he
had held an office in the itate within lefs than a year
previous to his election. Merlin and Reveillcre were
under the neceffity of retigning, to avoid an impeach¬
ment which was threatened to be brought againit them;
but Barras ttill retained his ttation. Moulins, Gohier,
and Ducos, men who were but very little known, and,
far from being leaders of the contending parties, were
chofen members of the directory. The public fpirit
was attempted to be revived by the eitabliihment of
clubs, a liberty of which the reltlefs Jacobins hr it took
advantage. They foon propofed violent meafures, and
began to denounce the members and the conduct of
government. But their intemperance having juftly
alarmed the direftory, they obtained permiffion from the
councils to fupprefs their meetings, before they had
time to corrupt the public mind.
The directory now employed every effort to augment
the armies which had lately fuffered fuch dreadful dimi-
S°3
Aer Mo¬
reau.
General
Joubert is
the French uutions. In the beginning of Augult their army m
retreat un- Italy amounted to 45,000 men, of which General
Joubert had the chief command. Turin, Alefiandria,
Milan, Pefchiera, and Ferrara, were captured .by the
allies with altoniihing rapidity. Turin fuftained a
bombardment of only three days, Aleffandria held out
feven, and Mantua only fourteen, in which lait place
there were 13,000, who were difmiffed on their parole.
The combined powers next laid liege to Tortona, and
General Joubert refolved on its relief, which objeft
he expe&ed to accomplilh before the arrival of Kray
with affillance to Suwarrow. The whole of the Aui-
trian polls were driven in by the republicans on the
13th of Augult, who took poffeffion of Novi. On the
15th they were attacked by Suwarrow, who by this
time had received troops from Mantua under General
Kray. The right wing was commanded by this officer,
its left by Melas, and its centre by Prince Procration
and Suwarrow in perfon. The engagement commenced
about five o’clock in the morning, foon after which,
while General Joubert was urging his troops forward
to charge with the bayonet, he received a mulket Ihot
in his body, and falling from his horfe, he immediately
expired. Moreau refumed the command, and after a
bloody conflict, the allied army gave way in all direc¬
tions.* The Ruffians in particular fuffered feverely,
from the obllinate manner in which they fought. 1 he
French line was attacked at three in the afternoon, but
remained unbroken j and the whole w'ould have termi¬
nated in the defeat of the allies, if General Melas had
not turned the right flank of the republican line } and
following up his advantages, he got poffeffion of Novi,
when the French army began to retreat under the com¬
mand of General Moreau.
The Auitrians fay that the French upon this occafion
loft 4000 men killed, and the fame number taken prifon- France,
ers, confeffing that their own lofs was equal to this j but
the lofs of the Ruffians was never publiflied. We have I799i
reafon to believe that it was the greatelt of the whole,
fince they will rather Hand and be cut to pieces than
think of retreating. The French loft all hope of being
able to defend Genoa, and therefore prepared to eva¬
cuate that city and territory. It was now the appre-
henfion of the directory that the fouth of France "would
immediately be invaded, but in this they were happily
deceived. The conquered army was aftoniihed to find
itfelf unmolefted after fo lignal a defeat, and in a few
days ventured to fend back parties to reconnoitre the
movements of the allies. Championet, the fucceflor of
Joubert, was amazed to find that they had rather re¬
treated than advanced, on which account he refumed
the pofitions held by his army before the battle of
Novi. 504
So far from profecuting the advantages they had ob- Suwarrow
tained in Italy, Suwarrow was periuaded to abandon marches to
that country with his Ruffian troops, and march to the^J®^0^
deliverance of Switzerland from the yoke of France. iancji
The army of Maffena in this quarter amounted to
70,000 men in the month of Auguft, which not only
prevented the archduke from puriuing his advantages,
but the French even threatened to endanger his pofi-
tion. Maffena’s right wing under General Lecourbe
had carried Mount St Gothard, the great pafs leading
from the eaitern parts of Svutzerland into Italy. Su-
warrow’s expedlations were no doubt high, having never
yet been vanquiffied, and being called upon to under¬
take an enterprife in which the Auftrians had hitherto
failed, even under their moft fortunate general. W hen
he was ready to march, the Auftrian commander in
Italy refufed to give him mules for tranfporting his
baggage. This officer had recourfe to a moft pitiful
faliehood, when he afferted that he would be furniffied
with a competent number at Bellinzone, where Suwar¬
row could find none. Having no other alternative, he
difmounted the cavalry, and made ufe of their horfes to
drag along the baggage. In fpite of thefe ebftacles,
however, he arrived, by forced marches, on the frontiers
of Switzerland on the day which he and the archduke
had fixed upon.
Either fuppofing that it would demean a prince of
the houfe of Auitria to ferve under a Ruffian general,
or not being daring enough to require the moft expe¬
rienced general in Europe to receive orders from fo
young a man as the archduke, that prince w as fent into
Swabia to attack a fmall body of republicans. He took
with him 48,000, fome fay 6o,oco men, although
20,000 would have been more than fuffieient for the
accompliflunent of fuch an undertaking. It is not an eafy
matter to conceive upon what principle the council of
war at Vienna could imagine, that fuch an able officer as
Maffena would continue inactive at the head of an army
almoft the double of that which was fent to oppofe him.
The archduke marched againft the French in Swabia,
who refilled him as much as the fmall number of their
troops would permit •, but they were gradually driven
towards the Rhine. To carry on the deception, they
made a ferious Hand in the vicinity of Manheim, where
they loft 1800 men, and which the Auftrians entered,
fcemingly determined to crofs the Rhine.
Switzerland in the mean time was completely ex-
France,
1799.
F RA t '7
pofed to tbe army of Maffena. The right wing of the
combined army in this country was commanded by
General Hutze ; the centre, compofed of the newly
arrived Ruffians, was headed by Korfakof •, and the left
wing by General Nauendorf. As foon as Mailena
underftood that the archduke had entered Manheim,
and that Suwarrow was approaching to Switzerland by
the way of St Gothard, he began his movements. St
Gothard was defended by Lecourbe, and in the mean
time Malfena determined to anticipate the arrival of
Suwarrow. Having drawn the attention of the Ruffians
to another quarter on the 24th of September, by a falfe
attack, he fuddenly eroded the Limmat, three leagues
from Zurich. Some of the French troops engaged the
Auftrlans, but the principal part of the army marched
a'jainft the Ruffians. General Hotze fell in the begin¬
ning of the action, and Petrafch who fucceeded him
Ihunned a total defeat, by retiring in the night with the
lofs of 4000 men. The Ruffians fought with very lin¬
gular obftinacy, being in a mountainous country to
which they were llrangers, and fighting againft the mod
able commanders in Europe. It was in vain, however, to
attempt putting them to dight, for even when furrounded
they would not lav down their arms, but dood to be
daughtered on the fpot. The Andrians having re¬
treated on the 2<Rh, the Ruffians on the 28th followed
their example, retreating under General Korfakof in
good order, and with the lofs of 3000 men, which was
not very great, confidering his perilous fituation.
During thefe tranfaftions, General Suwarrow was
proceeding by the way of Italy with an army of 18,000,
but others fay no more than 1 i;,ooo men. Fie carried
^ Gothard, and defeended into the valley
U na' of Urferen, driving Lecourbe before him with great
daughter, and advanced as far as Altorf. He next day
reached the canton of Claris, and made 1000 of the
French prifoners, and General Linken defeated another
corps of 1300 men. Maflena now turned upon Su¬
warrow, and bv furrounding him on all fides, expefted
to take him and the grand duke Conftantine prifoners.
Suwarrow defended himfelf in a very mafterly manner,
and there being only one pafs in the mountains unoccu¬
pied by the republicans, the aged hero difeovered it, and
by this he eflfefled his efcape, but loft his cannon and
baggage among the dreadful precipices with which that
country abounds. He made his way through the Grifon
country, and arrived at Coire with about 6000 men.
Suwarrow felt truly indignant when he found in what
manner affairs had been condu&ed, the perilous fitua¬
tion in which the Ruffians had been left by the arch¬
duke, and the deftnuftion which of confequence they
had met with. He confidered himfelf and his men
as treacheroufiy betraved, complained bitterly of the
commander of the allies in Switzerland, and publicly
charging the council of Vienna with felfifhnefs and
iniuftiee, refufed to co-operate farther with the
Auftrian armv. Fie tranfmitted an account of the
whole in a letter to Peterfburgh, and withdrew his
forces to the vicinity of Augfburg to wait for further
506 orders from his court.
intain pre- Great Britain in the mean time made aflive prepara-
ude Hoi1” ^0nS to 'nva^e Holland, with an armv of 40,000 men,
ind. composed of Britifh troops and auxiliaries from Buffia.
The firft divifion under General Sir Ralph Abercromby
foiled in the month of Auguft, protefted by a fleet
505
uwarrow
lifgufted
»ith the
■France.
J799*
5°T
9 ] FRA
under Admiral Duncan. Bad weather prevented
any attempt to land the troops till the 27th, on the
morning of which day the debarkation was effedled on
the fhore of Fielder Point without oppofition. They
were not expedited to land in North Holland, on which
account the troops in that neighbourhood were few.
But before the Britifti troops had proceeded far on their
march, they had to contend with a confiderable body of
infantry, cavalry, and artillery, hartily collected from
the adjacent towns. The Dutch fought with great
obftinacy, but became fatigued by the fteady oppolltion
of their antagonifts, and fell back about two leagues.
They evacuated the fort of Fielder in the night, and it
was taken poffeflion of by the Britifti on the morning
of the 28th. Admiral Mitchell now entered the
Zuyder fea with a detachment of the Britifti fleet, in
order to give battle to the Dutch under Admiral Story.
Inftead of retiring to the (hallow w'ater with which that
fea abounds, he unaccountably furrendered his whole fleet
on the 30th of Auguft without firing a gun, pretending
that from the mutinous difpofition of his feamen, he
could not prevail upon them to fight.
If this had terminated the expedition, it would have yyhid/is ill
been extremely fortunate, as eftabliflting the power of conducted,
the Britifh fleet w'ithout a rival. But this viciory, if it
can be fo called, was followed up by an endeavour to
reftore the authority of the ftadtholder, and the ancient
government of the United Provinces. As no more than
the firft divifion had arrived, the terror of an invading
foe began to be diffipated, the enemies of the new' go¬
vernment w'ere difheartened, and time w'as allowed to
prepare for defence. But thefe tvere not the only
errors chargeable on the expedition. The Britifti troops
landed in the very word place they could poffibly have
chofen, not only as it is everywhere interfered by
ditches and canals, but it abounded more than any
other part of Holland, Avith perfons difaffefted to the
perfon and government of the ftadtholder. In a word,
this unfortunate expedition Avas undertaken toAvards the
approach of the rainy feafon, Avhen a campaign in Hol¬
land is next to impoffible. When it Avas firft fpeffien
of, even the French directory hefitated to undertake the
defence of that country ; but Avhen the time and place of
landing came to be knoAvn, they Avere foon determined,
being almoft certain of fuccefs. General Brune Avas
accordingly fent Avith Avhat troops could be fpeedily
collected, in order to co-operate with General Daen-
dals.
General Abercromby in the mean time could only
aft on the defenfive, as no reinforcement had arrived.
The enemy Avas encouraged by his Avant of activity,
and ventured to attack him on the 10th of September.
Tavo Dutch columns, and one of republicans, g lanced
upon him, but Avere repulfed in every direftu „ and
forced to retreat to Alkmaer. Additional troops ar¬
rived on the 13th, under his royal highnefs the duke
of York, avIio affumed the chief command. On the
arrival of the Ruffians, offenfive operations AA'ere im¬
mediately refolved on, and the army advanced on the
19th. The left Aving under General Abercromby
marched along the fhore of the Zuyder fea to attack
Hoorne 5 Generals Dundas and Pultney commanded the
centre columns, and the Ruffians Avere led on by their
oAvn general D’Herman. OAving to fome mifunder-
ftanding, the Ruffians advanced to attcak the enemy
Z 2 *bout
Braiice.
1799.
s°s
The Turks
FRA [
about three o’clock in the morning, 'which was feme hours
before the reft of the army began its march. Their
firft efforts were crowned with luccefs, and they made
themfelves mailers of the village of Bergen ; but as
they preffed too eagerly forward without the co-opera¬
tion of the other columns, the enemy nearly furrounded
them. Their general was made prifoner } and notwith-
ftanding the Britiih troops came up in time to fecure
their retreat, they loft upwards of 3000 men. 1 bis
defeat of the right wing made the commander in chief
recal his troops from their advanced pofitions, notwith-
itandmg (jeneral Abercromby was mailer of hloorne
and its garrifon, and General Pultney had carried by
affault the chief pofition of the Dutch army.
Such vras the feverity of the weather, that no frefh
attack was made till the 2d of Oftober, on which, day
a defperate action commenced between the Britiih,
and the united Dutch and French troops, at 6 o’clock in
the morning, which did not terminate till the fame hour
at night when the Britiih gained poffeflion of Alkmaer
and the neighbouring villages. J his engagement
having been chiefly carried on among the fand hills
* near the ocean, the fatigue which the troops endured,
prevented them from gaining any great advantage
over the fugitives, who took a poiltion between Bavtr-
wyck and Wyck op-zee, where the duke of Turk again
attacked them on the 6th, and kept poffeflion of the
field after a very fanguinary conteft. I his, however,
was the lail fuccefs gained by the invading army. The
duke of York finding that he could make no farther
progrefs, the enemy having been fo rapidly reinforced,
the difficulties prefented by the face of the country and
the badnefs of the weather alfo confpiring againft him,
retired to Schager Brug, where he w'aited for orders
from England relative to his return home. Being in
the mean time clofely preffed by the enemy, his em¬
barkation muft have been accompliftied with great dan¬
ger, had he not entered into a convention with the
Dutch and French, that his retreat fhould not be mo-
lefted farther, in return for which he promifed not to
injure the country by demolifhing any of the dykes
which defended it from the fea, and that Great Britain
would reftore to France and Holland 8000 prifoners
taken before the prefent campaign.
The affairs of the French republic now began, m
eonfequence of thefe events, to wTear a more favourable
a foe cl. It is true, Championet was defeated in Italy
in all his efforts againft the Auftrians, and Ancona.fur-
rendered on the 13th of November to General Frolich;
but the French were ftill mafters of the Genoefe terri¬
tory, Switzerland and Holland, and the new combina¬
tion formed againft them feemed about to be difiolved.
Pruflia'"''ithdrew at an early period, and ftill preferved
a neuf flity *, and from exifting circumftances it was
natural to conclude, that the. emperor of Ruflia would
alfo defert the eaufe of the allies.
An event took place about this time which prefent-
180] F R A
army of iS,cco Turks landed at Aboukir, which they
Trance.
tlefeated by eq the revolution of France in a light never before
Bonaparte
near the
Pyramids.
feen. Our readers will recollect that General Bona¬
parte was obliged to retreat from Acre with great lofs,
after a fiege of 69 days. At this time he received in¬
formation that a Turkifti army was about to invade
jrcrypt by fea, and therefore he returned acrofs the de¬
fert of Arabia by the way of Suez, and arrived in the
vicinity of the Pyramids on the nth of Jftly, when an
5°9
carried by affault, and put the garrifon to death, con-
fifting of 500 men. Bonaparte marched down the
country againft them on the anc^ ten days alter
came in fight of them at fix o’clock in the morning.
Their troops were divided into two parts, encamped on.
the oppofite fides of a delightful plain. The cavalry of
Bonaparte advanced with rapidity into the centre of the
Turkifti army, cutting off the communication between
its different parts. Struck with terror, the Turks en¬
deavoured to gain their (hips, w;hen the whole of them
perifhed in the fea. The left divifton made a more
obftinate refiftance, but it was at length defeated. About
the end of September the news of this viflory reached
France, which recalled the memory of Bonaparte’s con-
quefts, as forming a ftriking contrail to the reverfes ex¬
perienced by the republic after that period. The di-
re£lory received a difpatch from him on the 10th of
Odlober, which was read to the councils •, and on the
14th a meffage announced the arrival of Bonaparte in
France, together with his principal officers. He wasyyfo, _
received at Paris with marks of diftindion, although returns to
none could tell why he had left his army and returned France, and
home. At this time the parties in the government were
equally balanced j and the affiftance of Bonaparte as riai govern.
requefted by both. The Jacobins were fuperior in themcnt.
council of five hundred, and the Moderates in that of the
Ancients. It was underflood that Sieyes was attached
to the latter party, on which account the Jacobins had
made many unfuccefsful efforts to difmifs him from.his
office. Intriguing as the Jacobins were, they were fairly
outwitted by Sieyes, who had a plot ripe for execution,
to overwhelm them in a moment. On the morning of
the 9th of November, one of the committees of the
council of Ancients gave in a report, that the country
was in danger, propofing the fitting of the legiflature to
be adjourned to St Cloud, about fix miles from. Paris.
The council of five hundred having no legal right to
queftion the authority of this decree, and as the ruling
party was clearly taken unawares, the members gave
their iilent confent, and both councils met at the place
appointed on the 1 oth of November. .
The council of five hundred received a letter from
Lagarde, fecretary to the directory, inforn mg them that
four of its members had refigned their offices, and that
Barras was a prifoner by order of Bonaparte, whom the
council of Ancients had appointed commander pf their
guard. In the midft of their deliberations, General
Bonaparte entered the hall, accompanied by about 20
officers and grenadiers. He proceeded towards the
chair where his brother Lucien fat as prefident, when
great tumult enfued, and the epithets of a Cromwell, a
Cgefar, and a ufurper, were conferred upon him. The
members preffed forward upon him, and Arena a Corfi-
can endeavoured to difpateh him with a dagger •, but
he was refeued by his military attendants. A party of
armed men entered the hall, and carrie.d oft the. prefi¬
dent, when in a violent debate which enfued, it was
propofed that Bonaparte fhould be declared an outlaw.
Military mufic was foon heard approaching 5 a body of
armed troops entered the hall, and the members were
obliged to difperfe. The council of Ancients let afide
the conftitution, and puffed a number of decrees. 'I he
direftory was aboliflied, and an executive comroiffion
fubilituted in its place, eonfifting of Bonaparte, Sieyes,
and
FRA [ 181 ] F RA
prance, and Roger Ducos, under the denomination of confuls.
L—v——' The fittings were adjourned till the 20th of February
1799- 1800, and two committees, confifting of 21 members,
chofen from both councils, to aft as interim iegif-
lators. The greater part of the members compofing
the council of five hundred returned to Paris, having
been expelled from the hall by the military, while part of
them continued, and fanftioned all the decrees of the
council of ancients. On the 17th of November the
confuls decreed the tranfportation of a great number
of Jacobins to Guiana, and call a number of them into
prifon ; but thefe decrees were loon after reverfed, and
every thing alfumed an air of tranquillity.
The expedition to Egypt was in the mean time un-
fuccefsful in every one of its objects, lippoo Sultan,
fon and fucceffor to the celebrated Hyder Ally, fove-
reign of the Myfore country, had, in the year 1792,
been under the neceffity of concluding a treaty of peace
with Lord Cornwallis under the walls of Seringapa-
tam, in which he refigned a portion of his territory to
the invaders, and agreed to pay a very confiderable firm
of money. He was like wife obliged to deliver up two
of his fons as hoftages for the pun&ual performance of
every thing flipulated. A war which terminated in
this manner could not reafonably be expected to become
the bafis of much cordiality. He was indeed obliged
to fubmit, but lie only waited for a favourable opportu¬
nity to recover what he had loft, and to accomplilh, if
poffible, the total expulfion of the Britifti from India,
which with him was a favourate objecd, as it had always
been with his father. The afcendancy of Britain, how¬
ever, was now fo great, chiefly owing to the exertions
of Warren Haftings, Efq. that Tippoo clearly perceived
the impofiibility of lhaking it, without the afliftance of
an army from Europe. To no country but France
could he look for an adequate force ; but the foreign
and domeftic wars arifing from the revolution, had pre¬
vented the rulers of that nation from attending to the
interefts of diftant regions. In 1797? * ippo° deter¬
mined to renew his intercourfe with Prance by means
of the iflands of the Mauritius and Bourbon. One Rir
paud, formerly a lieutenant in the French navy, who had
refided for feme time at Seringapatam, perfuaded Tippoo
that the French had a confiderable force at the Mauritius,
which with little difficulty might be fent to his afiift-
ance. Ripaud being fent to confer with the French
upon the fubject, he and two minifters from Tippoo
I were joyfully received by Malartic the governor, and
veflels were fent to France to acquaint the directory
Sio with their propofals.
he mo- The governor Malartic in the mean time, either from
-ns A • grofs ignorance, from treachery, or a wifli to involve
''itched''if1 TipP00 Sultan in a quarrel with Britain, adopted a mea-
titain! ' Gre which ultimately defeated the plans, and brought
about the ruin of that prince. On the 30th of January
1798, he publiflred a proclamation, containing the whole
of Tippoo’s confidential propofals, inviting all citizens
of France to efpoufe his caufe. Copies of this procla¬
mation foon found their wny into moft quarters of the
world. Accordingly the governor-general of India, re¬
ceived orders to watch the motions of Tippoo, and even
hoftilely attack him if it could not be prudently avoid¬
ed. The Indian government, however, had, before
this, been apprifed of the impending danger, and had
made preparations for war without lofs of time.
But Tippoo did not place his foie dependence on France.
afliftance from France. He invited one Zemaun Shah
from the north-weft, whofe kingdom was compofed of I799* -
provinces taken from Perfia and India, to make an at¬
tack upon the Britilh and their allies. In hopes of
direct aid from France, which lippoo expected in con-
fequence of Bonaparte’s invafion of Egypt, and the
important fervice which he looked for from the exer¬
tions of Zemaun Shah, lie remained quiet, and endea¬
voured to temporife with the Britifli. Military prepa¬
rations on the part of the Britifh being in a confider¬
able degree of forwardnefs, Lord Mornington, the go¬
vernor-general, informed Tippoo that he w as not igno¬
rant of his hoftile defigns, and of his connection with
France, propoling, however, to fend an ambaffador, for
the purpofe of bringing about a reconciliation. 1 his
was not anfwered till the 18th of December, although
written by his lordftiip on the 8th of the preceding
month. Tippoo fimply denied the charge, and refufed
to admit the ambaffador. Unwillingly to fport with
human blood, his lordfliip on the 9th of January 1799,
again intreated Tippoo to receive the ambaffador, to
which no anfwer was returned during a whole month,
during which interval 5000 men arrived from England,
and General Harris received orders to advance at the
head of the Madras army againft the kingdom of My¬
fore. This feemed to bring Tippoo a little more to rea-
fon, who now offered to receive the ambaffador, on con¬
dition he fliould come without any attendance ; but as
this w^as not deemed a fatisfaclory conceflion, the army
continued to advance. An army from Bombay rvas
alfo approaching on the oppofite fide of his dominions,-
which encountered part of Tippoo’s forces, and defeated
them •, General Harris defeating the remainder of them
on the 27th of March, who on the 7th of April fat
down before Seringapatam. This officer received a
letter from Tippoo on the 9th, in which he mentioned
his adherence to treaties, and wiftied to be informed as
to the caufe of the war. The only anfwer he receiv¬
ed was a reference to Lord Mornington’s letters. He
made another attempt on the 20th, and General Harris
informed him that he had already been made acquaint¬
ed with the only conditions which could or would be
granted. The half of his dominions was to be furrender-
ed, large fums of money were expedled from him 5 he
was to admit an ambaffador to his court, to dif-
claim all connexion with the French, and grant hof¬
tages for the faithful obfervance of every ftipula-
tion. _ - yrr
Tippoo wrote a letter to General Harris on the 28th, pr0pofals of
defiring leave to treat by ambaffadors, which was re- Tippca re¬
fufed him, as he vras in poffeffion of theyf/ze qua non of je(dcd-
the Britifli government. It was believed that the be-
fieging army would have been obliged to retreat, had
it been poffible for Seringapatam to hold out only a
fortnight longer. On the laft day of April the befieg-
ers began to batter the walls of the city, and they got
poffeffion of it on the 4th of May. Tippoo haftened
from his palace to the attack, when given to underftand
that a breach was made in the wall's, where he fell
undiftinguiffied in the general conflict. His treafures
and the plunder of the city were immenle, with which
the befieging army was enriched, after deducting a cer¬
tain proportion for the Britifli government and the Eaft
India company. His fubjecls immediately- furrendered.
FRA [ 182 ] FRA
France, and that part of the country which formed the ancient
kingdom or My fore, was conteired on a deicendant of
I799- the former race of its kings, and the remaining terri¬
tories were divided among the Britiih and their allies.
The family of I ippoo were either taken or made a
voluntary furrender, being removed from that part of
the country, and allowed a decent annuity.
Zenraun Shah in the mean time invaded the country
from the north-weft, advancing to the vicinity of Delhi,
and fpreading terror and defolation w herever he came.
Satisfied with plunder, however, he foon withdrew his
forces j and the French army being detained in Egypt
by a wrar with the Turks, as well as the want of fhip-
ping at Suez, Tippoo had to contend fingiy againft the
united force of Britain and her allies in thofe eaftern
5”,
A conful ir
government
eftablifhed
-in France.
5T3
Bonaparte
propolcs to
treat with
Britain.
regions.
The plan of a newv conftitution rvas prefented to the
public by the confuls in the month of December I 799.
According to this plan, 80 men, wdio had the power
of nominating their own fuccefibrs, and were called
the confervative fenate, had likeAvife authority to ele£l
the whole of the legiflators and executive rulers of
the ftate, while none of thefe offices could be held by
themfelves. One man, called the chief conful, pof-
feffed the fovereign authority, held his poAver for ten
years, and Avas competent to be re-ele61ed. Other
two confuls Avere to affift in his deliberations, but had
no power to controul his Avill. The legiflative poAver
was divided into tAvo affemblies •, the tribunate, com-
pofed of 100 members, and the confervative fenate
of 300. When the chief conful thought proper to
propofe a law, the tribunate might debate upon^ it,
without having authority to vote either for or againft
it, while the members of the fenate might vote, but
were not enabled to debate. The confuls and the
members of the legiflative body, as Avell as of the
confervative fenate, Avere not refponfible for their con-
du£l, but minifters of ftate employed by them Avere
under flood to be accountable. The committees which
framed the conftitution, nominated the perfons Avho
Avere to execute the funftions of government. Bona¬
parte Avas appointed chief conful, and Cambareres and
Lebrun fecond and third confuls. Sieyes, as formerly,
declined taking any aeftive part in the adminiftration of
public affairs, and he received, as a gratuity for his Cer¬
vices, an eftate belonging to the nation, called Crofne,
in the department of the Seine and Oi'ne.
Bonaparte had not long been in poflfeffion of the
reins of government, till he fent overtures for negotia¬
ting peace with the allied poAvers at Avar Avith France *,
but it is to be prefumed that he did not wifti for a ge¬
neral peace. Separate propofals Avere made to the dif¬
ferent belligerent powers, no doubt Avith a view to di:'-
folve the coalition } but the decrees of the convention
■which declared Avar againft all the powers of Europe,
were not repealed by him. He departed from the
forms fanflioned by the cuftom of nations in carrying
on diplomatic correfpondence, but addrefled a letter di-
re£lly t j his Britannic ma’efty, the fubftance of Avhich
Avas contained in two queftions •, “ Avhether the war,
which had, for eight years, ravaged the four quarters
of the globe, Avas to be eternal ?” and “ whether there
were no means for Britain and France of coming to a
goo 1 mderftanding ?” Satisfa£lory, and Ave think, un-
.anfwerable replies, at ere made to thefe queftions by the
Britiih miniftry, Avho dwelt much, and very juftly, on France,
the bad faith of revolutionary rulers, and the inftability
of the governments of France fince the fubverfion of 1 jCQ'
monaichy. I he overture tranfmitted to Vienna Avas of
a fimi'ar nature, and it experienced fimilar treatment j
but the emperor of Ruffia abandoned the coalition, pro¬
bably on account of the ihameful manner in Avhich Su-
Avarrow had been treated, while carrying on the war in
Laly and SAvitzerland.
Bonaparte on the 7th of March fent a mefiage to
the legiiiative body, containing his OAvn ideas ot the
condutl and dcftgns of the Britifh cabinet, and affur-
ing them that he would invoke peace in the midft of
battles and triumphs, and {wear to fight only for the
happinefs of France and the repofe of the Avorld. This
mefiage Avas followed by tAvo decrees •, the one calling,
in the name of honour, upon every foldier abfent on
leave from the armies of Italy and the Rhine, to join
them before the 5th of April; and the other appointing
a frefh army of referve of 60,000 men to be afitmbled
at Dijon, under the immediate command of the firft
conful.
About this time the belligerent poAvers were nearly
ready for opening the campaign in Italy and on the
Rhine. The Genoefe republic was the only territory
of any importance in Italy, which remained in the
hands of the French, but the army by Avhich they de¬
fended it Avas very much reduced fince the preceding-
year, and might be confidered as in a ftate of mutiny,
from the Avant of pay, clothes and proviftons. 1 he
Auftrians eagerly wiftied to obtain pofieffion of Genoa
and all its dependencies, in which they could not fail
to be fecondod by the Genoefe themfelves, as they look¬
ed upon the republicans to be the deftroyers of their
commerce. Mafiena received the command of the
army in Genoa, Avith extraordinary poAvers, and evinced
himfelf to be a general of confummate abilities. Car¬
rying a reinforcement of troops Avith him from Lyons
and Marfeilles, and reducing to order and obedience,
by a judicious diftribution of reAvards and punifLments,
all whom he found ready to defert their ftandards, he
foon found himfelf at the head of a force fufficient to
check the progrefs of the Auftrians, and keep the
Genoefe in fuhjc£lion. After a number of battles had
been fought, he Avas obliged to retire into the city,
Avhere he muft foon haA'e been compelled to furrender
by famine, if General Melas had immediately blockad¬
ed it. 5M
Idie appearance of the Britifh fleet on the 5th of ^ Briti*
April, Avas the concerted fignal for Melas to make an
attack upon Genoa, the communication betAveen which Geiloa,
and France was thus cut off. Prior to the arrival of
Lord Keith, a quantity of Avheat and other provifions
had been thrcAvn into the city, by Avhieh means the
army and the inhabitants Avere refeued from the confe-
q ; nees of immediate famine. The furrounding coun¬
try was foon vanquiffied by the Auftrians *, but as the
gallant Maflfona ft ill lived in the expedlation of fupplies
from France, he obftinately refufed to furrender the
city. General Melas having nothing to apprehend
from this army blocked up in Genoa, left General Gtt
to continue the blocl ade, and Avent Avith his OAvn forces
againft Sauchet, who commanded another divifion of the
'French army.
A decifive battle was fought betAveen Ceva and St
Lorenzo,
Franct.
1800.
515 ,
lie French
feated
ar Lo-
V6
toreau re-
lifes to add
directed
Bona-
rrte.
S1.?
nd is
ercforc
ft to his
Ivn judg-
nt.
FRA t 183 ]
Lorenzo, on the 7th of May, in which the republicans
experienced a total defeat, having lolt 1 200 prifoners,
and 19 pieces of cannon. This foon obliged General Sau-
chet to abandon his ftrong pofition of Cel di Tenda,
where he left behind him four pieces of cannon and 200
prifoners 5 and marching on towards Nice, the Auf-
trians drove him from one poll to another, till he was
finally obliged to take refuge behind the Var •, by which
movements General Melas became mafter of the whole
department of the Maritime Alps. But the campaign
on the Rhine did not open in fuch a favourable manner
to the xMiftrians. The court of Vienna directed the
archduke Charles to refign the command of .the army
to General Kray, who diftinguilhed himfelf in fuch an
eminent manner in Italy, during the campaign of 1799.
Of his military talents there could be only one opinion,
and his integrity and zeal had been fufficiently tried ;
but he had the misfortune not to be fo noble as fome of
the other generals ! It is truly ridiculous to behold men
contending about tribes, when engaged in matters of
fuch vaft importance as the falvation of their country.
During the moft propitious days of Rome, her greateft
generals were plebeians.
It could not be reafonably expe£ted that fuch a dif-
cordant army, commanded by an able officer who had
the misfortune not to be a nobleman, would ever be
able to make head again!! the veterans of France, led
on by fuch an extraordinary general as Moreau. The
Hungarian troops, finding themfelves ready to be facri-
ficed to the party diffenfions of their officers, would not
fight againft the enemy. I he council of war at Vienna
had fent General Kray inftru£tions at the opening of
the campaign, how he was to difpofe of his forces, and
having no general under him to fupport his own opi¬
nion, he was under the painful neceffity of obeying his
inllructions, whether he could approve of them or not.
I nit met ions of a fimilar nature had been tranfmitted to
Moreau by the chief conful, but he indignantly refufed
to fight under fuch reftraints. He was no doubt con-
feious that his own knowledge of the military art was
at leaf! equal to that of Bonaparte, while he was infi¬
nitely better acquainted with the country, and there¬
fore he fent a courier to Paris to acquaint the conful,
that if the orders fent him were to be rigidly obeyed,
he ffiould feel it his duty to refign his command, and
accept of an inferior ftation. He accompanied his re-
fignation with a plan of the campaign which he had
framed for himfelf, the propriety of which inftantly
ilruck the chief conful, and therefore he was ordered
to carry on the war, according to his own judge¬
ment.
General Moreau being thus wifely left to adopt and
execute his own meafures, croffed the Rhine, and drove
the Auftrians from one poll to another, till Kray, find¬
ing it imprafticable to adopt offenfive meafures with a
rebellious army, with difaffefted officers to command
them, refolved to maintain his pofition at Ulm, and
wait for affiftance from Vienna. He uras defeated at
Stockach, Engen, and Mofkireh, although he exhi¬
bited fully the talents of an able general *, but what ta¬
lents were able to counteract the pernicious confequen-
ces of treachery ? A.t one time, when 7000 men recei¬
ved orders to advance, they inftantly threw down their
arms. Kray too plainly perceiving that it was abfo-
lutely in vain to attempt any thing of an offenfive na-
6
FRA
ture, entrenched himfelf ftrongly at Ulm, commanding France,
both fides of the Danube, which makes it a place of'
great importance. Moreau perceiving his intentions, ^OQ.
refolved to try the paffage of the Danube, and force
him to a general engagement, by cutting him off from
his magazines at Donawert. For this purpofe he gave
orders to Lecourbe with one of the wings of his army,
to take poffeffion of a bridge between Donawert and
Dillingen, which was not effected without confiderable
difficulty. The Auftrians having perceived, when too
late, that their all was in danger, difputed every inch
of ground with the French commander. Between the
time of marching to, and of crofting the Danube, Kray
fent reinforcements to the left bank to oppofe the pai-
fage, in conlequence of which a battle was fought at
Hochftet, in the vicinity of Blenheim, where vi&ory
again declared for the French, who made 4000 of the
enemy prifoners, independent of the killed and rvound-
ed loft by the Auftrians, of which we have feen no efti-
mate.
General Kray, fenfible that his fituation was perilous,
left a ftrong garrifon at Ulm, and marched againft the
enemy, attacking them at Newburg, which botli fides
conducted with determined bravery •, but the Auftrians,
after a long conteft, fell back on Ingolftadt. It may
not improperly be faid, that this battle decided the fate
of Germany. The eleftorate of Bavaria was now in
the poffefiion of the French, with other territories of
lefs extent \ and as they approached the hereditary do¬
minions of the emperor, men of republican fentiments
behaved with fuch effrontery, as to convince the court,
that no dependence could be reaionably placed on ar¬
mies compofed of fuch men. The imperial family, and
the Britiffi ambaffador, wrere openly infulted in the
theatre, and the cry of peace, peace, was vociferated
from different quarters.
The ill fuccefs of General Kray alone could not ex- The French
cite fuch a fpirit, becaufe at this lime the affairs of army at
Germany were even in a more deplorable ftate in Italy DlJon unex~
than upon the Danube. When the campaign opened f(r.
on the Rhine, the army of referve under the command [taiy.
of Bonaparte, which was formed at Dijon, began its
march. When the French government declared that
this army was above 50,000 ftrong, and receiving daily
reinforcements, few could be found who were difpofed
to give any credit to the report. Such as were friendly
to the caufe of the allies, were unwilling to allow the
French government fo much vigour, while it -was in-
duftrioufly circulated by the Jacobins of Germany, that
it could not amount to more than 6oco men. The
firft: conful fet out from Paris on the cth of May, to
take the command of an army, the ftrength and defti-
nation of which had given rife to fo many conjectures,
and on receiving the troops cantoned at Dijon, he pro¬
ceeded towards Genoa. Flaving been a Ihort time in
the Pays de Vaud, he joined the army of referve at the
foot of St Bernard, of which he immediately affumed
the command. It is certain that a very infignificant
force would have been able to arreft: the progrefs of
Bonaparte while afeending the mountain 5 but either
General Melas had heard nothing of its being in mo¬
tion, or he had implicitly believed the report of the Ja¬
cobins. In confequence of this ignorance or credulity,
the army of referve encountered no oppofition till it
reached the town of Aoft, of which the firft .conful very
fnrvn .
519 .
Malicna in
a critical
fituation at
Genoa.
FRA [ i
loon gained poffefTion. Having, witli the moil aflo-
nilhing perfeverance, pafled the fort of Bard, he pro¬
ceeded on his march down the valley of Aolt with lit¬
tle oppofition, till he arrived at the town of Yorea,
where the Auftrians were affembled in force, but wrere
obliged to give way before the impetuolity of the re-
pubficans, and poll themfelves on the heights of Ro¬
mano behind the Chinfella. It was of vail importance
as commanding the paflage of the river, and was occu¬
pied by 4000 cavalry, 5000 infantry, and a feiv pieces
of cannon. It was taken on the 26th of May, and the
fort of Brunette foon after, in confequence of which
the road to Turin was now open. While the republi¬
cans were eflfefting a paffage over St Bernard, the chief
part of the Auftrians under Melas were employed in
the celebration of their victory over them at Nice,
little fufpefting how foon they were to experience a fad
reverfe of fortune, and that the vi&ors would very foon
be vanquiftied. General Melas, at length roufed from
his dream of fecurity, marched towards Turin with all
poffible fpeed, in order to defend the Po, and prevent
the invaders from arriving at Vienna. He naturally
concluded that Turin would be the firft important point
of attack made by the French, but in this he was de¬
ceived ; for while he prepared to difpute the paffage of
the Po with the republicans, Bonaparte fuddenly turn¬
ed to the left, and entered Milan on the 2d of
. June. .
The army of Bonaparte was very numerous, but he
wanted magazines, artillery, and ftores of every kind ;
but undemanding that Pavia was the great depot of the
Auftrian army, he fent his advanced guard agamft it
under General Lannes, who made an eafy conqueft of
it, and found in it more than 200 pieces of cannon,
8000 mufkets, 2000 barrels of gunpowder, and a pro¬
digious quantity of all forts of provifions. Another of
the chief conful’s generals crofted the Po at Stradella ;
and having cut oft the communication between General
Melas and the country of Piedmont, gained poffeflxon
of the Auftrian magazines at Piacenza,^ Cremona, and
a number of other places on the banks of the river.
About this time it V'as that Bonaparte became ac¬
quainted with the fate of Genoa, by means of intercep¬
ted letters. Maffena did every thing in the power ol
bravery and perfeverance to keep poffeflion of the city 5
but after he had witneffed 15,000 of the inhabitants pe-
rifli with hunger, he furrendered to the Britifti and
Auftrian commanders on the 5th of June, and obtained
very favourable terms, when we conftder that it was
impoflible for him to hold out any longer. The right
wing of his army, confifting of 8110 men, was permit¬
ted to march into France by the way of Nice, and the
reft wrere to be conveyed by fea to Antibes, at the ex¬
pence of Britain •, no man was to be deemed refponfible
for having held any public office under the government
of tire Ligurian republic j and all officers taken prifo-
ners fince the commencement of the campaign, were
allowed to return to France on their parole, not to
ferve till they fliould be regularly exchanged. By the
fall of Genoa, the Auftrian army which befieged it
•was at liberty to co-operate with the commander in
chief •, and, accordingly, General Ott marched at the
]iead of thirty battalions to check the progrefs of the
French army in Piedmont. On the 9th of June he was
met by Generals Lannes and Victor at Montebello,
France.
1800.
84 ] F R A
where a battle was fought with great fury on both
fides, when the French were victorious, and General
Ott retreated with great loft. Melas being unable to
arreft the progrefs of the republicans by detachments of
his army, col left ed his whole force between Aleffandria
and Tortona, that he might be able to open a way for
himfelf to the Auftrians on the Mincio, it he ftrould
find it impoflible to crulh the enemy. 1 he confequence
of this llep was the ever memorable battle of Marengo,
fought on the 14th of June, which has been variouiiy
deferibed. The French accounts reprefented the army
of General Melas as more numerous than that of the
chief conful, to whofe fuperior conduft and bravery
alone the French rvere indebted for fucceis. Others
have believed that the fuperiority was on the fide of the
republicans, and think they can difeover as much from
comparing together the different bulletins of the arm\
of referve. On this point we pretend not to decide,
only it is certain that the Auftrians were viftorious for
nine hours, and the fate of that battle appears to have
been decided by the mafterly conduft of General De-
faix, who died on the field. One falfe movement, mad'e
by General Melas, which enfeebled his centre, afforded
the gallant Defaix an opportunity of making a vigorous
charge with a body of cavalry that had hitherto been
unemployed. General Zach, a man worn out w ith age
and fatigue, when about to take the command of the
army from IMelas, fell into the hands of the enemy,
who remained mafiers of the field of battle. w,.-
The Auftrians loft in this engagement above 9000 Great lofs
men, and the French upwards of 12,000, according to of the Auf
their own account. Enraged that the viftory ftiould ^ tattic
be thus fnatehed from them, the Auftrians were eager 0f iy[arcn.
to renew the combat on the following day ; but Gene- go.
ral Melas deemed it prudent to check the ardour of his
troops, and concluded a capitulation, laid by fome to
be unparalleled in the annals of war. He may have
figned fuch a capitulation in confequence of inftruftions
from the council of war at Vienna, or the fortreffes gi¬
ven up by him may have been deflitute of provifions.
If we admit the firft fuppofition, it follows that the
council of war were determined enemies to the caufe of
the-combined powers; and if we go upon the fecond,
Melas himfelf was perhaps the moil improvident com¬
mander that ever was charged with the defence of a
country. The whole of Piedmont and Genoa were
given up to the French, and an armiftice was conclud¬
ed to laft till the court of Vienna had time to return its
<20
5 General Kray in Italy was anxious to avail himfelf of
this armiftice, to arreft the progrefs of Moreau’s army ;
but that able general would not liften to any overtures
upon the fubjeft, till he ftrould receive inftruftions from
Paris. Count St Julien arrived with propofals of peace
from the Imperial cabinet, in confequence of which the
armiftice was concluded in Germany and Italy, the
polls then occupied by the refpeftive armies being con-
fidered as conftituting the line of demarcation. In op¬
pofition to the fpirit of their ftipulations with General
Melas, the French reinforced their army in Italy, le¬
vied immenfe contributions, and raifed troops in differ-
ent Hates declared by themfelves to be independent. Greatdi-
While France was every where viftorious in Europe, ftrefs 0f the
her troops in Africa were fubjefted to hard (hips and dif- French
grace. Their being abandoned by their chief made f oops m
512
eneral
leber af-
ffinated.
„ 5*3
Of which
Mcnou is
itijuftly
ufpeded.
FRA [ i
them complain bitterly 5 anc; Kleber is faid to have de¬
clared, that the fame univerfe fhould not contain him
and Bonaparte. He continued the negotiations begun
by General Bonaparte with the grand vilier for evacu¬
ating Egypt, between whom a convention was conclu¬
ded on the 24th of January 1800, to which bn- bkincy
Smith agreed on the part of Great Britain. By virtue
of this convention the republican army, its baggage
and effects, were to be collected at Alexandria, Kofet-
ta, and Aboukir, to be conveyed to France in veffels
belonging to the republic, and inch as might oe tur-
niihed for that purpofe by the Sublime Forte. It would
feem that nothing could have happened more injurious
to the intereft of the allies than the evacuation of
Egypt upon fuch terms, lince the conlul rvould thus
have been furjiilhed with nearly 18,000 troops, which
might have been advantageouily employed, cither in
Italy or on the Rhine, It is ft range how this impor¬
tant circumftance did not occur to Sir Sidney Smith,
and no lefs fo, how he took upon him the office of ple¬
nipotentiary. Mr Dundas clearly proved in the houfe
of commons, that he exceeded any power with which
he could reafonably conceive himfeif veiled, that being
lodged with Lord Elgin at Conftantinople.
in the latter end of the year I799> ^ie Fritiffi mini-
ftry had reafon to believe that a negotiation would take
place between the grand vilier and General Kleber, re-
fpecling the evacuation of Egypt by the troops of the
latter ^ and as fuch an event Avas much to be defned,
Lord Keith received orders to accede to it, on condi¬
tion that General Kleber and his army ffiould be de¬
tained as prifoners of Avar, inftead of being fent back to
France. This was bitterly complained of in France,
and numbers even in England exclaimed againll it as
a flagrant breach of faith, Avhile General Kleber him¬
feif did not confider it in fuch a light, although the
only perfon Avho had reafon to do fo, could he have done
it Avith fairnefs. On the 20th of March he attacked
the Turks in the vicinity of Cairo, Avho fled before him
in all direblions, and ^efl more than 8000 men dead
and Avounded on the field of battle. By this conqueit
Cairo Avas reflored to the French, Avhich in terms of the
convention they had abandoned. Kleber again pro-
pofed to evacuate Egypt, on the terms agreed to by
the grand vilier and Sir Sidney Smith, and Lord Keith
being ordered to agree to them by the cabinet of St
James’s, a fufpenlion of hoftilities took place, and the
Turks Avere ready to be delivered from enemies Avhom
they Avere not able to expel, when General Kleber was
fuddenly affaflinated.
Both parties had reafon to regret this event, as Ge¬
neral Kleber appears to have been, not only the moft
honourable, but by far the ableft commander of the re¬
publicans, in that quarter of the globe. It is not cer¬
tainly knoAvn by Avhom he Avas murdered, nor who Avere
the contrivers of fueh a plot •, but at Conftantinople his
fucceffor Menou Avas ftrongly fufpecled. We muft con-
fefs that he Avas not friendly to Kleber *, but on the
other hand we do not find General Reynier, in his
“ State of Egypt,” infinuate any thing of this nature
againft Menou, although he treats his conduft and abi¬
lities with fome degree of contempt; and avc are in¬
formed that the affaffin himfeif, previous to his execu¬
tion, folemnly acquitted Menou from being in the leaft
acquainted Avith the plot.
Vol. IX. Part L
Francd.
1801.
85 ] FRA
As Menou refufed to leave Egypt by capitulation,
the Britilh government formed the refolution ot driving
him out of'it by force. Sir James Pulteney received ^
the command of 12,000 men, to a£t in the i.lcditer- Qerieiai
ranean in fuch a manner as might moft effcftuaily an- \i eiciom-
noy the enemy ; a plan which was difconcerted by the by fails for
iffue of the battle of Marengo. He was fuperfeded by
Sir Ralph Abercromby, Avho carried reinforcements
along Avith him, together Avith a train of artillery fiom
Gibraltar. He touched at Minorca and Malta, from
avhence he iteered his courfe for the coali of Egypt,
Avhich he reached on the iff of March 1801, and
anchored next day in the bay of Aboukir 5 but the
Aveather prevented him from attempting to land till the
7th of that month, at 10 o’clock in the forenoon.
The firft divilion effefted a landing in the face of
the French, to the amount of 4000 men, Avhufe pofition
was fo very advantageous, that an eye Avitnefs thought
they might har'c refilled the world } yet 2000 Briti*a
troops drove them from it, Avich the lofs of lome field
pieces, and the. difembarkation Avas continued during
that and the following day. 525
The whole army of General Abercromby moved The French
forward on the 12th, and coming in fight of the main
body of the French, gave them battle on the /tifh near
The conflict Avas obftinate on both fides, and their lofs Alexandria,
very confiderable, but victory in the end declared for and Gcne-
the Britilh. This advantage Avas followed up with^1 Aber-
vigour, and on the 21ft a more interelling battle Avas
fought Avith fimilar fuccefx, about four miles from the woun4ed.
city of Alexandria. Sometimes the French had the
advantage, and fometimes the Britilh, but the latter
Avere finally victorious. General Abercromby, that he
might not damp the ardour of Ins troops, concealed for
tAVO hours the anguiffi of a mortal Avound he received
in this action :—a degree of magnanimity Avhich has
very feldom been equalled, and we believe ne\Ver Avas
furpafied. The lofs of the Britifh on this occafion Avas
eftimated at 1500, and that of the French at 4000
5*6
men.
As it maybe faid that the fate of Egypt Avas de-The Nor*
cided in a great meafure by thefe two battles, we beg^racjT
leave to call the attention of our readers to affairs of ''
great importance Avhich about this time took place in
Europe. The poAvers of the north, envious of the fupe-
riority of Britain by fea, and aiding under the influence
of the capricious Paul, Avere refolved to revive .the
armed neutrality of Catharine II. during the continu¬
ance of the American war, and claimed a right of
trading to the ports of France, Avithout being fubk ded
to have their veffels fearched. "The miniilry of Great
Britain Avere determined to break fuch a confederacy;
but to the aftonifhment of the nation they refigned at
this period. Different caufes have been aligned for art
e,-ent Avhich Avas fo unexpeded j but the oftenfible rea-
fon Was a difference in the cabinet relative to catholic
emancipation. After the union of Ireland Avith Bri¬
tain, it feems pretty clear that the minifter did pr p fe
this fubjed in the cabinet, but his majefty, from a fa-
cred regard to his coronation oath, put his negative up¬
on it, in confequence of Avhich Mr Pitt and his friends S27
gave in their refignation. In general they were fuc- A change
ceeded by men A\ho had countenanced their adminiftra- of 1 miftry
tion during the war. Mr Addington was appointed
firft lord of the treafurv, and chancellor of the ex-
A a chequer j
FRA [ i
Braace. chequer • Lord Eldon, lord high chancellor j the earl
2801.
of St Vincent, firft lord of the admiralty; Lords Hawkes
bury and Pelham, fecretaries of Hate, and the honour¬
able Colonel Yorke, fecretary at war. The former
miniilry was diffblved on the nth of February j out
owing to the indifpofition of his majefty, none of the
new miniftry entered upon office before the middle of
March, during which eventful interval Mr Pitt and
his affociates had the chief management of public af¬
fairs. The new miniftry entered upon office by folemn-
ly pledging themfelves to the nation, that they would
employ their united efforts in procuring a fafe and ho¬
nourable peace with France, while they never loft fight
for a moment of the warlike plans of thofe who had
preceded them.
About this time the moft hoftile meafures were
adopted by the powers compofing the northern confe-
deracv. The free city of Hamburgh was taken by a
Daniffi army under Charles prince of Heffe, in order
to injure the commerce of Great Britain} and the king
of Pruffia fent a numerous army into the deflorate of
Hanover. To puniffi this unaccountable conducl, and
diffolve the northern confederacy, a fleet of 17 fail of
the line, four frigates, four Hoops, and lome bomb veffels
was fitted out in the ports of Britain, which failed from
Yarmouth on the 12th of March, under the command
of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, Lord Nelfon, and Rear-
admiral Graves, and having paffed the Sound, appear¬
ed before Copenhagen on the 30th of the fame month.
The Danes did not appear in the fmalleft degree agi¬
tated, for it rvas impoffible to moleft either the fleet or
the city, without paffing through a channel fo ex¬
tremely intricate, that it was once believed hardly fafe
to attempt it with a Angle ffiip, and without any ene¬
my to oppofe. This channel Avas founded by Lord
Nelfon, A\ho undertook to conduft a large divifion of
the fldet through it, requefting from Sir Hyde Parker
the command of it, Avhich Avas accordingly given him,
and Rear-admiral Graves Avas his fecond in com¬
mand.
As the largeft ftiips dreAV too much water for being
■vaivjuiflicd employed in fuch a hazardous attempt, his lordffiip
by Lord felefled 12 of from 74 to 50 guns, together Avith four
frigates, four floops, Iavo fire-ihips, and feven bombs.
A moft prodigious force Avas oppofed to this, confifting
of fix fail of the line, 1 x floating batteries, each mount¬
ing from 26 tAventy-four pounders to 18 eighteen poun¬
ders, one bomb-lhip, and a number of fchooners. . Thefe
Avere fupported by the CroAvn iflands, mounting 88
pieces of cannon 5 by four fail of the line, moored in the
mouth of the harbour, and by a ferv batteries on the
ifland of Amak. Lord Nelfon attacked this tremen¬
dous force on the 2d of April, and filenced the firing
of the batteries after an obftinate and bloody aftion
which lafted four hours, taking, burning, and finking
about 17 fail, including feven fail of the line. In kill¬
ed and wounded the Britiffi loft 943 men, Avhile that
of the Danes muft have been at leaft double the num¬
ber. A fufpenfion of hoftilities was the immediate con-
fequence of this brilliant vi&ory, and a treaty of armed
neutrality to laft for 14 weeks.
Tvno.aus After repairing the ftiips that were damaged upon
from thence this occafion, the Britiffi fleet failed for Carlfcrona, and
to Carli'- appeared before it on the 19th of April. The .gover¬
nor here Avas immediately informed by the Britiffi ad-
528
The Danes
N elfon at
Copenha-
iBoi.
86 ] FRA
miral of what had happened at Copenhagen, requefting Franct.
his Swediffi majefty to give an explicit anfwer whether
he meant to adhere to, or abandon the confederacy.
The reply Avas very ambiguous j but having received
the neivs of the hidden death of the emperor Paul, on
the 23d of March, and Lord Nelfon, noAV commander
in chief, Avriting in a more peremptory tone than the
officer Avhom he had fuperfeded, the court of Stock¬
holm deemed it prudent to follow the example of that
of Copenhagen. Alexander, the fon and lucccffor of
Paul, polTeffed of more honour and juftice than his fa¬
ther, reftored all the Britifli property which he had
confifcated, relinquilhed his abfurd claim to the ifland
of Malta, and agreed that neutral veflels Ihould be
fearched, when bound for any one country at Avar with
another, which proved the grave of the northern confe¬
deracy.
529
Who fails
Cfona.
When the armiftice was figned betxveen the Auftrian
53°
and French generals in the year 1800, the troops of
the latter were in poffeffion of Germany almoft to the
banks of the Inn, and of Italy to the frontiers of Ve¬
nice ; but the fpirit of the emperor Avas yet unfubdued,
and he Avould not abandon his allies by a confirmation
of the preliminaries of peace which Count St Julian bad
agreed to at Paris, as he exceeded the powers Avith
which he Avas entrufted. Kray having retired from fer-
vice, the archduke John fucceeded him, with Avhom the
emperor in perfon repaired to the army *, but they foon
found it impracticable to aft an offenfive part againft
General Moreau, and therefore another armiftice com-
prehending Italy, Avas agreed to. The emperor wiffied
to include Britain in any treaty Avith France, but as
Bonaparte Avould admit no plenipotentiary from that
country without the benefit of a na\'al armifiice,
which it Avas truly abfurd to expeft. General Moreau
received orders to go on with his military operations.
The army of Auftria Avas noAV given to the com-The Auf-
mand of generals whofe very names were almoft un-
known beyond the confines of their oAvn country, and ^ohcnliil.
who evinced'themfelves but very little acquainted Avith jeri.
the military art. As Moreau Avas pondering on the
plan of his Avinter campaign, the right Aving of his
army was attacked by the Auftrians Avith fuch vigour,
as had nearly reduced him to the neceflity of afting on
the defenfive j and had General Klenau knovyn how
to make a temperate ufe of his viftory on this occa¬
fion, the ruin of the French commander Avould have
been inevitable. The cafe Avas otherwife. Elated Avith
his fuccefs, he unaccountably abandoned his pofition
on the Inn, and engaging his cautious and able an-
tagonift at the village of Hohenlinden, ay as totally
routed, Avith the lofs of 80 pieces of cannon, 200
caiffons, and 10,000 prifoners, independent of a pro¬
digious number left dead on the field.
General Moreau allowing the enemy no time to
rally, proceeded direftly towards the Inn, crofting it
on the 9th of December, 1800, and driving his ene¬
mies before him, ftruck the court of Vienna Avith con-
fternation and difmay. Prince Charles was recalled
to the command of the army, but after many fruitlefs
efforts to retrieve its loft honour, he propofed an ar¬
miftice on the 27th of December, Avhieh Avas.granted
bv the French commander, on condition that it ffiould
be immediately folloAved by a definitive treaty.. If the
archduke could have had any. dependence on his army,
although
S31
reaty of
aneviile.
. S32
Sritain de-
^rted by
Jlmoft all
.ti rope.
S33
Bonaparte
hreatens
o invade
Britain.
FRA [ '87
although very much weakened, this armiftice, in all
probability, would not have taken place, for the poli-
tion of Moreau was perilous in the extreme. In the
very heart of Auftria, he had behind him on his right,
about 30,000 men in the Tyrol, with upwards of
50,000 on his left. But Auftrian valour was now almoft
extinguilhed by fo many fad reveries of fortune, and
Aullrian officers were not true to their trull.
This armiftice was followed by^a treaty of peace
figned at Luneville on the 9th of February 1801, be¬
tween the emperor for himfelf and the Germanic body,
and the firft conful of the French republic, in the name
of the people of France. By it the emperor ceded the
Brifgau to the duke of Modena, for the territories loft
by that prince in Italy, and bound himfelf to find in¬
demnities in the Germanic empire for all thofe princes
whom the fate of war had deprived of their dominions.
The grand duke of Tufcany was to renounce his duke¬
dom for ever, with its dependencies in the ifle oi Elba,
to the infant, duke of Parma, for which the empire was
to furnilh him with an adequate indemnification.
On the 28th of March a treaty of peace was con¬
cluded between the French republic and the king of
the Two Sicilies, by which his majefty obliged him¬
felf to ffiut all the ports of Naples and Sicily againft
flftps of every defeription belonging either to the
Britilh or the Turks, till thefe powers ftiould conclude
a treaty with the French republic, and till Britain
and the northern powers ftiould come to a good un-
derftanding. He renounced for ever Porto Longano
in the ifle of Elba, his ftates in Tufcany, and the
principality of Piombino, to be difpofed of in fuch a
manner as the French republic might think proper.
Great Britain had now none to affift her in the con-
teft with France, but the Turks in Egypt and the Por-
tuguefe in Europe, powers which rather diminiftied
than increafed her ftrength, by dividing it. T. he
Spaniards had made an attack upon Portugal at the
defire of France, conquering fome of its provinces $
but a treaty of peace was concluded between them on
the 6th of June, by which the king of Spain reftored
all his conquefts except the fortrefs of Olivenza, and
the prince regent of Portugal and Algarva promifed
to ffiut the ports of his whole territories againft the
(hips of Great Britain, and to make indemnification
to his Catholic majefty for all Ioffes and damages fuftained
by his fubje&s during the war.
When the chief conful had made peace with all his
other enemies, he threatened Great Britain with an im¬
mediate invafion, which gave great uneafinefs at firft to
a confiderable part of the nation, but it gradually fub-
fided. In order to diminiffi this alarm, Lord Nelfon
was fent to deftroy the (hipping and harbour of Bou¬
logne. His fuccefs in this undertaking fell ffiort of the
expeftations which many had formed } but he made
fuch an impreffion on the enemy on the 4th of Auguft,
as evinced that Britain could annoy the coaft of France
with greater facility, than France could moled that of
Britain. It was alfo highly fatisfadlory to find that the
fpirit of the Britiffi navy was not exclufively attached
to the hero of the Nile *, for Rear-admiral Saumarez
having, in the month of July, come up with a com¬
bined fquadron of French and Spaniffi (hips of war
bound for Cadiz, much fuperior to his own, he feru-
pled not to give them battle, the confequence of which
France.
——Y—
l802.
] FRA
was, that one of them Was captured, and two more
were burnt.
Attempts were again made by Britain during the ^
fummer of 1801, to negotiate with France. ^ The firft j5rjtain
conful could not but fee, from the total diffolution of tempts to
the northern confederacy, th'at it was impoffible for him treat with
to ruin the Britifh commerce, and confequently that allFrance-
the treaties he had made for the purpofe of excluding
our (hips from neutral ports would fignify nothing. He
feemed determined, however, to keep ^ofleffion of E-
gvpt •, and Britain, on the other hand, was as fully re-
folved to wreft it from him. On this account the nego¬
tiations were protracted, till the conqueft of that coun¬
try was known at London and Paris. 53 j
When Sir Ralph Abercromby died, General Hut-Rofetta,
chinfon fucceeded to the command of the Britiffi forces
in Egypt, who was probably acquainted with the plan^^n'by
of his much lamented predeceffor, as one fpirit feemed the Britain
to actuate both. Rofetta foon furrendered, which was
followed by the conqueft of Cairo ; and Menou having
accepted of fimilar terms for Alexandria, the whole of
Egypt fell into the hands of the allies, and the republi¬
can troops and baggage were conveyed to the neared
French ports in the Mediterranean, in (hips furnifhed
them by the allies. After thefe events, the negotiations
between Britain and France went on more agreeably j
and, on the ift of Ottober, the preliminaries of peace
were figned at London by Lord Hawkeffiury on the
part of his Britannic majefty, and M. Otto on that of
the French republic. By it Great Britain engaged to
give up all the conquefts ’made during the continuance
of the Avar, excepting the iflands of Ceylon and Trini¬
dad. France was to reftore nothing. The Cape of
Good Hope Avas to be free to all the contradling par¬
ties the ifland of Malta Avas to be given to the knights
of the order of St John of Jerufalem 5 Egypt Avas to be
given to the Ottoman Porte ; Portugal Avas to be main¬
tained in its integrity, except Avhat Avas ceded to the
king of Spain by tire prince regent 5 Naples and the
Roman ftates Avere to be evacuated by the French,
Porto Ferrajo by the Britiflr, Avith all the ports and
iflands occupied by them in the Mediterranean j and
plenipotentiaries Avere appointed to meet at Amiens, for
the purpofe of draAving up and figning the definitive
treaty. This Avas concluded on the 22d of March 1802,
in confequence of Avhich the French republic was ac-
knoAvledged by the whole of Europe.
The reftoration of peace, after fo long and fanguinary Peac5e coa>>
a conteft, gave the higheft fatisfablion to all ranks and eluded at
denominations of men, with the exception, perhaps, of Amiens be-
a feAV interefted individuals ; and it was certainly as h°A^e^ Fr1'
nourable to Britain as could well be expe&ed from the
nature of the war. It wras celebrated at Paris, in the
cathedral of Notre Dame, with great pomp and magni¬
ficence. The celebration of the re-eftabliffiment of the
Catholic religion in France, to which the majority of
the people were vvarmly attached, gave additional im¬
portance to the feene in that country, and the meafure
evinced the mod confummate political Avifdom on the
part of Bonaparte, whofe popularity in confequence of
it Avas very much increafed. We muft now lay before
our readers the celebrated Concordat, or convention
concluded betAveen Bonaparte and the pope, by Avhicb.
the Catholic faith was again eftablifhed in that count
try.
A a- 2 Copy
A a 2
F II A
France.
t8Q2.
[ 188 ] F R A
ful, and canonical inftitution Ihall be adminifiered br France,
Copy of the /ate important Convention between the French the holy fee, conformably to the preceding article. _ ' “v—
Government and His Holinefs the Pope, Pius VII. 6. The bilhops, before entering upon their funaions, I3o2‘
ratified tlie 23d Fruftidor, ijear 9, (10th September, ftiall take, before the chief coniul, the oath of fidelity
jgQj ^ " which was in ufe before the revolution, exprelfed in the
following'' words :
The chief conful of the French republic, and his ho¬
linefs the fovereign pontiff, Pius VII. have named as
their refpeclive plenipotentiaries—
The chief conful, the citizens Jofeph Bonaparte,
counfellor of ftate 5 Cretet, counMor of hate-, and Ber¬
nier, doftor of divinity, curate of St Laud d1 Angers *,
fund (bed with full powers :
His holinefs, his eminence Monfeigneur Hercule
Confa’vi, cardinal of the holy Roman church, deacon
of St Agathe ad Svburrum, his feeretary of ftate 5 Jo¬
feph Spina, archbifhop of Corinth, donieftic prelate to
his holinefs, attendant on the pontifical throne 5 and
Father Cafelli, his holinefs’s advifer on points of theo¬
logy •, in like manner furnifhed with full powers in due
form :
Who, after exchanging their full powers, have con¬
cluded the following convention :
Convention between the French Government and his Ho-
linefs the Pope, Pius VII.
The government of the republic acknowledges that
the Catholic, Apoftolical, and Roman religion, is the
religion of the great majority of French citizens.
' His holinefs, in like manner, acknowledges that this
fame religion has derived, and is likely to derive, the
greateft benefit and the greateft fplendour from the efta-
blifhment of the Catholic worth ip in France, and from
its being openly profeffed by the eonfuls of the repub-
lic.
This mutual acknowledgment being made, m confe-
quence, as, well for the good of religion as for the
maintenance of interior tranquillity, they have agreed as
follows :
Article f. The Catholic, Apoftolical, and Roman
religion (Lai! be freely exercifed in France. Its fervice
fhall be publicly performed, conformably to the regula¬
tions of police, which the government lhafl judge necef-
fary for the public tranquillity.
2. There iliall be made by the holy fee, in concert
with the government, a new divifion of French dio-
GcfcS*
3. His holinefs fhall declare to the titular French
bifhops that he expefts from them, with the firmeft con¬
fidence, every facrifice for the fake of peace and unity
.—even that of their fees.
After this exhortation, if they fhould refufe the facri¬
fice commanded for the good of the church (a refufal,
neverthelefs which his holinefs by no means expeffs),
the fees of the new divifion fhall be governed by biihops
appointed as follows:
4. The chief conful (hall prefent, within three months
after the publication of his holinefs’s bull, to the arch-
bifhoprics and bifhopriOs of the new divifion. . His ho¬
linefs (hall confer canonical inftitution, according to the
forms eftablifhed in France before the revolution (avant
le changement de gouvernement).
5. The nomination to the bifhoprics which become
yac?.nt in future, (hall likewife belong to the chief con-
“ I fwear and promife to God, upon the Holy Evan-
gelifts, to preferve obedience and fidelity to the govern¬
ment eftablifhed by the conftitution of the French re¬
public. I like wife promife to carry on no correfpon-
dcnce, to be prefent at no converfation, to form no con¬
nexion, whether within the territories of the republic or
without, which may, in any degree, difturb the public
tranquillity : and if, in my diocefe or elfewhere, I dif-
cover that any thing is going forward to the prejudice
of the ftate, I will immediately communicate to govern-
mcn all the information I poffefs.”
7. Ecclefiaftics of the fecond order fhall take the
fame oath before the civil authorities appointed by the
government.
8. The following formula of prayer fhall be recited
at the end of divine fervice in all the Catholic churches
of France.
Domine, falvamfac rempublicam.
Domine, falvos fuc conjules.
9. The biihops fhall make a new divifion of the pa-
rifhes in their diocefes, which, however, fhall not take
efteft till after it is ratified by government,
1 o. The bithops fhall have the appointment of the pa-
rilh priefts.
Their choice fhall not fall but on perfons approved of
by government.
11. The bifhops may have a chapter in their cathe¬
dral, and a feminary for the diocefe, without the go¬
vernment being obliged to endow them.
12. All the metropolitan, cathedral, parochial, and
other churches which have not been alienated, neceffary
to public worth ip, fhall be placed at the difpofal of the
bifhops.
I 3. His holinefs, for the fake of peace and the happy
re-eftablifhment of the Catholic religion, declares that
neither he nor bis fucceffors will difturb in any manner
thofe who have acquired the alienated property of the
church; and that in confequence that property, and
every part of it, {hall belong for ever to them, their
heirs and affigns.
14. The government fhall grant a fuitable falary to
bifhops and parifh priefts, whofe diocefes and parifhes are
comprifed in the new divifion.
1 c. The qovernment fhall likewife take meafures to
enable French Catholics, who are inclined, to difpofeof
their property for the fupport of religion.
16. His holinefs recogmifes in the chief conful of the
French republic the fame rights and prerogatives in re¬
ligious matters which the ancient government enjoyed.
47. It is agreed between the contraCiing parties, that
in cafe anv of the fuccefibrs of the prefent chief conful
fhould not be a Roman Catholic, the rights and prero¬
gatives mentioned in the foregoing article, as well as the
nomination to the bifhop’s fees, fhall be regulated, with
regard to him, bv a new convention.
The ratifications fhall be exchanged at Paris in the-
fpace of forty days.
Don%
FRA
I8o2.
FRA t 189 3
France. Done at Paris, the 26th Meffidor, year 9 of the
' French republic.
(Signed) Joseph Bonaparte.
Hercules, Cardinalis Consalvt.
Joseph, Archiep. Corinthi.
Bernier.
F. Carolus Caselli.
Regulations of the Galilean Church.
Title I.—Of the Regulation of the Catholic Churchy
as conneSled with thCPolicy of the State.
Article 1. No bull, refeript, decree, provilion, or
any thing in the place of a provilion, or, in ihort, any
other difpatch from the court of Rome, even though it
jfhould relate to individuals only, lhall be received, pub-
1 iilied, printed, or otherways put in force, without the
authority of the government.
2. No individual, affuming the character of nuncio,
legate, vicar, or apoilolic com miliary, or whatever other
appellation he may alTume, lhall be allowed to exercife
his fundlions in France, but with the confent of the go¬
vernment, and in a manner conformable to the liberties
of the Gallican church.
3. The decrees of foreign fynods, or even of general
councils, lhall not be published in France oefore the
government lhall have examined their form, their con¬
formity to the laws,mights, and privileges of the French
republic, and whatever might in their publication have
a tendency to alter or to affedt public tranquillity.
4. No national or metropolitan council, no diocefan
fynod, no deliberative affembly, lhall be alloived to be
held without the exprels permillion of government.
5. All -ecdefiaftical functions lhall be gratuitous,
with the exception of thofe oblations which lhall be au-
thorifed, and fixed by particular regulation.
6. Recourfe lhall be had to the council of Hate in
every inftance of abufe, on the part of fuperiors, and
other ecclefiaftical perfons. The inltances of abufe are
ufurpation, or excels of power ; contravention of the
laws and inftitutions of the republic $ infraction of the
rules confecrated by the canons received in France; any
attack upon the liberties, franchifes, and cultoms of the
Gallican church *, and any attempt, which, in the ex¬
ercife of worlhip, can compromife the honour of citi¬
zens, arbitrarily trouble their confidence, or lead to op-
preffion, injury, or public fcandal.
7. There lhall alfo be a right of appeal to the coun¬
cil of Hate, on the ground of any attempt being made
to interrupt the exercife of public worlhip, and to in¬
fringe on that liberty which the general laws of the re¬
public, as well as particular regulations, guarantee to its
miniffers.
8. Am appear lhall be competent to any perfon inte-
reffed •, and in cafe no complaint is exhibited by indivi¬
duals, the bufinefs lhall be taken up officially by the
prefects. The public functionary, eeclefia deal or indi¬
vidual, who lhall with to exercife this right of appeal,
mull addrefs a figned memoir, containing a detail of the
grievance complained of, to the connfellor of Hate, pre-
fiding over religious affairs, whofe duty it will then be¬
come to make, with the lead poffible delay, every in¬
quiry into the fubieCt •, and upon his report the affair
hall be definitively fettled, or Tent back, according to
the urgency of the cafe, to the corapetent authorities.
Title II.—Of the Clergy.
SeCl. I. General Regulations.
Article 9. The Catholic worffiip ffiall be exercifed
under the direftion of the archbiihops and bilhops in
their diocefes, and under that of the curesy in their pa-
riffies.
1 o. Every privilege derogating from ecclefiaftical ju-
rifdiction is abolilhed.
11. The archbiihops and bilhops may, with the per-
miffion of the government, eftablilh in their diocefes ca¬
thedral chapters and feminaries. All other ecclefiafti¬
cal eftabliihments are luppreifed.
1 2. Archbiihops and biihops may adopt the title of
citizen, or monvieur, as they lhall judge molt fit j all
other qualilieauons are forbidden.
Sect. II. Of the ArchbifhopSy or Metropolitans.
Article 1 p The archbiffiops ffiall confecrate and in-
ftal their fuifragans. In cafe of failure, or refufal on
their part, their place lhall be fupplied by the eldeft
billion of the metropolitan dill rift.
14. They lhall watch over the maintenance of doc¬
trine and difeipline in the diocefes dependent on their
fee.
15. They lhall hear and judge of complaints and ap¬
peals againit the conduft and decilions of the fuffragan
bilhops.
Sect. III. Of the Bifhops, the Vicars-Gcnera/y and the
Seminaries.
Article 16. No perfon can be named a bilhop who
is not a Frenchman, and who is not at leait thirty years
of age.
17. Before the decree for the nomination is difpatch-
ed, he ffiall be bound to produce an atteftadon of the
correftnefs of his conduft and manners, furnilhed by
the biffiop of that diocefe in which he Ihall have exer-
eifed the funftions of the miniftry ; he lhall undergo an
examination refpefting his tenets, by a bilhop and two
prietts comrmffioned by the chief conful, and who ihall
addrefs the refult of their examination to the counlellor
of Hate who prefides over the department of eccleliafti-
cal affairs.
18. The prieft, nominated by the chief conful, lliall
endeavour without delay to procure inftallation from
the pope •, he (hall be permitted to perform no funftion
till the bull authorifing his inftallation lhall have re¬
ceived the lanftion of government, and till he ihall have
taken in perfon the oath preferibed by the convention
.entered into between the French government and the
holy lee. This oath lhall be taken to the chief conful,
and a minute of it lhall be entered by the feeretary of
ftate.
19. The bilhops fhall nominate and inllal the curds >
they lhall not however make public their appointment,
nor ffiall they give them canonical initruftion, till their
nomination lhall have been agreed to by the chief con-
fiil.
20. They lhall be bound to refide in their diocefes,
and ffiall not be fullered to quit them without the per-
miffion of the chief con fill, ,
France.
1802.
"France.
1802.
FRA [1
21. Each bhhop fhall be empowered to appoint two,
and each archbilhop three, vicars-general : they fhall
make choice of them from among thofe priefts who pol-
fefs the requifite qualifications for being bifhops.
22. They fhall vifit annually in perfon a certain por¬
tion of their diocefe 5 and within the fpace of five years
the whole of it. In cafe unavoidable circumftances
fhall prevent them from making this vifit, it fhall be
made by a vicar-general.
23. The bifhops fhall be bound to organize their fe-
minaries, and the rules of this organization fhall be
fubmitted to the approbation of the chief conful.
24. Thofe who fhall be chofen teachers in thefe
feminaries fhall fubfcribe the declaration made by the
French clergy in 1682, and publifhed by an edift of
the fame year. They fhall limit themfelves to teach
only the dodtrine therein contained ; and the bifhops
fhall addrefs a certificate of their abiding by this limi¬
tation, to the counfellor of Hate who prefides over the
ecclefiaftical department.
25. The bifhops fhall fend every year to this counfel¬
lor of Hate the names of the ftudents of thofe feminaries
who are deflined to the holy miniftry.
26. They fhall appoint no ecclefiaftic who does not
poffefs a property of the annual value of 300 francs,
unlefs he has attained the age of 25 years, and poffefs
the qualities required by the canons of France.
The bifhops fhall perform no ordination before the
number of perfons to be ordained has been fubmitted to
the government, and by them agreed to.
Sect. IV. Of the Cures.
Article 27. The cures fhall perform no ecclefiaftical
fundtions before they have taken, in the prefence of the
prefedt, the oath preferibed by the convention entered
into between the government and the holy fee. A copy
of this oath fhall be made out by the fecretary of the
prefedt-general, and regularly lodged with each party.
28. They fhall be introduced to the poffeffxon of
their benefice either by a cure, or by a prieft whom the
bifhop fhall point out.
29. They fhall be bound to refide in their refpedtive
parilhes.
30. The cures fhall be direftly fubjedt to the bifhops
in the exercife of their fundtions.
31. The vicars, and the afiiftants performing their
duties, fhall be under the fuperintendence and direc¬
tion of the cures.
They fhall be approved by the bifhop, and liable to
be recalled by his authority.
32. No foreigner {hall be employed in the fundtions
of the ecclefiaftical miniftry, without the permiflion of
the government.
33. Every ecclefiaftic, though a Frenchman, is for¬
bidden the exercife of ecclefiaftical fundtions, unlefs con-
nedted with fome diocefe.
34. No prieft fhall quit his diocefe to ferve in ano¬
ther without the permiflion of his bifhop.
Sea. V. Of the Cathedral Chapters, and the Government
of the Dioccfes, during the Vacancy of the See.
Article 35. The archbifhops and bifhops who fhall
wifh to exercife the power which is given them, by ef~
tablifhing chapters, {hall make no appointment without
having previoufly obtained the authority of the govern-
5
90 ] FRA
ment, not only for the eftablifhment itfelf, but for the
number and choice of the ecclefiaftics by whom they
are to be formed.
36. During the vacancy of the fee, the metropolitan,
or, in his Head, the oldeft of the fuffragan bifhops, {hall
watch over the governments of the diocefes.
The vicars-general of thefe diocefes fhall continue
their funaions alter the death of the bifhop, till the in-
ftallation of his fucceffor.
37. It fhall be the duty of the metropolitans and the
cathedral chapters to conununicate to the government
information of the vacancy of fees, and the fteps which
may have been taken for the government of vacant dio¬
cefes.
38. The vicar-general, who fliall govern during the
vacancy, as well as the metropolitan and conftituent
members of chapters, fhall fuffer no innovation to be in¬
troduced into the ufages and cuftoms of the diocefes.
TITLE III.—Of Worfhip.
Article 39. There flrall be only one liturgy, and
one catechifm, for all the Catholic churches oi I ranee.
40. No cure fhall appoint extraordinary public pray¬
ers in his parifh, without the fpecial permiflion of the
bifhop.
41. No feftival, with the exception of the fabbath,
fhall be eftablifhed wuthout the permiflion of govern¬
ment. *
42. The ecclefiaftics {hall ufe, in the performance of
relieious ceremonies, the habits and ornaments fuitable
O 4 # 7
to their titles.
They fhall in no cafe, or under any pretence, affume
the colour and the diftin&ive marks referved to the
bifhops.
43. All ecclefiaftics fliall drefs according to the
French fafhion, and in black, rIhe bifhops fliall add
to this coltume the paftoral crofs, and violet ftockings.
44. Domeftic chapels and oratories, for the accommo¬
dation of individuals, fliall not be eftablifhed without
the exprefs permiflion of the government, granted on
the application ol the bifhop.
45. No religious ceremony fliall be folemnized with¬
out the temples confecrated to the Catholic worfliip, in
places deftined to different forms of worfhip.
46. The fame temple fliall be exclufively confecrated
to the fame fyftem of worfhip.
47. There ftiall be in the different cathedrals and pa¬
rochial churches, a place fpecially appointed for the ci¬
vil and military authorities.
48. The bifhop ftiall concert with the prefeft the
means of calling the faithful to religious W'orfhip by
public bells, which are to be rung on no. other occa-
fion, without the permiflion of the local police.
49. When the government fhall appoint public pray¬
ers, the bifhops fliall concert with the prefeft, and the
military commandant of the place, the day, the hour,
and the manner in which thefe regulations are to be
carried into effedt.
50. The folemn inftruftions known under the appel¬
lation of fermons, and thofe diftinguifhed tinder the
name de Jlations, at the time of Advent and Lent, fliall
not be delivered but by priefts who have obtained the
fpecial authority of the bifhop.
51. The cures in the ordinary exercife of their pa¬
rochial duties fhall pray for, and fhall caufe prayers to
be
France.
1802.
FRA [i
France, be offered up in behalf of the profperity of the French
-V 1 republic, and the fafety of the French confuls.
802. j 2. They (liall introduce into their inftru&ions no
cenfure direct or indireft, either of individuals or of
other forms of worfhip authorifed by the Hate.
53, In their pulpits they (liall introduce no publica¬
tion foreign to the exercife of public worlhip, till it
has at lead received the authority of the government.
54. The nuptial benediction (hall be given to thofe
only who fhall prove in due form, that their marriage
has been contracted before a civil magiftrate.
5 5. The regillers kept by the minifters of religion,
not being founded upon any thing but the adminiifra-
tion of the facraments, are in no cafe to fupply the re-
gifters appointed by the law to afcertain the civil con¬
dition of the French people.
if6. In all eccletiaJtical and religious acts, the equi-
noftial calendar eftablilhed by the laws of the republic
is to be continued, and particular days (hall retain the
names which they poffefs in the folftitial calendar.
57. The day of repofe for the public functionaries
fhall be Sunday.
Title IV.—Of the Arrangement of Archbifhops, Bi-
fhops, Parijhes, Edifices appropriated to public wor-
Jhip, and the falanes of the Clergy.
SeCl. I. Of the Arrangement of Archbifhops and B [[loops.
Article 58. There fhall be in France xo archbifhops
and 50 bifhops.
59. The arrangement of the archbifhoprics and dio-
cefes lhall be made in conformity to the fubjoined plan.
SeCf. II. Of the Arrangement of Parifhes.
Article 60. There fhall be at leaf! one parifh within
the jurifdiCtion of a juiiice of peace. There fhall be
befides eftabliihed as many fubhdiary places of worfhip
as circumftances may require.
61. Each bifhop, in concert with the prefeCt, fhall
regulate the number and extent of thefe fubfidiary efta-
blifhments : the plan formed fhall be fubmitted to the
infpeftion of the government, and lhall not be put into
execution without its authority.
62. No portion of the French territory fhall be
formed into a diftrift, fubjeCI to the adminiftration of a
cure, or to any fubfidiary eftablifhment, xvithout the ex-
prefs authority of government.
63. The priefls ferving in thefe fubfidiary eftablifh-
ments are to be named by the bifhops.
SeCl. III. Of the Salaries of the Clergy.
Article 64. The falary of the archbifhops is to be
15,000 francs (about 625b fterling).
65. The bifhops are to receive 10,000 francs (about
420I. fterling).
66. The cures are divided into tAVO claffes. The fa¬
lary of the cures of the firft clafs is to be 1500 francs
(about 62I. fterling) 5 that of the fecond clafs is to be
1000 francs (about 42I. fterling).
67. The penflons they enjoy according to the regu¬
lations of the conftituent aflembly fhall be deduCted
from their falaries.
The general councils of the larger communes fhall
be empowered to grant them an augmentation of falary,
fuch as circumftances may require.
1 ] FRA
68. The vicars, and thofe performing their functions, France,
ftiall be chofen from among the ecclefiaftics receiving
penfions, in conformity to the laAVS of the conftituent 1 ^2*
affembly.
The amount of thefe penfions, and the produce of
oblations fhall conftitute their falary.
69. The bifhops fhall form a plan of regulations re¬
lative to the offerings Avhich the minifters of religion
fhall be authorifed to receive for the adminiftration of
the facraments. The plan of the regulations furnifhed
by the bifhops fhall not be publifhed or othenvife put
into execution till they have received the approbation of
the government.
70. Every eccleflaftic noAV receiving a penflon from
the ftate fhall be deprived of it on refufing, Avithout fuf-
ficient reafon, to take upon him the funftions xvhich he
is required to difcharge.
71. The general councils of the departments are au¬
thorifed to procure for the bifhops and archbifhops fuit-
able places of refidence.
72. The parfonages and gardens pertaining to them
Avhich have not been alienated, fhall be reftored to the
cures, and thofe officiating in the fublidiary places of
Avorlhip. In cafes Avhere thefe parfonages cannot be pro¬
cured, the general councils of the commune are autho¬
rifed to procure for them a fuitable lodging and garden.
73. The foundations which have for their object the
maintenance of religion and the exercife of public avcf-
fhip, are to confift only of funds appointed by the ftate j
they are to be accepted by the diocefe and bifhop, and
are not to be enforced without the authority of the go¬
vernment.
74. The fixed property, except the buildings deftined
to the accommodation of the minifter, is not to be af-
fefted by ecclefiaftical titles, or poffeffed by the mini¬
fters of religion in confequence of their funclions.
Se£t. IV. Of the Edifices appropriated to public worjhip.
Article 7 5. The buildings formerly appropriated to
the Catholic xvorfhip, Avhich are noxv at the difpofal of
the nation, lhall be given up to the difpofition of the
bifhops by decrees of the prefect of the department : a
copy of thefe decrees fhall be addreffed to the counfelh r
of ftate who is intrufted Avith-the regulation of religious
affairs.
76. Offices fhall be eftabliihed for the purpofe of fu-
perintending the fupport and preservation of temples,
and the adminiftration of charitable contributions.
77. In thofe parifhes where there exifts no buildings
fit for being employed as a place of religious worfhip,
the bifhop (hall confult with the prefedl refpebling the
eftablifhment of a fuitable edifice.
Table of the Arrangement of the ne°J0 Archbifhoprics and
Bifhoprics of France.
Paris.—This archbifhopric lhall comprehend the de¬
partment of the Seine.
Troyes—1’Aube and I’Yonne.
Amiens—la Somme and I’Oife.
Soifons—PAifne.
Arras—le Pas de Calais.
Cambray—le Nord.
Verfailles—Seine-et-Oife, Eure-et-Loire.
Meaux—Seine-et-Marne, Marne.
Orleans—Loiret, Loire-et-Cher.
Malines—-.
■lS02.
le
FRA [
France. MaHnes-Arc/ibi/hopnc—les deux Nettes, la Dyle,
Namur—Sambre-et-Meufe.
Tournay—Jexnappe.
Aix-la-Chapelle—la Roer, Rlnn-et-Mofelle.
Treves—la Sarre.
Gand—I’Efcaut, la Lys.
Liege—Meufe-Inferieure, Ourtlxe.
Mayence—Monte Tonnerre.
Befanpon—Archbijhopric—Haute-Saone, le Doubs,
Jura.
Autun—Saone-et-Loire, la Nievre.
Metz—la Mofelle, les Forets, les Ardennes.
Strafbourg—Haut-Rhin, Bas-Rhin.
Nancy—’a Meufe, la Meurthe, les Vofges.
Dijon— Cote-d’Or, Haute-Marne.
Lyons —Archbijhopric—le Rhone, la Loire, I’Ain.
Mende—1’Ardiche, la Lozere.
Grenoble—ITfere.
Valence—la Drome.
Chambery—le Mont-blanc, le Leman.
Aix Archbijhopric—“le Var, les Bouches-du-Rlione
Nice—Alpes Maritimes.
Avignon—Gard, Vauclufe.
A'.accio le Galo, le Liamone.
Digne—Hautes-Alpes, Baffes-Alpes.
Touloufe—Archbijhopric—Haute-Garonne, Ariege.
Cahors—le Lot, 1’Aveyron.
Montpellier—le Herault, le Tarn.
Carcaffonne—PAude, les Pyrennees.
Agen—Lot-et-Garonne, le Gers.
Bayonne—les Landes, Hautes-Pyrennees, Ba.ies-
Pyrennees.
'Bourdcaux—Archbijhopric—la Gironde.
Poitiers—les deux Sevres, la Vienne.
La Rochelle—la Charente Inferieure, la Vendee.
Angouieme—la Charente, la Dordogne.
Bourses—Archbijhopric—le Cher, 1 Indre.
Clermont—P Allier, le Puy-de Dome.
Saint-Flour—la Haute-Loire, le Cantal.
Limoges—la Creufe, la Correze, la Haute Vienne.
Tours—Archbijhopric—Indre-et-Loire.
Le Mans—Sarthe, Mayenne.
Angers—Main-et-Lftire.
N antes—Loire- Inferieure.
Rennes—Ille-et-Vil!aine.
Vannes—le Morbihan.
Saint Brieux—Cotes-du Nord.
Quimper—le Finifterre.
Rouen — Archbijhopric—la Seine-Inferieure.
Coutanccs—la Manche.
Bayeux—le Calvados.
Seez—I’One.
Evreux—PEure.
Articles relative to the Protejiant Religion. m
Title I. General Difpofitions applicable to all Pro¬
tejiant Communions.
Article i. No individual fhall officiate, as a miniller
of religion, who is not by birth a Frenchman. _
2 Neither the Proteilant churches nor their numiiers
6
192 ] F 11 A
fhall have any connexion with a foreign power or au¬
thority. _ _ _
3. The pallors or miniflers of the different Proteffant
communions ihaii pi ay for the profperity of the 1 rench
republic and the lafety of the confuls.
4. No doftrinal decilion or formality, under the title
of a CQtJcJjion, or under any other title, thall be publiffied
or become a fubjedt of intlrudlion before its publicaLiorx
has been authorifed by the government.
No change lhall take place in the forms of their
difeipline without the fame authority.
6. The council of the Hate fhall take cognizance
of all the plans formed by their minifters, and of all the
diifenfions which may arife among them.
7. It thall be underilood, that to the fupport of pallors
of confiftorial churches, the property of thefe churches
fhall be applied, as well as the oblations etiablithed by
ufage and by pofitive regulations.
8. The regulations applied to the fpecific articles of
the Catholic worthip reipefting the liberty of endow¬
ments, and the nature of the property w hich can be
the objeft of them, {hall be common to the Proteflant
churches. . . . ,
9. There fhall be two academies or femxnanes in the
call of France for the inftruaion of the minifters of the
confeffion of Augfburg.
10. There lhall be a feminary at Geneva for the
inflrudtion of the minifters of the reformed churches..
ix. The profelfors in all the academies or feminaiies
fhall be nominated by the chief conful. ^
1 2. No perfon ffiall be eledled a minifler or pallor
of any church of the confeffion of Augfburg, who has
not fludied during a fixed period in one of the k rench
feminaries appointed for miniilers of this permafion, and.
who fhall not produce a certificate in due form of his
capacity and regular conduct during the continuance of
his ftudies. .
13. No perfon is to be eledled a mimlter or pallor ot
the reformed church without having iludied in the femi¬
nary of Geneva, and without producing a certificate of
the deferiptions pointed out in the preceding aiticle.
14. The regulation refpefting the adminiftration and
internal police of thefe feminaries, the number and the
qualifications of the profeffors, the mode of inti ruCl ion,
the fubjeas which are taught, together with the form ot
the certificates of application, good condiuR, and capa¬
city, are to be approved of by the government.
France,
Title II. Sea. I. Of the Reformed Churches.—Of
the general Organisation of tliefe Churches.
Art. 15. The reformed churches of France lhall have
pallors, local confiftories, and fynods.
16. There (hall be a conliilorial diurch for every
6000 individuals of the fame communion.
17. Five confiftorial churches ffiall form a fynod.
Sea. II. Of Pafors and Local Conff cries.
Art. 18. The confiftory of each church {hallbe com-
pofed of the pallor or pallors officiating in that church,
and of a certain number of aged and refpeaable lay¬
men chofen from among that clafs of citizens paying the
greateft Rare of public contributions: their number
fhall not be under 10 nor above 12*
19. Ahs
FRA [ T93 ] F R A
19. The number of minifters or paftors in one con-
fiftorial church lhall not be augmented without the au¬
thority of the government.
20. The members of the con filter y fhall watch over
the maintenance of dicipline, the application of the
property of the church, as well as the funds arifing from
charitable contributions.
21. The paftor, or the oldeft of the pallors, lhall be
the prelident of the conliltorial affemblies: the office of
fecretary lhall be filled by one of the elders.
22. The ordinary con tutorial affembhes lhall con¬
tinue to be held on the days pointed out by long
practice.
The extraordinary affemblies ffiall not be held with¬
out the per million of the fub-prefect, or of the mayor in
jhis abience.
23. Every two years one half of the elders of the
conliltory ihall be renewed. At this period the elders
in office lhall fix upon an equal number of Proteftant
citizens, heads of families, and chofen from among thofe
paying the largetl contribution to the Hate in the com¬
mune where the confiftory is fituated, and proceed to a
new elecftion : thofe going out are capable of being re-
ele£led.
24. In thofe churches, where there is at prefent no
confiltory, one lhall be formed by the eleflion of 25
heads of Proteftant families paying the largeft contri¬
butions to the ftate. The eleflion ffiall not take place
without the authority, and unlefs in the prefence of the
prefect or fub-prefect.
2 ij. Pallors can only be depofed after the reafons of
fuch depofition have been confirmed by the govern¬
ment.
26. In cafe of the deceafe, the voluntary refignation,
or the confirmed depofition of a paftor, the confiftory
lhall, according to the 18th article, choofe one to fill his
place by a majority of voices.
The title of the election lhall be prefented to the firft
conful by the counfellor of ftate intrufted with the ma¬
nagement of religious affairs, for the purpofe of receiving
his approbation.
After this approbation is given, be cannot enter up¬
on the exercife of his fundlion till he has taken before
the prefeft the oath exafted of the minifters of the Ca¬
tholic worfhip.
27. All the pallors now employed are provifionally
confirmed.
28. No church lhall extend from one department to
another.
Se£l. III. Of Synods.
Art. 29. Each fynod lhall confift of a paftor and an
elder from each church.
30. The fynods lhall fuperintend the celebration of
public worfhip, the doftrines that are taught, and the
conduct of religious affairs. All their decifions, of wffiat-
ever defeription, lhall be fubmitted to the approbation
of government.
31. The fynods lhall not affemble without the per-
raiffion of government. Previous notice lhall be given
to the counfellor of ftate intrufted with the management
of religious matters, of the fubjects which are to be dif-
cuffed. The affembly lhall be held in prefence of the
prefect or fub-prefe<51, and a copy of the minutes of the
deliberations fhall be addreffed to the counfellor of Hate
Vol. IX. Part I.
above mentioned, who ffiall, with all poffiblc fpecd,
tranfmit a report to the government.
3 2. The meetings of the fynod ffiall not be prolonged
beyond fix days.
Title III,—Of the Organisation of the Churches of
the Confejjion of Augsburg.
Se6t. I. General Regulations.
Art. 33. The churches of the confeffion of Augfbur^
lhall have pallors, local confiftories, infpedtions, and ge¬
neral coniiltories.
Sect. II. Of the Minifters, Pafors, and local Confjlo.
nes of each Church.
Art. 34. With refpedl to palters, the regulation o£
the conliftorial churches, which was preferibed by the
2d fedtion of the preceding title as applicable to the re¬
formed pallors and churches, is to be obferved.
Sect. III. Of Infpeclions.
Art. 33. The churches of the confeffion of Auglhurg
lhall be fubjedt to infpedtions.
36. Five confiftorial churches lhal] form the bounds
of an infpedtion.
37. Each infpedtion {hall be compofed of a minifter
and an elder from each church of the diftridt. It ffiall
not affemble without the permiffion of the government.
At its firft meetings, the oldelt of the minifters of the
diftridt fhall prefide. Each infpedtion lhall choofe two
laymen and one clergyman, who lhall take the title of
infpedtor, and whofe duty it lhall be to watch over the
condudt of the minifters, and to preferve good order in
the different churches : the choice of the infpedtor and
the two laymen lhall be confirmed by the firlt conful.
38. The infpedtion lhall not affemble without the au¬
thority of government, in prefence of the prefedt or
fub-prefedt, or without having given previous intelli¬
gence to the counfellor of ftate, whofe bufinefs it is to
watch over religious affairs, of the fubjedts that are to
come under difeuffion.
39. The infpedtor lhall vilit the churches of his dif¬
tridt , and he may adopt the affiftance of the two lay¬
men named with him, as often as circumftances ffiall
appear to require. He {hall be charged with the con¬
vocation of the general affembly of infpedtion, no decree
of which, however, ffiall be put in force till it has re¬
ceived the approbation of the government.
Sedt. IV. Of General Confiftories.
Art. 40. There lhall be three general confiltories:
one at Stralhurg for the Proteftants of the confeffion
of Auglburg, belonging to the departments of the Up¬
per and Lower Rhine; the fecond at Mentz, for thofe
of the departments of Laffare and Mont Tonnerre; and
the third at Cologne, for thofe of the departments of the
Rhine and Mofelle, and La Roer.
41. Each confiftory lhall be formed of one lay pre-
fident, of two ecclefiaftical infpedtors, and a deputy
from each infpedtion : the prefident and the two eccle-
liaftical infpedtors lhall be nominated by the chief con¬
ful. The prelident ffiall take the fame oath before the
chief conful, or a public fundtionary delegated for that
purpofe, which is impofed upon the minifters of the Ca¬
tholic religion : the two eccleliallical infpedtors and the
B b lay
France.
 v *
iSq*
FRA
[ 194 ]
FRA
France. Jay members fliall have the fame oath adminxftered to
' them by the prefident.
42. The general conliftory (hall not be permitted to
affemble without the confent of the government, and
unlefs in prefence of the prefect or fub-prefect, and af¬
ter a notification of the fubje&s in difeuffion, as deferib-
ed in former articles.
43. During the interval between the different meet¬
ings, there (hall be a dire&ory compofed of the prefi¬
dent, of the oldeit of the two ecclefiaftical infpe&ors,
and of three laymen, one of whom (hall be nominated
by the chief conful •, and the two others (hall be chofen
by the general confiilory.
44. The privileges of the general confiftory and the
directory (hall continue to be dire&ed by the cuftoms
and regulations of the churches of the cpnfeflion of
Augiburg, m all points which have not been formally
fixed by the laws of the republic or the prefent articles.
France.
537
Bonaparte
chofen con¬
ful for life.
When Bonaparte was defied firfi: conful for ten
years, he was deemed competent to be re-defted for
53*
The extent
»f his
powers.
the fame length of time ; but lie was afterwards chofen
for life, with the ftrange power conferred upon him
of nominating his fucceffor, or, in other words, of
governing beyond the grave, than which nothing can
be conceived more ridiculous or unjtrll. Having ad¬
vanced with fuch rapidity in the acquifition of power
and authority, it was extremely natural to conclude,
that the ambition of Bonaparte was not fatiated, but
that he would afterwards claim to himfelf, and influence
an infatuated people to fanflion, dill higher degrees of
dignity and grandeur. A book was accordingly pub-
lithed, either with his permiflion, or by his exprefs com¬
mand, pointing out the propriety and expediency of cre¬
ating him Firft. Emperor of the Gauls ! At a fubfequent
period of the hiftory contained this article we (hall
fee this extravagant propofition aflually carried into
effect, and Napoleon I. adorned with imperial honours.
This verifies what Dumourier afferted concerning the
French, at a time when fuch an event was highly im¬
probable •, “ that a king they would have.”
In the capacity of firfl conful, his power was fimikr
to that of his Britannic majefty, in refpeft of criminals
under fentence of death, that he could grant them at
his pleafure a plenary pardon, and admit them to return
again to the bofom of fociety ; but his executive autho¬
rity in almoft every other cafe ivas dangeroufly greater,
as there was in fad no other pmver in the (late which
could poflibly controul him. While his authority Avas
eftabliftied thus firmly within his oAvn dominions, he
endeavoured to increafe his influence over the reft of
Europe, by forming an alliance with the court of Pe-
ter(burgh. At firft it was believed to be purely of a
commercial nature, but the aftive part taken by.both
in difmembering the Germanic body, clearjy evinced
that fuch an alliance Avas of a more interefting nature,
notAvithftanding the oftenfible reafon for fuch condudl
was the indemnification of the fufferers during the Avar.
It Avill perhaps be admitted, that the ftate of France,
after the dreadful convulfions occafioned by the revolu¬
tion, required an executive government of confiderable
promptitude and vigour ; yet. it was furely poflible, and
it Avas no lefs a facred duty binding upon him, to con-
fult, in particular circumftances, the happinefs and. prof-
fierity of the people much more than he did, Avithout
endangering in the fmalleft degree the (lability of his
government. I he French people ftiould not have been ”
deprived of the many bleflings refulting from a repre- 1 ^
fentative government ; and if nqfc ripe for it then, it
ftiould have been conferred upon them at a fubfequent
period. If the hero of Marengo Avas afraid of facing a
free parliament, he thus pronounced himfelf a tyrant,
and if unable to moderate its deliberations, very defi¬
cient in political knowledge. He might find it expe¬
dient, for inftance, to impofe fome reftraints on the li-
centioufnefs of the prefs ; but totally to annihilate its
liberty Avas as unjuft as it was impolitic. He ftiould
have recollefted a faying of an hiftorian and philofo-
pher, “ that a whifper may circulate as rapidly as a
pamphlet.”
ToAvards the termination of the year 1802, Bona¬
parte Avas very active in his vifitations of the fea-port
toAvns, Avhere the moft fulfome addreffes Avere prefented
to him Avhich Avere ever given to any mortal being.
Various conjectures Avere formed as to the probable de-
fign of fuch vifits. It was thought by fome that he
intended to conciliate the affedtions of the people, espe¬
cially the military and the conftituted authorities;
others imagined that it Avas to make himfelf acquainted
with the true ftate of public opinion j Avhile a third
clafs conjeCturcd that it Avas xvith a vIcav to increafe
the navy of France, and acquire an intimate knoAv-
ledge of the different parts of the coaft. Whatever
his objeft Avas, it is more than probable that it Avas
direCled to one point, and that his complicated move¬
ments Avere purpofely intended to miflead thofe who
felt an intereft in watching him. It is true, he made
no fecret of his determination to invade Great Britain ;
but Ave fliould greatly diminifti that knoAvledge which
he muft unqueftionably poffefs, were Ave to conclude
that he ever ferioufly believed in the practicability of
fuch an undertaking. 539
His abilities as a foldier Avill be difputed by no man, Cfh^cr
for when vieAved only in this light, he is unqueftionably part“na'
great; but it Avould be a moft unpardonable breach ofp
truth to call him an able politician. While he promifed
to reftore the commerce of France, it continued to lan-
guifti, more, perhaps after the reftoration of peace, than
during the continuance of the Avar, f his feems to be a
fubjeCt fairly beyond his comprehenfion. Numbers in
France drew a great part of their fubfiftence from the
expenditure of fuch perfons from the Britifh dominions,
as Avere difpofed, after the return of peace, to pay a vifit
to the metropolis of the Gallic empire. But while Ave
thus freely animadvert on the conduCt of the firft conful,
and point out his errors or faults Avithout any referve,
we Avifti not to conceal a fingle circumftance which re¬
dounds to his honour. When Cambaceres, the biftiop
of Caen, made application to the prefeCl of Rouen to
have the Proteftant churches forcibly (hut; as foon as the
requeft of the biftiop Avas known to Bonaparte, he fent
for the fecond conful, and told him, that if the biftiop
had not been Ms brother, he would have (truck him off
the lift. Such a reply was certainly worthy of a great
man.
On the 21 ft of February 1803, a vIcav of the ftate of
France was laid before the legiflative body and the tri¬
bunate, containing a comprehenfive view of the relations
of the republic, both with refpect to colonies and foreign
dates 3 but the moft important part it of had a referencQ
V
1803.
54°
loftile pre-
FRA [1
franre. to Britain, which was charged with acting improperly
in retaining troops in Malta and Egypt, after thc fign-
ing of the definitive treaty. It divided the inhabitants
of it into two parties, reprefentirig the one as having
fworn implacable enmity to France, and the other as
anxious to maintain the relations of peace and amity,
concluding with lingular bravado, “ whatever may be
the fuccefs of intrigue at London, it will never force
other nations into new leagues ; and the French govern¬
ment a Herts, with juft pride, that England alone cannot
now contend with France.”
It now began to be manifeft, that the bleflings of
aranons ot peace were not to be long enjoyed. The extenfive
ranee. warlike preparations going forward about this time in
the ports of France and Holland, roufed the jealoufy of
the Britilh miniftry *, for although the oftenftble reafon
was to reduce the revolted colonies to obedience, they
could not help apprehending that much more was com¬
prehended in fuch extenlive armaments. We ftiall ftill
be more inclined to adopt this opinion, if we advert to
the foliowring circumftance. When Bonaparte, on the
13th of March, found Lord Whitworth and M. de
Marcoff ftanding together, he addreffed them in thefe
words: “ We have fought for fifteen years, and it
feems there is a ftorm gathering at London, which may
produce another war of fifteen years more.—The king
of England has faid, in his meffage to the parliament,
that France had prepared offenfive armaments •, he has
been miftaken ; there is not in the ports of France any
confiderable force, they having all fet out for St Do¬
mingo. He faid there exifted fome differences between
the two cabinets 5 I do not know of any. It is true
that his majefty has engaged by treaty that England
(hould evacuate Malta. It is poftible to kill the French
people, but not to intimidate them.” At the conelu-
fion of the drawing-room, it is faid that Bonaparte
addreffed the Britiih envoy thus, when near the door :
“ The duchefs of Dorfet has paffed the moft unpleafant
feafon at Paris; I moft ardently wifh ftie may pafs the
pleafant one alfo ; but if it is true that we are to have
war, the refponfibility, botli in the fight of God and man,
will be on thofe who fhall refufe to execute the treaty.”
Much about the fame time a paper was inferted in
the Hamburgh Correfpondenten, containing much vio¬
lent declamation againft Great Britain, and believed
by ma P to have been the production of Bonaparte.
If our information be correct, the French minifter re-
quefted, and obtained permiftion, from the magiftrates
of that city to make it thus public. Some alterations
were made on the manufcript, which having given
offence to the republican ambafl’ador, it was, on the
30th of March, inferted without any alterations or
iiippofed amendments. It contains many rancorous ex-
preftions againft Great Britain, while part of it feems
to be a defigned apology for the infuking converfa-
tion which took place at Madame Bonaparte’s draw¬
ing room already mentioned. It contains fome reflec¬
tions alfo on the freedom of difcuflion indulged in the
Britifh news-papers relative to the affairs of France,
a circumftance far beneath the notice of the firft conful,
who, in this particular, did not advert to the freedom of
the Britifh prefs.
In the interior parts of France, the moft aftive pre¬
parations for war continued to be made, and at the fea-
:ports, the different commanders received orders to put
France,
1803.
541
95 1 F R A
the navy as fall as poflible on a refpe&able footing.
Vaft bodies of the military received orders to leave
the Netherlands, and march towards the frontiers of
* the Batavian republic, while the Ihips deitined for the
Newfoundland tilhery were laid under an embargo.
As the iiiand of Malta was, by the treaty of Amiens, DifpuU'S
to be furrendered to the knights of the order of 8t contemn*
John of Jerufalem, upon certain conditions, JL/e Tho- Malta,
mafi, the new grand mailer, lent M. de Bufly his
lieutenant in the month of January, with full powers
to demand polleflion of the iiiand ; to which the go¬
vernor, Sir Alexander Jonathan Ball, replied, that as
fome of the powers who had, by the 10th article of the
treaty of Amiens, been invited to guarantee the inde¬
pendence of Malta, had not as yet agreed to that mea-
fure, he could not terminate the government of his
Britannic majefty without farther inftrudlions.
As the long and tedious correfpondence carried on.
between Great Britain and France, by means of Lord
Whitworth and M. de Talleyrand, which was laid be¬
fore both houfes of parliament on the 18th of May
1803, did not terminate in fueh a manner as the lovers
of peace moil ardently wiihed, a freih rupture between
the two countries feemed unavoidable. Officers were
fent to refide in the principal fea-ports of Great Bri¬
tain, veiled with the charadfer of commercial agents,
but they w'ere in fadt detedfed in founding the har¬
bours, and in drawing plans of the ports ; a glaring
proof that fome defperate blow was meditated againft
this country.
In fpite of the efforts of the Britifh miniftry to pre- Hoftilities
vent a rupture, hoftilities adtually commenced on the re-com-
16th of May, and letters of marque were iffued againft
the French republic. The ultimatum of Britain was tain an(j
conceived in thefe terms: “ that the French govern-trance,
ment ffiould not oppofe the ceffion of the iiiand of
Lampedofa to his Britannic majefty •, that the French
forces Ihould evacuate the Batavian and the Svifs
territory 5 that a fui table provifion Ihould be made for
the king of Sardinia ; and, by a fecret article, that
Britain Ihould be permitted to retain pofieffion of
Malta for ten years.” Our readers will no doubt im¬
mediately conclude, that this was rejedfed 3 but France
ftill made fome feeble endeavours to negotiate, which
appeared to the cabinet of St James’s to be a pretext
only to gain time, the war was conlidered as adlually
recommenced. All fubjedts belonging to Britain who
were now found in France and Holland w'ere arrefted
and detained 3 an event which was fpeedily followed
by the march of a republican army towards Ofnaburgh
and Hanover, the former of which was taken poffef-
fion of by General Mortier on the 26th of May, after
which he took the town of Bentheim, and the Hano¬
verian garrifon were made prifoners of war. Ofna¬
burgh was abandoned by the Hanoverians on the 28th,
and two days after the French got poffeffion of Quack-
enbrook. His royal highnefs the duke of Cambridge
was determined to Hand or fall with the eledforate 3 but
as he was at the head of no more than a handful of
troops compared with the army of Mortier, the regency
urged him to retire from the command, as the probabi¬
lity of fuccefs was entirely againft him. The duke,
therefore, returned to Bremen, and reached Yarmouth
on the 13th of June, along with Prince William of
Gloucefter.
B b 3 Much
FRA [19
France. Much about this period, General Mortier was waited
“—''v upon by deputies from the regency, both ot a civil and
I^°3' military nature, who begged that he would fufpend his
march, and propofed a capitulation. By this the Ha¬
noverian troops were permitted to furrender on their pa¬
role, and agreed not to take up arms againft trance
during the continuance of the war. Sums were to be
raifed for maintaining the republican army, while private
property was to be held facred.
If this promife, however, was really made, it does not
appear that it was confidered as binding, for it has been
laid that more flagrant a&s of cruelty and injuftice were
fcarcely ever perpetrated by people profefling to be civi¬
lized. The following, we are told, is part of the infor¬
mation upon this lubjedt communicated by private letters.
“ In the city of Hanover, and even in the public ilreets,
wTomen of the higheft rank have been violated by the .
lowed of the brutal foldiery, in the prefence of their
hufbands and fathers, and fubjected at the fame time to
inch additional and undefcribable outrages, as the bru¬
tal fury of the violators, inflamed by drunkennefs, could
contrive. Nor have rve heard that the philofophers of
Goettingen, the enthufiafts of equality and perfectibility,
have been at all better treated.” We fufpedt that this
picture is too highly coloured ; yet, if a thoufandtb part
of the narration be true, of Avhich we have only leletfled
a fpecimen, we muft allorv it to be an indeHole ftigma
on the French nation.
Bonaparte It had always been a favourite object with Bona-
labours to parte, to do as much injury as poflible to the commerce
ruin Britiih 0£ Great Britain, and therefore he now determined to
commerce. qmt agajnp this country the ports of the Wefer and the
Elbe 5 and alfo infifted on the ports of Denmark being
ihut againtt veflfels belonging to Britain, propofing to
plant a French garrifon in the city ot Copenhagen,
avIdle the other poAvers of Europe feemed to behold his
eondudt Avith indifference or ftupefaftion. The French
having put themfelves in poffeflion of the excluflve na¬
vigation of the Elbe, Great Britain determined to bloc¬
kade it Avith (hips of war, as a report then prevailed that
Bonaparte would make ufe of that port for the purpofe
of invading Scotland. In this vieAV of the matter, the
conduct of Britain Avas highly commendable.
About this time the French army in St Domin¬
go was in a moil melancholy condition, as appeared
from the information contained in fome intercepted let¬
ters. Although about 10,000 men reaebed the ifland, in
three months after General Roehambeau’s arrival, Avhen
they Avere landed in the different ports, fcarcely any
traces of a reinforcement could be perceived, fo much
had his army fuffered. The atrocities of the troops in
their turn Avere alfo faid to be great, and complaints
made to the commanding officers Avere anfwered Avith
threats. It appears that Roehambeau Avas obliged to
have recourfe to abfolute falfehood, in order to keep up
the (pints of his troops, and allay their difeontent; giv¬
ing out, Avhat he knerv could not be the-cafe, that a re¬
inforcement of 20,000 men Avas daily expedled.
Britain put In the mean time, the miniftry of Great Britain ufed
in a ftate every effort to place the country in a fecure and refpec-
e£ defence, table ftate of defence, ftiould the infatiable ambition of
Bonaparte lead him to a ferious attempt to invade it.
The intelligent part of the people indeed believed that
he never ferioufly intended to hazard the confequences
tsf what he threatened, yet it Avas certainly prudent to
I ] F R A
prepare for the Avorft. The troops of the line Avere in- France,
duftrioufly and fuccefsfully recruited, the militia were
called out and kept in aftual fervice, and an army of iy°3‘
referve Avas raifed with the utmoft expedition. Having
almoft 500,000 troops of different fpecies, Britain had
no juft reafon to apprehend an invafion, being able to
accomplifti the deftruHion of the boldeft invader. Ihefe
troops were encamped along the coait, garrifon toAvns
Avere properly lupplied Avith men, the greateft force Avas
concentrated Arherever the probability of a landing Avas
ftrongeft, and care Avas taken of the health of the mili¬
tary. as Avell as the appointment of the ableft generals
to command them. Provifions, ammunition, and ftores,
Avere collected in abundatice. As it Avas natural to con¬
clude that London Avould be the great objeft with an
invading army, the utmoft attention Avas paid to the de¬
fence of thofe parts of the coaft which are moft adjacent
to it.
Similar efforts Avere made to annoy the enemy by fea,
and render their defigns Avholly abortive. I o Lord
Keith and Admiral Montague was entrufted the com¬
mand of the channel fleet; and an attempt was made at
Granville to difeoneert the preparations of France, by
a detachment of ihips under the command of Sir James
Saumarez, Avhich Avas fo far attended with fuccels as to
intimidate the inhabitants, damage a number of houfes,
and deftroy fome boats in the harbour. Similar attacks
upon Calais and Boulogne alfo tended to convince the
French rending on the coaft that they were far from
being fecure, although total deftru&ion was not thecon-
fequence of fuch exertions. Lord Nelfon then guarded
the Italian feas, and Sir Edward Pellew and Sir Robert
Calder Avere Rationed off Ferrol. 545
In the mean time the republican army in Hanover Crueltits of
continued to opprefs the inhabitants, and to devour the
refourees of that electorate. Ihe Dutch were made jjanove-
fuffer almoft as much from their new allies and pretend-rians,
ed friends, as the inhabitants of a conquered country.
They were dragged into a Avar, of Avhich they certainly
Avifhed to be the unconcerned fpeftators, compelled to
raife and maintain a large body of native troops, to re¬
ceive garrifons into all their ftrong toAvns, to give up
their fea-ports to the French, and expofe their Avhole
country as a feene of paffage and encampment to the ar¬
mies of the republic. Their trade was ruined, and their
ports blocked up by the Britifli at fea, on account of
their alliance Avitb France. The inhabitants of the
Belgic provinces belonging to France Avere alfo fevere
fufferers by the levies of confcripts, the interruption
Avhich their trade and manufactures met with from the
war, and the rigour by which they Avere governed. . It
was reported that the firft conful had 300,000 efteClive
men in readinefs along the eoaft and the places adjacent,
and that 2800 men were ineeffantly employed, aug¬
menting and repairing the fortifications at Boulogne. 546
During the month of November 1803, the fea-coaftsThe Enti&l
of Great Britain and Ireland received frefti additions of“^e"e
ftrengtb, that if ever troops from France ftiould dare to
attempt a landing, they might be affured of meeting .
Avith a warm reception. The garrifon of Plymouth was
augmented to 13,700 landmen, befides 1500 feamen
and marines. A battery Avas ereCted at Paul Point, for
the defence of the Humber, and tAvo others Avere to be
built oppofite io it in Lincolnfhire, Exertions equally
fpirited Avere continued by fea. Sir Sidney Smith cruif-
FRA [ 197
France, ed off the Texel, and drove on {here on the coaft of
■—v ' Holland, 12 armed (hips of the enemy, three of which
1804. Vi-ere captured. During the month of February 1804,
the French and Dutch ports continued to be blockaded
by the Britifh navy with the utmoft vigilance, a meafure
which the tempeituous nature of the weather frequently
rendered hazardous. The preparations for an invafion
of this country -were ftill continued on the part of
France, but no force of any eonfequence found it prac¬
ticable to put to fea, owing to the vigilance of our
cruizers. A number of gun-boats were taken at dif¬
ferent times off Boulogne, and different other parts of
the French and Dutch coaffs, which might have convin¬
ced the people of thefe countries of the abfurdity of ex¬
pecting to aecomplifh any thing decilive againff Britain
by fuch inadequate means.
A plan wTas fuggeited for filling up the ports of the
enemy with ftones and the hulks of old veffels, fo as
to render it difficult, if not wholly impracticable, ei¬
ther for fhips or fmall craft to make their way out of
them. The idea feems to have been taken from a faCt
well known, that harbours have been often ruined by the
tides and currents of the fea, the depofition of fand
from rivers, earthquakes, and other accidents and
therefore it vyas concluded that fimilar effeCts might
be produced by artificial means. The accomplilhment
of fuch an objeCt, if it were practicable, would be an
ample compenfation for the greateft expence.
It was the opinion of the difcerning part of mankind,
long before it happened, that the ambition of Bonaparte
would not always remain fatisfied with the dignity of
firft conful, even for life j for although he could re¬
ceive no freffi additions to his power and influence, yet
there was reafon to believe that the found of fuch titles
as have always been deemed higher and more dignified
ftill, would be too fafcinating for him to refill. Ac¬
cordingly, on the 2<fth of April 1804, the following
decree wTas iffued by the tribunate of France.
“ The tribunate, confidering that at the breaking
out of the revolution, when the national will had an
opportunity of manifefting itfelf with the greateft free¬
dom, the general wifli was declared for the individual
unity of the fupreme power, and for the hereditary fuc-
ceflion of that power :
“ That the family of the Bourbons, having by their
conduCt rendered the Hereditary government odious to
the people, forced them to lofe fight of its advantages,
and drove the nation to feek for a happier deftiny in a
democratical form of government:
“ That France having made a trial of different forms
of government, experienced from thefe trials only the
miferies of anarchy:
“ That the ftate was in the greateft peril, when Bo¬
naparte, brought back by providence, fuddenly appear¬
ed for its falvation :
“ That the confullhip for life, and the power grant¬
ed to the firft conful of appointing his fuccefl'or, are not
adequate to the prevention of intrigues at home or
abroad, which could not fail to be formed during the
vacancy of the fupreme power :
“ That in declaring that magiftracy hereditarv, con¬
formity is obferved at once to the example of all great
ftates, ancient or modern, and the firft wifli of the na¬
tion, expreffed in 1789 :
Frante.
1804.
] ' FRA
“ That, enlightened and fupported by this experience,
the nation now returns to this wifli more ftrongly than
ever, and expreffes it on all fides :
“ That when France demands for her fecurity an
hereditary chief, her gratitude and affeCtion call on Bo¬
naparte :
“ That France may expeCl from the family of Bo¬
naparte, more than from any other, the maintenance of
the rights and liberty of the people :
“ That there is no title more fuitable to the glory of
Bonaparte, and to the dignity of the fupreme chief of
the French nation, than the title of emperor.
“ The tribunate have come to the following vote :
“ That Napoleon Bonaparte, the firft conful, be
proclaimed emperor of the French, and in that capacity
be invefted with the government of the French republic:
“ That the title of emperor and the imperial power
be made hereditary in his family in the male line, ac¬
cording to the order of primogeniture.”
The foregoing decree having been put to the vote, it
was carried by acclamation, with the Angle exception
of the only member (Carnot), who delivered his fenti-
ments againft its adoption.
The fenate prefented an addrefs to the firft conful, in
which they took great pains to convince him that the
fafety of France, and the happinefs of Europe, depend¬
ed entirely upon his acceptance of the title of Emperor
of the French, and upon its being made hereditary in
his illuftrious family. The different divifions of the
army of courfe lent addreffes to the firft conlul, intreat¬
ing him to condefcend to become emperor of France.
Bonaparte requefted them, in his anlwer, “ to make
known to him the whole of their thoughts.” The le-
nate then defired him to take the imperial and heredi¬
tary dignity. Bonaparte confented.
An addrefs was prefented by the fenate to the firft Bonaparte
conful, in which they employed many arguments to*s ma-!e ^
convince him (they might have fpared themfelves the °
trouble) that the prefervation of France, and the repofe
of all Europe turned on his acceptance of the dignified
title of the emperor of the French, which right to be
hereditary in his auguft family. The difi'erent divifions
of the army hoped alfo that he would be gracioufly
pleafed to co/idefcend (what an inftance of humility !)
to become emperor of France. Whether or not it may
excite the aftoniftnnent of our readers, we can afl'ure
them upon the molt undoubted authority, that he was
fo humble as to accept of it, and the following is his
addrefs to the confervative fenate.
“ Senators,
“ Your addrefs of the 6th laft Germinal has never-
ceafed to be prefent to my thoughts. It has been the.
object of my molt conftant meditation.
“ You have judged the hereditary power of the
fupreme magiftracy neceffary, in order to Ihelter the-
French people completely from the plots of our ene¬
mies, and from the agitations which arife from rival
ambitions. It even appears to you, that many of our
inftitutions ought to be improved, in order to feeure for
ever the triumph of equality and public liberty, and
prefent to the nation and to she government the double
guarantee they are in want of.
“ In proportion as I fix my attention upon thefe great
ohje&s,.
5
547"
!>anee.
i-8 04.
S48
’ ‘Trial of
ftate pri-
foners in
France.
FRA f r
objects, I am ftill more convinced of tbe verity of thofe
ienliments which I have expreifed to you, and 1 feel
more and more, that in a circumdance as new as it is
important, the councils of your wifdom and experience
were neceffarv to enable me to fix my ideas.
“ I requeit you then to make known to me the whole
of your thoughts*
“ The French people can add nothing to the honour
and glory with which it has furrounded me ; but the
inoft facred duty for me, as it is the deareft to my heart,
is to fecure to its latejl pojieritij thofe advantages which
it has acquired by a revolution that has coil it fo much,
particularly by the facrifice of thofe millions of brave
citizens who have died in defence of their rights, hil-
teen years have pall lince, by a fpontaneous movement
you ran to arms, you acquired liberty, equality, and
glory. Thefe firft biddings of nations are now fecured
to you for ever, are fheltered from every tempeft, they
are preferved to you and your children 5 inftitutions
conceived and begun in the midlf of the tborms of in¬
terior and exterior wars, developed with conftancy, are
juft terminated in the noife of the attempts and plots of
our moft mortal enemies, by the adoption of every thing
which the experience of centuries and of nations has de-
monftrated as proper to guarantee the rights which the
nation had judged neceffary for its dignity, its liberty,
and its happinefs.”
The neW emperor was allowed to adopt the children
or grand-children of his brothers, if arrived at the age
of 18 years complete, and he without legitimate children
of his own •, but this privilege cannot be enioyed by his
fucceffors. Failing both legitimate and adopted heirs,
the crown {hall be enjoyed by Jofeph Bonaparte and
his defeendants •, and failing Jofeph and his deicendants,
it fliall devolve on Louis Bonaparte and his deicendants,
&c. If a fucceffor cannot be found in any of thefe
channels, a Senatus confultum, propofed to the fenate by
the dignities (we prefume it (hould have been dignitaries)
of the empire, and fubmitted for the acceptance of the
people, {hall nominate an emperor. It wjas alfo decreed
that the members of the imperial family {hould be called
French princes, and the eldeft fon of the family, the
imperial prince. Among other things it was enabled,
that every emperor, two years after he comes to the
throne, (hall fwear to maintain the integrity of the
territory of the French republic ! We have mentioned
this laft circumftance, wholly for this reafon, that the
emperor of a republic is no doubt a rarity to the greater
part of our readers.
The trial of the {fate prifoners commenced at Paris
on the 29th of May 1804. They were charged with
confpiring againif the life and government of Bona¬
parte ; but how great was our aftonHhment to find the
juftlv celebrated General Moreau included in the num¬
ber ! Envy and jealoufy of Bonaparte can alone have
implicated this great man in fuch a charge, as he was
heard to fay on the arrival of the new emperor from
Egypt ;—“ this is the man -who is necefiary to fave
France.” Georges with 11 of his affociates, were con¬
demned and executed on the 25th of June •, the gallant
Moreau and four more, ^re fentenced to fuffer two
years imprifonment, and about 18 w-ere acquitted.
Some of thofe who were condemned were aftenvards
pardoned by imperial clemency, moved by the fafei-
nating charms of female eloquence and female tears.
6
France.
98 ] FRA
The fentence of imprifonment againft Moreau was com¬
muted to banilhraertt for liie to the United States of1
America, IS:)5'
The coronation of Bonaparte took place in the month Cor5nftj0I|
of December 1804, which was accompanied on the part 0f fona.
of the people by fuch demonftrations of apparent fatis-parte.
fa6!ion as evinced the degraded Ifate of the public mind
in that unfortunate country. After receiving a num¬
ber of the molt fullbme fpeeches, filled entirely with
bombaft and ialfehood, his imperial majefty delivered
the following addrefs. “ I alcend the throne, to which
the unanimous vifhes of the fenate, the people, and the
army have called me, with a heart penetrated with the
great diftinies of that people, whom, from the midfl of
camps, 1 fi.ft tainted with the name of Great. From
my youth, my thoughts have been folely fixed upon
them (fo it appears) •, and I mult add here, that my
pleafures and my pains are derived entirely from the
happinefs or mifery of my people. My deicendants
{hall long preferve this throne (a very bold prediction).
In the field they will be the firft foldiers of the army,
facrificing their lives for the defence of their country.
As magiftrates they will never forget, that contempt
of the laws, and the confufion of focial order, are only
the refult of the imbecility and uncertainty of princes.
You, fenators, whofe counfels and fupport have never
failed me in the moft difficult cireumftances, your Ipirit
will be handed down to your fucceffors. Be ever the
prop and firft counfellors of that throne, fo necefiary to
the welfare of this vaft empire.” 550
On the 4th of February 1805, a letter written by Who writes
Bonaparte to his Britannic majefty on the fubjeCl of
peace, was laid before the legiflative body by the coun'I1;c majcfty
fellors of Hate, in which he obferved that providence, on the tub-
the fenate, the people, and the army, had called himjea of
to the throne of France. He admitted that the two peace,
countries, over which they prefided as the chief magi¬
ftrates, might contend againft each other for ages, but
denied that it was for the intereft of either to continue
the conteft. He requefted his Britannic majefty not
to deny himfelf the inexpreflible felicity of giving peace
to the world ; for {hould the prefent moment be loft,
he did not fee how all his efforts would be able to ter¬
minate the war, whieh he confidered as without any
objeCf or prefumable refult. He concluded with obfer-
ving that reafon is fufficiently powerful to difeover means
of reconciling every thing, when the wifti of reconcilia¬
tion exifts on both fides. On the 16th of the fame
month, a very fplendid entertainment was given to the
emperor and emprefs by the city of Paris. . 551
Never was any naval victory more glorious or de-The memo*
cifive than that which was gained by the Britifti under rabkbatte
Vice-admiral Lord Nelfon over the combined fleets ,ar) ;n
France and Spain, off Cape Trafalgar, on the 21ft Oc-wpjch Lord
tober 180 ?. The Britifh commander in chief gave theNelfon fell
fignal for bearing up in two columns as they formed in
the order of failing, a mode of attack which had been
previoufly ordered by his lordftiip, to prevent "the delay
and inconveniency of foiming the line of battle in the
manner ufually adopted. The fleet of the enemy con-
filled of 33 ftiips, under the command of the French
admiral Villeneuve. The Spanifti divifion under Ad¬
miral Gravina, formed the line of battle with great
coolnefs and {kill, the heads of the {hips being turned
to the northward. The manner of attack was uncom¬
mon,
5S2 .
-many is
0 rrun by
jjltaparte.
FRA f
tnon, and tlie formation of their line was confequently
new. Few fignals were neeeffary from the commander
of the Britifli fleet, becaufe the flag officers anti cap¬
tains were made previoufly acquainted with the admi¬
ral’s whole plan. The weather column was led by the
commander in chief, on board the Vidlory, and Lord
Collingwood in the Royal Sovereign took charge of the
leeward diviflon. The leading fhips of the Britifh columns
breaking through the enemy’s line, was the lignal for
commencing hoffilities, which began about 12 o’clock.
The (hips of the enemy were fought in fuch a manner
as did the higheft honour to the officers by whom they
were commanded, but they oppofed a force which was
not to be vanquithed. About 3 o’clock in the afternoon
the enemy’s line gave way, many of their {hips having
{truck their colours. Admiral Gravina then fleered for
Cadiz 5 and 19 fail of the line, of which two were firit
rates, fell into the hands of the vidtors, and three
flag-officers, Villeneuve, Don Ignatia Maria D’Aliva,
and Don Baltazar Hidalgo Cifneros, were made prifo-
ners.
About the fame time that the Britith navy ac¬
quired the moft fignal vidtory over the combined fleets
of France and Spain, the emperor Napoleon was carry¬
ing his vidtorious arms through the heart of Germany,
and forcing the emperor of that country to abandon his
metropolis. He left Paris on the 24th of September
180^, to join the grand army, and reached Straiburgh
on the 26th, accompanied by the emprefs. Here he
ifi’ued a manifefto to his army, in which he mentioned
the commencement of the war of what he termed the
third coalition, which he faid was created and maintain¬
ed by the gold and hatred of England. He declared
he would fight till he had fecured the independence of
the Germanic body, and never again make peace with¬
out fufiicient fecurity of its continuance. He crofled
the Rhine at Kehl on the iff of October, and on the
evening of the fame day arrived at Ettlingen, Avhere the
eledlor of Baden was prefented to him, along with his
two fons. On the 2d he went to Stutgard, where the
eleftor (now king) of Wirtemberg received him in the
moft magnificent manner, and the city was illuminated.
The king of Wirtemberg agreed to furnifh 6000 men
for the affiftance of France, and the eledtor of Baden
4000.
The French armies on the coaft reached the banks
of the Rhine in the month of September, and crofled
that river on the 25th. General Bernadotte reached
Franconia on the 23d, wThere he wras joined by the Ba¬
varian army of 20,000 infantry and cavalry ; by the
army of Holland under Marmont, and the Batavian
divifion. This army of Bernadotte, about 40,000
ftrong, conftituted the fifth divifion of the grand or
imperial French army. It is remarkable that thefe
three great men, Jourdan, Lecourbe, and Macdonald,
were not employed *, the reafon afligned for which mea-
iVe is, that Bonaparte fufpedled them of difloyalty
ever fince the condemnation of that lingular officer
Moreau. Bernadotte marched diredtly for the Danube
on the 2d of October, and took a pofition at Ingolftadt.
The rapidity with which the French forces moved
feems to have difconcerted the Auftrian commander
completely, as no movements were made to oppofe their
progrefs.
Hcftilities commenced on the 7 th, when the Auf-
i8cn;.
553
99 ] F R A
trians were defeated with the lofs of many killed, wound- France,
ed, and prifoners, in attempting to oppofe the paflage ^
of General Vandamme acroi's the bridge of Donawert.
Field-marfhal Auffenberg, while on his march to Ulm,
was completely furrounded by the French, and obliged
to furrender. It is faid that the Auffrians here loft twm
colonels, five majors, 60 officers, and 4000 men made
prifoners. Memmingen furrendered on the 14th to Mar-
flral Soult, after which he marched on to Biberach, in
order to cut off the retrqat of the Auftrians by that
road. Marlhal Ney croffect the Danube, and made an
attack upon Elchingen a little above Ulm. The A.uf-
trians made a fortie, but were driven back to their en¬
trenchments before Ulm, with the lofs, it is faid, of 3000
men taken prifoners; and at Langenau their lofs
amounted to the fame number, in an a£Hon with Prince
Murat, who commanded the cavalry. This officer again
brought them to aclion on the 17th, when their lofs was
computed at 1000 men, and next day General Wer-
neck’s divifion was obliged to capitulate. From Albeck
to Nuremberg, Murat is faid to have got poffeflion of
1 ijoo waggons and 16,000 prifoners ; but Prince Fer¬
dinand effedled his efcape.
Ulm furrendered by capitulation on the 17th, and Surrender at
this unaccountable ftep was taken by General Mack, ^tn*
becaufe Berthier allured him that the Auftrians were on
the other fide of the Inn; that Lannes was in purfuit of
Prince Ferdinand ; that Werneck had capitulated, and
that it was impoflible for any fuccours to reach Ulm.
After the furrender of this place, the Auftrian generals
who were made prifoners, were fent under an efcort
through Bavaria to Vienna, and Mack was entrufted
with fome propofals to the emperor of Germany. 554
On the 28th of October a fpjrited proclamation was The French
iffued by the emperor at Vienna, declaring that theentcr
views of Auftria and Ruffia were extremely moderate,cnna*
and execrating the defigns and views of Bonaparte.
' Every divifion of the French army, except that under
General Ney, crofted the river Inn on the lit of No¬
vember. Bonaparte himfelf was with the right wing at
Saltfburgh ; and the centre, commanded by Prince Mu¬
rat, marched towards Lintz with uncommon rapidity.
The Auftro-Ruflian army retreated to Maelk (30 miles
from Vienna) as the enemy advanced. The Auftrians
and Ruffians made no ftand between the Ens and
Vienna, which latter place the French entered on the
12th of October. Bonaparte arrived on the 13th, and
took up his quarters in the palace of Schoenbrun, about
two miles from the city of Vienna. The French troops
conducted themfelves with the utmoft propriety and
decorum, which prevented any difturbance from taking
place in the metropolis. ^55
On the 27th November, as Bonaparte perceived The dread-'
the dreadful carnage which wras inevitable from the con- battle
flift of two fuch prodigious armies as that of the allies
and his own, was extremely anxious to fpare the effu-
fion of human blood, and for this purpofe he propofed
an armiftiee, which was rejected with difdain. It was
not long before Bonaparte difeovered that the allies
were afling from prefumption, want of confideration,
and imprudence, of which circumftances he was but too
well qualified to take advantage. At funrife the battle
commenced, and a tremendous cannonade took place
along the whole line. It is almoft needlefs to remark,
that 200 pieces of cannon and 200,OQQ men made a .
^ suuIL;
FRA [ 200 ] FRA
i8qi
S56 ^
The French
account
contradict¬
ed by the
Ruilians.
fiance, moll tremendous noife. In lefs than an hour the whole
left wing of the allies was cut off, their right being by
that time at Aufterlitz, the head quarters of the Ruf¬
fian e»nd Auflrian emperors. From the heights of this
place the emperors witneffed the total defeat of the Ruf¬
fians by the French guard. The lofs fuftained by the
allies during the whole of this battle was eftimated at
150 pieces of cannon, with 45 Hand of colours, and
18,000 Ruffians, and 600 Auftrians wTere left dead on
the field. On the 5th of December an interview' took
place between the emperors of Auftria and France,
which lafted for two hours. An armiftice was mutual¬
ly agreed to, which w'as to ferve as the bafis of a defi¬
nitive treaty. The emperor of Ruffia wras comprehend¬
ed in this armirtice, on condition of marching home his
army in fuch a manner as the emperor Napoleon might
think proper to prefcribe. By virtue of the treaty of
peace, the French agreed to evacuate Brunn on
the 4th of January, Vienna on the 10th, and the
whole Auftrian ftates in fix weeks after the figning of
the treaty, except fuch as were ceded to Italy and
Bavaria.
It is certain, however, that the lofs of the Ruffians
in this terrible conflift wras declared by the court of Pe-
terfburgh to have been fliockingly exaggerated by the
French bulletins, which made the allied army amount
to 105,000, while it appears that the Ruffians wrere on-
ly 52*000 ftrong, and the Auftrians 17,000. Accord¬
ing to the Ruffian ftatement, they had not a deficit of
more than 17,000 men after that memorable battle,
while the French papers made it 35,000 men killed on
the field and taken prifoners, independent of 20,000
who were drowmed. Which cf thefe contradidlory re¬
ports is to be believed, we (hall leave entirely to the
judgment of our readers, who will probablv think with
us, that the one is perhaps too much diminiftied, and the
other rather exaggerated.
It would have required the invincible modefty of
on tbe con-a Waftiington, not to be elated with the extraordinary
tludl of the fuccefs, which attended the arms of Bonaparte in this laft
attack upon Germany •,—a qualification which he feems
never to have pofiefied. After the battle of Aufterlitz,
his -condmft was of confequence marked with the moft
horrid injuftice, tyranny, and rapine, both with refpect
to Hanover and the unfortunate king of Naples. I he
unexpefted turn which the iflue of that battle gave to
continental affairs, likewife changed the fentiments of
the cautious, the intriguing, and myfterious king of
Pruffia, on whofe co-operation the allies at a former pe¬
riod had certainly fome reafon to calculate, although it
does not appear that he was ever ferious in his profef-
fions of attachment to the intereft of Britain. Fie could
drain her coffers without granting her that effectual af-
fiftance which he ferupled not to promife, but which he
never intended to confer. Indeed itmuft be confeffed,
that after the battle of Aufterlitz, when both Auftria
and Ruffia were humbled by the Corfican ufurper, it
would have been madnefs in Frederick to aim a blow
againft France 5 but why not aim it before, when in all
probability it would have been eminently fuccefsful}
We admire the king who wifhes to make his fubje&s
happy, by keeping war at a diftance from them as
much as poffible j but we deteft that fovereign as the
worft of iwindlers, who receives payment for fuch affift-
557.
Itefledlions
king of
Pruffia.
ance to other nations againft their infatiable enemies as
he never defigns to grant.
The troops of his Pruffian majefty took poffeffion of
Hanover ; and the country of Anfpach was ceded to the
king of Bavaria, who received his royalty from the
hands of Napoleon I. The king of Naples took re¬
fuge in Sicily, hoping there to be protefted from the
vengeance of the felf-elefted monarch of France, by
the united exertions of the naval force of England,
Ruffia, and Sicily. His Neapolitan majefty no doubt
often violated the treaties which he made with France;
but it ought in charity to be remembered, that thefe
treaties were made under the impulfc of fear, the prof-
pe£t of impending deftrudtion, and to prevent a band
of robbers from plundering both him and his fubiedfs of
their laft fluffing. When the affairs of the continent at
any time wore a more favourable afpect, he no doubt
trampled on fucli extorted treaties, in the hope of re¬
gaining that of which he had been unjuftly deprived ;
and under fuch eircumftances even juftice itfelf cannot
condemn him, and the didlates of humanity commiferate |
his misfortunes. > -.-g
While the arms of Bonaparte were victorious in Eu- Ad.hnil
rope, his naval force in the Weft Indies received a Puckwortl
frefh proof that Britain reigns triumphant on the feas.
A fquadron under the command of Admiral Duck- fqua(iron
worth, engaged and deftroyed a French fquadron on in the Wet
the 7th of February, about 36 miles from the town of Indies.
St Domingo. Three of them, one of 84, and two of
74 guns, w'ere taken by the gallant admiral ; three of
them made their efcape, and two of them were com¬
mitted to the flames, viz. of 84, and other of 120 guns.
The lofs fuftained by the Britith on this occafton was
comparatively fmall, confidering the advantages of the
conqueft, the tola1 amount of the (lain being 74, and of
wounded 264. Much about the fame time the import¬
ant news of the furrender of the Cape of Good Hope
arrived in Britain, an expedition which had been wife¬
ly entmfted with Admiral Sir Home Popham, and Ge¬
neral Sir David Baird.
From the humbled fituation of the emperor of Ger¬
many after the memorable battle of Aufterlitz, it was
natural to expert that he would feel it his intereft to
make peace with the French emperor, and therefore
we {hall lay before our readers the treaty of Freiburg,,
which was figned and ratified on the 26th and 27th of
December, 180?. It confifts of twenty-three articles,
and forms no bad fpecimen of the kind of treaties the
powers of Europe have to expedft from Bonaparte,
when the fortune of war enables him to dictate the
terms.
Treaty of Peace between Auflria and France.
His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria,
and his majefty the emperor of the French, kingof Ita
ly, equally animated with a defire to put an end to the
calamities of war, have refolved to proceed without de¬
lay to the conclufion of a definitive treaty of peace.
This treaty contains 24 articles, of which the following
are the principal, and indeed the only ones that are in-
terefting to thofe ftates who are not immediately con¬
cerned in the treaty.
Article I. There {hall be from the date of this day,
peace and friendfliip between his majefty the emperor
FRA [ 201 ] FRA
.nee. of Germany and Auflria, and his majefty the em-
peror of the French, king of Italy, their heirs and
)0S' fucceflors, their Hates and fubjedls refpeftively, for
ever.
2. France fhall continue to poflfefs in property and fo-
vereignty the duchies, principalities, lordlhips, and ter¬
ritories beyond the Alps, which were before the pre-
fent treaty united and incorporated with the French
empire, or governed by the laws and government of
France.
3. The emperor of Germany and Auftria, for him-
felf, his heirs, and fucceffors, recognizes the difpofitions
made by his majefty the emperor of France, king of
Italy, relative to the principalities of Lucca and Piom-
bino.
4. The emperor of Germany and Auftria renounces,
as well for himfelf as for his heirs and fucceflbrs, that
part of the ftates of the republic of Venice, ceded to
him by the treaties of Campo Formio and Luneville,
(hall be united in perpetuity to the king of Italy.
5. The emperor of Germany and of Auftria acknow¬
ledges his majefty the emperor of the French as king of
Italy } but it is agreed that, in conformity with the de¬
claration made by his majefty the emperor of the French,
at the moment when he took the crown of Italy, that
as foon as the parties named in that declaration Ihall
have fulfilled the conditions therein expreffed, the
crowns of France and Italy Ihall be feparated for ever,
and cannot in any cafe be united on the fame head.
His majefty the emperor of Germany binds himfelf to
acknowledge, on the feparation, the lucceffor his ma¬
jefty the emperor of the French ihall appoint to himfelf
as king of Italy.
6. The prefent treaty of peace is declared to compre¬
hend their moft ferenehighneffes the eleftors of Bavaria,
Wirtemberg, and Baden, and the Batavian republic,
allies of his majefty the emperor of the French, in the
prefent war.
7. The eleflors of Bavaria and Wirtemberg having
taken the title of king, without ceafing neverthelefs to
belong to the Germanic confederation, his majefty the
emperor of Germany and Auftria acknowledges them in
that chara&er.
8. His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria,
as well for himfelf, his heirs -and lucceffors, as for the
^ princes of his houfe, their heirs and fucceffors refpec-
tively, renounces certain principalities, lordlhips, do¬
mains, and territories. [Thefe are fpecified in the
treaty, which declares alfo by whom they are hereafter
to be held].
14. Their majefties the kings of Bavaria and Wirtem¬
berg, and his moft ferene highnefs the eletftor of Ba¬
den, (hall enjoy over the territories ceded, as well as
over their ancient eftates, the plenitude of fovereignty,
and all the rights refultmg from it, which have been
guaranteed to them by his majefty the emperor of the
French, king of Italy, in the fame manner as his ma¬
jefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria, and his ma¬
jefty the king of Pruflia, over their German ftates. His
majefty the emperor of Germany and Auftria, both as
.chief of the empire, and as co-eftates, engages himfelf
not to oppofe any obftacle to the execution of the ails
which they may have made, or will make, in confe-
quence.
aj. His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auf-
Vol. IX. Part I.
tria, as well for himfelf, his heirs and fucceffors, as fof Franre.
the princes of his houfe, their heirs and fucceflbrs, re-—
nounees all the rights, as well of fovereignty as of pa- l8°^
ramount right to all pretenfions whatfoever, ailual or
eventual, on all the ftates, without exception, of their
majefties the kings of Bavaria and Wirtemberg, and of
his moft ferene highnefs the eleilor of Baden, and ge¬
nerally on all the ftates, domains, and territories, corn-
prifed in the circles of Bavaria, Franconia, and Swabia,
as well as to every title taken from the laid domains
and territories j and reciprocally, all pretenfions, a6tual
or eventual, of the laid ftates, to the charge of the houfe
of Auftria, or its princes, are, and Ihall be, for ever ex-
ting uilhed.
17. His majefty the emperor Napoleon guarantees
the integrity of the empire of Auftria in the ftate in
which it Ihall be in confequence of the prefent treaty
of peace.
18. The high contrafling parties acknowledge the
independence of the Helvetic republic, as eftabliihed by
the aft of mediation, as well as the independence of the
Batavian republic.
20. All commercial communications and relation*
are re-eftablilhed in the two countries on the fame foot¬
ing as before the war.
21. His majefty the emperor of Germany and Auf¬
tria, and his majefty the emperor of the French, king
of Italy, Ihall maintain between them the fame ceremo¬
nial as to rank and etiquette as was obferved before the
prefent war.
23. Immediately after the exchange of the ratifica¬
tion of the prefent treaty, commiffaries Ihall be named
on both fides to give up and to receive in the names of
their refpeftive fovereigns, all parts of the Venetian
territory not occupied by the troops of his majefty the
emperor of the French and king of Italy. The city of
Venice, the Lagunes, and the poffeflion of Terra Fir-
ma, (hall be given up in the fpace of 15 days j Vene¬
tian Iftria, and Dalmatia, the mouths of the Cattaro,
the Venetian iflts in the Adriatic, and all the places
and forts which they contain, in the fpace of fix weeks
from the exchange of the ratifications. The refpedlive
commiffaries will take care that the feparation of the
artillery belonging to the republic of Venice from the
Auftrian artillery be exaflly made, the former being
to remain entirely to the kingdom of Italy.
Done and figned at Freiburg the 26th of December,
1805.
(Signed) Ch. Maur. Talleyrand. (L. S.)
(Signed) John Prince of Lichtenstein.
(L. S.)
(Signed) Ignag, Count De Guylai.
We have approved, and do approve, the above trea¬
ty, in all and each of its articles therein contained ; we
declare, that it is accepted, ratified, and confirmed j
and we promife, that it Ihall be inviolably obferved.
In faith of which, we have given thefe prefents, figned
with our hand, counterfigned, and fealed with our im¬
perial feal.
At the palace of Schoenbrun, 27th December, 1805.
By the emperor, Napoleon, &e.
The following brief recapitulation by Bertrand dr
Moleville of the various revolutions which have agita-
C c ted
F B A [
ted France during a period of more than 15 years will,
it is hoped, from its concifenefs and perfpicuity, be ac¬
ceptable to our readers ; and with this we conclude our
hiftorical detail of thefe remarkable events.
“ Popular in fur re61 ions, and an army (fays the au-
progrefs of thor), have hitherto been the ufual means, or chief m-
the revolu- ftruments, of every revolution j but thofe infurreftions
France.
SS9
Rife and
tion,
being of the moll ignorant and unthinking clals of the
people, were always fomented by a certain number of
factious men, devoted to, and dependent upon, fome
ambitious chief, daring, brave, of military talents, foie
and abfolute condudor of every ftep of the revol t, and
mailer of all the means of the miurreaion. in the
hands of this chief, the foldiers, or people armed, were
but machines, which he fet in motion or reftramed ac¬
cording to his pleafure, and of which he always made
ufe to put an end to revolutionary diiorders and crimes,
as foon as the objedt of the revolution was gained bo
Caefar and Cromwell, after they had ufurped the lu-
preme power, loll no time in feeunng it to themielves,
bv placing it on the bafis of a wife and well-regulated
government ; and they employed, in queliing the trou¬
bles that had favoured their ufurpation, thole very le¬
gions, that fame army, which they had uied to excite
them. . , .
“ This was not the cafe in France : there, the revo¬
lution, or rather the firit of thofe it experienced, and
of which the others were the inevitable conlequence,
was not, whatever be fuppofed, the refult of a conlpi-
racy, or preconcerted plan, to overturn the throne, or
to place an ufurper upon it. It was unexpectedly en¬
gendered by a commixture of weaknefs, ignorance, ne¬
gligence, and numberlefs errors in the government, i he
iiates-general, however imprudent their convocation
may have been, would have produced only uleful re¬
forms if they had found the limits of their power mark¬
ed out by a hand fufficiently firm to have kept tnem
within that extent. It was, however, but too evident
that even before their opening, they were dreaded, and
that’ confequently they might attempt whatever they
pleafed. From that time, under the name of c/ubs,
various affociations and factions fprang up •, lome more
violent than others, but all tending to the lubverfion of
the exifting government, without agreeing upon the
form of that which was to be fubftituted : and at that
iunCture alfo the projeCts of the faCtion, whole views
were to have the duke of Orleans appointed lieutenant-
general of the kingdom, began to appear. .
0 “ This faction, or more properly this conlpiracy,
was indeed of the fame nature as thofe that had pro¬
duced all former revolutions, and might have been at¬
tended with the lame confequences, had the duke ol
Orleans been poffeffed of that energy of charaaer, tnat
bravery and daring fpirit, requifite in the leader oi a
party The people had already declared in his favour,
.and tie might very eafily have corrupted and brought
OVt r a great part of the army, had he been equal to the
command of it : but, on the very firit occafion of per-
fonal rilk, he difeovered fuch cowardice and mean-
nefs that he defeated his own confpiracy, and convin¬
ced all th,;fe who had entered into it, that it was im-
polfible to continue the revolution, either in his favour
or in conjunction with him. The enthufiafm the peo¬
ple had felt for him ended with the efforts of thole who
had excited it.
202 ] FRA
“ M. Necker, whom the multitude had affociated with Ffaiit*.
him in their homage, ftill preferved for fome time his
adorers, and that little cabal which was for ever exalt¬
ing him to the Ikies. Eut as he was inferior even to
the duke of Orleans in military talents and difpofitions,
he was as little calculated to be the leader of a revolu¬
tion, or of a great confpiracy : for which reafon his pa-
negyrifts then confined themfelves in their pamphlets
and placards, with which the capital was overrun, to-
infinuating that the only means of faving the ftate waa
to declare ]\I< Necker diSiotoT" y or at lealt to confer
upon him, under fome title more conliltent w ith the
monarchy, the authority and powers attached to that
republican office. In faCt, if after his diimilhon, in the
month of July 1789, he had dared to make this a con¬
dition of his return to the mmiitry, it is more than pro¬
bable that the king would have been under the neceffi-
ty of agreeing to it, and perhaps of re-eftablilhing im
his per Ion the office of mayor of the palace. At that
moment he might have demanded any thing : eight
days later, he might have been refilled every thing •,
and very foon after, he was reduced to ineak out of the
kingdom, in order to efcape the effeCts of the general
contempt and cenfure which he had brought upon him-
felf. , _
“ General La Fayette, who then commanded the 1 a-
rifian national guard, gathered the wrecks of all th»
popularity, and might have turned them to the greateft
advantage, if he had pofiefied 4 that reiolute character
and heroic judgment’of which Cardinal de Ketz (peaks,
and ‘ which ferves to diltinguilh what is truly honour¬
able and ufeful from what is only extraordinary, and
what is extraordinary from what is impi-ffible ’ With
the genius, talents, and ambition of Cromwell, he might
have gone as great a length j with a lets criminal ambi¬
tion, he might at leaft have made himielf mailer of the
revolution, and have directed it at his pleafure : in a
word, he might have lecured the triumph of whatever
party he Ihould have declared himfelf the leader. But
as unfit for i'upporting the charadter of Monk as that of
Cromwell, he foon betrayed the feeret of his incapacity^
to all the world, and was diitimgurihed in the crowd of
conftitutional ringleaders only by his three-coffiureds
plume, his epaulets, white horfe, and famous faying-—
4 I n fur re 6t ion is the molt facred of duties when oppref-
fion is at its height.’
44 The revolution, at the period when the tattion
that had begun it for the duke of Greleans became fen-
fible that he was-too much a coward to be the leader
ef it, and when La Fayette difeovered his inability to
conduct it, was too far advanced to recede or to flop ;
and it continued its progrels, but in aline that no other
revolution had taken, viz. without a military chief,
without the intervention of the army, and to gain tri¬
umphs, not for any ambitious confpirator, but tor poli¬
tical and moral innovations of the molt dangerous na¬
ture the molt i'uited to miflead the multitude, incapa¬
ble of comprehending them, and to let looie all the
paffions„ The more violent combined to deftroy every
thing: and their fatal coalition gave birth to Jacobinilm,
that terrible monfter, till then unknown, and till now
not fufficiently unmalked. This mon.ier took upon
itfelf alone to carry on the revolution j it directed, it
executed, all the operations of it, all the explofions, all
the outrages; it everywhere appointed the moft aftive
leaders.,
\
FRA
[ 203 I
FRA
Jllsnce.
5<fa
_ Slitu-
ti of
V ; com.
P' s the
revolu.
tici
leaders, and, as inftruments, employed the profligates of
every country. Its power far furpafled that which has
been attributed to the inquifition, and other fiery tri¬
bunals, by thofe who have fpoken of them with the
greateft exaggeration. Its centre was at Paris j and
its rays, formed by particular clubs in every town, in
every little borough, overfpread the whole furface of
the kingdom. The conflant correfpondence kept up
between thofe clubs and that of the. capital, or, to ufe
their own expreflions, des Societespopulates affihSes nvec
ia Societe mere—‘ between the affiliated popular Socie¬
ties and the parent Society,’ was as fecret and as fpeedy
as that of free-mafons. In a word, the Jacobin clubs
had prevailed in caufing themfelVes to be looked up to
as the real national reprefentation. Under that pre¬
tence they cenfured all the authorities in the mod im¬
perious manner *, and whenever their denunciations, pe¬
titions, or addrefles failed to produce an immediate ef-
fe£l, they gained their point by having recourfe to in-
furreflion, affaffination, and fire. While Jacobinifrh
thus fubjedted all France to its cdntroul, an immenfe
number of emiiTaries propagated its dodlrines among
foreign nations, and prepared new conquefts for it.
“ The national affembly, the capital, indeed we
may fay all France, was divided into three very diitindl
parties. The moft confiderable in number, but unhap¬
pily the weakeft through a deficiency of plan and refo-
lution, was the party purely royal : it was adverfe to
every kind of revolution, and was folely defirmis of
fome improvements, with the reform of abufes and pe¬
cuniary privileges:—the moft able,and moft intriguing,
was the conftitutional partVj or that which was defi-
rous of giving France a new monarchical conftitution,
but modified after the manner of the Engliffi, or even
the American, by a houfe of reprefentatives. The
third party was the moft dangerous of all, by its daring
fpirit, by its power, and by the number of profelytes
it daily acquired in all quarters of the kingdom : it
comprifed the democrats of every defcription, from the
Jacobin clubs, calling themfelves Friends of the conjii-
tution, to the anarchs and robbers.
“ The democratic party, which at firft was only
auxiliary to the conftitutional one, in the end annihilated
it, and became itfelf fubdivided into feveral other par¬
ties, uffiofe fatal ftruggles produced the fubfequent re¬
volutions, and may ftill produce many more. But in
principle, the conftitutionalifts and the democrats
formed two diftindt, though confederate, faftions *, both
were defirous of a revolution, and employed all the
ufual means of accompliffiing it, except troops, which
could be of no ufe to them, for neither of them had a
leader to put at the head of the army. But as it was
equally of importance to both that the king fhould be
deprived of the power of making ufe of it againft them,
they laboured in concert to diforganife it •, and the com¬
plete fuccefs of that manoeuvre was but too fully pro¬
ved by the fatal iffue of the departure of the royal fa¬
mily for MontrUedi. The revolution then took a more
daring and rapid ftride, which was concluded by the
- pretended conftitution aft of 1791. The incoherence
of its principles, and the defefts of its inftitutions, pre-
fent a faithful pifture of the difunion of its authors,
and of the oppofite interefts by which they were fway-
ed. It was, properly fpeaking, a compaft between the
faftion of the conftitutionalifts and that of the demo¬
crats, in which they mutually made conbeffions and I rare.*
facrifices. -y——«*
“ Be that as it may, this abfurd conftitution, the
everlafting fource of remorfe or forrow to all who bore
part in it, might have been got over without a (hock,
and led back to the old principles of monarchical go¬
vernment, if the affembly who framed it had not fe-
parated before they witneffed the execution of it j if,
in irripofing on the king the obligation to maintain it,
they had not deprived him of the power and the means $
and above all, if the certain confequence of the new
mode of proceeding at the eleftions had not been to
fecure, in the fecond affembly, a confiderable majority
of the democratic againft the conftitutional party.
“ The fecond affembly was alfo divided by three
faftions, the weakeft of which was the one that w iflied
to maintain the conftitution. The other two were for
a new revolution and a republic •, but they differed in
this, that the former, compofed of the Briffotins and
Girondifts, was for eftefting it gradually, by beginning
with divefting the king of popularity, and allowing the
public mind time to wean itfelf from its natural attach¬
ment to monarchy 5 and the latter, which was the leaft
numerous, was eager to have the republic eftabliffied as
foon as poffible. Thefe two faftions, having the fame
objeft in view, though taking different roads, were ne-
ceflarily auxiliaries to each other j and the pamphlets*
excitations to commotion, and revolutionary meafures
of both, equally tended to overthrow the conftitution
of 1791.
“ Thofe different faftions, almoft entirely compofed
of advofcates, folicitors, apoftate priefts, doftors, and a
few literary men, having no military chief capable of
taking the command of the army, dreaded the troops*
who had fworn allegiance to the conftitution and obe¬
dience to the king, and who moreover might be influ¬
enced by their officers, among whom there ftill remain¬
ed fome royalifts. The fureft way to get rid of all un-
eafinefs on this fubjeft, was to employ the army in de¬
fending the Frontiers. For this purpofe a foreign war
was heceffary, to which it was known that the king and
his council were equally averfe. No more was want¬
ing to determine the attack which was direfted, almoft
at the fame time, againft all the minifters, in order to>
compel them to retire, and to put the king under the»
neceffity of appointing others more difpofed to fecond
the views of the parties. Unhappily this attempt wafc
attended with all the fuccefs they had promifed them¬
felves ; and one of the firft afts of the new miniftry was
to declare war againft the emperor. At the fame time,
the emigration that had been provoked, and which wa*
almoft everywhere applauded, even by the loweft clafs
of people, robbed France of the flower of the royal
party, and left the king, deprived of his beft defenders,
expofed to the fufpicions and inful ts that fprang from
innumerable calumnies, for which the difafters at the
beginning of the war furnifhed but too many opportu¬
nities.
“ In this manner was prepared and accelerated the xhe feccnJ
new revolution, which w as accomplifhed on the 10th revolutiott.'
of Auguft 1792, by the depofition and imprifonment of
the king, and by the moft flagrant violation of the con¬
ftitution of 1791. The latter, however, was not entire¬
ly abandoned on that day * for the projeft of the Gi¬
rondifts, who had laid the plot of that hdm'ble confpi-
. C c z
FRA
[ 204 ]
FRA
France.
562
The third
revolution.
racy, teas then only to declare the king’s depofition, in
order to place the prince royal upon the throne, under
the guidance of a regency computed of their own crea¬
tures j but they were hurried away much farther than
they meant to go, by the violence with which the moll
furious of the Jacobins, who took the lead in the infur-
reclion, conducted all their enterprifes. The prince
royal, inttead of being crowned, was fliut up in the
Temple 3 and if France at that moment was not decla¬
red a republic, it was lefs owing to any remaining re-
fpeft to the conftitution, than to the fear the legiilative
body was in of railing an army againlt it, and alfo the
majority of the nation, who would naturally be angry
to fee a conilitution which feemed to be rendered ie-
cure and liable by fo many oaths, thus precipitately
overthrown, without their having been confulted,^
“It was on thefe confiderations that the opinion
was adopted, that a national convention Ihould be
convoked, to determine the fate of royalty. Prompt
in feizing all the means that might enfure the luceefs
of this fecond revolution, the affembly, under pretence
of giving every poflible latitude to the freedom of elec¬
tions, decreed, that all its members Ihould be eligible
for the national convention.
“ From that moment the Girondills daily loll ground,
and the moll darning members of the demogratic party,
i upper ted by the club of Jacobins, by the new com¬
mune of Paris, and by the tribunes, made themfelves
mailers of every debate. It was of the utmolt import¬
ance to them to rule the enfuing eleflions 3. and this
was fecurcd to them by the horrible conilernation which
the maffacres of the 2d of September tlruck through¬
out the kingdom. The terror of being affaflinated, or
at lead cruelly treated, drove from all the primary af-
lemblies, not only the royalilts and conllitutionalills,
but moderate men of all parties. Of courle, thofe af-
femblies became entirely compofed of the weakell men
and the greatell villains exilling in France 3 and from
among the mod frantic of them were chofen thofe mem¬
bers of the convention who were not taken from the
legidative body. Accordingly, this third affembly,
in the firll quarter of an hour of their fird fitting, were
heard diouting their votes for the abolition of royalty,
and proclaiming the republic, upon the motion of a
member who had formerly been a player.
“ Such an opening but too plainly drewed what was
to be expelled from that horde of plunderers which
compofed the majority of the national convention, and
of whom Robefpierre, Danton, Marat, and the other
ringleaders, formed their party, lhat of the Briilo-
tines and Girondids dill exiiled, and was the only one
really republican. I hefe lemi-wretches, glutted ^'ith
the horrors already committed, feemed delirous of ar-
reding the torrent of them, and laboured to introduce
into the affembly the calm and moderation that were
neceffary to give the new republic a wTile and lolid or¬
ganization. But the fuperiority of their knowledge,
talents, and eloquence, which their opponents could not
difpute, had no power over tigers thirding for blood,
who neither attended to nor fuffered motions but of the
blacked tendency. No doubt they had occafion for
atrocities upon atrocities to prepare the terror-druck
nation to allow them to commit, in its name, the mod
execrable of all, the murder of the unfortunate Louis
XVI.; and that martyrdom was neceffary to bring about
a third revolution, already brewing in the brain of
Robefpierre. Fear had greatly contributed to the two —
former : but this was effedted by terror alone, without
popular tumults, or the intervention of the armies 3
which, now drawn by their conqueits beyond the fron¬
tiers, never heard any thing of the revolutions at home,
till they were accomplidled, and always obeyed the pre¬
vailing faftion, by whom they were paid.
“ By the degree of ferocity difeovered by the mem¬
bers of the convention in pading fentence upon the
king, and in the debates relative to the conititution of
1 Robefpierre was enabled to mark which of the
deputies were likely to fecond his views, and which of
them it was his part to facrifice.
“ The people could not but with tranfport receive a
coniiitution which feetned to realife the chimera of its
fovereignty, but which would only have given a kind
of condrudlion to anarchy, if the execution of this new
code had not been fufpended under the pretext, belong¬
ing in common to all adls of defpotilm and tyranny, of
theJupreme /aw of the fafety^ of thejlate. I his fulpen-
fion was effeaed, by edabiidiing the provifionary go¬
vernment, which, under the title of revolutionary go¬
vernment, concentrated all the powers in the national
convention until there diould be au end to the w ar and
all intedine troubles.
“ Although the faaion, at the head of which Robe¬
fpierre was, had a decided majority in the affenibly,
and might confequently have confidered themfelves as
really and exclufively exercifing the fovereign power, he
was a demagogue of too deipotic a nature to domach
even the appearance of diaring the empire w ith fo many
co-fovereigns. He greatly reduced their number, by
caufing all the powers inveded in the national affem¬
bly by the decrees that had edablidied the revolu¬
tionary government, to be transferred to a committee,
to which he got himfelf appointed, and where he w as
fure of the foie rule, by obtaining for colleagues men
lefs daring than himfelf, though equally wicked 3 luch
as Couthon, St Jud, Barrere, and others like them.
This committee, who had the affurance to dyle them¬
felves the Committee of Public Safety, very loon feized
upon both the legiflative and executive powers, and ex-
ercifed them with the mod fanguinary tyranny ever
yet heard of. The minillers were merely their clerks 3
and the fubjugated affembly, w ithout murmur or objec¬
tion, palled all the revolutionary laws which were pro-
pofed, or rather diftated, by them. One of their mod
horrible and decifive conceptions was that ot thole re¬
volutionary tribunals which covered France with leaf-
folds, where thoufands ol victims of every rank,^ age,
and fex, were daily facrificed 3 fo that no clafs of men
could be free from that itupifying and general terror
which Robefpierre found it neceffary tolpread, in order
to ellablilh and make his power known. He foon him¬
felf dragged fome members of his own party, luch as
Danton, Camille des Moulins, and others, whofe energy
and popularity had offended him, before one ol thole
tribunals, where he had them condemned to death. By
the fame means he got rid of the chief leaders among
the Briffotines and Girondills 3 while he caufed all the
moderate republican party, who were Hill members of
the affembly, except thole who had time and addrels
to efcape, to be fent to prifon, in order to be fentenced
and executed on the firll occafion.
“ In
Franc?,
I
* I mere
FRA [ 205
“ In this manner ended the third revolution, in which fate,
the people, frozen with terror, did not dare to take a
part. Inftead of an army of foldiers, Robefpierre em- them,
ployed an army of executioners and affafiins, fet up as
revolutionary judges ; and the guillotine, ftriking or
menacing all heads indifcriminately, made France, from
one end to the other, fubmit to him, by the means of
terror or of death. Thus was this nation, formerly fo
proud, even to idolatry, of its kings, feen to expiate,
by rivers of blood, the crime of having fuffered his to
be fpilt who was the moil virtuous of all their mo-
narchs.
“ In the room of that famous Baftile, whofe cele¬
brated capture and demolition had fet only feven pri-
foners at liberty, two of whom had long been in a hate
of lunacy, the colleges, the feminaries, and all the reli¬
gious houfes of the kingdom, were converted into fo
many hate prifons, into which were inceffantly crowd¬
ed, from time to time, the vi&ims devoted to feed the
ever-working guillotines, which were never fuffered to
hand hill for a day, becaufe they were at once the chief
refource of fuppliesfor the government, and the inilru-
ment of its ferocity. * The guillotine coins money for
the republic,’ was faid in the tribune by one of Robe-
fpierre’s vileft agents *. In fafl, according to the ju-
rifprudence of the revolutionary tribunals, the rich of
every clafs, being declared fufpedled perfons, received
fentence of death, for no other reafon than that ot gi¬
ving the confifcation of their property a ihow of judi¬
cial form.
“ Still blood flowed too flowly to fatisfy Robefpierre j
his aim was but partly attained by the profcription of
the nobles, the priefts, and the wealthy. He fancied,
not only an ariftocracy of talents and knowledge, but
of the virtues, none of which would his trully orators
and journalifts admit, fave that horrid patriotijm w'hich
was eftimated according to the enormity of the crimes
committed in favour of the revolution. His. plan was
to reduce the French people to a mere plantation of
flaves, too ignorant, too ftupid, or too puiillanimous,
to conceive the idea of breaking the chains with which
he would have loaded them in the name of liberty 5 and
he might have fucceeded in it, had not his ambition, as
impatient as it w^as jealous, too foon unveiled the inten¬
tion of reforting to the guillotine to ftrike off the
fhackles with which an affembly of reprefentatives of
the nation fettered, or might fetter, his power. He
was about to give this decifive blow, which he had con¬
certed with the commune of Paris, the revolutionary
tribunal, the club of Jacobins, and the principal ofh
cers of the national guard, when the members of the
convention, who were marked out to be the firit facri-
fices, anticipated him at a moment when he leaft ex-
peffed it, by attacking himfelf in the affembly, with
energy fufficient to roufe all the i'edfions of the capital
againlt him and againfl the Jacobins. The parties came
to blows, and vidlory remained uncertain for feveral
hours j but at length declared againlf Robefpierre. In
the (pace of a day, that execrable monfter was dragged
from the higheft pitch of power ever attained by any
tyrant, to the very fcaffold that was ftill reeking with
the blood of his laid victims. His principal accomplices
in the committee of public fafety, in the commune,
m the national guard, in the revolutionary tribunal,
and many of his agents in the provinces; met the fame
] FRA
The revolutionary tribunals wTere fuppreffed, and France,
the prifons thrown open to all whom they had caft into
* 564
“ This fourth revolution, in which the fa&iori thenthe confti-
efteemed the moderate party overthrew the terrorifts, tution of
and feized the fupreme power, was no lefs complete I795‘
than thole which had preceded it, and produced the
conllitution of 1795. All France received as a great
blefling a conrtitution that delivered them from the re¬
volutionary government and its infernal policy. Befides
it had, in fpite of great defefts, the merit of coming
nearer than the two preceding ones, to the principles
of order, of juflice, and real liberty 5 the violation of
which had, for five years before, been the fource of fo
many difad ers and fo many crimes. The royal ids, con-
lidering it as a dep towards monarchy, were unfortu¬
nately fo imprudent as to triumph in it j and their joy,
as premature as indifereet, alarmed the affembly to fuch
a degree, that they paffed the famous law, ordaining
the primary affemblies to return two-thirds of the mem¬
bers of the convention to the legidative body, which
was to fucceed that affembly. It was thus that the
fpirit of the convention continued, for the firft year, to
be difplayed in the two councils.
“ In the year following, the bias of the public mind,
perhaps too hadily turned towards royalty, diew’ed it-
felf in the eledtions of the members for the new third,
fo clearly as to alarm the regicides who compofed the
direftory, and the conventionalids, who dill made a
third of the legiilative body ; nor did they lofe a mo¬
ment in deviling means for their defence. That which
appeared the lured to them was, to publidi notices of
plots among the royalids, and annex one or more de¬
nunciations, in terms fo vague as to leave room for im¬
plicating, when neceflary, all their adverfaries; while
by the help of this impodure they procured fome fecret
information, artfully fabricated, and ever ealily obtain¬
ed through threats or rewards by thofe who have at
command the guillotine and the public treafure.
“ This malked battery was ready to be opened be¬
fore the members of the new third took their feats.
Thefe at fird confined themfelves to the fecuring of a
condant majority in the two councils in favour of the
moderate opinions ; but in a little time every fitting
was marked by the repeal of fome revolutionary law,
or by fome decree tending to redrain the executive au¬
thority within the limits fixed by the conftitution.
“ The dire&ory, alarmed at the abridgement of their The fifth
power, and dreading dill more ferious attacks upon it, revolution,
came to a refolution of no longer podponing the blow
they had been meditating againd the legidative affem¬
bly: and they accomplilhed, in the manner already re¬
lated, a fifth revolution, as complete as any of thofe
by which it was preceded. It differed indeed from
them effentially in the facility and promptnefs with
which it was effefled, although the party which pre¬
vailed, that is to fay, the majority of the directory, and
the minority of the legidative body, had to combat
not only againd the conditution, but againd the opi¬
nion, and even againd the indignation of the public.
That moral force, on which the majority of the two
councils had unluckily placed all their reliance, vanidi-
ed in an indant before the phyfical force of a detach¬
ment of troops confiding of fix or feven hundred men j
fo true is it that the power of the public opinion, ri-
diculoufiy
’France.
¥ K A
t 2C6 ]
F R A
diculoufly exaggerated in thefe days, is and can be no
more, under a firm and well ordered government, than
a mere fancy. Men accuftom thcmfelves too eafily to
take for public opinion the private opinions made public
by certain writers, whole caution or audacioulnefs de¬
pends always upon the energy or feeblenefs of the fu-
preme authority. It is the fame thing with popular
commotions : they are ealiiy excited under a weak go¬
vernment, which does not poffefs the wifdom to prevent
•or the fpirit to fupprefs them •, but a vigorous, juft, and
ft rift government has nothing to fear from them. Ihe
direftory, compelled to withdraw the larger body of
troops, which they had thought neceflary to enfure the
revolution they were meditating, difcovered, no doubt,
great ability in fecuring the two councils, by appearing
to dread them : but it was chiefly to the energy of
their meafures, and to the concentration and prompt-
nefs with which they were executed, that they owed
their fuccefs. X'wo days before, the legiflative body
might, without obftruftion, have impeached, arrefted,
-and even outlawed, the majority of the direftory, who
tv ere execrated by the public under the title of trium¬
virate ; and, if requifite, they would have been lupport-
ed by more than 30,000 armed citizens, who, with
Pichegru and Villot at their head, would foon have
difperfed, and perhaps brought over, the feeble detach¬
ments of troops of the line which the direftory had at
'their command. The legiflative body, relying too much
upon its popularity, did not fufliciently conlider,
the people, whofe impetuofity is commonly decifive
when allowed to take advantage in attack, are. always
feeble on the defenflve, and totally unable to withftand
France,,
S«»
every affault made, previous to an infurreftion, for it is
566
The fixth
revolution,
and confu-
lar govern¬
ment .
always eafy to prevent their affernbling. It
this principle that the direftory founded their opera¬
tions, and the 5th of September too well proves how
juftly. That day reduced the legiflative body, by the
mold degrading fubjugation, to a mere difgufting cari¬
cature of national reprefentation ; it invefted the direc¬
tory with the moft arbitrary and tyrannic power, and
reftored the fyftem of Robefpierre, under a form lefs
bloody, but not lefs pernicious •, for the revolutionary
tribunals which that monfter had eftablifhed, were
fcarcely more expeditious than the military ones of.the
..direftory. The power of arbitrary and unlimited
tranfportation is,, in time., as deftruftive as the guillo¬
tine, without poffefling, like that, the advantage of ex¬
citing a falutary horror, which, by recovering the peo¬
ple from the ft ate of ftupor and apathy,, the con ftant
effefts of terror, gives them both recolleftion and force
to break their chains. Though, in violating the moft
eflential regulations of the conftitution, the direftory
obtained a temporary confirmation of their power, their
example pointed out to Bonaparte and Sieyes the path
which they purfued with infinite addrefs, and in which
they accomplifhed a fixth revolution.
The changes which fucceeded, from the confular to
the imperial and defpotic government of France, are
frefh in the mind of every reader, fo that the account
of them need not be repeated.
Climate of
France.
In a country fo extenfive as that of France,, it is not
to be expefted that the climate fhould be invariably the
fame •, but it is certainly clearer and more falubnous
tipon the whole than that of Britain $ and it is admira¬
bly adapted to the cultivation of the vine, without which
many parts of it would perhaps continue in a flate of
nature. The country prefents to the eye a level ap¬
pearance in general, but feveral mountains are met with
in the fouthern parts of it, fuch, for example, as Au¬
vergne, Languedoc, Dauphine, and Provence, borne
reckon the Limoufin the moft beautiful province in.
France, although many parts of it befides this exhibit
a charming diverfity of hills and valleys, and lome of
the rivers, but the Seine in particular, often aflame a
pifturefque appearance. It cannot be faid that agii-
culture has attained to the perfection which it.has.done
in Britain *, yet in different provinces the cultivation of
the ground feems to keep pace with its fertility, and
the hulbandmen of others dilplay a degree of induftry
which is deferving of commendation. As a linking
proof of this, many mountains of the Cevennes, only
remarkable for their fterility, have been rendered ex¬
tremely fertile by the indefatigable exertions of induftry. ^
The moft remarkable rivers of France are. commonly Rivers,
reckoned four in number, the Seine, Loire, Rhone,,
and the Garonne, although there are. many others ol
inferior note. The Seine, is univeifally allowed to be
a beautiful river, which takes its rife in the department
of Coted’Or, and, after traverfing a country of about 2jO
miles in extent, falls into the Enghfh channel at
Havre de Grace. The fource of the Loire is in Mont
Gerbier, in what was formerly called Languedoc, and
after running about 500 miles,- empties itlelf into the
fea beyond Nantes. The Rhone rifes from the Glacier
of Furea, and the Garonne in the vale oi Arau in the
Pyrenees. The inferior rivers are the Saone, Dordogne,
and a number of leffer ftreams which form a jundtion
with.the Loire. . . u u
There are numerous tnountains in France, but there j\i6xmta
are none which are of a great height. It is per¬
haps difputable whether we ihould confider Mont
Blanc among the number, but if we do lo, no other
mountain in thevaft chain of the Alps can exceed it in
height. Thofe of Brittany confift chiefly if. not wholly
of granite, but there is nothing remarkable in their ele¬
vation. France is divided from Switzerland, by Mont
Jura ; but the principal chain of mountains is that de¬
nominated Cevennes, running from north to fouth, and
fending out ramifications from eaft to weft. . Some na-
turalifts are of opinion, that certain volcanic appear¬
ances may be traced among the mountains in the de¬
partments of Cantal and the Upper Loire 5 but the
bafaltic columns of which they chiefly confift, either do
not favour this conjefture, or leave the truth 0f .1t ex¬
tremely problematical. ft he loftieft mountains m
France are thofe called Monts d’Or, which cpnftitute
the centre, of which Puy de Sanli forms the chief e e-
vation, its height being computed at 6300 feet above
the level of the fea. This mountain is. covered with
perpetual fnow, from the Tides of which iffues the river
Dordogne. , .
The Pyrenees have been known and celebrated m
hiftory fmce the time of Herodotus, and may with equal
propriety be confidered as belonging either to France
or Spain ; although they have been more ably and mi¬
nutely defcribed by the learned of the former country.
Shells and Ikeletons of animals have been found
the Pyrenees, which may afford matter for ample dit-
cuflion to ihe admirers of nature’s produftions. Marine
productions
5*
FRA
C 207 J
FRA
fafncfc.
57°
TltS,
S7i
jnals*
productions Lave been difcovered on tbe top of Mont
' Perdu, which it is extremely difficult to afcend, becaufe,
in many places, it is almoft perpendicular for nearly 600
feet j and near the fummit there is a lake about 9000
feet above the level of the fea.
There are many forefts in France, and of conlider-
able extent, to t)ie growth of which it becomes of im¬
portance to attend, as the chief fuel which the inhabi¬
tants can command is wood. The largeft forefts are
thofe ®f Orleans and Ardennes, but our limits forbid
us to give an enumeration of the reft, which could an-
fwer no important purpofe.
Of the botanical ftate of this country nothing can
be advanced with certainty for although its produc¬
tions of this nature may be faid to have been examined
around Paris, Lyons, and Montpelier, with confider-
able accuracy, yet much is ftill wanting to furnifh any
thing like a complete hiftory of its vegetables. We
have no certain accounts of what are purely indigenous
or what'are exofic, although the former muft be more
abundant in France than in any other Luropean coun¬
try.
The horfes of this country are certainly inferior to
thofe of Britain ; and in former times its raonarchs
were drawn by oxen to the national aflemblies. Their France,
cattle are of a beautiful cream colour, but their fheep v——y*—^
are much inferior to the Fnglifh, owing perhaps to
their wretchedly ill management, tbeir meat being ftraw
during the winter feafon inftead of green food. France
in fome places is infefted by the wild boar and the wolf,
while the ibex and chamois inhabit the Pyrenees and
the Alps. 373
At one period there were gold mines in the fouthem Minerals,'
parts of France, and particles of that precious metal are
ftill to be found in fome of the rivulets. There are
mines of filver in Alface, and mines of copper in the
departments of the Alps. The duchy of Deux Fonts
contains mines of mercury; antimony is found in Ar-
deche ^ and abundance of iron, the moft extenfively ufe-
ful of all the metals, is met with in the northern de¬
partments, for the working of which there were com¬
puted to be 2000 furnaces employed in the year 1798.
The population of France has been varioully eftimat- p0puiIuo»*
ed by different writers •; but we hope our readers will
find a pretty accurate account of it by infpe&ing the
following table, which exhibits the number contained
in each department, according to the republican divifioiv
of it iinue the revolution.
Ancient Province!.
Flandre Fran^oife.
Artois. . .
Picardie. . , .
Normandie.
Ifle de France. .
Champagne. .
Lorraine. .
Alface. . v
Bretagne.
Maine and Perche.
A.njou. . .
Touraine. .
Orleannois.
Berri. , ,
Departments.
Nord.
Pas-de-Calais.
Somme.
Seine Inferieure.'
Calvados.
Mancha.
Orne.
Eure,
Seine.
Seine and Gife.
Oife.
Aifne,
Seine and Marne,
Marne.
Ardennes;
Aube.
Haute Marne.
Meufe.
Mofelle.
Meurthe.
Vofges.
Haut-Rhin,
Bas-Rhin.
Ifle and Vilaine.
Cotes du Nord.
Finifterre.
Morbihan.
Loire Inferieure.
Sarthe.
Mayenne,
Mayenne and Loire.
Indie and Loire.
Loiret.
Eure and Loire.
Loire and Cher.
Indre,
Cher.
Papulation.
Chief Towns.
578,435
532,741
466,998
640,890
484,21 2
317,12°
4°7>475
257,986
738,522
437,604
355,634-
408,174
29I>I59
291,484
253,902
228,814
222,585
257,237
379,001
336,895
1I5A46
330>4°8
448,483
511,840
53°>44I
220,108
4I5>I94
45L336
381,241
324»73a
442,482
264,935
200,031
210,179
307,084
216,882
219.459
Douai.
Arras.
Amiens.
Rouen,
Caen.
Coutances.
Alen^on.
Evreux,
Paris.
Verfailles.
Beauvais.
Laon.
Melun.
Chalons-fur Marne.
Mezieres.
Troyes.
Chammont.
Bar-fur-Ornain.
Metz.
Nancy.
Epinal.
Colmar.
Strafbourg.
Rennes.
St Brieux.
Quimper.
Vannes,
Nantes.
Le Mans.
Laval.
Angers,
Tours.
Orleans
Chartres,
Blois.
Chateauroux.
Bourges.
Nivernois.
I
France.
FRA
Ancient Provinces.
Nivernois.
Bourgogne.
Franche-Compt6.
Poitou. . •
Marche. . .
Liraofin.
Bourbonnois.
Saintonge and Aunis.
Angoumois and partof Saintonge.
Auvergne.
Lyonnois, Foret and Beaujolols.
Dauphine.
Guyenne, comprehending Gaf-
cogne. • • •
Bearn.
Comte de-Foix. .
Rouflillon.
Languedoc.
Provence.
Corfica.
[ 208 ]
Departments.
Nievre.
Yonne.
Cote d’Or.
Saone and Loire.
Ain.
Haute-Saone.
Doubs,
Jura.
V endee.
Deux-Sevres.
Vienne.
Haut-Vienne, -comprifmg part of
Limofm.
Creuze.
Correze, comprifing part of Up¬
per Vienne.
Allier.
Charente-Inferieure.
Charente.
Puy-de-d6me.
Cantal.
Rhone.
Loire.
Ifere.
Hautes-Alpes.
Drome.
Dordogne.
Gironde.
Lot and Garonne.
Lot.
Aveyron.
Gers.
Landes.
Hautes-Pyrenees.
Baffes-Pyrenees.
Arriege.
Pyrenees-Orientales.
Haute-Garonne.
Aude.
Tarn.
Garde.
Lozere.
Ardeche.
Haute-Loire.
Heraut.
Bouches-du Rhone.
Baffes-Alpes.
Var.
Golo.
Liamone.
F R A
Population. Chief Toivns.
238,812
127,510
339>86°
440,773
288,700
284,073
216,878
284,460
29U433
256,057
3i8>51j
129,006
225,373
254,502
266.105
420,896
3l9A27
5°5>332
243,708
3°5454
322>965
430.106
116,754
232,619
441,380
557485
404,936
387,019
332>09°
288,555
311,267
180,093
368431
194,838
106,171
3IO,672
219,101
271,402
309,802
132,502
273,255
259443
273452
323477
144436
262,926
157^74
210,710
Trance,
Nevers.
Auxerre.
Dijon.
Ma^on.
Bourg.
Vefoul.
Befan^on.
Lons-le-Saunier.
Fontenay-le-Peuple.
Niort.
Poitiers.
Limoge.
Gueret.
Tulle.
Moulins.
Saintes.
Angouleme.
Clermont.
St Flour.
Lyons.
Montbrifon.
Grenoble.
Gap.
Valence.
Perigueux.
Bourdeaux.
Agen.
Cahors.
Rhodez.
Auch.
Mont-de-Marfan.
Tarbe.
Pan.
Tarafcon.
Perpignan.
Touloufe.
Carcaffonne.
Cadres.
Nifmes.
Mende.
Privas.
Le Puy.
Montpellier.
Aix.
Digne.
Toulon.
Baftia.
Ajaccio.
574
Religion,
fee.
The eftabliftied religion is that of the church of
Rome, but entirely independent of the Holy fee j and
the revenues of the clergy are not fo extenfiye as to
render them formidable to the prefervation of the date.
Of its political conditution, as that is an ignis fatuus
which eludes all defeription, little need be laid. The
government at prefent is a military defpotifm, and Bo¬
naparte, once fird conful, now emperor, owes his very
exidence, either as a man ©r a monarch, to the attach-
Let him lofe that, and he is ine-
ment of the foldiery.
vitably undone. # • a ^
Since the revolution, it is perhaps impoflible to give Army,
a jud account of the drength of the French army, for
both themfelves and their enemies made it, we believe,
more numerous than it really was, although both parties
mud have been afluated by very different motives.
The numerous defeats which the allies experienced,
rendered it neceffary to fpeak of their antagonids as a
uever-
. '*r''
-
F R A [ 209 1 FRA
76
77
onus-
7?
aing.
79
s, Sec.
never-to-be-dimmifhed fwarm of men, and the French
no doubt gave exaggerated reports of their own a'ftual
ftrength, in order to intimidate the allies. In the time
of the old government, the army amounted to 170,000
infantry, 44,000 cavalry, and 11,000 artillery j and
perhaps at no period of the revolution did it ever exceed
600,000 men, although it has been often magnified to
the prodigious total of a million.
The naval force of France was once formidable even
to Britain : but the decided fuperiority in this refpeft
has been invariably polleffed by the latter country ever
fince the battle of La Hogue. The combined naval
idrength of France and Spain could not refill the impe-
tuofity of a.Britilh fleet off Trafalgar, under the com¬
mand of the ever memorable Lord Nellon.
The revenue of France, during the exiftence of the
old government, has been eftimated at thirty millions
fterling, but the clear produce could not exceed eighteen
millions, after the deduction of all expences. Under
the prefent ufurpation, however, it is impoflible to
make any eilimate of its amount, as it is often aug¬
mented in an unknown and fluctuating ratio by plunder
and rapine.
With refpeCl to literature, France certainly holds a
diflinguithed place among the nations of Europe ; and
if the palm has been adjudged to Italy and Britain by
fome authors, in point of bold invention and profound
philofophical fpeculations, French authors are to be
met with in great abundance who have done honour to
human nature by their polite learning, and elegant as
well as ufeful feience. Altogether independent of a
Corneille, a Racine, a Crebillon, a Moliere, or a Vol¬
taire, this country has, at a more modern period, pro¬
duced many diflinguifhed writers in literature and
philofophy, whofe productions will continue to be
read and admired, fo long as men retain a fenfe of the
value and importance of the faiences they refpeClively
lull rate.
At one period there were no fewer than 21 univerfi-
t’ies in France, of which the Sorbonne at Paris was
reputed the moll celebrated, the fame of which drew
numbers of ftudents from difiant countries. 1 here were
about 39 academies and literary focieties, which pro¬
duced many elegant and valuable diiTertations on the
dirTerent faiences, which have been long known to, and
juftly efteemed by, the learned world.
The cities of France are very numerous, and many
of them make a molt confpicuous figure. Paris, which
is ftill the metropolis, has been fometimes reckoned a
third fmaller than Londen, and its population dated at
600,000 fouls. It has often been confidered as fuperior
to London in point of magnificence, but it is undoubted¬
ly inferior, both in regard to convenience and cleanli-
nefs, the flreets in general having very poor accommo¬
dations for pafftngers on foot ;—a defeat for which no
elegance or magnificence can fully compenfate. The
next to Paris in importance, is the city of Lyons, the
population of which is computed at 100,0004 but the
defolation which it differed during the tremendous reign
of Jacobin fury it will perhaps never recover, as the
abolition of monarchy was the innocent caufe of the
ruin of its trade, which confided chiefly in the ma¬
nufacture of fuch fplendid articles as were confumed by
the court.
Next to Lyons we may mention Marfeilles and Bour-
Vol. IX. Part I.
deaux, each of which are computed to contain about rr.mce.
80,000 people ; and the port of the former city is per- -'v*—''
haps the bell, as well as the mod frequented, of any in
the Mediterranean. Lifle and Valenciennes are both
drongly fortified cities, the former of which has a popu¬
lation of about 60,000. It furrendered to the com¬
bined powers in the year 1793, but the French retook
it in the following year. The remaining cities, of
which we can only give a bare enumeration, are
Amiens, Rouen, Bred, Nantes, Orleans, Nancy, Metz,
Strafbmrg, Touloufe, Montpelier, &e. none of them
having a population under 30,000 fouls, many of them
carrying on an extenfive trade, and all of them abound¬
ing with elegant buildings.
There are ieveral public edifices in France, which
command the admiration of every beholder, fuch as the
palace of Verfailles, the beautiful and magnificent
bridge of Neuille, and the ancient cathedrals and
cadles, of which there are prodigious numbers. The
bridge of Neuille indeed has been reckoned fuperior to
any in Europe. ,gc
Many exertions have been made at different periods, Canals,
to improve the inland navigation of France. The great
Henry IV. began the celebrated canal of Burgundy,
which was finiihed by Louis XIII. and by which a com¬
munication isopened between the rivers Loire and Seine.
It confills of 42 locks, and is of lingular importance to
the commerce of the weltern provinces. The canal of
Picardy reachesfrom the river Somme totheOile, taking
its rife from St Ouintin, and affording an intercourfe
to the provinces lying on the north-eaft. But the
greatell and moll expenfive work of this nature in
France, which was begun and finiihed by Louis XIV.
is the canal of Languedoc, which was completed in 15
years. It is 144 feet broad, fix feet deep, and about
183 miles long, and it coll upwards of half a million
ilerling- r X r . cSr
1 he total amount of the exports of r ranee in the Trade,
year 17S4, exclufive of the provinces of Lorraine and
A1 face, and the trade with the We-ft Indies which has
been fince carried on, w as 307,151,7 o liyres, and her
imports 271,365,000, leaving a balance-of 3,5,786,700
livres, which amount to 1,565,668!. llerling. Britilh
commerce has been on the increafe ever linee the com¬
mencement of the revolution, while it may be jullly
faid that the trade of France has been proportional¬
ly on the decline, although we cannot affert with a
certain geographer, that it has been “ a I moil annihi¬
lated.”
//Z? of FRANCE., a late province of France, but now
divided into five departments, and lo called, becaufe it
was formerly bounded by the rivers Seine, Marne, Oife,
Aifne, and Ourque. It comprehends belides Paris, the
Beauvoifis, the Valois, the county of Senlis, the Vexin,
the Hurepois, the Gatinois, the Multien, the Goele,
and the Mantois. Paris is the capital.
FRANCFORT on the Maine, an imperial and han-
featic town of Franconia in Germany, where the em¬
perors were formerly defied. It is a handfome, firong,
and rich place, and has a great deal of commerce.
Here the golden bull is preferved, which is the origi¬
nal of the fundamental laws of the empire. It is feated
in a fine fertile plain 5 and w’dl fortified with a double
ditch, baflions, redoubts, and ravelins. The flreets
are remarkably wide, and the houfes handfomely built.
D d It
FRA
Trancfort It has a great conveniency for carrying on an extenfive
II . trade with the other parts of Germany, by means of
Franchife. ^ navigabie river which runs through it. It was
' taken in October 1792, by the French, who were dif-
pofleffed of it by the Pruffians in December following j
it was.again taken by the French in July 1796, but they
evacuated it to the Auftrians in September following.
The fuburb is called Saxon-haufen^ and joined to the
town by a ftone bridge built over the Maine. E. Long.
8. 37. N. Lat. 30. 7.
FRANCFOET on the Oder, a rich and handfome town
of Germany, in the middle marche of Brandenburgh,
formerly imperial, but now fubjeft to the king of Pruffia.
It is remarkable for three great fairs, and a celebrated
univeriity , and was taken by the French in 1806.
It lies about 45 miles fouth eaft of Berlin, and 72
fouth of Stetin. E. Long. 14. 45. N. Lat. 52. 22.
FRANCHE-COMPTE, a late province of France,
bounded on the fouth and weft by Champagne and Bur¬
gundy j on the north by Lorram j. and to the eaft by
the earldom of Mumplegard, and Switzerland. It is in
length from north to fouth about 30 leagues •, in breadth
about 20. It is partly flat and_ partly hilly. The
flat country is fruitful in grain, wine, hemp, and paf-
ture •, and "the hilly country abounds in cattle, produ¬
cing alfo fome wine and corn, copper, lead, iron, and
diver ores, mineral waters, and (juarnes of flone, marble,
and alabafter. It now forms the three departments of
Doubs, Jura, and Upper Saone.
FRANCHISE, in Law. Franchife and libertij are
ufed as fynonymous terms } and their definition is, . a
royal privilege, or branch of the king s pierogative,
fubfifting in the hands of a fubjeft.” Being therefore
derived from the crown, they muft arife from the king’s
grant ; or in fome cafes may be held by prefeription,
which, as has been frequently faid, prefuppofes a grant.
The kinds of them are various, and almoft infinite.
We fhall here briefly touch upon fome of the principal,
premifing only, that they may be veiled in either natural
perfons or bodies politic } m one man, or in many . but
the fame identical franchife, that has before been grant¬
ed to one, cannot be bellowed on another, for that would
prejudice the former grant.
To be a county palatine, is a franchife veiled in a
number of perfons. It is like wife a fianchile for a
number of perfons to be incorporated and fubfift as a
body politic *, with a power to maintain perpetual fuc-
ceflion, and do other corporate a£ts : and each indivi¬
dual member of fuch corporation is alfo faid to have a
franchife or freedom Other franchifes are, to hold a
qourt leet *, to have a manor or lordfliip •, or, at lead,
to have a lordlhip paramount : to have waifs, wrecks,
eftrays, treafure-trove, royal filh, forfeitures, and deo-
dands : to have a court of one’s own, or liberty of
holding pleas and trying caufes : to have the cogni¬
zance of pleas ; which is ftill a greater liberty, being
an exclufive right, fo that no other court ftiall try cau-
fes arifing within that jurifdiflion : to have a bailiwick,
or liberty exempt from the fheriff of the county ;
wherein the grantee only, and his officers, are to exe¬
cute all procefs : to have a fair or market} with the
right of taking toll, either there or at any other pub¬
lic places, as at bridges, wharfs, or the like *, which
tolls muff have a reafonable caufe of commence¬
ment (as in confideration, of repairs, or the like), elfe
FRA
the franchife is illegal and void : or laftly, to have a FiancKi f
foreft, chafe, park, warren, or fifhery, endowed with l) '
privileges of royalty. See Chase, Forest, &c.
Franchise is alfo ufed for an afylum or fanftuary, !
where people are fecure of their perfons, &c. Churches
and monafferies in Spain are franchifes for criminals 4
fo were they anciently in England, till they were abufed
to fueh a degree that there was a neceffity for abolilh-
ing the cuftom. One of the moft remarkable capitu¬
lars made by Charlemagne in his palace of Heriffal,
in 779, was that relating to the franchifes of churches.
The right of franchife was held fo facred, that even
the lefs religious kings obferved it to a degree of feru-
puloufnefs : but to fuch excefs in time was it carried,
that Charlemagne refolved to reduce it. Accordingly
he forbade any proviiion being carried to criminals re¬
tired into churches for refuge.
FRANCHISE of Quarters, is a certain fpace or diftrift
at Rome, wherein are the houfes of the ambafladors
of the princes of Europe } and where fuch as retire
cannot be arrefted or feized by the fbirri or lerjeants,.
nor profecuted at law. The people of Rome look
on this as an old ufurpation and a feandalous privilege^,
which ambaffadors, out of a jealoufy of their power,
carried to a great length in the 15th century, by en¬
larging infenfibly the dependencies of their palaces or
houfes, within which the right of franchife was an¬
ciently confined. Several of the popes, Julius Ilf,
Pius XIV. Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V. publithod
bulls and ordinances again!! this abuse j which had
refeued fo confiderable a part of the city from their
authority, and rendered it a retreat for the moft aban¬
doned perfons. At length Innocent XI. exprefsly re-
fufed to receive any more ambafladors but fuch as
would make a formal renunciation of the franchife of
quarters.
FRANCIS I. king of France, the rival of the em¬
peror Charles V. and the reftorer of learning and polite-
nefs in France. See {HiJlonj of) France.
FRANCIS, Philip, a very ingenious writer, of Irifir
extradfion, if not born in that kingdom. His father
was a dignified clergyman in Ireland, being dean of
fome cathedral 4 and our author, his fun, was alio
bred to the church, and had a dodlor’s degree confer¬
red on him. He was more diftinguiflred as a tranfla-
tor than as an original writer. His verfions of Horace
and Demofthenes have been juftly valued : the former
is accompanied with notes, and is perhaps as complete
and ufeful a work of its kind as hath yet appeared.
He was alfo a confiderable political writer j and in the
beginning of the prefent reign is fuppofed to have
been employed by the government : for which ler-
vice he was promoted to the redlory of Barrow in,
Suffolk, and to the chaplainlhip of Chelfea hofpital..
He was alfo the author of two tragedies, Eugenia
and Conftantia 5 but as a dramatic writer, not very
fiiccefsful. He died at Bath in March 1773 J leaving
a fon, who was then one of the fupreme council at
Bengal.
FRANCISCANS, in Ecclefwflcal Bijlory, are re¬
ligious of the order of St Francis, founded by him in
the year 1209. Francis was the fon of a merchant of
Affifi, in the province of Umbria, who,- having led a
diffolute life, was reclaimed by a fit of ficknefs, and
afterwards fell into an extravagant kind of devotion,
that
[ 210 ]
FRA [2
Incifc-ans. that looked lefs like religion than alienation of mind.
'-v-—' Soon after this, viz. in the year 1208, hearing the
padage repeated, Mat. x. 9. 10. in which Chrilt ad-
drefles his a pottles, Provide neither go/d^ nor Jilver, &c.
he was led to con fide r a voluntary and abfolute poverty
as the effence of the gofpel, and to prefcribe this po¬
verty as a facred rule both to himfelf and to the few
that followed him. This new fociety, which appeared
to Innocent III. extremely adapted to the prefent Hate
of the church, and proper to rettore its declining credit,
was folemnly approved and confirmed by Honorius III.
in 1223, and had made confiderable progrefs before
the death of its founder in 1226. Francis, through an
exceflive humility, would not fuffer the monks of his
order to be called fratres^ i. e. brethren or friars, but
fraterculi, i. e. little brethren, or friars-minor, by which
denomination they Hill continue to be diftinguithed.
They are alfo called gray friars, on account of the
colour of their clothing, and cordeliers, &c. The
Francifeans and Dominicans were zealous and aftive
friends to the papal hierarchy, and, in return, were
diftinguithed by peculiar privileges and honourable
employments. The Francifeans, in particular, were
invefted with the treafure of ample and extenfive in¬
dulgences 5 the diftribution of which was committed
to them by the popes, as a means of fubfiftence, and
a rich indemnification for their voluntary poverty.
In confequence of this grant, the rule of the founder,
which abfolutely prohibited both perfonal and collec¬
tive property, fo that neither the individual nor the
community were to poflefs either fund, rewenue, or any
worldly goods, was contidered as too ftri£t and fevere,
and difpenfed with foon after his death. In 1231,
Gregory IX. publithed an interpretation of this rule,
mitigating its rigour $ which Was farther confirmed by
Innocent IV. in I2t5, and by Alexander IV. in 1247.
Thefe milder operations were zealoufly oppofed by a
branch of the Francifeans called the. fpiritual; and their
complaints were regarded by Nicholas III. who, in
1279, publithed a famous conftitution, confirming the
rule of St Francis, and containing an elaborate expli¬
cation of the maxims it recommended, and the duties
it preferibed. In 1287, Matthew of Aqua Sparta,
being elefted general of the order, difcourSged the
ancient difeipline of the Francifeans, and indulged his
monks in abandoning even the appearance of poverty ^
and this cOnduft inflamed the indignation of the fpiri-
tual or aufterer Francifeans; fo that from the year 1290
feditions and fchifms arofe in an order that had been fo
famous for its pretended difintereftednefs and liuiiiility.
Such was the enthufiaftic frenzy of the Francifeans,
that they intpioufly maintained, that the founder of
their order was a fecohd Chrift, in all refpedts fimilar
to the firft *, and that their inftitution and difeipline
were the true gofpel of Jefus. Accordingly, Albizi,
a Francifcan of Pifa, publifhed a book in 1383, with
the applaufe of his order, entitled, The book of the
Conformities of St Francis with Jefus Chrift. In the
beginning of this century, the whole Frahcifcan order
ftas divided into two parties; the one embracing the
fevere difeipline a^K abfolute poverty of St Francis,
were called fpirituals; and the other, who infilled
on mitigating the auftere injunctions of their founder,
were denominated brethren of the community. Thefe
tore long, loofe, and good habits, ■with large hoods j
i 1 ] FRA
the former were clad in aftraight, coarfe, and fhortdrefs, Danrifcai
pretending that this drefs was enjoined by St P rancis, 1
and that no power on earth had a right to alter it.
Neither the moderation of Clement V. nor the violence
of John XXII. could appeafe the tumult occafioned
by thtfe two parties •, however, their rage fubfided
from the year 1329. In 1368 theie two parties Were
formed into two large bodies, comprehending the
whole Francifcan order, which fubfift to this day , viz.
the conventual brethren, and the brethren of the ob-
fervance or obfervation, from whom fprung the ca¬
puchins and recollefts. The general opinion is, that
the Francifeans came into England in the year 1224,
and had their firft houfe at Canterbury, and their fecond
at London j but there is no certain account of their
being here till King Henry VII. built two or three
houfes for them. At the diflblution of the monafteries,
the conventual Francifeans had about 55 houles, which
were under feven cuftodies or wardenfhips ; viz. thofe
of London, York, Cambridge, Briftol, Oxford, New-
caftle, and Worcefter.
FRANCOIS, or Francais, Port Des, the name of
a bay or harbour diicovered by Ptyroufe on the north-
weft coaft of America, is fituated in N. Lat. 58. 37.
and in Long. 139. 50. W. from Paris. This harbour
was from three to four leagues deep : he entered it with
his two frigates in July 1786, and came to an anchor
in an ifland near the middle of it, in 20 fathoms water,
vuth a muddy bottom. The bottom of the bay, he ob-
ferves, is one of the moft extraordinary places in the
world •, the water is fo deep that it could not be fa¬
thomed, and fur rounded by peaked mountains of a great
height, covered with fnow, without vegetation, and
feemingly condemned by nature to perpetual fterility.
He never faw the furface of the water ruffled W ith the
fm all eft breath of air, or in the leaft difturbed but by
the falling of enormous pieces of ice, which continually
detach themfelves from five different glaciers. The air
W'as fo calm, and the filence fo profound, that the voice
of man might be heard at the diftance of half a league,
as well as the notfe of fea-birds which hatch their eggs
in the cavities of the rocks.
He found the variation of the compafs to be 28° E.
and the dip of the needle 74*. At full and change of
the moon, when it is high water at one o’clock, the fea
rofe feven feet and a half. The current of the channel
at the entrance of the harbour, during the fea breeze,
came in like a rapid river, fo that it muff be impractica¬
ble to take the channel when the winds blow violently
from the fouthward 5 and indeed the currents at all times
render the entrance difficult. This harbour poffeffes
many advantages, but it is alfo fubjeCt to feveral incon¬
veniences* It feeihs not to be convenient for ffiips tu
anchor, which are employed in trafficking in {kins, be-
caufe fuch ffiips ought to enter many bays, making in
each a ffiort ftay, fince the Whole ftockof the Indians is
Very foon difpofed of; but it feems to be a very com¬
modious place for the eftabliffiment of a fa ft or y, and
this commercial fettlement, it is fuggefted, ffiould be
made on Cenotaph ifland, a name given to an ifland in
the middle of the harbour, from the monument erefted
on it to the memory of fome of the crew of Peyroufe’s
{hips, which were loft in the channel. This ifland is-
about a league in circumference, abounds with wood
and water, and feems capable of cultivation. The quar-
D d 3 titf
F Px A
tlty of otter ilvins far exceeded any thing v.men Pey-
roufe had obferved in any other part of America.
The climate of this coaft, according to Peyroufe,
feemed much milder than that of Hudfon’s Bay. For
three or four months of the year vegetation was very
vigorous 5 there was found abundance of celery, endive,
lupin, and yarrow, with mod of the plants which are
common in the meadows and mountains of France.
Goofeberries, rafpberries, and flrawberries, were alfo
common in the woods •, poplars, willows, hornbeam,
and pines, fome of which meafured fix feet in diameter,
and 140 feet high, fit for marts of the largeft fhips. The
river feemed to be filled with trout and falmon, and
different kinds of fifh were found in the bay itfelf. I lie
variety of birds was not great; but bears, martens, and
fquirrels, were frequent in the woods. The inhabitants
are faid to be confiderably different from the Californi¬
ans, being taller, liouter, of a more agreeable figure,
having greater vivacity of expreihon, and a greater {hare
of courage and fenfe. Their colour is olive, and the
hair in general is neither fo coarfe nor black as that of
the South Americans. It is fuppofed that they are
worfhippers of the fun, for they were frequently ob¬
ferved addreffing themfelves in their prayers to this
planet j but neither temple nor prieft, nor trace of
public worfhip, was feen. It is faid that they burn their
dead.
FRANCONIA, a circle of Germany, bounded on
the north by the circle of Upper Saxony, on the eaft by
that of Bavaria, on the fouth by that of Swabia, and on
the weft by the circles of the Rhine. I he middle is
fertile in corn, wine, and fruits, but the borders are full
of woods and barren mountains.
This country was overrun by the French republicans
in the fummer of 1796; but in September the Aurtrians
compelled them to retreat. 1 he I* ranks, who conquered
France, came from this province, and gave their name
to this kingdom.
FRANGULA. See Rhamnus, Botany Index.
FRANK LANGUAGE, Lingua Franca, a kind of
jargon fpoken on the Mediterranean, and particularly
throughout the coafts of and ports of the Levant, com¬
port'd of Italian, Spanifh, French, vulgar Greek, and
other languages.
Frank, or Franc, an ancient coin, either of gold
or filver, flruck.and current in France, The value
of the gold franc was fomething more than that of
the gold crown : this coin has been long out of ufe,
though the term is ftill retained as the name of a
money of account : in which fente it is equivalent to
the livre, or 20 fols.
Frank,or Franc, meaning literally/red1 from charges
and impofitions, or exempt from public taxes, has various
fignifications in the ancient Englifh cuftoms.
" Frank-AImoigne, (libera e/eemofyna), or “ free
alms j” a tenure of a fpiritual nature, whereby a re¬
ligious corporation, aggregate or foie, holdeth lands
of the donor to them and their fucceffors for ever. The
fervice which they were bound to render for thefe
lands was not certainly defined : but only in general to
pray for the fouls of the donor and his heirs, dead or
alive ; and therefore they did no fealty (which is in¬
cident to all other fervices but this), becaufe this divine
fervice was of a higher and more exalted nature. This
is-the tenure .by which almoft all the ancient monaf-
fra
teries and religious houfes held their lands j and by Frank,
which the parochial clergy, and very many ecclefiafti-
cal and eleemofynary foundations, hold them at this
day ; the nature of the fervice being upon the Reforma¬
tion altered, and made conformable to the purer doc¬
trines of the church of England. It was an old Saxon
tenure } and continued under the Norman revolution,
through the great refpeef that was fhown to religion
and religious men in ancient times. This is alio the
reafon that tenants in frank almoigne w'ere difeharged of
all other fervices except the trinoda necejjitas, of repair¬
ing the highways, building caftles, and repelling inva-
fionsq juft as the Druids, among the ancient Britons
had omnium rcrum immunitatem. And even at prefent,
this is a tenure of a very different nature from all
others 5 being not in the leaft feodal, but merely Ipi-
ritual. For, if the fervice be neglected, the law gives
no remedy by diftrefs, or otherwife, to the lord of
whom the lands are holden 5 but merely a complaint to
the ordinary or vifitor to correft it.
FrANK-Chafe is defined to be a liberty of free chafe,
whereby perfons that have lands within the compafs of
the fame, are prohibited to cut down any wood, &c.
out of the view of the forefter.
FRANK-Fee, fignifies the fame thing as holding lands
and tenements in fee-fimple; that is to any perfon and
his heirs, and not by fuch fervice as is required by
ancient demefne, but is pleaded at common law. See
Fee.
FRANK-Law, a word applied to the free and com¬
mon law of the land, or the benefit a perfon has
by it.
He that for any offence lofeth this frank-law incurs
thefe inconveniences, viz. He may not be permitted
to ferve on juries, nor urtd as an evidence to the
truth and if he has any thing to do in the king’s
court, he muft not approach it in perfon, but appoint
his attorney ; his lands, goods, and chattels, lhall be
rtized into the king’s hands ; and his lands be eftrea-
ted, his trees rooted up, and his body committed to
cuftody.
FRANK-Marriage, in Law, is where tenements are
given by one man to another, together with a wife,
who is the daughter or coufin to the donor, to hold in
frank-marriage. By fuch gift, though nothing but
the word frank-marriage is exprefled, the donees fhall
have the tenements to them, and the heirs of their two
bodies begotten ; that is, they are tenants in fpecial
tail. For this one word, frank-marriage, denotes, ex vi
termini, not only an inheritance, like the word frank-
almoigne, but likewife limits that inheritance j fupply-
ing, not only words of defeent, but of procreation alfo.
Such donees in frank-marriage are liable to no fervice
but fealty: for a rent referved therein is void until the
fourth degree of eonfanguinity be paft between the iffues
of the donor and donee.
FRANK-P/edge, in Law, fignifies a pledge orfurety for
the behaviour of freemen.
According to the ancient cuftom of England, for the
prefervation of the public peace, every freeborn man,
at the age of fourteen, except religious perfons, clerks,
knights, and their eldeft fons, was obliged to give fe-
curity for his truth and behaviour towards the king and
his fubjedls, or elfe be imprifoned. Accordingly, a
certain number ef neighbours became interchangeably'
bound
[ 212 ]
1 .-ank
|!! :ikfort.
FRA f 2i
bound for each other, to fee each perfon of their pledge
forthcoming at all times, or to anfwer for the offence
of any one gone away : fo that whenever any perfon
offended, it was prefently inquired in what pledge he
was, and there the perfons bound either produced the
offender in 31 days, or made fatisfa&ion for his of-
fence.
FliANK-Tenement. See TENURE.
FRANKED letters. The privilege of letters
coming free of poftage to and from members of par¬
liament was claimed by the houfe of commons in 1660,
when the firft legal fettlement of the prefentpoft office
was made ; but afterwards dropped, upon a private
affurance from the crown, that this privilege fhould be
allowed the members. And accordingly a warrant was
conftantly iffued to the poftmafter general, directing
the allowance thereof to the extent of two ounces in
weight : till at length it was exprefsly confirmed by
4 Geo. III. c. 24. which adds many new regulations,
rendered neceffary by the great abufes which had crept
into the practice of franking ; whereby the annual
amount of franked letters had increafed from 23,600!.
in the year 1715, to 170,700!. in the year 1763.
Further regulations have fince taken place j in parti¬
cular, franks muff be dated (the month written at
length), and put into the office the fame day 3 notwith-
Itanding which, the revenue ftill lofes by this privilege
a very confiderable annual fum.
FRANKEN, Franciscus, commonly called Old
Frank, a famous Flemifh painter, fuppofed to have
been born about the year 1544 '■> but though his works
are well known, very few of the circumftances of his
life have been tranfmitted to pofterity. This mailer
painted hitlorical fubjedts from the Old and New lel-
taments; and was remarkable for introducing a great
number of figures into his compofitions, which he had
the addrefs to group very diftinclly. Vandyck often
commended his works, and thought them worthy of a
place in any collection.
Franken, Francifcus, diftinguifhed by the name
of Young Frank, was the fon of the former, born in the
year 1380. He was inffrudted by his father 3 whofe
ityle he adopted fo clofely, that their works are fre¬
quently miftaken. When he found himfelf fufficiently
{killed at home, he travelled into Italy for improve¬
ment in colouring 3 and, on his return, his works were
much coveted. The mod capital performances of this
painter are, a fcriptural performance in the church of
Notre Dame at Antwerp 3 and an excellent pidlure, in a
Imall fize, of Solomon’s idolatry. Young Frank died
in 1642.
FRANKENDAL, a ffrong town of Germany, in
the dominions of the Eledlor Palatine, lituated near
the Rhine, about feven miles fouth of Worms. It
was taken by the Spaniards in 1623, by the Swedes
in 1632, burnt by the French in 1688, and finally
taken by the allies in the year 1794. E, Long. 8. 29.
N. Lat. 49. 25.
FRANKENIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
hexandria clafs 3 and in the natural method ranking
under the 17th order, Cahjcanthsmcc. See Botany
Index.
FRANKFORT, the name of feveral townfhips in
different places of North America 3 fuch as Frankfort, a
townffrip in Hancock, and diflricl of Maine, with a few
3 ] F R A
houfes regularly built. It contains 89J inhabitants, Frankfort
and lies about 238 miles north-eaft of Bofton. Frank- ^Jj ^
fort, a thriving village in Philadelphia 3 the name of l‘u^ ‘.
another in Hampfhire, of one in Virginia, and the name
of the metropolis of Kentucky.
FRANKINCENSE. See Incense.
FRANKLIN, Thomas, D. D. chaplain in ordi¬
nary to his majefty, was born in London about the
year 17 20, and was the fon of Richard Franklin,
well known as the printer of an anti-minifterial paper
called The Craftfman ; in conducting which he re¬
ceived great affiitance from Lord Bolingbroke, Mr
Pulteney, and other excellent writers, who then op-
pofed Sir Robert Walpole’s meafures. By the advice
of the fecond of thefe gentlemen, young Franklin was
devoted to the church, with a promife of being pro¬
vided for by the patriot 3 who afterwards forgot his
undertaking, and then entirely negle&ed him. He
was educated at Weftminiter fchool 3 from whence he
went to the univerfity of Cambridge, where he be¬
came fellow of Trinity college, and was fome time
Greek profeffor. In December 1 738, he was inftituted
vicar of Ware and Thundridge 3 which, with the
leclureffiip of St Paul, Covent Garden, and a chapel
in Queen ftreet, were all the preferments he held till
he obtained the reCtory of Brafted in Kent. This
gentleman was poffeffed of no inconfiderable ffiare of
learning and poetical abilities, and was long a favourite
in the literary world. His tranflations of Phalareus,
Sophocles, and Lucian, equally evince his learning
and his genius, as they are not more diftinguiffied for
fidelity in the verfion, than congeniality with the fpirit
of the admirable originals. Dr Franklin, like Mr
Foote, fuffered a tranllation from the French to be
printed in his name 3 but the Oreftes and EleCIra are
fuppofed to be all that were really by him. It was a
tranflation of Voltaire’s works, to which alfo Dr Smol¬
lett’s name appears. His own dramatic compofitions,
of which the principal are the tragedies of The Earl
of Warwick and Matilda, are univerfally known, and
defervedly etteemed by the public. He died in March
Franklin, Benjamin, a philofopher and a flatef-
man of confiderable eminence, was born in the year
1 706, at Bofton in New England. His family derived
their origin from Edon in Northamptonfhire, where
his anceflors had an inconfiderable freehold for many
generations. The perfecution of the non-conformifts in
the reign of Charles II. induced his father to take re¬
fuge in New England 3 and in the city of Bofton he
followed the occupation of a foap-boiler and tallow-
chandler. Franklin drew up a hiftory of his own life
from his nativity to the 23th year of his age 3 but as at
that period he had made no very confpicuous figure in
the world, it is to be lamented that we have not the af-
fiftance of his own pen to the meridian of his career.
This defed we have endeavoured to fupply in the
fubfequent narrative from the moft authentic ma¬
terials, avoiding as much as poffible the exaggerated
panegyric of friends, and the unmerited detraction of
enemies.
Our author, from his very infancy, difeovered the
ftrongeft propenfity towards literary purfuits, which de¬
termined his father toqualify him for the miniftry 3 buthe
was thwarted in his defigns by a numerous aud increafing
family,
FRA [21
lin- Family, and therefore Benjamin was taken from fchool
at ten years of age, to take part in the drudgery of his
father’s trade. This greatly mortified the afpiriug mind
of young Franklin, who wifiied to prefer a feafaring
life to fuch an employment j but from this he was dif-
fuaded by the influence of his father, who was a man of
fome knowledge, and pofieiTed a folid underftanding.
He made it his chief aim to infpire his children with
the love of knowledge and the principles of moral rec¬
titude. He had few books •, yet from among thefe
Benjamin fele&ed a number of voyages and travels, as
well as different hiflories, a fpecies of reading for which
he had a ftrong predileddion. By going through a
courfe of controverfial divinity in this unaided manner,
he greatly ftrengthened his argumentative powers, which
was moll probably all he had in view. Defoe upon Pro¬
jects, according to his own account, made fuch impret-
lions upon his mind as in a great meafure diredled the
fubfequent events of his life.
He was now chofen to an employment which accord¬
ed much better with the natural bent of his mind than
the bufinefs of his father’s ftrop. A brother of his own
had a printing-office in Bofton, to whom Benjamin was
bound apprentice, at 12 years of age. With the mecha¬
nical part of the bufinefs he was foon acquainted j
and the opportunities thus afforded him of procuring
new books to read, were eagerly feized, and the
greater part of the night frequently fpent in the p^r-
ufal of them. He foon became anxious to imitate the
works which he moll admired, and his firll attempts
were of a poetical nature. He compofed and printed
ballads, which were well received by thofe who love
fuch a fpecies of reading } yet his father had the ad-
drefs to convince him that nature never defigned him
for a poet. He therefore turned his whole attention to
the cultivation of profe compofition, in which he fuc-
ceeded infinitely better ; and he thus became fuperior
to his brethren of the prefs, and raifed himfelf to ftations
of public importance. As his pafiion for reading and
•writing was very ftrong, fo he became in a flmrt time a
powerful difputant, which was ftrengthened by his in¬
timacy with a young man of a fimilar difpofition. He
perufed, with uncommon attention, a tranflation of Xe¬
nophon’s Memorabilia, which enabled him either to
confute or confound an adverfary by a number of quef-
tions. It is alfo certain that he became a fceptic as to
the religion in which he had been educated, and pro¬
pagated his unbelief with zeal and afliduity. I he fatal
confequences which this produced on the deportment of
fome of his intimate companions, at length happily con¬
vinced him that it is extremely dangerous to deftroy the
falutary influence of religion, without being able to
fubftitute any thing in its place of equal importance and
efficacy. He feems, however, to have continued a
fceptic in his own mind, yet he ftill retained a love for
moral redlitude, which led him to adopt honourable
means in the profecution of Valuable ends. Much to
his honour be it fpoken, he acquired, at a Very early
period of life, that triumph over his fenfual appetites,
which is fo effentiaily neceiTary to a life of dignity, ufe-
fulnefs, and virtue. Having read Tyron’s recommen¬
dation of a vegetable diet, at 16 years of age, he aban¬
doned the ufe of animal food *, and on offering to his
brother to fupport himfelf on half the money which was
paid for his board, he was allowed to adopt his own
4 ]€ FRA
plan, by which means he was enabled to five a confi* Frankfm.
derable fum for the purchafe of books. Although he
relaxed confiderably as to a vegetable diet, yet he thus
acquired the habit of being fatisfied with little, and a
contempt of the gratifications of the palate was frequent¬
ly of Angular advantage to him through the whole of
life.
When his brother began a newfpaper, Benjamin
fent a number of pieces on various topics to be inferted*
which met with the aprobation of the moft competent
judges ;—afatisfaclion he enjoyed without being known*
as they were all anonymous. His brother treated him
with the harlhnefs of a mafter, which he bore with the
utmaft impatience, as the public had already pronounced
him to be poffeffed of merit. JLhe ftates ot America
having prohibited James Franklin from publiftiing this
paper, on account of fome political offence, the name of
Benjamin was employed as publifher, in confequence of
which he procured his indentures, although he agreed
privately with his brother to ferve out his time. But
as he did not deem this agreement obligatory, he went
to New York by lea, and from that place to Philadel¬
phia, in the feventeenth year of his age. He himielf
acknowledges this to have been a fault, and therefore
has averted that cenfure which he would otherwife have
deferved. At Philadelphia he engaged with a printer
of the name of Keimer, whofe affairs he foon placed on
a more refpeflable footing } and here alfo he became
acquainted with feveral young men of a literary turn of
mind, by whofe company his tafte for knowledge was
greatly improved.
He foon after became acquainted with Sir William
Keith the governor of that province, who powerfully
recommended it to him to commence bufinefs on his
own account, and promifed to give him all the encou¬
ragement in his power. Encouraged by this gentleman
to adopt fuch a plan, he fet out for Bofton on a vifit
to his parents, in order to procure from them fome pe»
cuniary aid ; but a welcome reception was all he could
obtain. Having returned to Philadelphia, Sir William
generoufly offered to take the whole burden upon him¬
ielf, and advifed Franklin to make a_ voyage to Eng¬
land, in order to procure every thing neceflary for
a printing-otfice. He fet fail in the year I725> an£^
took with him his intimate companion Ralph, whofe
name has been rendered memorable by being celebrat¬
ed in the Dunciad. Unfortunately for Franklin, Sir
William Keith, on whofe letters of recommendation
and credit he entirely relied, bafely deceived him, and
he was obliged to work as a journeyman in London for
his immediate fubfiftence. His friend Ralph could only
live by his head, and his income of confequence was
extremely circumfcribed, as well as precarious, which
made him a heavy burden on the pocket of Benjamin.
In that diffolute metropolis the one forgot his wife and
child in America, and the other the folemn promifes
of fidelity which he had made to a Mifs Read, prior to
his departure 5—another ftep of his condudl which he
hilufelf feverely cenfures. By a differtation on liberty
and neceffity, pleafure and pain, he acquired confider--
able reputation, and it was the means of introducing
him to the celebrated Dr Mandeville, author of the
Fable of the Bees. In the fecond printing-office m
which he worked, he laboured inceffantly to convince his
fellow workmen that a pint of porter does trot contain
hair
t
nklin.
F R A [2
half fo much nourilhment as a penny roll, for which he
obtained the ludicrous epithet of American aquatic;
yet he was finally enabled to make many converts to
his do&rine-,—a proof that he poffefied ftreng perfuafive
powers, when we confider the deep-rooted attachment
of thofe with whom he had to treat to their favourite
libation.
After eighteen months refidence in London, he re¬
turned to Philadelphia in the year 1726, and became
clerk to a Mr Denham, a man of refpeftability, who
had opened a warehoufe in that city. He fnon became
acquainted with the principles of commerce, and led a
very happy life in this new fituation, till the connexion
was difiblved by the death of Mr Denham, which hap¬
pened the following year. This again obliged him to
become journeyman printer, and he was afterwards
overfeer in the office of Keimer, whom we have already
mentioned. Here he acquired great efteem, and at
length conceived the idea of fetting up for himfelf,
which he aceompliffied by entering into partnerffiip
with one Meredith, a fellow workman, whole father
was in circumftances to enable him to advance them
foms money. His indullry was habitual, but the idea
that he was now working for himfelf, gave it additional
energy. He was chiefly initrumental in the inftkution
of a club which went by the name of the junto, and
which was highly conducive to the intelleftual im¬
provement of its members. Before the admiffion of a
candidate, the following queftions were put to him.
“ Do you fincerely declare that you love mankind in
general, of what profeffion or religion foever ? Do
you think any perfon ought to be harmed in his body,
name, or goods, for mere fpeculative opinions, or his
external way of worffiip ? Do you love truth for truth’s
fake •, and will you endeavour impartially to find and
receive it yourfelf, and communicate it to others ?”
Franklin and his copartner began a newfpaper, which
the labours and talents of the former brought into
repute, and by them the votes and laws of the afiem-
bly came afterwards to be printed. The partner¬
ffiip being diffolved by the departure of Meredith,
Franklin, by the generous aid of friends, was enabled
to take the whole bufinefs upon himfelf, to which he
added the bufinefs of a ftationer. When the increafe
af paper money engaged the attention of the American
government, Franklin wrote an anonymous pamphlet
in defence of the meafure, by which he acquired confi-
derable reputation, the countenance of men in power,
and it placed his profperity on a permanent bafis.
About this time he kept up a criminal correfpondence
with different females, chiefly owing, perhaps, to the
difappointment he met with in the firlt objedt of his
love, Mifs Read, who by this time was married to ano¬
ther in confequence of his negleft. But. w e forgot the
faults of the man in the ingenuous confefiion of the pe¬
nitent. A report prevailing that MifsRead’shufband was
married to another woman, he retired to the Weil Indies
where he died, and Franklin married the objedl of his
nrft love in the month of September 1736, being then
about 24 years of age. She proved a valuable wife,
pnd in every fenfe of the word, an “help meet for
him.”
I o him we are to aferibe the eflablifliment of a pub¬
lic library at Philadelphia, which he accompliffied in
Sue year 1731, and had the fatisfa&ion of feeing it ar-
Z
5 3 . . F . R A .
rive at that flouriffiing condition which it has long fince
attained. His “ Poor Richard’s Almanac,” was be¬
gun in 1732, and became remarkable for the many
prudential maxims with which it abounded •, and the
proverbial manner in which they were expreffed made
them take fall hold of the memory. His political ca¬
reer commenced in 1736, when he was chofen clerk to
the general aflembly of Pennfylvania, to which he was
re-ele£ted for feveral years,, and at laft became a repre-
fentative. In 1737, he was made poflmafler of Phila¬
delphia, and ifi the fubfequent year he greatly improv¬
ed the police of the city, by the formation of a fire-
company, and afterwards an infurance-company again!!
Ioffes by fire. In the war with France, which broke
out in 1744, when the bell means of defending the
province againtl the inroads of the enemy, and when
the militia bill was thrown afide from its beinp ob-
noxious to the people, Franklin fuggefted the idea of a
voluntary affociation for their mutual defence, which
was inltantly figned by 1200 perfons, and io,oco fub-
feriptions were obtained in a ffiort time by circulating
it through the province. By this and fimilar means
America had an opportunity of afeertaining her own
ftrength, and how to make ufe of it with advantage in
cafes of emergency.
About this time he began bis interefting experiments
on eledlricity, by the refult of which he juftly acquired
a diftinguithed reputation. The library fociety of Phi¬
ladelphia having received from Mr Peter Collinfon in
the year 1 745, an account of the fafts refpedling elec¬
tricity which at that time engroffed the attention of
philofophers in Europe, Franklin fet about Undying
the fubjedl with the greateif affiduity. He gave the
account of his refearches, the title of “ New experi¬
ments and obfervations on eleftricity, made at Phila¬
delphia in America,” and addreffed to Mr Collinfon in
the form of letters, bearing date from 1747 to 1754.
They were everywhere read w ith avidity, and univerfal-
ly admired 5 Dr Prieftley fpeaks of them in the follow¬
ing terms. “ It is not eafy to fay whether we are mofl
pleafed with the fimplicity and perfpicuity w ith which
the author propofes every hypothefis of his own, or the
noble franknefs with whic h he relates his miftakes, when
they were torre&ed by fuhfequent experiments.” Not
to fwell this article with a detailed account of all his
difeoveries on. this fubjedl, we ffiall content ourfelves
with mentioning that moll interfiling of the whole,
his grand difeovery that lightning and eledlric fire are
identically the fame. This identity had begun to be
fufpedted, and experiments had been made in France
to afeertain the fadt j but it was referved to Franklin to
demonflrate this fa£l by his own experiments. He ob¬
tained bis firft dccifive proof of this in the month of
June 1752, by fetting up a filken kite into the air with
a point of iron, and a key fallened to the end of the
hempen tiring by which he held it. In this manner he
drew down from a thunder cloud a fufficient quantity
of eleftric fire to emit fenfible fparks from the key. By
means of an infulated iron rod which he fixed upon his
houfe, he drew down the lightning, and was thus fur-
nitbed with an opportunity of difeovering whether it
was pofitive or negative. As he firmly believed that
philofophical difeoveries were only valuable in fo far
as they could be productive of benefit to man, lie made
them fubfervient to the protection of buildings from the
effeCts
Trairklir,
F R A [ 216 j FRA
Franklin, effects of lightning, which are truly alarming in North
v—— America. He applied phyfics to the purpofes of com¬
mon life, and in 1745 invented his Pennfylvania fire¬
places, in which the qualities of an open grate were
combined with that of a ftove.
He turned his attention very much to the fubjeft of
politics, which was extremely natural for a man of a
public fpirit living under a popular government. He
Vvas chofen a reprefentative of the city of Philadelphia
for the provincial affembly in 1747. AtJ:his time a
conteft fubfifted between the affembly and the proprie¬
taries, as to the claim of the latter to be exempted from
public burdens. Franklin took the popular fide of the
queflion, by which he acquired great influence, and
was regarded as the head of the oppofition. This was
not the offspring of eloquence, for he feldom fpoke, and
never in the form of an harangue ; but his pointed ob-
fervations, his unadorned good fenfe, frequently de-
ftroyed the effeft of the molt elaborate orations.
He drew up the plan of an academy to be founded
at Philadelphia, from a conviction that education in a
free ftate is of the utmoft importance. It was carried
into effeft in the year 1750, by virtue of a fubfeription,
to which the proprietors afterwards liberally contribut¬
ed. He difeharged the duties of his office as poftmaf-
ter of Philadelphia with fo much pun6tuality, that he
was appointed deputy pollmafter general for the Britiih
colonies in 1754, and the revenue was foon bettered
by his unwearied exertions. A plan for conciliating
the Indians, and forming an alliance with them, was
drawn up by Franklin in 1754, to which the commif-
fioners at Albany agreed, and a copy of it was tranf-
mitted to the Britiffi privy council. It is a Angular
circumfiance, that this plan was rejefled by the aflem-
blies as giving too much power to the crown, while the
Britifh miniffry declared that it gave too much influ¬
ence to the reprefentatives of the people. In the year
1757, Franklin fet fail for London, as agent for Penn¬
fylvania, the aflembly of that province being involved
in difputes with the proprietary. It was agreed on by
the privy council, that landholders fhould pay their
{hare of the public burdens, on condition Franklin
would engage that they fhould be fairly proportioned.
He continued at the Britiih court as agent for his pro-
\ince, and acquired fo great reputation, that the fame
trufl was repofed in him for Maffachuftts, Maryland,
and Georgia. His merit as a philoiopher w'as now
iuflly appreciated in Europe, and he was made a fel¬
low of the Royal Society of London. The degree of
J.. L. D. was alfo conferred upon him at St Andrews,
Edinburgh, and Oxford.
In the year 1762 he returned to America, where he
received the thanks of the affbmhly of Pennfylvania, and
a handfome recompenfe in money for his important
fervices. When the {lamp ■ 61 occafioned fo much dil-
turbance in America, Dr Franklin was fummoned-to
the bar of the houfe of commons, to give evidence re-
fpe6lingthedifpofltionsof the people,whether he thought
they could be induced to fubmit to it; and the energy
and clearntfs of his reprefentations were inftrumental
in procuring the repeal of that obnoxious meafure.
On the commencement of hoflilities between Great
Britain and the colonies in 1775, he returned to Ame¬
rica, and was chofen a delegate to emigre's by the le-
giflature of Pennfylvania. In 1776 he treated with
4
Lord Howe on the fubjecl of a reconciliation, and in Fran!
one of his letters expreffed in flrong terms the temper
of the Britiffi nation, to which he imputed the fatal
extremity then arrived. When the queflion of inde¬
pendence came to be difeuffed, he was decidedly in fa¬
vour of the meafure, and was highly inftrumental in
bringing over the public mind to the fame opinion.
When a negociation with France was opened, Dr
Franklin was chofen one of the perfonages to refide at
that court. His political abilities eminently qualified
him for fuch a flation, and his charaHer as a philofopher
gained him great efleem in a country wfliere knowledge
is revereej. He brought about a treaty with France
of an offenfive and defenfive nature in 1778, the im¬
mediate confequence of which was a war with Britain.
He was one of thofe who figned the provifional treaty
the year following. Prior to his leaving Europe he
concluded a treaty with Sweden and Pruffia. He was
recalled from that a6live flation in 1785, which he had
filled with fo much ability, and chofen prefident of the
fupreme executive council. He was chofen prefident
of a fociety for alleviating the miferies of prifons, and
abolithing flavery. His increafing infirmities made
him withdraw from all public bufinefs in 1788 ; and on
April the 17th 1790, he terminated his a6live and ufe-
ful life, in the 85th year of his age.
Perhaps no man ever exceeded Dr Franklin in that
folid pra61ical wifdom which confifls in purfuing valu¬
able ends by the moft appropriate means. His cool
temper and found judgment fecured him from errone¬
ous expe6lations. He faw things in their true light,
and predi6ted confequenees with nearly a prophetic
fpirit. He faid of himfelf “ I have always fet a greater
value on the chara61er of a doer of good, than any other
kind of reputation.” In 1779? 4t Political, Mifcel-
laneous, and Philofophical pieces,” were publiihed in
4to and 8vo. His eiTays, humorous, moral, and lite¬
rary, were publifhed after his death, in two fmall vo¬
lumes.
He was by no means inattentive to his own interefl,
of which his rapid advancement in life furnifhes an
ample proof; yet he never negle61ed the interefl of fo¬
ciety, or the good of mankind in general. The deli¬
cate fituations in which he frequently flood, unavoidably
expofed him to the cenfure of his enemies; yet his ge¬
neral conduft has long ago received the approbation of
his countrymen, by whom he was eonfidered as the
beft and moft valuable of citizens. When we view him
as a philofopher, we muff aferibe his chief merit to his
eleftrical difeoveries, yet on many other topics, fuch as
meteorology and mechanics, he evinced himfelf a man
of confiderable penetration. As a political writer, his
great merit is clearnefs, energy, and fimplicity ; and
as a mifcellaneous author he poffeffes a fund of humour
which cannot fail to be at once both entertaining and
impreffive.
Franklin, the name of feveral counties in America,
fuch as Franklin county in Pennfylvania, computed to
contain 800 fquare miles, or 512,000 acres. It contains
11 townfhips, and 15,655 inhabitants. Franklin, a
county in Kentucky ; the name of. one in Halifax, of
one in Virginia, and of another in Georgia, which con¬
tains i04r inhabitants, including 156 Haves. It is alfo
the name of a townfhip in Maffachufets ; of one in
Pennfylvania, another in New York, and of another in
Conned! icut-
F 11 A [2
mklin
iternal.
Conne&icut, as well as of a fmall ifle at the mouth of
St George’s river.
FRANKS, Francs, Frankis, or Franquis, a
name which the Turks, Arabs, Greeks, &c. give to
all the people of the weftern parts of Europe. The
appellation is commonly fuppofed to have had its rife
in Alia, at the time of the croifadesj when the French
made the molt confiderable figure among the croiflees:
from which time the Turks, Saracens, Greeks, Abyf-
finians, &c. ufed it as a common term for all the Chri-
Hians of Europe *, and called Europe itfelf Franki/lan.
The Arabs and Mahometans, fays M. d’Herbelot, ap¬
ply the term Franks not only to the French (to whom
the name originally belonged), but alfo to the Latins
and Europeans in general.
But F. Goar, in his notes on Condinus, cap. 5. n. 43.
furnilhes another origin of the appellation Franks, of
greater antiquity than the former. He obferves, that
the Greeks at firlt confined the name to the Franci,
i. e. the German nations, who had fettled themfelves
in France or Gaul ; but afterwards they gave the fame
name to the Apulians and Calabrians, after they had
been conquered by the Normans \ and at length the
name was farther extended to all the Latins.
In this fenfe is the word ufed by feveral Greek wri¬
ters ; as Comnenus, &c. who to dittinguifh the French,
call them the wejiern Franks. Du Cange adds, that
about the time of Charlemagne they diftinguilhed eall-
ern France, aveftern France, Latin or Roman France,
and GAman France, which was the ancient France,
afterwards called Franconia.
FRASCATI, or Frescati. See Frescati.
FRASERSBURGH, a fmall fea-port town in the
county of Aberdeen, fituated on the point of land call¬
ed Kinnaird's Head, which is the fouthern extremity
of the Murray frith. It has a fmall but excellent har¬
bour, made and kept up at a confiderable expence by
the proprietor and the town, and well adapted for build¬
ing fmall vefiels. According to the tide, there are
from 11 to 15 feet water within the harbour, and 20
feet immediately without at fpring tides : without is a
tolerable road for {flipping, in a bhy nearly a league in
length and half a league in breadth, with good ancho¬
rage in a fandy bottom. Veffels of about 2CO tons bur¬
den can enter the harbour. Fraferfburgh contains about
1 coo inhabitants, and is w'ell fituated for trade with the
eaft coaft of Europe. The only manufa&ure carried
on in Fraferfburgh is in linen yarn, of( which there is
annually exported to the amount of 3000!. or 4000I.
FRATERNAL, fomething belonging to the rela¬
tion of brother.
Fraternal HffeBion is the love and attachment
fubfifting among, or due to one another by, children of
the fame family
Though all mankind fprung from the fame head, are
bound to cultivate a mutual good will to each other ■,
yet this duty is not fo obvious and ilriking as that
which is incumbent on thofe who belong to the fame
family. Nothing can approach nearer to felf love than
fraternal affeftion: and there is but a ftrort remove from
our own concerns and happinefs, to theirs who come
from the fame flock, and are partakers of the fame blood.
Nothing, therefore, can be more horrible than difcord
and animofity among members fo allied j and nothing
fo beautiful as harmony and love.
Vx)L. IX. Part I.
17 ] FRA
This relation is fofmed by nature, not by choice j Fraternal
and though it has many things in common with, yet it FraJjcej]^
is prior to, the obligations of friendthip : coniequently ^
nature and reafon didlate that there ihould be a pecu¬
liar affedtion between brethren. We are not obliged,
however, to make a brother or lifter an intimate or bo-
fom friend in preference to one who is not akin. Di-
verfity of temper, and want of fuitable qualifications,
may render it unlafe and improper. But where friend-
fliip and fraternity meet in the fame perfons, iuch a
conjundlion adds a luftre to the relation.
Among brethren, a hearty benevolence, an ardent
concern for each other’s welfare, a readinefs to ferve
and promote it, are the peculiar offices of this relation;
and though friends are to have their fhare, yet the
claim of kindred is firft and ordinarily ftrongeft. “ Ne-
ceflaria pvaefidia vitae debentur iis maxime (lays Cicero),
quos ante dixi, i.e. propinquis) : vita autem, vidtuique
communis, concilia, fermones, &c. in amicitiis vigent
maxime.” De Officiis.
FRATERNITY, Brotherhood, the relation or
union of brothers, friends, partners, affociates, &c.
Fraternity, in a civil fenfe, is ufed for a guild, af-
fociation, or fociety of perfons, united into a body, for
fome common intereft or advantage. See Company
and Guild.
Fraternity, in the Roman Catholic countries, fig-
nifies a fociety for the improvement of devotion. Of
thefe there are feveral forts; as, 1. The fraternity of
the rofary, founded by St Dominic. It is divided into
two branches, called the common rojary, and the per¬
petual rofary • the former of whom are obliged to eon-
fefs and communicate every firft Sunday in the month,
and the latter to repeat the rofary continually. 2. The
fraternity of the fcapulary, whom the blefled Virgin,
according to the fabbatine bull of Pope John XXII.
has promifed to deliver out of hell the firft Sunday af¬
ter their death. 3. The fraternity of St Francis’s
girdle, are clothed with a fack of a gray colour, which
they tie with a cord, and in proceflions walk bare¬
footed, carrying in their hands a wooden crofs.—-
4. That of St Auftin’s leathern girdle comprehends a
great many devotees. Italy, Spain, and Portugal, are
the countries where one fees the greateft number of
thefe fraternities, fome of which affume the name of
arch-fraternities. Pope Clement VII. inftituted the
arch-fraternity of charity, which diftributes bread every
Sunday among the poor, and gives portions to 40 poor
gir1s on the feaft of St Jerome their patron. The fra¬
ternity of death buries fuch dead as are abando: ed by
their relations, and caufesmafles to be celebrated for them.
FRA fRES arvai.es. See Arvales.
FRATRIAGE, the partition among brothers, or
coheirs, coming to the fame inheritance or fucceffion.
FRATR1CELLI, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, an en-
thufiaftic fed! of Francifcans, which rofe in Italy, and
particularly in the marquifate of Ancona, about the
year 1294. The wwd is an Italian diminutive, figni-
fying fraterculi, or “ little brothers ;” and was here
ufed as a term of derifion, as they were moft of them
apoftate monks, whom the Italians call fratelli, or fra-
tricelli. For this reafon the term fratricelli, as a nick¬
name, was given to many other lefts, as the Catharifts,
the Waldenfes, &c. however different in their opinions
and in their conduft. But this denomination applied to
E e the
FRA [21
Fratriceili, the auftere part of the Francifeatis was confidered as
Fratricide. Jionourable. See FRANCISCANS.
v » The founders were P. Maurato, and P. de Fonom-
broni, who having obtained of Pope Celelfin V. a per-
miffion to live in folitude, after the manner of her¬
mits, and to obferve the rule of St Francis in all its
rigour, feveral idle vagabond monks joined them, who,
living after their own fancies, and making all perfec¬
tion ^to confift in poverty, were foon condenmed by
Pope Boniface VIII. and his fucceffor, and the inqmfi-
tors ordered to proceed againft them as heretics : which
commiffion they executed with their ufual barbarity.
Upon this, retiring into Sicily, Peter John Oliva de
Serignan had no fooner publilhed his Comment on the
Apocalypfe, than they adopted his errors. ihey
foretold the reformation of the church, and the reftora-
tion of the true gofpel of Chrift, by the genuine follow¬
ers of St Francis, and declared their affent to almoft all
the do&rines which were publithed under the name of
the abbot Joachim, in the “ Introdu&ion to the ever-
lafting Gofpel,” a book publilhed in 1520, and ex¬
plained by one of the fpiritual friars whofe name was
Gerhard, Among other enormities inculcated in this
book, it is pretended that St Francis was the angel
mentioned in Rev. xiv. 6. and had promulgated to the
world the true and everlafting Gofpel of God ; that
the Gofpel of Chrift was to be abrogated in 1260, and
to give place to this new and everlafting Gofpel, which
was to be fubftituled in its room 5 and that the mini-
^ fters of this great reformation were to be humble and
bare-footed friars, deftitute of all worldly employ¬
ments. Some fay they even elefted a pope of their
church ; at lealt they appointed a general, with fape-
riors, and built monafteries, &c. Belides the opinions
of Oliva, they held, that the facraments of the church
were invalid j becaule thofe who admmifteied them
had no longer any power or jurifdi&ion. They were
condemned afrelh by Pope John XXII. in confequence
of whofe cruelty they regarded him as the true anti-
chrift 5 but feveral of them returning into Germany,
were ftveltered by Lewis, duke of Bavaria, the em¬
peror.
There are authentic records, from which it appears
that no lefs than 2000 perfons were burnt by the inqui-
fition, from the year 1318 to the time of Innocent VI.
for their inflexible attachment to th« poverty of St
Francis. The feverities againft them were again reviv¬
ed towards the elofe of the 1 $th century by Pope Nico¬
las V. and his lucceffors. However, all the perfeeu-
tions which this fe<ft endured were not fufficient to ex-
tinguifti it; for it fubfifted until the times of the refor¬
mation in Germany, when its remaining votaries adopt¬
ed the caufe and embraced the doftrine and dilcipline
of Luther. And this has led popifli writers to charge
the Fratricelli with many enormities, fome of which
are recounted by M. Bayle, art. Fratncelh..
The Fratricelli had divers other denominations 1 they
3 ] F R E
FRAUD, in Zau>, fignifies deceit in grants or con- Fraift
veyances of lands, &.c. or in bargains and fales of 11
goods, &c. to the damage of another perfon. . rea^
A fraudulent conveyance of lands or goods to de- ^
ceive creditors, as to creditors is void in law. And a
fraudulent conveyance in order to defraud purchafers,
is alfo to fuch purchafers void ; and the perfons juilify-
ing or putting off fuch grants as good, lhall forfeit a
year’s value of the lands, and the full value of the goods
and chattels, and likewife ftiall be imprifoned. See
Cheating.
FRAUSTADT, a town of Silefia, on the fron¬
tiers of Poland, remarkable for a battle gained by the
Swedes over the Saxons in 1706. It is 70 miles N.N.W.
of Breflau. E. Long. 15. 50. N. Lat. 51. 45.
FRAXINELLA. SeeDiCTAMNus, Botany Wf*.
 It is remarkable of this odorous plant, that, when
in full bloffom, the air which furrounds it in a ftill
night may be inflamed by the approach of a lighted
candle. Dr Watfon doubts whether this inflammabi¬
lity proceeds from an inflammable air which is exhaled
by the plant, or from fome of the finer parts of the
effential oil of the plant being diffolved in the common
atmofpherical air. The latter is the moft probable
fuppofition ; for were it the pure inflammable air, as
]\/Ir Cavallo oblerves, it would, on account of its Imall
fpecific gravity, leave the plant as foon as it was pro¬
duced. Common air acquires the property of becoming
inflammable, by being tranimitted through ievei-al et»
fential oils.
FRAX1NUS, the Ash j a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the polygamia clafs; and in the natural method
ranking under the 44^ order, Sepiarice. See B01 ANY
Index. „
FRAY literally fignifies to fret \ as cloth or fluff
does by rubbing, or over much wearing. _
Among hunters a deer is laid to fray his head, hen
he rubs it againft a tree, to caute the fkins of his new
horns to come off.
FREA, or Frigga, the wife of Odin, was, next
to him, the moft revered divinity among the Heathen
Saxons, Danes, and other northern nations. As Odin
was believed to b« the father, Frta was efteemed the
mother of all the other gods. In the moft ancient
times, Frea was the fame with the goddefs Herthus,
or Earth, who was fo devoutly worlhipped by the
Angli and other German nations. But when Odin,
the conqueror of the north, ufurped the honours due
only to the true Odin, his wife Frea ufurped thofe
which had been formerly paid to mother Earth. She
was worlhipped as the goddefs ©f love and pleafure,
who bellowed on her votaries a variety of delights,
particularly happy marriages and eafy childbirths. lo
Frea the fixth day of the week was confecrated, which
ftill bears her name.
FREAM, a name given by farmers to ploughed
land worn out of heart, and laid fallow till it re-
were caMt'd. fratricel/i, according to fome, becaule they
lived in community, in imitation of the primitive Chrif-
tians, or rather through the humility of the founder of
the Francifcan order, to which the Fratricelli originally-
belonged •, Dulcini, from one of their doclors j Bi%ochi,
Begui/n, and Beghardi.
FRATRICIDE, the crime of murdering one’s bro¬
ther. See PARRlClDfi,
FREATS, or Freits, a term ufed in Scotland for
ill omens, and fometimes denoting accidents fuperna-
turally unlucky. Knig James "VI. in his Da?monologiet
MS. pen. Edit. B. I. ch. iv. p. 13. “ But I pray
you forget not likeways to tell what are the Dtviil s
rudiments ? E. His rudiments I call firft in general
all that quhilk is called vulgairelie the virtu of woede,
herb £3
F R E [ 2
cats herbe, and ftaine ; qubilk is uftd by unlawful cbarmis
III avithout natural caufis. As lykeways all kynd of prat-
FMenek. tiques, freiiis, or other lyk extraordinair aciions, quilk
U'~¥ cannot abyde the trew t wiche of naturall raifon. It oc¬
curs again in the fame fenfe in p. 14. marg. note ; and
in p. 51. fpeaking of Sorcerers, “ And in generall that
Yiaime was gevin thaime for ufing of fic chairmis and
freitis, as that craft teachis thaime.
FRECKLES, Lektigines, fpots of a yellowilli
colour, of the bignefs of a lentile feed, fcattered over
the face, neck, and hands. Freckles are either natural,
or proceeding accidentally from the jaundice or the
action of the fun upon the part. Heat or a fudden
change of the weather, will often caufe the Ikin to ap¬
pear of a darker colour than natural; and thereby pro¬
duce what is called tanfunburn, and morphew, which feem
to differ only in degree \ and ufually difappear in winter.
Perfons of a fine complexion, and whofe hair is red,
are the molt fubjeft to freckles, efpecially in thofe parts
which they expofe to the air.
To remove freckles, put juice of lemons in a glafs
phial, and mixing it with fugar and borax finely pow¬
dered, let it digeft eight days, and then ufe it. Horn-
berg propofes bullocks gall mixed with alum, and, af¬
ter the alum has precipitated, expofed three or four
months to the fun in a clofe phial, as one of the belt
remedies known for the removing of freckles.
FREDBERG. See Freyberg.
FREDERICA, a town of North America, in
Georgia, feated at the mouth of the river Alatamaha.
It was founded by General Oglethorpe. The ifland
it Hands upon is called St Simons's; and is about
13 miles in length, and 4 in breadth. W. Long. 81.
25. N. Lat. 31. 13.
FREDERICK II. the Great, of Pruflia, one of
the greateft warriors of the age in which he lived, was
the fon of Frederick-William then hereditary prince
of Brandenburg, and Maria Dorothea a princefs of
the houfe of Brunfwick. He was born in 1712, the
year before his father Frederick I. mounted the throne
of Pruffia. The latter was fo far from being a patron
of literature, that he regarded nothing but what relat¬
ed to the military art and moft of his generals, what¬
ever their merits in their own line might be, fcarce knew
how to fign their names. So great indeed was the ig¬
norance of the monarch himfelf, that he baniilied from
his dominions a philofopher of the name of Wolf mere¬
ly becaufe he maintained the doftrine of pre-eftabliihed
harmony } upon which a theologian named Lange, aflert-
ed,that on fuch principles his majefty’s grenadiers wrere
not culpable when they deferled, it being only the ne-
ceffary confequence of the impulfe their machine had
received from their Creator. His fon was of a difpo-
fition the very reverfe of his father. Being put from
his birth under the care of Val de Recoule a French
lady of great merit and underftanding, he acquired, in
his early years, not only a tafte for literature in ge¬
neral, but a predile£tion for the French language,
which was not obliterated throughout his whole life.
It is not to be fuppofed that a prince of the difpofi-
tion above mentioned, would fuffer his fon to be long
engaged in literary purfuits. At feven years of age,
young Frederick was taken out of the hands of Madame
de Recoule, and put under the care of military tutors.
General count de Finkeftein, an old warrior, was ap-
9 ] F R E
pointed his governor j his fub-governor was Colonel de Frederkk.
Kalkftein, an officer renowned for his courage and ex- v
perience j he was taught mathematics and fortification
by Major Senning ; Han de Jendun, a Frenchman, in-
ftruhted him in other branches of knowledge ; and a
cadet of the name of Ken%ei, taught him his exercife.
At eight years of age he was furnifhed with a fmall
arfenal ftored with all forts of arms proportioned to his
age and ftrength, of which his father left him abfolute
matter. In a ftiort time he was named captain and
chief of the corps of cadets j and, the young prince per¬
formed everyday, in miniature, with his little foldiers,
all the evolutions with which his father exercifed his
giants. At laft he received the command of a com¬
pany in his father’s regiment famous throughout all
Europe, and which was compofed of men of whom
fcarce one was ttiort of feven French feet.
Born, however, with a tafte for the arts, he devoted
to their cultivation every moment he could efcape from
the vigilance of his guardians. He w as more particularly
fond of poetry and mufic, and when he could find a mo¬
ment’s leifure, he read French authors, or played on the
flute ; but his father as often as he furprifed him playing
or reading, broke his flute and threw his books into
the fire. The prince, chagrined at fuch injurious
treatment, aiid having a great defire to vifit Germany,
England, France, and Italy, defired permiffion to tra¬
vel. This, however, his father would not allow, but
permitted him to accompany himfelf in the little jour¬
neys he made from time to time into Germany 5 and,
in 1728, took him to Drefden to fee the king of Po¬
land. By thefe little expeditions the defire of the
prince to vifit other countries was only the more in¬
flamed, fo that at laft he formed a defign of fetting
out without his father’s knowledge. The defign was
intrufted to two of the prince’s young friends, named
Kat and Kelt; money was borrowed for the occafion,
and the day of their departure fixed, when unluckily
the whole project was difcovered. The old king, im¬
placable in his refentment, and confidering his fon as
a deferter, determined to put him to death. He was
ftrut up in the fortrefs of Cuftrin j and it w as with the
utmoft difficulty that the count de Seckendorf, font
for the purpofe by the emperor Charles \ L was able
to alter the king’s refolution. Certain vengeance,
however, was determined on both the intended affo-
ciates in Frederick’s journey. Keit efcaped the dan¬
ger by flying into Holland 5 but Kat had not that
good fortune. The king firft direifted that he Ihould
be tried by a court martial •, but as they, contrary to
his expectation, only fentenced the criminal to per¬
petual imprifonmeht, the revengeful monarch by an
unheard-of exercife of the royal prerogative caufed
him to be beheaded. The execution was performed
under the windows of the prince royal, whofe head
was held towards the fcaffold by four grenadiers : but
no fooner did he approach the window, and fee his
friend in the hands of the executioner, than heftretch-
ed out his arms towards him, crying out, “ Kat 1
Kat !” and inftantly fainted away. During the remain¬
der of his life he confidered capital puniftiments with
a great degree of horror, and they were rare through¬
out the Pruffian dominions while he continued to
reign. When the emperor had fucceeded in preventing
the execution of Frederick, the king remarked, that
E e 2 (i Auftria
F R E
[ 220 ]
F R E
Frederick. “ Auftria would one day fee what a ferpent (lie had
' v nourilhed in her bofom.” The royal priloner remain¬
ed a year at Cuftrin } during which time his father
wiflied that he (hould learn the maxims of government
and finance. For this purpofe, M. de Munchow, pre-
fident of the chamber of domains and finances, was
ordered to make him affift at all their alfemblies, to
confider him as a fimple counfellor, to treat him as
fuch, and make him work like others, i he young
counfellor, however, though he affitW at their meet¬
ings, did not trouble himfelf with reading adds or
copying decrees. Inftead of this, he amufed himfelf
fometimes with reading French pamphlets, and at others
with drawing caricatures of the preiident or members
of the aifembly. M. Munchow himfelf was likewife
very favourable to the prince at this time, by furnidl¬
ing him with books and other articles of amufement,
notwithftanding the exprefs prohibition of his father j
though in this he certainly ran great rifk j for the old
king, who fet but a very light value on human life,
would undoubtedly have put him to death had he re¬
ceived intelligence of his complaifance.
Frederick, after paffing the time above mentioned
in confinement, was recalled to Berlin, on pretence of
being prefent at the celebration of his elded filler’s
marriage with the hereditary prince of Bareith j but
the true reafon was, that the king had now prepared a
match for the prince himfelf. I his was the princefs
Elizabeth Chriftina of Burnfwick, niece to the emprefs.
Frederick, who was not only totally indifterent to the
fair fex in general, but particularly prejudiced againft
this princefs, made fome objections } his father, how¬
ever, overcame all obftacles with “ his ufual arguments
(fays the author of the life of Frederick), viz. his cane,
and a few kicks.”
The coldnefs which Frederick at this time fiiowed for
the fair fex appears not to have been natural j for as early
as the year 1723, though then only in the nth year
of his age, he is faid to have fallen in love with the
princefs Anne, daughter of George II. Even at this
early period he entered into vows to refufe every other
but her for his confort j nor were thefe ever broken, as
far as depended on himfelf. The marriage perhaps
would have taken place, had it not been for fome dif¬
ferences which arofe between the courts of Prufiia and
Hanover about a few acres of meadow land, and. two
or three Hanoverians inlifted by the Pruflian recruiters.
It is fuppofed alfo, that it was intended at one time to
marry him to Maria Therefa of Auftria } but, as in
that cafe it would have been neceffary to change his
religion, Frederick derived from thence a plaufible pre¬
tence for refufing the match. • The princefs whom he
efpoufed had a large (hare of beauty ; and, what, was
Hill better, an excellent heart: but Frederick is faid to
have fuffered fo much-in his former amours that, cer¬
tain natural and unfur mountable impediments remained
to the completing of his marriage with any w-oman.
Scarcely therefore was he in bed with his young fpoufe,
when a ery of Fire! was raifed by his friends. Fre¬
derick got up to fee where the conflagration was: but
finding it to be a falfe alarm, he fent meffengers to
compofe the princefs ; but neither that night, nor any
other, did he think proper to difturb her reft.
On occafibn of this marriage, Frederick received
from his father the county of Rupin. He refided in
3
the capital of this county, named alfo Rupinf for fome Jrederi
time ; but afterwards chofe Rheinfberg for his place 1
of abode. This is a little town built in the fands, on
the confines of Mecklenburg, and at that time con¬
taining only 1000 inhabitants j but it was foon greatly
improved by Frederick. Having put over the great
gate of the caftle, however, the following infeription,
Frederico Tranouillitatem Colenti, his father
was difpleafed with it, and therefore hurried him from
his peaceful retreat into the noife and tumult of war.
At this time the fucceffion to the crown of Poland
had kindled a general war throughout Europe, and
the king of Pruflia was to fend 10,000 auxiliaries
to the Imperial army, then commanded by Prince Eu¬
gene. The king conduced his troops in perfon,
and refolved to take this opportunity of giving his fon
an idea of war. At this time, however, he learnt but
little j and only faw, as he himfelf expreffes it, the ftia-
dow of the great Eugene. That confummate general,
neverthelefs, did not overlook his merit 5 but predicted
that he would one day be a great captain. Frederick
having gone to reconnoitre the lines at Philipfburg, in
his return through a very open wood, was expofed to
the cannon of the lines, which thundered inceflantly.
The balls broke a number of branches on every fide
of him: notwithftanding which, .he never . caufed his
horfe to move quicker j nor did his hand which held the
bridle ever alter its motion even for a moment. He
continued to converfe quietly with the generals who
attended him, and never fhowed the fmalleft fign of
apprehenfion. Being one night at fupper with tield-
Marfhal Grumkow, the converfation turned on the
young Prince Eugene who died on the Rhine j and
he was afked whether that prince would ever have be¬
come a great man ? Frederick decided in.the negative,
on account of young Eugene’s not having known at
any period of his life how to ehoofe a friend who dared
to tell him the truth.
During this campaign the health of the old king
w-as fo much impaired, that he was obliged to leave
the army ; and Frederick, on his return, was. for fome
time intrufted with figning all the orders in his fathti s
name. On the king’s recovery the prince was fent to
Stettin, under the care of the prince of Deffau, that he
might fee the fortifications of that town. He was af¬
terwards permitted to go to Konigfberg to fee the un¬
fortunate Staniflaus, who had taken refuge in that
place, and who was no lefs remarkable for his philo-
fophy and conftancy than for his misfortunes. With
him Frederick remained for fome weeks, and contraft-
ed a friendihip which was not diftolved but by the death
of Staniflaus. At laft he was allowed to return to his
peaceful manfion at Rheinfberg, where he remained
till the death of his father. In this place his time was
occupied alternately by the ftudy of the fciences, the
cultivation of the arts, and the pleafures of friendihip.
Philofophy, hiftory, politics, and military art, poetry,
and mufic, agreeably fucceeded each other, and had
each its ftated period. The prince paffed the greate.ft
part of the day in his library ; and the remainder in
the fociety of a feleft company of agreeable and learn¬
ed men. The principal of thefe were Chafot, a Irench
officer ; Kayferling, a gentleman of Courland, on whom
the prince beftowred the name of CcefanonJordan, a
French refugee j and Kncbelfdorf, direftor of the build¬
ings
F R E [2
■jj-derick. ings and gardens j but who could converfe on all the
t,~y—' arts of defigning with great tafte and judgment.—In
thefe meetings, gaiety generally prelided ; there were
generals to fpeak of war, muficians to form concerts,
and excellent painters to decorate the apartments.
Whilft Knobelfdorf was executing landfcapes and lay¬
ing out the gardens, Pefne was immortalizing himfelf
by his ceilings, and Du Ruiffon by his pictures of
flowers. The two Grauns compofed excellent mufic,
or dire&ed the orcheftra j and Benda, one of the firfl:
violins of Europe, accompanied the prince, who played
extremely well on the flute. The morning was ufual-
ly dedicated to ftudy ; gaiety and agreeable converfa-
tion prevailed at every repaft ; and every evening there
was a little concert.—In this retreat Ftederick conceiv¬
ed that ardent paflion for military glory, and the ag¬
grandizement of his kingdom for which he became at
laid fo remarkable ; and here he is fuppofed to have
formed the molt fublime and daring projects. He was
fired with a defire of imitating the celebrated heroes of
antiquity, of whom he read in the ancient authors, and
for which he fet apart fome hours every day. Amongft
the rvorks which he read almolt every year were He¬
rodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch, ri acitus,
Salluft, Livy, Quintus Curtius, Cornelius Nepos, Va¬
lerius Maximus, Polybius, Csefar, Vegetius, &c. He
never fpoke but with enthufiafm of the great warriors
of Greece and Rome and when feated on the throne
thought he could never dittinguiih an able foldier in a
more honourable manner than by conferring on him a
Roman firname. Hence he diftinguiihed by the name
of Quintus Icilius M. Guiehard, who had written fome
treatifes on the military art of the ancients ; giving
him at the fame time a free battalion. I his name of
Quintus Icilius was retained by M. Guichard as long
as he lived.
In his purfuit of glory Frederick found that it was
not improper to cultivate the friendfhip of celebrated
poets, philofophers, and others of the literary clafs 5
for which purpofe he flattered, commended, and com¬
plimented all the molt celebrated literati of Europe at
that time. “ The philofophers (fays the author of
his life) anfwered him as a mad lover writes to his
miftrefs. They wrote to him that he was a great poet,
a great philofopher, the Solomon of the north. All
thefe hyperboles were printed } and Solomon was not
forry for it, though he had too much underftanding to
believe in them. Wolf, Rollin, Gravefande, Mauper-
tuis, Algarotti, Voltaire, were honoured with his cor-
refpondence. The laft efpecially, accuilomed to offer
up incenfe to the idol of the day, were it tranfported
from the dunghill to the altar, did not fail to exalt as
the firft man of the univerfe a prince who was in ex¬
pectancy of the throne, and who affured him that he
was the greateft philofopher of the age and the firfl:
poet in the world.”
That Frederick might keep up his character with
the literati, or perhaps from a real predileCtion for his
principles, he patronized the Apology of Wolf, and had
his principal treatifes tranflated into French. He even
prevailed upon his father to relax a little in favour of
that philofopher. A commiffion of reformed and Lu¬
theran theologians was appointed in 1736, to examine
into the tenets of that unfortunate philofopher. Wolf
was declared innocent, and a letter was fent to him at
1 ] f R E
Marpourg containing an invitation to return ^ but the
philofopher did not think proper to make his appear¬
ance till the year 1740, when his proteCIor was ieated
on the throne.
During his refidence at Rheinfberg, Frederick com¬
pofed his refutation of the principles of Machiavel, un¬
der the title of Anti-Macluavcl: of which he font the
manufcript to Voltaire to correct, and to get printed.
The old king, now almoft worn out with infirmity,
faw with regret the predileffion his fon entertained for
men of letters ; and, in his peevifh fits, often threaten¬
ed the whole fociety with confinement in the fortrefs
of Spandau. Thefe threats frequently occafioned a vio¬
lent alarm among the joyous company at Rheinlberg,
which it required all the eloquence of Frederick to
quiet. Their apprehenfions on this account, however,
were foon removed. At the commencement of the
year 1740, the king’s diforder increafed to a great de¬
gree, and in the month of May.his cafe became defpe-
rate. He lived,however, till the 31 ft of that month, when
he expired, and left the throne to his fon Frederick II.
The acquifition of a kingdom did not abate Frede¬
rick’s paflion for literature, though to this he was now
obliged to fuperadd the qualities and labours of a great
king. A coniideration of his tr an factions in this charac¬
ter falls under the article Prussia, to which we refer :
thefe, indeed, fo totally engrofled the romaining part
of his life, that little more remains to be iaid under this
article, than to relate fome anecdotes by which we may¬
be in fome meafure able to trace the charaifter of this
great and Angular perfonage.
It has already been mentioned, that in the early park
of his life, Frederick had conceived a great inclination
to travel. This paflion feems not to have been extin-
guiftied by the fplendour of his new filuation •, for hav¬
ing, foon after his acceflion, gone into Pruflia and Weft-
phalia to receive the homage of the inhabitants, he
formed a refolution of proceeding incognito as far as
Paris. Being difcovered at Straihourg, however, he
laid afide the defign of proceeding to Parts, and went
to fee his ftates in Lower Germany. Here he wrote
the celebrated Voltaire, that he Ihould come incognita
to vifit him at Bruffels •, but being feized with an in-
difpofition in the little palace «f Meufe, two leagues
from Cleves, he wrote again to that philofopher, in¬
forming him that he expetled he Ihould make the firfl
advances. The following curious account is given by
him of his reception, &e. “ The only guard 1 found
at the gate ^as one foldier. The privy counfellor,
Bambonet, was cooling his heels in the court: he had
large ruffles of dirty linen •, a hat full of holes; and an old
magifterial peruke, one end of which dcfcended as low
as his pockets, and the other fcarcely reached his Ihoul-
der. I was conduced into his majefty’s apartment,
where there was nothing but bare walls. I perceived
in a cabinet, by the glimmering of a taper, a truckle
bed, two feet and a half wide, on which lay a little
man muffled up in a night gown of coarfe blue cloth.
This was the king, in a ftrnng perfpiration, and even
trembling, under a wretched blanket inva violent fit of
the ague. I bowed to him j and began by feeling his
pulfe, as if I had been his firft phyfician. The fit over,
he dreffed himfelf and fat down to table. Algarotti,
Kayferling, Maupertuis, the king’s minifler to the.
States General, and myfelf, were of the party j where
WO-
F R E I 22
Frederick. we converfed profoundly on the immortality of the foul,
' on liberty, and the androgynes of Plato.’’
This rigid economy, and contempt of every luxury
with regard to his own perfon, was maintained by Fre¬
derick as long as he lived. The following account, ta¬
ken likewife fromVoltaire, will give an idea or his man¬
ner of living. “ He rofe at five in the morning m
fummer, and fix in winter. A lacquey came to light
his fire, and drefs and {have him } and indeed he almoit
wholly drefled himfelf. His room was not inelegant.
A rich balluftrade of filver, ornamented with little cu-
pids feemed to enclofe an alcove bed, the curtains of
which were vifible •, but behind them, inftead of a bed
there was a library : the king flept^ on a truckle bee
with a flight mattrefs concealed behind a fereen. Mar¬
cus Aurelius and Julian, thofe apoltles of Stoicilm,
did not deep in a more homely manner. At {even his
prime miniiler arrived with a great bundle of papers
under his arm. This prime minifter was no other than a
clerk who hadformerly been a foldierand valet-de-cham-
bre. To him the fecretaries fent all their difpatches, and
he brought extrafts of them, to which the king wrote
anfwers in two words on the margin : and thus the af¬
fairs of the whole kingdom were expedited in an hour.
Towards eleven the king put on his boots, reviewed his
regiment of guards in the garden, and at the {ame
hour the colonels were following his example in their
refpe&ive provinces. The princes his brothers, t le
general officers, and one or two chamberlains, dined at
his table 5 which was as good as it could be in a country
where there is neither game, tolerable butchers meat,
nor a pullet, and where the very wheat is brought from
Magdebourg. After the repaft, he retired alone into
his cabinet, where he made verfes till five or fix o clock.
Then came a young man named D’Arget, formerly
fecretary to Valory the French envoy, _ who t0
him. A little concert began at feven, in which the
king played on the flute with as much {kill as the firft
performer j and pieces of his compofition were fre¬
quently executed. Supper was ferved in a little hall,
the lingular and ftriking ornament of which was a
pifture, the defign of which he had given to Pefne, one
of our beft colourifts. It was a fine piaure of Priapus.
Thefe repafts were not in general the lefs philofophic
on that account. Never did men converfe in any part
of the world with fo much liberty refpeaing all the
fuperftitions of mankind, and never were they treated
with more pleafantry and contempt. God vas refpeft-
ed • but none of thofe who had decei\(%l men in his
name were fpared. Neither "women nor priefts ever
entered the palace. In a word, Frederick lived with¬
out a court) without counfel, and without religious
vorfhip.” , .
As Frederick had efpoufed his prittcefs entirely con¬
trary to his inclination, it was imagined that on his
acceflion to the throne he would embrace the opportuni¬
ty of fetting himfelf free from engagements fo difagree-
' able to himfelf. The queen was not without fufpicions
of this kind, infomuch that {he was on the point of
fainting awray when he made his fiift \ifit to her. ^o
the furprife of all parties, however, he made her a very
affeftionate fpeeeh, apologizing for his indifference, and
inviting her to participate with him the throne of which
{he was fo worthy. In the firft year of his reign he
feftored the academy of feiences at Berlin Y'hich had
2
2 ] F R E
been founded in 1700; but he foon became difgufied Frederick, ’
with its members, whom he endeavoured at all times v—y—~
to ridicule rather than encourage. His war with the
queen of Hungary, however, which took place almoft
immediately after his acceflion, for fome time prevent¬
ed him from taking fuch an active part in literary mat¬
ters as he was naturally inclined to do. After the
peace, being at liberty to follow his inclination,
he gave full fcope to his paflion for literature j and
in the interval betwixt the conclufion of the firfl war
and beginning of that of 1756, he compofed moft of
the works which are now aferibed to him. At this
time he wrote his Hijlory of my own Times, afterwards
announced among his pofthumous works. In writing
hiftory he acquired a tafte for hiftorians j and juftly gave
the preference to the ancients, the moft celebrated of
whole works he perufed every year. Voltaire was his
principal literary correfpondent, whom he invited #to
refide with him. Afraid of lofing his liberty, however,
that philofopher hefitated, exeufed himfelf, and entered
into pecuniary treaties, firi: for himfelf, and afterwards
for his niece Madame Dermis, whom he wifhed to ac¬
company him. At la If he was determined by feeing
a poem from Frederick to M. d’Arnaud, in which the
latter was compared to the rifing, and Voltaire to the
fetting fun. By this Voltaire was fo much piqued,
that he fet out for Berlin without delay, and arrived
there in June 1750. He was received in the moft
magnificent and affe&ionate manner, and for fome time
his iituation was very agreeable 5 but the difputes and
rivalfhip which took place betw ixt him and Maupertuis
foon threw every thing into confufion. In thefe the
king interfered in fuch a manner as was certainly be¬
low his dignity ; and he often exercifed himfelf in ma¬
king a jeft of the other men of letters in a way exceed¬
ingly difgufting, and which induced many of them to
leave him. The fquabbles with Voltaire were fome-
times very diverting •, an account of fome of which is
given under the article Voltaire. They ended at
latt in a final quarrel with that wit, and his departure
from the kingdom. The reftlefs difpofition of Frede¬
rick {bowed itfelf after his departure, by his attempts
to provoke the literati who remained at his court to
quarrel with him as Voltaire had been accuftomed to
do. But they w-ere of too paflive a difpofition to gra¬
tify him in this refpetft, choofing rather to fuffer the
moft mortifying ftrokes of raillery, or to leave the
kingdom altogether, than to contend with him. This
proved fo uneafy to the king, that he one day exclaim¬
ed, “ Shall we have no more quarrels then ?” The
breaking out of the war in 1756, however, put a flop
to this diverfion, and afforded him as many enemies as
he could wifh. The exploits he performed during the
feven years which this unequal conteft lafted, are al¬
moft incredible * ; and it is amazing how the fortitude * See Frvj
and refolutioli of any perfon could enable him to fuftain/«*
the difficulties which during this period he had to en¬
counter. In one fatal moment, indeed, even the re-
folution of Frederick w-as on the point of giving way.
This happened after the battle of Colin, when his af¬
fairs feemed altogether defperate, before they were re¬
trieved by the victory at Rofbach. At this time he
wrote to his lifter at Bareith, that he was on the point
of putting an end to his owm life ; but as this refolu-
ticn did not extinguifli in him the love of glory, he
^’iflied
F R E [ 223 ] F
wiftied to have it faid that he made verfes on the brink
of the grave. With this view he wrote a long poeti¬
cal epiltle to the marquis d’Argens, in which he
communicated to him his defign, and bade him fare¬
well.
Happily, at laft, the king’s affairs took a better
turn, and fuch defperate thoughts were laid afide. His
conftitution, however, was irreparably injured by the
exceffxve fatigues he had fuftained. Soon after the
conclufion of the peace, his body began to bend, and
his head to incline to the right fide : by degrees he
became very infirm 5 he was tormented with the gout,
and i'ubjedt to frequent indigeftions. All his diftem-
pers, however, were born with invincible patience ; and,
till a very (hurt time before his death, he never ceafed
to attend his reviews, or vifit the different provinces of
his dominions. He has been known to review his
troops, and gallop through all the ranks, as if he felt no
pain, not with {landing that an abfcefs which had bro¬
ken out upon him, and approached to a fuppuration,
frequently, upon fuch occafions, touched the laddie.
In Auguft 1781; he impaired his health Hill farther by
aflifting at a review, where he w as expofed w ithout even
a cloak to a heavy rain for four or five hours. On his
return to Potzdam he was feized w ith a fever ; and, for
the firil time, became unable to affilt at the military
exercifes of Potzdam, which take place in September.
His malady, however, did not prevent him from dila¬
ting the difpolition of thefe exercifes during the three
days they latted, and he always gave the word in pre¬
fence of his generals and the foreigners of dillindtion
then at Potzdam. About the end of autumn the fever
left him, but was fucceeded by a violent cough ; and
he continued free from the gout which had ulually at¬
tacked him at this feafon. He was greatly weakened
by the cough, which prevented him from ilet ping ; but
this did not in the lead interrupt him in the execution
of bufinefs. Every morning, at four or five o’clock,
he ordered the three cabinet fecretaries to enter his
apartment, where he dictated anfwers to their papers.
It wras not till after the difpatch of all his affairs that
he faw a furgeon or fometimes a phyfician, though he
had a bad opinion of the phyficians in general, whom
he confulted on his diflemper. In the evening he
amufed himfelf from five to eight with fome of his fo-
ciety ; and after that hour he paffed the remainder of
the time before he went to reft, in hearing fome an¬
cient authors read to him ^ and thus he continued to
employ himfelf till the very day before he died. On
the 17th and 5 8th of May 1786, he was unable to af-
fift at the ordinary reviews, but {till he hoped to be
prefent at thofe of Siletia. He feveral times attempt¬
ed to mount his horfe to go to the parade at Potzdam ;
but finding his powers infufficient, he was obliged to
return, after having proceeded a few paces. He made
other attempts, but with as little fuccefs ; and at laft
his diforder terminated in a dropfy. Being now no
longer able to remain in bed, he {at day and night in
an arm chair with fprings which could he moved at
pleafure. For near a month before his death the fwell-
ing of his feet gave him violent pain, fo that he wifti¬
ed an incifion to be made •, but the furgeon refufed to
perform the operation, fufpedling that it might haften
his death. Nature, however, aecompliftied his defires $
his right leg opened, and diicharged fuch a quantity
of matter, that he was greatly relieved .* and thofe un- Frederick^
acquainted with the medical art began to entertain
hopes of his recovery. The phyficians, however, wrere
of a very difterent opinion ; and the event juftified their
apprehenfions. On the 16th of Auguft 1786 his
throat began to rattle violently, and his attendants ex-
p-’dted every moment that he would breathe his laft. In
this fituation his three fecretaries entered the room for
the defpatch of bufinefs as ufual. Even then Frederick
made an effort to collect his force, giving them a fign
to wait, as if he would fpeak with them in a ftiorttinie.
This, however, was the laft he could make : for he
foon after fell into a ftupor j though from this he reco¬
vered fo fur as to be able to fpeak. In the evening he
alked what o’clock it was ? and on being anfwered that
it was nine, he faid, “ Well then I am going to reft.”
His refpiration and voice became gradually more
feeble j and he expired on Thurfday at 19 minutes
after two in the morning, without any convulfion or
fymptom of pain.
This great monarch was of the middle fize, had
large blue eyes and a piercing look. He fpoke Ger¬
man incorrectly, and in a very rough manner •, but
talked French very fluently, and his voice was then
mild and agreeable. His conftitution was naturally
feeble, but he had greatly improved it by his adtivity
and laborious life. He had the arc of relieving every one
from that embarraffment which frequently occurred in
accolling fuch a celebrated monarch j and it feems pro¬
bable that he himfelf confldered on what he fliould lay
to any illuftrious perfon who happened to come to his
court. His univerfal knowledge enabled him to con-
verfe on all fubjeCts ; and thus he talked of war with
military men, of verfes with the poet, of agriculture
with the farmer, jurifprudence with*the lawyer, com¬
merce wdth the merchants, and politics with the Englilh-
man. He had a very retentive memory 5 was fond of
folitude and gardening ; and likewife took great plea¬
fure in dogs, of which animals he conftantly kept a
number about him, giving them little balls covered
with leather to play with. In company, he was fond
of alking queftions and jelling ; in which laft he pro¬
ceeded luch lengths as undoubtedly were unbecoming
in a fuperior towards his inferiors, w ho would not have
failed to refent fuch jokes from perfons more on an
equality with them. In military affairs he was excef-
fively fevere, not to fay cruel 5 of which the following
anecdote may ferve as an inftance. In the firft war
of Silelia , wiping to make fome alterations in his
camp during the night, he forbade every perfon, under
pain of death, to keep, after a certain hour, a fire or
other light in his tent. He himfelf went the rounds j
and in pafling the tent of a Captain Zietern he per¬
ceived a light. Entering the tent, he found the cap¬
tain fealing a letter to his wife, for whom he had a
great affection. “ What are you doing there ? (fays
the king) : Do you not know the order ?” The cap¬
tain fell on his knees and alktd pardon, but did not at¬
tempt to make any excufe. “ Sit down (fays Frede¬
rick), and add a few words I am going to di&ate to
you.” Zietern obeyed j and the king dictated, “ To¬
morrow 1 fliall perilh on a fcaffold.” The unfortunate
man wrote them, and next day wras executed. In
matters of domeftic legiflation, he was more arbitrary
than juft ; of which we have a notable example in the
famous
THE r 2
famo® cafe of Arnold the miller. The man had refufed
Ffedcnckl- to pay the rent of the mill he puffefted, on \ t .
*»* that die flream nhieh turned it had been drverted into
^ a fifti pond. This was evidently a frivolous excul ,
becaitfe the water which ran into the pond alfe ran ont
of it into the fame channel as before, fo that nothing
could be loft, except what evaporated from the iurface
of the fifli pond. The judges therefore gave fentence
againft the miller j but the king not only reverfed their
fentence but difgraced them. For this he was cele¬
brated through all the newfpapers m Europe *, and yet
he was in the wrong, and afterwards even acknow¬
ledged himfelf to have been fo : but, notwithftandmg
he knew his error, he not only made no reparation to
Ae pardes he had’ injured bur aliowed then, to Ue -n
prifon at Spandau all his lifetime, fo that they were
not releafed till the commencement of the lucxecd g
reion. He entertained certain and almoft unaccoun-
able prejudices again!! certain places and ^
neither conduft nor merit could eradicate. U
thefe unfortunate places was Weftphalia on M he
never conferred any bounty : and one day a native ot
S entry, a man of great merit, bemg^propofed
to him for a place, he refuied, faying,
phalian ; he is good for nothing.” Voltaire accuies
him of ingratitude to the count de Seckendorf; w ho
•as we have already feen, faved his life, and a gam ft
whom he afterwards conceived moft ^^d hhTtlt
His indifference towards thofe who afforded h m the
moft effential fervice, was evident: when a r^U^^
cher prevented him from falling, horfe and a over a
nrecimee where both would have undoubted y been
killed, the king, fenfible of the affiftance that had
been afforded him, turned about, and fay mg, 1 han
Mend ” rode off without ever enquiring farther
St fhe pkdn who had juft preferved him from de-
ftr Wi°h regard to the literary merits of this monarch,
•we certainly cannot pronounce .f''^s and
tt • Koofts nf havma corre£led his works, ana
SrTof having furJ(he8d him with materials for h,s
hMory He has been accufed of borrow,ng whole
hemiftichs of poetry from Voltaire, Bo, ea„ Roufleau
mid others ; nor does the charge appear to be all
woM of foundation, ^uch of his ver es as a&t
^ •mreerfrwe";—ny^f ,
nor mueea can l the former t of his life
tt^t^dl^iLt-partiality-for the French fearn-
ing and ^“"Sitaion.andhclined much more to
t.rcly loft “'SS'‘end G;tmans. Towards the end of
Hfr tdeedf le affefted a contempt for the French,
tuW whom it is faid he would fcarcely ever have
made any figure except rn military affairs. . .
Fbvmrick is the name of two counties, and of fe-
t'wUoh are included 364. S'
“vitirr^puiaSn'of 19,681 fouls, including 42JO
fla™VDERICKSBURG, a fort and colony of
T! t ,1,1,urn on the Gold coall of Guinea, in Afn-
®r»eat Cape Threepoints, and about 75
24 ] FEE* I
Cape Coaft. It mounts 46 pieces of cannon on four Frrfemt,
batteries; and formerly belonged to the 1 ruffians, but J
is now fubject to Denmark. W . Long. 1. 15. • Free ftonc.
6> FREDERICKSF1ALL, or Frederickstadt, a
ftrong town of Norway, in the preiedure of Ager-
huysf where Charles XII. king oi Sweden was kftled
bva mu Ike t ball in 1718, when he was befieging this
town. It is feated or. the coaft of the Categate, in
E. Long. 10. 41;. N. Lat. 59. 2.
FREDERICKSODE, a town of Denmark m
Jutland, taken by the Swedes in 1657, but now tub-
jeft to Denmark. It is feated near the lea, in E. Long.
"FREDERICKSTADT, a town of Denmark, m
South Jutland, built in 1621. It is leated on the
river Eyder, in E. Long. 9. N. Lat. 54. 2ti.
Frederickstadt, a town of Norway, m tne pro¬
vince of Agerhuys, feated on a bay of the fea, near
the frontiers of Sweden, m E. Long. I . *
"free in a general fenfe, is ufed m oppofition to
whatever is conftsained or neceflitated. When app ie
to things endowed with underftandmg, it more pecu¬
liarly relates to the liberty of the will.
FUEE Bench, fignifies that eftate m copy o 1 ,
the wife, being efpouted a virgin, has atter the de
ceafe of her hulband for her dower, according to L e
ouftom of the manor. ,
In” gard to this free bench, different manors have
different cuftoms : and in the manor of Fall and Wtft
Enbourne in the county of Berks and n, otherparts
of England, there is a cuftom, that when a py 1
tenancies, the widow ftiall have her free bench in all
the deceafed hulband’s lands, dum Jola et cajla fumt
while (he lives Angle and chafte i” but .f ^
to be guilty of incontmency, !he {hall forfeit her .
Nevertheless, upon her coming into the court of tie
manor riding backwards on a black ram, with h s tal
in her hand, rehearfing a certain for“ f
Reward is bound by cuftom to reftore her to her tree
bench. The words are,
Here I am,
Riding on a black Ram,
Like a whore as I am ;
And for my crincum crancum
Have loft my bincum bancum,
And for my tail’s game
Have done this worldly (harne :
Therefore, _ pray Mr Steward, let me have my
land again.
Free or Imperial Cities in Germany, are
fubjeft to any particular prince *, but governed, lik
republics, by their own magiftrates. .
There were free cities (hbera amUles) even u -
der the ancient Roman empire : fuch were tho.e to
whom the emperor, by the advice or confent of the
fenate gave the privilege of appointing their own in -
gS and governing themfelves by therr own laws.
See City. _
FREE Fifbery. See Free FlSHERT.
FREE IVarren. See WARREN.
Free Mafon. See Mason. . .
FREE Slone, a whitifh ftone, dug up m many parts
F R E C 225 ] F R E
Free ftone of Britain, which is hard and durable, and of excel-
H lent ufe in building, See* It is a kind of the grit (lone,
FreehHd- but finer landed and fmoothed j and is called free,
from its being of fuch a conftitution as to cut freely in
any direftion.
The qualities of the feveral kinds of free ftones ufed
in the different parts of Europe are very different.
They all agree in this general property indeed, that
they are fofter while in the quarry than when they
have been foftie time expofed to the air: but even this
general property differs greatly in degree. There is
a fort of gray free itone in ufe at Paris (of which we
do not yet feem to have met with any in this country),
which has the above-mentioned quality in fo great a
degree, that the expence of working it is in a great
meafure laved.
This Hone lies everywhere on the fouth fide of the
river Seine, and is of a coarfe and large grit. It is fo
foft when newly taken out of the ftrata, that they fa-
jfhion it very conveniently with a lort of broad axe, and
form as many It ones for building in this manner in an
hour, as an equal number of our people do in a day or
two. Though this Itone is as foft as dry clay when
firlt taken up, it is found to harden fo confiderably in
the air, that it becomes more than equal to our ordi¬
nary free itone.
The Portland free Itone of Britain of the fined kind,
which is white and of a clofe grit, is very fit for hewing
and carving ; but it will neither refut water nor fire,
which is a very lingular inltance in fo denfe a (tone }
while the free Itone of Kent, which is lefs beautiful to
the eye, and is of a grayilh colour, and confiderably
clofe, though of a larger grain, refills the air and wa¬
ter very well. The freeitone of Derbylhire, on the
other hand, is fo brittle as to be unfit for any fine work¬
ing ; and fo coarfe and open in its texture, that it lets
water through : yet it bears the fire extremely well,
and is fit for ovens, hearths, &c,
FREEBOOTER, or Flibuster, a name given to
the pirates who fcour the American feas, particularly
fuch as make war againlt the Spaniards. See Buca-
NIER.
FREEDOM, in general, the Hate or quality of be¬
ing free. See LIBERTY.
FREEDOM of a Corporation, the right of enjoying
all the privileges and immunities belonging to it. See
Corporation.
The freedom of cities, and other corporations, is re¬
gularly obtained by ferving an apprenticefiiip j but it
is alfo purchafed with money, and fometimes conferred
by way of compliment.
Freedom of Confcience. See Toleration.
Freedom of the Will, that power or faculty of the
mind, whereby it is capable of acting or not a£ting,
See ;iff» choofing or rejecting whatever it judges proper f. Of
’phyfics. this every man mult be fenfible, who finds in himfelf
a power to begin or forbear, continue or end feveral
actions, barely by a thought or preference of the
mind.
FREEHOLD, Frank Tenement, (liberum tene¬
ment umf is land, or tenement, which a man holds in
fee-fimple, fee-tail, or for term of life. See Fee and
Tail.
Freehold is of two kinds, in deed and in
The firft is the real poffeffion of land or tenement
Vol. IX. Part I.
...
in fee, fee-tail, or for life : the other is the right a Freehold
man has to fuch land or tenement before his entry or I!
feizure. . Fre^in^
A freehold, by the common law, cannot commence
in futuro ; but it mult take effect presently, either in
poffeffion, reverfion, or remainder. Whatever is part
of the freehold goes to the heir $ and things fixed
thereto may not be taken in diitrefs for rent, or in ex¬
ecution, &e. No man (hall be diffeifed of his freehold
by flat. Magna Charta, cap. 29. but by judgment of
bis peers, or according to the laws of the land, nor
{hall any diitrain freeholders to anfwer for their free¬
hold in any thing concerning the fame, without the
king’s writ. Freehold eftates, of certain value, are re¬
quired by ftatutes to qualify jurors, electors of the
knights of the lliire in parliament, Stc.
Freehold is likewife extended to fuch offices as a
man holds in fee, or fur life.
Freehold is alfo fometimes taken in oppofition to
villenage.
Lambard obferves, that land, in the Saxons time,
was diftinguifhed into bockland, i. e. holden by book
or writing •, and folk land, held without writing. The
former, he fays, was held on far better condition, and
by the better fort of tenants, as noblemen and gentle¬
men being fuch as we now call freehold: the latter
was moitly in poffetiion of peafants } being the fame with
what we now call at the will of the lord.
In the ancient laws of Scotland, freeholders are
called mdites, “ knights.” In Reg. Judicial, it is ex-
preffed, that he who holds land upon an execution of a
ilatute merchant, until he hath iatisfied the debt, tenet
ut liberum tenementum fbi et ajjignatis fuis; and the
fame of a tenant per elegit: the meaning of which
feems to be, not that fuch tenants are freeholders, but
as freeholders for the time, till they have received pre¬
fils to the value of their debt.
FREETHINKER. See Deist.
FREEZE, Frieza, or Prize, in Commerce. See
Frize.
Freeze, in Architecture, that part of the entabla¬
ture of columns, between the architrave and corniehe.
The freeze is properly a large fiat face, or member,
feparating the architrave from the corniche.
The ancients called it noophorus becaufe it
was ufually enriched with figures of animals; and our
denomination has a like origin, being formed of
the Latin phrygio, “ an embroiderer,” becaufe it is
commonly adorned with fculptures in baffo relievo,
imitating embroidery.
FREEZING, in Phikfophy, the fame with congela*
tion. See Freezing, Chemistry Index, and Salts.
FREEZING Rain, or Raining Ice, a very uncommon
kind of {bower, which fell in the weft of England, iti
December 1672 j whereof we have divers accounts in
the Philofophical Tranfaftions.
This rain, as foon as it touched any thing above
ground, as a bough or the like, immediately fettled
into ice, and by multiplying and enlarging the icicles,
broke all down with its weight. The rain that fell on
the fnow immediately froze into ice, without finking
in the fnow at all.
It made an incredible deftruftion of trees, beyond
any thing in all hiftory. “ Had it concluded with
fome guft of wind (fays a gentleman on the fpot), it
F f might
F R E
French.
Freeing might have been of terrible confeqilence. I
the fprig of an afti tree, of juft three quarters ot a
pound •, the ice on which weighed 16 pounds. Some
were frighted with the noife in the air 5 till they
difcerned it was the clatter of icy boughs, dallied
againft each other.” Dr Beale obferves, that there
■was no confiderable froft obferved on the ground during
the whole ; whence he concludes, that a froft may be
very intenfe and dangerous on the tops of iome hills
and plains, while in other places it keeps at. two,
three, or four feet diftance above the ground., rivers,
lakes, &c. and may wander about furious in home
places and remifs in others not far off. The froft was
followed by glowing heats, and a wonderful forwardnefs
of flowers and fruits.
FREIGH 1', in Nav:ga(ion and Commerce, the hire
of a fhip, or a part thereof, for the conveyance and
carriage of goods from one port or place to another ;
or the lum agreed on between the owner and the nier-
chant, for the hire and ufe of a veffel. See Maritime
Laws. ....
FREIND, John, a moft learned Englifh phyfician
and writer of the 18th century, was born at Croton,
Northamptonfhire, in 1675. In 1696, he publiftied,
in conjunaion with Mr P‘. Foulkes, an edition of two
Greek orations, one of /Eichines againft Ctefiphon,
and the other of Demofthenes de Corona, with a new
Latin verfion. In 1699, he wrote a letter to Dr ■> ilane
concerning an Lhj irocephalus, publifhed in. the Philo-
fophical Tranfadions ; and another letter m Latin to
the fame gentleman, De fpafmis rarior. hijlona, piloted
in the fame Tranfaaiohs. In 1703, his Emmet,alogia
appeared, which gained him great reputation. . In 1704,
he was chofen profeffor of chemiftry in the umverfity of
Oxford. In 1705 he attended the earl of Peterborough
to Spain, as phyfician to the army there 5 and, upon
his return in 1707, publiftied an account of the eail s
expedition and conduft. In 1709 he publifhed his
Chemical Le&ures. In 1712 he attended the duke
of Ormond in Flanders, as his phyfician. In .1716
he was admitted a fellow of the College of Phyficians
in London. This year he publiftied the firft and third
books of Hippocrates De morbis popularibus, with a
Commentary on Fevers, written by himfelf. He fat
member for the borough of Launcefton in Cornwall
in 1722, where he diftinguifhed himfelf by his oppo-
fition to the adminiftration. March 1722, he was
committed to the Tower on a charge of high treafon ^
and while he was under confinement, he wrote a Latin
epiftle to Dr Mead, de quibufdam vnriolarum genenbus ;
and began his Hiftory of Phyfic, the firft part of which
was publilhed in 172?, and the f'econd in 1726. Upon
the acceflion of George II. to the throne, he was ap-
. pointed phyfician in ordinary to the queen, who (bowed
the utmoft regard and efteem for him. He died at
London in 1 728. His works were publifhed together
in Latin at London, 1733, in folio, and dedicated to
the queen.
FREITS. See Treats.
FRENCH, in general,
France : thus we fay, the
cuftom, polity, &c. . . . .
The French language, as it now (lands, is no original
or mother language, but a medley of feveral. Thofe
that prevail moft, and which are, as it were, the baas
f 226 ] F R E
weighed thereof are, 1. The Celtic j whether that were a par- Jrendr
ticular language it fell, or whether it were only a dia-
left of the Gothic, as fpoke in the weft and north.
2. The Latin, which the Romans carried with them
into Gaul, when they made the conqueft thereof.
And, 3- '1 he Teutonic, or that dialeft of the Teuto¬
nic |poke by the Franks, when they paffed the Rhine,
and eftablilhed themfelves in Gaul. Of thefe three
lanouages, in the ipace of about thirteen hundred
yeat-s was the prtfent French formed, fuch as it is now-
found. Its progrels was very flow j and both the Ita¬
lian and Spamih were regular languages long before
the French. .
Paiquier obferves, it was under Philip de Valois
that the French tongue firft began to be polifhed j and .
that, in the regifter of the chamber of accounts ot that
time, there is a purity ieen almoft equal to that of the
prefent age. However, the French was ftill a very im-
perfeft language till the reign of Francis. 1.: the cuftom
v of fpeaking Latin at the bar, and of writing the. public
afts and inftruments of the courts of juitice in that
language, had made them overlook the French, their
own language. Add that the preceding ages had
been remarkable for their ignorance, which was owing,
in a good meafure, to the long and calamitous wars
which France had been engaged in *, whence the French /
nobleffe deemed it a kind of merit not to know any
thing •, and the generals regarded little whether or not
they wrote and talked politely, provided they could
but fight well. . ,
But Francis I. who was the reftorer of learning, and
the father of the learned, changed the face, of things j
and after his time, Henry Stevens printed his book, De
la Precetlence du Langage Franpots. The change had
become very confpicuous at the end of the 16lh century j
fomething belonging to
French language, French
and under Henry IV. Amyot, Coeffeteau, and Mal¬
herbe, contributed towards bringing it to its perfection j
which the Cardinal de Richelieu completed, by the
eftablifhment of the French academy j an affembly,
wherein the moft ditiinguifhed perfons of the church, >
the fword, and the gown, have been members. Nor
did the long reign of Louis XIV. contribute a
to the improvement of the language •, the perfonal
qualities of that prince, and his tafte for the fine
arts, and that of the princes of the blood, rendered
his court the politeft in Europe. Wit and magni¬
ficence feemed to vie j and his generals might have
difputed with the Greeks, Romans, &.c. the glory ot
wiiting well, if they could not that of fighting. From
court, the elegance and purity of the language foon
fpread itfelf imo the provinces j and now there is fcarce
anybody there who does not write and fpeak goo
French.
One of the charafters of the French language is, to
be natural and eafy. The words are ranged in it much
in the fame order as the ideas in our minds j in which
it differs exceedingly from the Greek and Latin, where
the inverfion of the natural order of words is reputed a
beauty. Indeed the Hebrew furpaffes even the French
in this point j but then it comes fhort of it in copioui-
nefs and variety.
It muft be added, howrever, that as to. the analogy
of grammar, and the fimplicity wherewith the mco s
of verbs are formed, the Englifh has the advantage not
only over the French, but over all the known languages
s ' ijj
I
F R E [2
French, in the world j but then the turns, the expre{lions, and
]'1'e|~cat1, . the idioms of the Englifh, are fometimes fo quaint
" v and extraordinary, that it lofes a good deal of the ad¬
vantage which its grammatical fimplicity gives it over
the reft.
The French has but few compound words; wherein
it differs widely from the Greek, High Dutch, and
Englilh. This the French authors own a great dif-
advantage in their language 3 the Greek and Dutch
deriving a great part of their force and energy from
the compofition of w-ords, and frequently exprefling
that in one founding word, which the French cannot
exprefs but by a periphrafis. The diminutives in
the French are as few as the compounds 3 the
greateft part of thofe remaining in ufe having loft
their diminutive fignification 3 but what diftinguifti the
French moft, are its juftnefs, purity, accuracy, and
flexibility.
French is the moft univerfal and extenfive language
in Europe. J he policy of ftates and courts has ren¬
dered it neceffary for the minifters of princes, and their
officers, &c. and the tafte of arts and fciences has had
the fame effecft with regard to the learned. In Germa¬
ny, and elfewhere, the princeffes and perfons of diftinc-
tion value themfelves on underftanding French 3 and in
feveral courts of Europe, French is almoft as much
known as the language of the country.
FRESCATI, or Frascati, a fmall town, fituated
on the brow of a hill, about twelve miles to the eaft-
ward of Rome. It derives its name from the coolnefs
of the air, an&frejh verdure of the fields around. It
is built of the ruins of the ancient Tufculum 3 and the
Tufculan villa where Cicero wrote his famous queftions
is at a place now called Grotta Ferrata, about two
miles diftant. E. Long. 11. 43. N. Lat. 41.48. There
is a very fine profpea from this town into the neigh¬
bouring country, which abounds with the feats of car-
dinals and other nobility. It is the fee of a bifhop,
who is one of the fix fenior cardinals, and is furround-
1 cd by ffime of the moft beautiful villas in Italy 3 the
principal of which are the villa Aldobrandini, belong¬
ing to Prince Pamfili 3 the villa Taberna, belonging
to Prince Borghefe 3. and villa Ludovifi, to the family
of Colonna. The villa Aldobrandini, called alfo Bel¬
vedere from its beautiful profpeft, is the moft remark¬
able, on account of its fine lituation, extenfive gardens,
airy terraces, its grottoes, cafcades, and water-works.
Over a faloon, near the grand cafcade, is the following-
mlcription: G
Hue e^o migravi mujis comitatus ydpollo ;
Hie Delphi, Be Helicon, hie mi hi Delos erit.
The walls are adorned with a reprefentation of Apollo
and the Mufes 3 and fome of that god’s adventures are
Pamted in frefco by Domenichino. The villa Taberna
is one of the fineft and bell furnilhed of any in the
neighbourhood of Rome. From this you afeend through
gardens to Monte Dracone, another palace on a more
Jolty fituation, belonging alfo to that prince, and de¬
riving its name from the arms of his family. From
hence you may fee Rome, and the whole extent of the
P-am 3 it has a noble afeent, with a broad paved walk 3
and among other curiofities there is a hall adorned with
he pictures of a vaft number of men eminent for
learning and arms. The gardens, laid out by Vignola,
27 ] ERE
contain three miles in compafs 3 and have many de- Frefcatf,
lightful walks and curious water-works. Near this ^refcQ»
place are the monks of Camaldoli and the capuchins 3 v ~ ^ \
and higher up are ruins of the ancient Tufculum.
Afcending towards the plain, two miles on the right
hand, you find the famous abbey of Grotta Ferrata,
belonging to the monks of St Bafil, and fituated on
the ruins of Cicero’s houfe. The Virgin Mary of the
great altar is an ancient Greek picture 3 in the chapel
the pidtures of St Nilus and St Bartholomew the ab¬
bot, are by Annibal Caracci 3 and all the paintings in
frefco of this chapel are by Domenichino. Villa Lu-.
dovili has a charming walk going up to it, where you
fee the ruins of Lucullus’s palace. The houfe is fmall 3
but the gardens are large, embelliftied with a great
variety of walks and fountains, and a beautiful caf¬
cade.
FRESCO, a method of painting in relievo on w'alls,
fo as to endure the weather. It is performed with
water-colours on frefli plafter, or on a wall laid with
mortar not yet dry. This fort of phinting has a great
advantage by its incorporating with the mortar 3 and
drying along with it, becomes very durable. The
Italians, from whom we borrow the term, call it frefco;
becaufe it is frequently ufed for walls, alcoves, and
other buildings in the open air. Vitruvius, lib. vii.
cap. 4. calls it udo tedlorio.
Painting in frefco is very ancient, having been
praftifed in the earlieft ages of Greece and Rome. It
is chiefly performed on walls and vaults, newly plafter-
ed with lime and fand j but the plafter is only to be
laid, in proportion as the painting goes on 3 no more
being to be done at once than the painter can defpatch
in a day, while it dries. Before he begins to paint, a
cartoon or defign is ufually made on paper, to be chalk¬
ed, and transferred to the wall, about half an hour after
the plafter is applied.
1 he ancients painted on ftucco 3 and we may remark
in Vitruvius what infinite care they took in making the
incruftation or plaftering of their buildings to render
them beautiful and lafting 3 though the modern paint¬
ers. find a plafter of lime and fand preferable to it ; both
as it.does not dry fo haftily, and as being a little brown-
ilh, it is fitter to lay colours on, than a ground fo white
as ftucco.
In this kind of painting, all the compound and arti¬
ficial colours, and almoft all the minerals are let afide,
and fcarce any thing is. ufed but earths 3 which are ca¬
pable of preferving their colour, defending it from the
burning of the. lime, and refilling its fait, which Vitru¬
vius calls its bitternefs.
For the work to come out in all its beauty, the co-
louis mull be laid on quick, while the plafter is yet
moift 5 nor lliould they ever be retouched dry, with
colours mixed up with the white of an egg, or fize or
gum, as fome workmen do 3 becaufe fuch colours grow
blackilh 3 nor do any preferve themfelves, but only
fuch as were laid on haftily at firft.
The colours ufed are white made of lime flaked
long before, and white marble dull 3 ochre, both red
and yellow 3 v.crditer; lapis lazul^ fmalt 3 black chalk,
&c. All which are only ground, and worked up with
water 3 and moft of them grow brighter and brighter as
the frefco dries.
The brulhes and pencils for this work ought to be
I f 2 l°ng'
Frefco
Fret.
F It E [2
long and foft, othr.rwife they will rake and raife the
painting. The colours (hould be full, and flowing
from the brulh-, and the defrgn perfeft: for m this
work you cannot alter or add upon any colour.
FRESH water, is that not tin&ured or impregna¬
ted with fait or faline particles enough to be difcovered
by the fenfe. Such generally is that of fpnngs, rams,
wells, lakes, &c. r n •
The dulcifying or making of fait water frelh is a
fecret that has been long fought with great attention.
For an account of the principal attempts that have
been made with this view. See Sea WATER. ■
Frejh Wind fignifies ftrong, but not violent j hence
when the gale increafes, it is faid to freihen. _
FRESHES, in fea language, denotes the impetuo-
fity of an ebb tide, increafed by heavy rains, and ttow-
incr out into the fea, often difeolouring it to a conli e-
rable diftance, and forming a line that feparates the
two colours, and which may be diftm£Uy perceived for
a great length along the coaft. . ,
Freshes, a local term fignifymg annual inunda¬
tions, from the river being fwollen by the melted
{hows and other frelh waters from the uplands, as is
the Nile, &c. from periodical or tropical rains. As a
failor’s term, it is oppofed to marine or fait water
floodings, tides, See. The word is of common ufe m
America, where the inundations fo called are of grt at
fervice. They bring down the foil to the intervals
below, and form a fine mould, producing corn, gram,
and herbage, in the moft luxuriant plenty. 1 hey alio
afford another benefit, in regard to many rivers in
America, viz. in equalizing the lurface of the llream
(where rapid falls, «r cafcades, obftruft the naviga¬
tion) fo that rafts of timber and other grofs produce
are then floated down to the fea ports in great quanti-
FRESNOY, Charles Alphonse du, an excellent
poet and painte’r, was born at Paris in 1611. _ He was
fnftrufted there by Perrier and Simon Vouet in paint¬
ing : but he did not long adhere to Vouet’s manner of
colouring j for as foon as he fixed himfelf at Rome,
he made the works of Titian the models for his imita¬
tion. He was, however, more celebrated as a poet
than as a painter •, and gave more attention to the
theory than to the praftiee of the pencil. According¬
ly he is better known by his incomparable poem De
arte graphic a, than by his performances on the canvas:
and on this poem he bellowed fo much pams, that he
died in 1665, before it was publifhed. _ It was printed
afterwards with a French profe tranflation and notes by
M. de Piles •, and was tranflated into Englifh by Mr
Dr'yden, who prefixed to it an original preface contain¬
ing a parallel between painting and poetry..
FRET or Frette, in ArcJuteBure, a kind of knot
or ornament, confiding of two lids or fmall fillets van-
oufly interlaced or interwoven, and running at parallel
dillances equal to their breadth. r . f ,
Fret, in Heraldry, a bearing compofed of fix bars,
eroded and varioufly interlaced. Some call it the true-
lover's knot. See Heraldry.
Fret, in Mujic, fignifies a kind of dop on fome in-
ftruments, particularly baft viols and lutes. Frets con-
fid of drings tied round the neck of the in Jrument, at
certain didances, within which fuch and fuch notes are
to be found*
Fret
Friburg.
28 ] F R I
FRET-Work, that adorned with frets. It is fome-
times ufed to fill up and enrich fiat empty fpaces > but
it is modly praRiled in roofs, which are fretted over
with plader work.
FRETTS, in Mineralogy, a term ufed by our min¬
ers to exprefs the worn fide of the banks of the Evers
in mine countries, where they feareh for the ftioad
ftones or grewts wadied down from the hills, m order
from thence to trace out the running of the fhoad up
to the mine.
Fretts, Freats, or Freits. See rREATS.
FKEYBERG, or Friedberg, a town in the circle
of Upper Saxony, containing upwards of 60,000 peo¬
ple. There are mines of copper, tin, lead, and hlvei,
in its vicinity, which afford employment to a conitdcr-
able number of workmen, and produce an annual reve¬
nue of more than 10,000 rix-dollars, i he princes ot
the houfe of Saxony are ufually buried here, where there
is alfo an academy for the ftudy of mineralogy, milita¬
ted in the year 1765, and reckoned the moll famous
for that fcience of any in Germany It is fituated on a
branch of the Muldau, 19 miles fouth-wefi of Dreiden,
in N. Lat. 51. and W. Long- 13-18.
FRIABLE, among naturalifls, an appellation gi¬
ven to bodies that are eafily crumbled to pieces : inch
are pumice and all calcined dunes.. ,
FRIAR, or Frier, by the Latins called/rfl/er, ths
Italians fra, and the French/mr, that is, brother:
term common to the monks of all orders j founded on
tills, that there is a kind of fraternity or brotherhood
prefumed between the feveral religious perions of the
fame, convent or monadery. . p r r
Friars are generally difiingiufhcd mto thefe four
principal branches, viz. 1. Minors, Gray fnais, or Fran-
eifeans. 2. Auguttines. 3. Dominicans, or Black,
friars. 4. White friars or Carmelites, from thefe
four the red of the orders defeend. See FRANCISCANS,
Augustines, &c. , . 1 . t 1—
Friar, in a more peculiar fenfe, is redramed to fuch-
monks as are not priefis-, for thole in orders are ufually
dignified with the appellation dfather. ,
Friars Obfervant (fratres oh/ervanlesfwere a branch
of the Francifcans-, thus called, btcaule not combined
together in any cloider convent, or corporation, as
the conventuals are •, but only agreed among them-
fclves to obferve the rules of their order, and that more
dridlly than the conventuals did, from whom they le-
parated themfelves out. of a Angularity of zeal, living
in certain places of their own cnoofing.
FRIBURG, a large town of Germany, and capital
of Brifgaw, remarkable for the deeple of the great
church, which, next to that of Strafburg, is ne
in Germany •, and for its univerfity. ihe inhabitants
are famous for polidving crydal and prtcious ones,
has been feveral times taken and retaken j particularly
by the French in 1744, who demolifhed the fortifica¬
tions. It was alfo taken by them m Junei 796. it is
feated on the river Trifet, ten miles eaft of Bnfaeh,
and 26 fouth of Strafburgh. E. Long. 7. N. 1-at.
^ Friburg, a town of Swifferland, and capital of the
canton of the fame name, feated on the river Sane,
in E. Long. 6. 48- N, Lat. 46. 3°- ^ fituatlon
molt lingular and pi&urefque : “ It fiands par y
•  11 t- +■ 1 on
Smtur-
in a
linv uicti ciuvA p 1 - . . - o wn-.
1'mall plain, partly on bold acclivities on
F H I [ 229 ] F R !
ifibur^, ridge of rugged rocks, half encircled by the river
; iricaSee. Sane ; and is fo entirely concealed by the circumjacent
hills, that the traveller fcarcely catches the fmalleft
glimpfe, until he burfts upon a view of the whole town
from the overhanging eminence. The fortiiications,
which confilt of high Hone walls and towers, enclofe a
circumference of about four miles, within which fpace
the eye comprehends a Angular mixture of houfes, rocks,
thickets, and meadow>, varying inftantly from wild to
agreeable, from the buftle of a town to the folhude of
the deepelt retirement. The Sane winds in fuch a fer-
pentine manner as to form in its courfe, within the fpace
of two miles, five obtufe angles, between which the in¬
tervening parts of the current are parallel to each other.
On all fides the defcent to the town is extremely deep :
in one place the ftreets even pafs over the roofs of the
houfes. Many of the edifices are raifed in regular gra¬
dation like the feats of an amphitheatre ; and many
overhang the edge of a precipice in fuch a manner, that
on looking down, a weak head would be apt to turn
giddy. But the mull extraordinary point of view is
from the Pont-neuf. To the north-weft, part of the
town Hands boldly on the fides and the piked back of
an abrupt ridge ; and from eaft to weft a femicircle of
high perpendicular rocks is leen, whofe bafe is waftied
and undermined by the winding Sane, and whofe tops
and fides are thinly feattered with llirubs and under¬
wood On the higheft point of the rocks, and on the
very edge of the precipice, appears, half hanging in the
air, the gate of the town called Bourguil/on: a ftranger
Handing on the bridge would compare it to Laputa, or
the Flying ifland in Gulliver’s Travels ; and would not
conceive it to be acceflible but by means of a cord and
pulleys. The houfes, eonftru£ted with a gray fand
ftone, are neat and well built j and the public edifices,
particularly the cathedral, are extremely elegant. The
inhabitants are Roman Catholics, as are thofe of the
whole canton. The bifhop of Laufanne, called here
the biihop of Friburg, refides in this city. He is ap¬
pointed by the pope, ufually at the recommendation of
the French court : and his revenues, including a fmall
penfion from France, and from the abbey of Hauterive,
of which he was abbot, amount to about 400I. per an¬
num. His diocefe extends over the whole canton, and
part of that of Soleure. In all his a£ls and deeds he
figns himlelf bifliop and count of Laufanne, and prince
of the German empire. The fovereign power refides in
the great council of two hundred ; comprifing the two
advoyers, the chancellor, the grand fautier, the fenate
or little council of twenty-four, the fixty, from which
body are chofen the bannerets and principal magiftrates,
and the remaining hundred and twelve members, who
are fimply denominated burghers.”
Friburg, the Canton of, one of the 13 republics of
Switzerland. It is furrounded on all fides by the can¬
ton of Bern. I he land is fertile in corn, fruits, and
paftures; and it is faid the canton can fend 18,000
men into the field. This canton is entirely Catholic.
FRICASSEE, a difh or mefs haflily drefled in a
frying pan, and feafoned with butter, oil, or the like.
J he word is French, formed of the Latin friotatura,
‘‘frying.” Others will have fricaffee formed in imita¬
tion of the noife made by butter, or other fat, when
melted in the pan. We fay a fricaffee of pullets, of
2
rabbits, of tench, of tripe, of frogs, of eggs, of peas, FricaflTe<*
&c. ( _ I)
FRICENTI, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the farther principato, near
the river Tripalto, in E. Long. 15. 2. N. Lat. 40. 59.
FRICTION, the a£t of rubbing or grating the fur-
face of one body againft that of another, called alfo at¬
trition. The phenomena arifing upon the friftion of
divers bodies, under different circumftances, are very
numerous and confiderable. Mr Hawkfbee gives us a
number of experiments of t-his kind ; particularly of the
attrition or friction of glafs, under various circumftan¬
ces, the refult of which was, that it yielded light and-
became electrical. Allbodies by friction produce heat j
many of them emit light $ particularly a cat’s back,
fugar, beaten fulphur, mercury, fea water, gold, cop¬
per, &c. but, above all, diamonds, which, when brifk-
ly rubbed againft glafs, gold, or the like, yield a light
equal to that of a live coal when blowed by the bellows
See Electrics and Electricity.
Friction, in Mechanics, denotes the refiftance a
moving body meets with from the furface on which it
moves. Fri&ion arifes from the roughnefs or aiperity
of the furface of the body movecTon, and that of the
body moving ; for fuch furfaces confiding alternately
of eminences and cavities, either the eminences of the
one muft be raifed over thofe of the other, or they
muft be both broke and worn off: but neither can hap¬
pen without motion, nor can motion be produced with¬
out a force impreffed. Hence, the force applied to
move the body is either wholly or partly fpent on this
effect: and contequently there arifes a refiftance or fric¬
tion, which will be greater, cceteris paribus, as the
eminences are the greater and the fubftance the harder :
and as the body, by continual friclion, becomes more
and more polilhed, the fridtion diminiflies. See Me-
chanics.
Friction, in Medicine and Surgery, denotes the a<5l
of rubbing a difeafed part with oils, unguents, or other ‘
matters, in order to eafe, relieve, and cure it. Fric¬
tions are much ufed of late in venereal cafes. They
prefer the applying of mercury externally by way of
friclion, to that of giving it internally, toraife afaliva-
tion.
There are alfo friftions with the flefh brufh, a linen
cloth, or the hand only. Thefe fridions are a fort of
exercife which contributes greatly to health; as they
excite and ftir up the natural warmth, divert defluxions,
promote perfpiration, open the pores of the Ikin, and
carry off ftagnant humours.
J he flefh brufh (L)r Cheyne obferves) is an exercife
extremely ufeful for promoting a full and free perfpira¬
tion and circulation. Every body knows the effeft
of currying horfes ; that it makes them fleek, gay,
lively, and aflive ; fo as even to be judged equivalent
to half the feeding. This it can no otherwife effeft
but by a {lifting nature to throw off the recrements of
the juices, which flop the free circulation, and, by con-
flant fri&ion, irritation, and ftimulation, to bring the
blood and fpirits to the parts moft diftant from the
feat of heat and motion ; and fo plump up the fuper-
ficial mufcles. And the fame effeft it would have in
other creatures, and man himfelf, if managed in the
fame manner, and with the fame care and regularity.
Per ions,
F R I
[ 230 ]
F R I
FrIAion
. II
Friendly
- Iflands.
Perfons, therefore, of weak nerves and fedentary lives,
would do well to fupply the want of othex exercife
with fpending half an hour, morning and night, in
/ currying and rubbing their whole body, efpecially tncir
limbs, with a fleflr brulh. But this means of health is
xnoft advantageoufly ufed when the prirntz vice are molt
empty. .
FRIDAY, the fixth day of the week j to named ot
Yreya, a Saxon deity. By the Romans it was called
dies Veneris. See Frea.
Good-FRII)AT. See GOOB-Friday.
FRIDSTOL, mentioned, in our ancient writers,
among the immunities granted to churches, fignifies a
feat chair, or place of peace and fecurity, where cri¬
minals might find fiifety and proteftion : of thefe there
were many in England ; but the molt famous were that
at Beverly, and that in §t Peter’s church at York,
granted by charter of King Henry I.
FRIEDENSHUETTEN, a Moravian fettlement
whofe name fignifies tents of peace, fituated on the Suf-
quehannah river in Pennfylvania, about 24 miles be¬
low Tioga point, which owed its origin to the united
brethren, in the year 1765. At that period it con¬
tained 13 huts belonging to the Indians, befides 40
houfes conftrufted after the European manner, and a
very neat chapel.
FRIENDLY islands, a duller of illands in the
Pacific ocean, fo named by Captain Cook in the year
1773, on account of the friendlhip which appeared to
fublili among the inhabitants, and from their courteous
behaviour to ftrangers. Abel Janfen lafman, an
eminent Dutch navigator, firft touched here in 1643,
and gave names to the principal illands. Captain Cook
laborioully explored the whole duller, which he found
to confill of more than 60, The three illands which
Tafman faw he named Neva Amjlerdam, Rotterdam, and
Middleburgh. The firft is the largeft, and extends
about 21 miles from call to weft, and about 13 from
north to fouth. Thefe illands are inhabited by a race
of Indians, who cultivate the earth with great mduf-
try. The illand of Amfterdam is interfered by a
ftraight and pleafant road with fruit-trees on each fide,
which provide {hade from the fcorching heat of the fun.
The chief illands are Annamooka, Tongataboo (the re-
fidence of the fovereign and the chiefs), Lefooga, and
Eooa. Lefooga is about feven miles long, and in fome
places not above two or three broad. It is in many
refpecls fuperior to Annamooka. The plantations are
both more numerous and more extenfive \ and en-
clofed by fences which, running parallel to each other,
form fine fpncious public roads, which would appear
beautiful in countries where rural conveniences have
been carried to the,greateft perfeftion. 'I hey are, in
general, highly cultivated, and well {locked with the
feveral ’roots and fruits which thefe illands produce *,
and Captain Cook endeavoured to add to their num¬
ber by planting Indian corn, and the feeds of melons,
pumpkins, and the like. Eooa, when viewed from the
}hip ‘at anchor, formed one of the moll beautiful pro-
fpe£ls in nature, and very different from the others
of the Friendly Hies-, which being low, and perfeftly
level, exhibit nothing to the eye but the trees which
cover them : whereas here, the land rifing gently to
a confiderable height, prefents us with an extenfive
profpefl, where groves of trees are only interfperfed at
irregular diftances, in beautiful diforder, and all the Friendly
reft is covered with grafs, except near the Ihores where
it is entirely covered with fruit and other trees j amongft
which are the habitations of the natives.- In order to'
have a view of as great a part of the illand as pof-
fible, Captain Cook" and fome of his officers walk¬
ed up to the higheft point of the illand. From this
place they had a view of almoft the whole illand,
which confilled of beautiful meadows of prodigious ex¬
tent, adorned with tufts of trees, and intermixed with
plantations. ‘ While I was furveying this delightful
profpeift (fays Captain Cook), I could not help flatter¬
ing myfelf with the plealing idea that fome future na¬
vigator may, from the fame ftation, behold thefe mea¬
dows Hocked with cattle, brought to thefe iflands by
the {hips of England j and that the completion of this
Angle benevolent purpofe, independent of all other con-
fiderations, would fufficientiy mark to pollerity, that
our voyages had not been ufelefs to the general mte-
refts of humanity. ‘ The next morning,’ fays our be¬
nevolent commander, ‘ I planted a pine apple, and
fowed the feeds of melons and other vegetables m
Taoofa’s plantation. I had indeed fome encourage¬
ment to flatter myfelf that my endeavours of this kind
alfo would not be fruitlefs ; as I had this day a diffi of
turnips ferved up at my dinner, which was the produce
of feeds I left here in my former voyage.’
The natives of thefe iflands feldom exceed the com¬
mon ftature ; but are very ftrong and well made, efpe¬
cially as to their limbs. They are generally broad
about the (boulders', and though the mufcular dilpofi-
tion of the men, which feems a confequence of much
adlion, rather conveys the appearance of ftrength than
of beauty, there are feveral to be feen who are really
handfome. The women are not fo much diftmguiihed
from the men by their features as by their general
form, which is for the moll part deftitute of that
ftrong fleffiy firmnefs that appears in the latter. I he
features of fome are fo delicate, as not only to be a
true index of their fex, but to lay claim to a confider¬
able lhare of beauty and expreffion : for the bodies
and limbs of moll of the females are well proportion¬
ed ; and fome abfolutely perfe6l models of a beautiful
figure. But the moll remarkable diftin&ion m the
women is the uncommon fmallnefs and delicacy of their
fingers, which may be put in competition with the
fineft in Europe. The general colour is a call deeper
than the copper brown j but feyeral of the men and
women have a true olive complexion ; and fome ot the
laft are even a great deal fairer. Their countenances
very remarkably exprefs the abundant mildneis or
good nature which they poffefs •, and are entirely free
from that favage keennefs which marks nations in a
barbarous Hate. They are frank, cheerful, and good-
natured. „ , 1 r a
There are, upon the whole, few natural deteas or
deformities to be found among thefe people. 1 he molt
common is the tetter or ring worm, that feems to at-
feft almoft one half of them, and leaves whitilh _ ter¬
pentine marks everywhere behind ity but this is 0
lefs confequence than another which is very frequent,
and appears on every part of the body. Captain C00K
had the mortification to learn that all the care e too
when he firft vifited thefe illands, to prevent the vene¬
real difeafe from being communicated to the inhabi¬
tants.
F
F R I [ 231 ] F R I
feendly tants, had proved ineffedlual. What is extraordinary,
fiands. they do not feem to regard it mueh ; and as there ap-
peared few figns of its deitroying effects, probably the
climate, and the way of living of thefe people, great¬
ly abated its virulence. There are two other complaints
frequent amongft them *, one of which is an indolent firm
fwelling, that affe&s thelegsand arms, and increafes them
to an extraordinary fize in their whole length. The other
is a tumor of the fame fort in the tefticles, which fome-
times exceeds the fize of the two fills. But in other re-
fpedls they may be confidered as uncommonly healthy.
Their hair is in general ftraight, thick, and ilrong,
< though a few have it bulhy or frizzled. The natural
colour is black ; but the greateft part of the men, and
fome of the women, have it ftained of a brown or
purple colour, and a few of an orange call. They
wear it varioully cut. Some have it cut off on one
fide of the head only ; others have it. entirely cut off
except a fingle lock j the women in general w’tar it
fliort. The men have their beards cut (liort •, and both
men and women (trip the hair from the armpits. 'I be
men are Itained from about the middle of the belly
to about half way down the thighs with a deep blue
colour. The women have only a few fmall lines or
fpots thus imprinted on the infide of their hands.
Their kings, as a mark of diitin&ion, are exempted
from this cultom.
The men are all circumcifed, or rather fupercifed,
as the operation confifts in cutting off only a fmall
piece of the forelkin at the upper part : which by that
means is rend, red incapable ever after of covering tho
glans. This is all they aim at, as they fay the opera¬
tion is pradlifed from a notion of cleanlinefs.
I he drels of both men and women is the fame:
and confills of a piece of cloth or matting (but moltly
the former) about two yards wide and two and a half
long : at leal! fo long as to go once and a half round
the waift, to which it is confined by a girdle or cord.
It is double before, and hangs down like a petticoat,
as low as the middle of b e leg.- The upper part of
the garment above the girdle is plaited into feveral
folds ; (o that, when unfold d, there is cloth luffi-
cient to draw up and wrap round the fhouldtrs; which
is very feldom done. 1 he r ferior lort are fatrsfied
with finall pieces ; and very often wear nothing but a
covering made of leaves of plants, or the maro, which
is a narrow piece of cloth or matting like a fafh.
1. his they pais between the thighs and wrap round
the waift j but the ule of it is chiefly confined to the
men. The ornaments worn by both fixes are necklaces,
made of the fruit of the pandanus, and various fweet
fmelling flowers, which go under the gor.eral name of
iahulla. Others are composed of fmall fin l!s, the wing
and leg-bones of birds, iharks-tee h, and other things •
all which hang loofe upon the breait ; rings of tortoife
ftiell on the fingers; and a number of thefie joined to¬
gether as bracelets on the wrilts. The lobes of the
ears (though moft frequently only one), aie fometimes
perfora'ed with two holes, in which they wear cylin¬
drical bits of ivory about three inc hes long.
Cleanhnefs induces them to bathe 'n the ponds, which
feem to ferve for no other purpofe. They are fenfible
that fait water hurts their Ikin ; and when neceflity e,b-
iges them to bathe in the fia, they commonly have
°tae cocoa nut Ihells filled with irelh water poured over
hem to walh it off. People of fuperior rank ufe cocoa Friendly
nut oil, which improves the appearance of the (kin tflands.
very much. »—-y——
The employment of the women is of the eafy kind,
and, for the moil part, fuch as may be executed in the
houfe. The manufacturing their cloth is wholly con-
figned to their care ; as is alio that of their mats, which
are efteemed both for their texture and their beauty.
There are many other articles of lefs note that employ
the fpare time of their females; as combs, of which they
make vail numbers, and little baikets with fmall beads;
but all finiihed with fuch neatnefs and taile in the dif-
poiition of the various parts, that a itranger cannot help
admiring their afliduny and dexterity.
The province allotted to the men, as might be ex-
peCltd, is far more laborious and extenfive than that
of the women. Agriculture, architeClure, boat build¬
ing, fiihing, and other things that relate to naviga¬
tion, are the objeCls of their care. Cultivated roots
and fruits being their principal fupport, this requires
their conilant attention to agriculture, which they
purfue very diligently, and feem to have brought almoft
to as great perfection as circumitances will permit.
In planting thv plantains and yams, they obierve fo
much exadnefs, that, which ever way you look, tho
rows prefect themfelves regular and complete. 'I he
cocoa nut and bread fruit trees are fcattered about
without any order, and item to give them no trouble
after they have attained a certain height.
1 he houles of the lower people are poor huts, and
very fmall; thofe of the better iort are larger and more
comfortable. The dimenfions of one of a middling
fize are about 30 feet long, 20 broad, and 12 high.
Their houfe is, properly fptaking, a thatched roof or
tiled, fupported by polls and rafters, difpofed in a
very jud.tious manner. The floor is railed with earth
fmoothed, and covered with llrong thick matting,
and kept very clean. A thick thong mat, about two
and a half or three feet broad, bent into the form of
a femieircle, and fet upon its edge, with the ends
touching the fide of the houfe, in lhape refembling the
fender of a fire hearth, enclofis a (pace for the mailer
and mi it refs of the family to fleep in. The relt of the
fam:ly ileep upon the floor, wherever thty pleafe to
lie down; the unmarried men and women apart from
each other : Or if the family be large, there are fmall
huts adjoini g, to which the fervants retire in the
night; fo that privacy is as much obferved here as
one could txpeiff. The clothes that they wear in
the day lerve tor their covering in the night. Their
whole furniture contifts of a bowl or two, in which
they make kava ; a few gourds; cocoa nut thells;
and fome fmall wooden itools, which ferve them for
pillows.
They difplay much ingenuity in the building of their
canoes, as well as in the navigating them.
The only tools which they ufe to contlru6l them
which are very dexteroufly made, are hatchets, or la¬
ther thick adzes, of a fmooth black Hone that abounds
at Toofoa ; augres, made of tharks teeth, fixe d on
fmall handles, and rafps of a rough tkin of a fith, fatt¬
ened on flat pieces of wood, thinner on one fide, which
alfo have handles. The cordage is made from the fibres
of the cocoa nut hntk, which, though not more than
nine or ten inches long, they plait, about the fize of
R I
[ 232 ]
F R I
Fr;.en% a quill, ot lefs, to any length that they pleafe, and
in.mds. rojj Up jn ’Dalls( from which the larger ropes are
made by twilling feveral of thefe together. I he lines
that they fith with are as llrong and even as the belt
cord we make, refembling it almoft m every refpea.
Their other filhing implements are large and imall
hooks made of pearl (hell. Their weapons are clubs
of different forts, (in the ornamenting of which they
fpend much time), Ipears and darts. I hey have alfo
bows and arrows •, but thefe feemed to be defigned
only for amufement, fueh as Ihooting at birds, and not
for military purpofes. The ftools are about two feet
lono-, but only four or five inches high, and near four
broad, bending downward in the middle, with four
ftrong legs, and circular feet *, the whole made of one
piece of black or brown wood, neatly poliihed, and
fometimes inlaid with bits of ivory.
Yams, plantains, and cocoa nuts, compoled)he great-
eft part of their vegetable diet. Of their animal food,
the chief articles are, hogs, fowls, filh, and all forts of
fhellfith; but the lower people eat rats, i he two
fir ft vegetable articles, with bread fruit, are what may
be called the bans of their food, at different times of
the year, with filh and (hell filh-, for hog5, fowls and
turtle, feem only to be occafional dainties, relerved lor
their chiefs. Their food is generally dveii-d oy ba¬
king, and they have the art of making from different
kinds of fruit, feveral diihes which molt of us efteemed
very <mod. The generality of them lay their victuals
upon the firft leaf they meet with, however dirty it
may be; but when food is ferved up to the chiels, it
is commonly laid upon green plantain haves. I he
women are not excluded from eating with the men ,
but there are certain ranks or orders amongft them
that can neither eat nor drink together. _ I his diftinc-
tion begins with the king-, but where it ends could
not be learnt. They feem to have no fet time for
meals They go to bed as foon as it is dark, and nle
with the dawn in the morning. .
Their private diverfions are chiefly finging, dancing,
and mufic performed by the women. The dancing ot
the men has a thoufand different motions with the
hands, to which we arc entire ftrangers j and they are
performed with an eafe and grace which are not to be
defcribed but by thofe who have feen them.
Whether their marriages be made laiting by any
kind of folemn contract, our voyagers could not deter¬
mine with precifion *, but it appeared that the bulk of
the people fatisfied themfelves with one wife. i he
chiefs however, have commonly feveral women, though
it appeared as if one only was looked upon as the
miftrefs of the family. , . , , .
When any perfon of confequence dies, his body is
wafhed and decorated by fome woman or^ women, who
through the cheeks into the mouth. All thefe opera¬
tions convey an id> a of fuch rigorous difcipline, as mult ^
require either an uncommon degree of affection, or
the groffeit fuperflition, to exaft. It ftiould beobl'erv-
ed, however, that the more painful operations are only
praCtiled on account of the death of thofe molt nearly
connected. t
Their long and general mourning proves, that they
confider death as a very great evil. And this is con-
firmed by a very odd cuilom which they pra£iiie to^
avert it. They fuppdfe that the Deity will accept of
the little finger, as a fort of facrifice efficacious enough
to procure the recovery of their health. ihey cut it
off with one of their ftone hatchets. 'Ihere appeared
fcarcely one in ten of them who was not thus mutilated
iu one or both hands. According to Captain K’-rigi
it is common alfo for the inferior people to cut off a
joint of their little finger on account of the ficknets of
the chiefs to whom they belong.
They feem to have little conception of future pu«
nifointnt. They believe, however, that they are juftly
punuhed upon earth ; and confcquently ufe every me¬
thod to render their divinities propitious. i he su¬
preme Author of all things they call Kailoj itonga;
who, they fay, is a female refiding in the Iky, and di¬
recting the thunder, wind, rain, and in general all the
changes of weather. They believe that when fhe 13
angry with them, the produ&ions of the earth are
blnffed; that many things are deftroyed by lightning j
and that they themfelves are afflidted with ficknelsand
death as well as their hogs and other animals. When
this anger abates, they fuppofe that every thing is re-
ftored to its natural order. Ihey alfo admit a plura¬
lity of deities, though all inferior to Kaliafootonga.
They have lets abfurd fentiments about the immate¬
riality and the immortality of the foul, ihey ca^ lfc
/i/e, the living principle ; or, what is more agreeab c
to their notions of it, Otooa; that is, a divinity or m-
vifihle being. .
Of the nature of their government no more is known
than the general outline. According to the informa¬
tion received, the power of the king is unlimited, and
the life and property of the fobjeft are at his difpofal;
and inftances enough were feen to prove that the lower
order of people have no property, nor fafety for their
perfons, but at the will of the chiefs to whom they re-
fpeftively belong. When any one wants to Ipeak with
the king or chief, he advances and fits down before
him with his legs acrofs 5 which is a pofture to which
they are fo much accuftomed, that any other mode oi
fitting is difagreeable to them. To fpeak _to_ the king
Handing would be accounted here as a ftriking mark
of rudenefs.
Though fome of the more potent chiefs may vie
• .1 .1 1 - • *• rwO-nol they
Frietidlji
^ cuftot, lo tofch any food with their very (hort in rank
_ « . 1 _ Cl i- z-t t* •
hands for many months afterward,; and it i, remark¬
able, that the length of the time, they are thus pro-
feribed, is the greater in proportion to the rank ot the
chief whom they had walhed. r , , , .
The concern of thefe people for the dead is moft
extraordinary. They beat their teeth with ftones
ftrike a fhark’s tooth into the head until the blood
Hows in ftreams, and thruft fpears into the inner part
of the thigh, into their fides below the armpits, and
which the colleftive body have agreed to pay the mo¬
narch. It is a particular privilege annexed to his io-
vereignty, not to be pantoed nor circumciied, as ail
his fubjedls are. Whenever he walks out, every one
whom he meets muft fit down till he has pane . 0
one is allowed to be over his head -, on the contrary a!
muft come under his feet; for there cannot be a.8rea.,
er outward mark of fubmiffion than that which is paid
to the fovereign and other great people 0. thefe 1 an^
F R I r 233 ] F R I
ViencHy by their inferiors. The method is this: the perfon
Hands, vvl10 js to pay obeifance fquats down before the chief,
lendihip-anj bows the head to the foie of his foot j which,
when he fits, is fo placed that it cannot eafily be come
at; and having tapped or touched it with the under
and upper fide of the fingers of both hands, he rifes
up and retires. The hands, after this application of
them to the chief’s feet, are in fome cafes rendered
ufelefs for a time j for, until they be wafiied, they mull
not touch any kind of food. When the hands are in
this ftate, they call it taboo rema. Taboo, in general,
fignifies “ forbidden,” and rema is their word for
“ hand.” Their great men are fond of a lingular
piece of luxury j which is, to have women fit befide
them all night, and beat on different parts of their
body until they go to deep j after which they relax a
little of their labour, unlefs they appear likely to
awake 5 in which cafe they redouble their drumming
until they are again fall afleep.
. , v n FRIENDSHIP may be defined, a mutual attach-
( riend- ment iubluting between two perlons: and anting, not
i ). merely from the general principle of benevolence, from
emotions of gratitude for favours received, from views
of intereft, or from inftinftive affeflion or animal
paflion j but from an opinion entertained by each of
them, that the other is adorned with fome amiable or
refpeftable qualities.
rtlration °bje£t of the general principle of benevolence
one above is mankind, not any particular individual. Gratitude
c mtion. regards the perfon from whom he who feels its emo¬
tions has received a favour, whether that perfon be a
virtuous or vicious, a refpe&able or a contemptible,
character : it prompts the perfon obliged to make a fuit-
able return to his benefa&or, but not to enter into
any particular intimacy with him, merely on account
of the favours which he has received. Many connec¬
tions are formed, and dignified with the name of friend-
Jhip, upon no other principle but the fordid hope which
one or perhaps each of the parties entertains of ac-
complilhing fome felfilh purpofe through the aflifiance
of the other : but fuch a connexion is fo bafe in its
nature, and fo tranfitory in its duration, as to render
it unneceffary for us to fpend time in demonftrating it
to be unworthy of the name of friendlhip. The in-
ftin&ive alFe&ion which a parent entertains for his
child, as well as that which the child feels for his pa¬
rent, feems intended by nature to form an union between
the perfons thus related to each other : but the union
between parents and children, when fupported by no
other principle but inftindt, is different from friend-
fliip : it extends no farther than to caufe the parent
to provide for his child during his helplefs years, and
the child to look up to his parent for protection and
fupport. We need not mention that appetite which
is the foundation of love, and is the provifion which
nature has made for the continuation of our fpecies.
This appetite alone, and unaffifted by fome nobler prin¬
ciple, cannot give rife to any connexion w orthy of an
honourable name.
After excluding thefe principles, we can refer the
origin of friendfhip only to “ an opinion entertained
by each of the parties between whom it fubfifts, that
the other is adorned with fome amiable or refpeClable
qualities.” A connexion founded on different prin¬
ciples we cannot honour with the name of friendfiiip ;
Vol. IX. Part I. 1
but that which flows from this pure fource muft be Friendfhip.
noble and virtuous. When two perfons of virtue and
abilities contemplate each the other’s character and
conduft, they cannot but view them with complacency
and efleem. Habits and aCtions difplaying prudence,
fortitude, moderation, integrity, benevolence, and piety,
naturally command the approbation of the impartial
fpeCtator, and even affeCt him with delight. But as
we are difpofed to revifit a landfcape the beauties of
which wre have contemplated with rapture, and read
with frequent delight a poem in which genius has
faithfully delineated fome of the moft enchanting fcenes
or the moft interefting events in nature •, fo we alfo be¬
come defirous to enjoy frequent opportunities of con¬
templating a character diftinguifhed for eminent abi¬
lities and illuftrious virtues. The fociety of fuch a
perfon is preferred to his who is difgraced by the op-
pofite qualities. Hence, whenever men of truly re-
fpeCtable characters enjoy opportunities of mutual in-
tercourfe, an attachment naturally takes place between
them ; entirely difinterefted, and founded folely on
the approbation with which the one cannot avoid re¬
garding the conduCt of the other. The efteem which
the one is thus induced to entertain for the other will
lead them to feek frequent opportunities of enjoying
each other’s fociety, mutually to alk and liften to ad¬
vice, to truft their moft fecret and important purpofes
to each other’s confidence, and to be no lefs concerned
each of them for the other’s intereft; and honour than
for his own. This, and this alone, is genuine friend-
flripj founded on virtue, and on that approbation
which virtue never fails to command : it is a natural
confequence of intercourfe between virtuous men.—
Where it is once eftablifhed, it cannot die, while thofe
virtues to which it owes its origin continue to adorn
the perfons between whom it fubfifts.
But, perhaps, fuch a pure and fublime Rttachment Circu^
can fcarce be expeCted to exift among beings of foftanceTfa-
mixed and imperfeCt a character as mankind. The vourable to
wife man of the ancient Stoics, or the Chriftian who ^ r‘fe an(*
fully obeys the precepts, and follows the fteps of his contin“'
Saviour, might be capable of it; but, unfortunately, friendftip.
humanity never reaches fuch perfection. Virtue and ' l'
vice are fo blended together in every human character,
that while none is fo worthlefs as to excite no other
fentiment but abhorrence, there is fcarcely any fo uni¬
formly virtuous as to command unvaried efteem or ad¬
miration. Even the pureft and moft difinterefted of
thofe friendlhips which prevail among men, owe their
origin to other meaner principles, as well as to that
which has been mentioned as the principle of genuine
friendthip. There are certain circumftances favourable,
and others adverfe, to the formation and continuance
of friendfhip. Thefe, making amends, as it were, for
the imperfection of human virtue and human know¬
ledge, lead men to overlook each other’s faults and fol¬
lies, and to unite in the bonds of friendftiip j a friend¬
fiiip which, though lefs folid, lefs generous, and lefs
lading, than that which we have above defcribed, is
yet attended with effeCts favourable to the happinefs
of individuals, and to the interefls of fociety in general.
Equality of age is favourable to friendlhip. Infancy,
manhood, and old age, differ fo confiderably from each
other in their views, paflions, and purfuits, that the
man will feldom be difpofed to affociate with the bou
Gg i
F Ti I E 23
FrietuWiip. or the youth, in preference to one who has had equal
experience in the world with himfelt j and the old man
will generally with for the company of feme ancient
friend with whom he may fpeak of “ the days of for-
“^They who cultivate \hefame trade or profeffion en-
ioy opportunities favourable to the formation of friend-
ihip. Being engaged among the fame objea,, and
acquiring {kill in the fame arts, their knowledge, then
fentiments, and habits, are nearly the fame •, they can¬
not avoid frequent intercourie with each other j they
naturally enter into each other’s prejudices and views,
and therefore cannot but take pleafure in each other s
converfation and fociety. Phyficians lawyers, and
divines form each of them a diftma body j and the
members of each of thofe bodies aflcciate with one
another more readily than with men of a pro-
feffion. It is related by Swift or Addifon, that, m
the beginning of the prefent century, there was a par-
cular offeehoufe in London which clergymen ufed
[o frequent, and that a fon of the church freely ever
ventured to fliow his head m any other. In the days
of Dryden, poets, and all who pretended to poetical
genius or tdle, reforted to ^7/V, as to another Par-
n a flits to lip cups of coffee, and now and then per¬
haps to drink of fome more infpinng liquor, mitea o
the waters of the fountain Hippocrene
Equality of rank and fortune is alfo favourab e o
frieiidfliu/ Seldom will a man of fortune be able to
•jain the fincere friendfliip of any of his dependants.
Though he treat them with the moft obliging conde-
fcenficm, and load them with favours j yet ihll, either
'the fenfe of dependence, or refentment for imaginary
iniuries or impatience of the debt of gratitude, or
rle other fuilar reafon, rvill be Ukely^to preven1
them from regarding him with cordial affection. S
vants are but rarely faithful even to the moft i^gent
mafter : Shakefpeare’s old Adam is a very amiable but
a very uncommon character. Indeed you may as foon
oxpeft to find the virtues and the generous courage
>f the chevalier Bayard among our. military men of the
orefent age, as to find an old Adam among the prefent
race of fe§rvants. It is no lefe vain for the poor man
to hope to acquire a fincere friend among his fuperiors
in rank and fortune. The fupenor is generally dif-
pofed to exaa fuch profound deference, fuch gratitude
fuch refpe-a, even from the inferior whom he admits
into his intimacy, that the equal amicable ^ercourfe
of friendfliip can fcarce ever take place between tn .
Among the letters of the younger Plmy we are pleafed
to find many monuments of the goodnefs of his heart.
A number of his epiftles addreffed to friends m meaner
uircumftances appear to have been accompanied with
very confiderable prefents, which by his opulence he
was7 well enabled to beflow. But he takes care to
let thofe humble friends know the weig ° ie
ligations which he conferred, and the vaftnefs^ of the
debt of gratitude which they owed to him, in inch
plain, nay even indelicate terms, that though they
might receive his favours- with gratitude and regard
him as their benefactor, yet they could never regard
him as a man with whom they might cultivate the
free eafy intercourfe of friendftnp. Some one or other
of the Greek writers mentions a fingular inftance of
cordial friendfliip fubfifting between two perlons m
j. ] v F R. I
unequal circumftances. One of them dying before
the oilier, and leaving a wife and daughter to whom ^
he had no fortune nor even means ol fubfi tence to
bequeath, enjoined his rich friend, m his will, to take
the charge of them on himfelf, and to fupport them
in a liberal manner : nor did he entreat thisfrom his
humanity, but demanded it from his friendfliip. He
had made a fure provifion for his family. His rich
friend delayed not to comply with his dying injunc¬
tion. He readily took upon himfelf the charge of the
wife and daughter of his deceafed friend, treated them
with kindnefs, and at laft divided his whole fortune
equally between his own only daughter and the child
of his friend. This is an agreeable mflanee of the
power of friendfliip : but fuch inftances are not to be
expefted to occur frequently m ordinary life, any more
than the Stoic virtue of Cato, or the modeft piety of a
^Similarity of tafe and temper will generally be found
favourable to friendfliip. Two peevifti men, indeed,
will not long endure each other’s company with much
fatisfadion but two perlons of mild, h^mane
fitions will naturally take delight m each other s fo¬
ciety and converfation. They who are charmed with
the bufile of a gay and aftive life, avoid the haunts of
the indolent and contemplative, and join hand m hand
to climb the heights of ambition, or tread the round
of amufement and diflipation. Thofe whom tafte
leads to cultivate the elegant objefts of literature
amid the fweets of a rural retirement, to wander through
the grove, or recline on the brink of fome romantic
rill,gand perufe the pages of one of thofe gemufes w o
have ftiown themfelves able to enlighten the under-
ftandino- and to kindle the glow of generous fenti-
ment in the breaft thofe children of tafte frequently
affociate in their elegant purfuits. We are pleafed t
read the- correfpondence of Plmy and Tacitus, ot
Locke and Molineux, of Swift and Pope. We rejoice
to find, that notwithftanding the rivalry of learning
and genius, tafle and philofophy have a natural ten¬
dency to promote benevolence and friendfliip among
theirvotaries. The buftle of the world mult be ac¬
knowledged to be generally unfavourable to fr^T*
When the heart is occupied w!th the fordid J
ambition, or avarice, or gay diffipation there is no
room left for the pure and generous fentiments of
friendfliip. Interefts often interfere, competitions and
jealoufies arife, fatal to all the fweets of focial inter¬
courfe. It is in aftive life that virtue flunes with
t£e nmft brilliant luftre •, but feldom alas ! does pure
virtue appear in the feenes of adiye lift. o\ _ .
tifully does the charafter of Atticus flime ami
charaaersofhisilluftrious cotemporaries! ut Luna mUr
minores ienes ! Sylla, C^far, Cicero, Brutus, Antony,
and Auguftus, were eminent for their abilities and vir¬
tues > but being engaged in the buttling purfuits ot
ambition they feem to have been ftrangers to the
calm and elegant happinefs which Atticus enjoyed.
Though thofe of them who were cotemporaries coul
not avoid perceiving and admiring each other s mer
ye never did cordial friendfhip fubfift between them.
Even Cicero, who could fo well define the duties and
deferibe the happinefs of friendftiip, yet appears
have but feldom enjoyed its delights. But Atticu,
who conftantly declined entering the feenes of publ
F R I [ 235 ] F R I
sndfnip. life, experienced fuch happinefs in a private condition,
' ’-y—' as muft have been more than an ample reward to him
for Ihunning all the fplendid purfuits of ambition. He
was the difinterefted friend of all thofe eminent men,
and enjoyed their efteem and friendfhip. So upright
was his chara&er, fo amiable his manners, that they
who were mortal enemies to each other, yet agreed in
cultivating at the fame time the friendlhip of Atticus.
None of them appear to have hated him on account of
his attachment to their enemies *, and while he was
the friend of Cicero and Oftavius, he was at the fame
time the proteftor of the wife of Antony. Perhaps
the virtue of fuch a charafter may be regarded as pro¬
blematical. It may be alleged, that while fuch inve¬
terate diffenfions arofe among his friends, the neutra¬
lity which he preferved was inconfiftent with integrity.
He has indeed been ralhly branded by fome writers
as an avaricious time-ferving man. Eut no evidence
appears to juftify their affertions ; on the contrary, the
moft refpeftable teflimony, the niceft fcrutiny, exhibit
his chara&er in thofe amiable colours in which wre
have chofen to view it. Atticus is indeed no ordinary
charafter. The general principles of human nature,
and the examples which molt frequently occur in the
world, naturally fuggeft a fufpicion, that had he been
a man of genuine integrity, he muft have obferved a
different tenor of conduct. But there is one circumftance
which tends to ftrengthen confiderably the refpeftable
teftimony of his cotemporaries in his behalf. In Cato,
in Epidietus, in the philofopher, who, while fuffering
under all the violence of an acute diftemper, maintain¬
ed to Pompey that pain was no evil, we'have inftances
of the tenets of philofophy oppofing and reprt fling the
principles of nature. We know how often religious
enthufiafm has produced the fame effedls. But Atticus
was the votary of the mild and elegant philofophy of
Epicurus $ which, though there appears to have been
a palpable inconfiftency between its principles and the
fuperftrudlure raifed upon them, was yet in its general
tendency not unfriendly to virtue, and recommended
to its votaries that calm and innocent mode of life
which Atticus cultivated. There is no fmall refem-
blance between the charadler of Atticus and that of
Epicurus, the founder of this philofophy. The fame
tenets feem to have produced the fame effedls on both ;
and we will venture to pronounce fo high an encomium
on. the Epicurean philofophy, as to affert, that it
chiefly contributed to form the charadler of this ami¬
able Roman.
£ 4 We know not if we may venture to affirm, that
friendfhips are moft naturally contradled among per-
fons of the fame fex. We believe they often are. If
fimilarity of tafte, of fentiments, of manners, be fa¬
vourable to friendfhip, this cannot but happen. The
diftindtion which nature has eftablifhed between the
two fexes, the new diftinftions which are introduced
by the different views with which their education is
conduced, and the different duties which they are
called to perform in life, have all a tendency to difpofe
Wen and women to enter into habits of intimacy
with perfons of their own fex rather than with the
other. Young girls have their peculiar amufements,
as boys have theirs : they knit and few together, con¬
sult each other concerning their drefs, and affociate at
their idle hours. Young men, in the fame manner,
prefer the fociely of their equals of the fame fex till Friendfliip.
fuch time as their hearts begin to feel the impulfe
of a new paffion. This foft paffion, indeed, caufes the
youth to prefer the company of his favourite maid to
that of his deareft companion 5 and it perhaps caufes the
virgin to view her female companions with a jealous
eye, while fhe fears that their charms may win the
heart of the youth, whofe fond regard {he herfelf
wifties to engage. But the fears, the jealoufies, the
timidity, nay even the fondnels of love, are incompa¬
tible with friendfliip. Though the lover and his miftrefs
be dear to each other, yet the free confidence of
friendftiip cannot take place between them. They
dare not yet venture to truft to each other all the fe-
crets of their hearts. But if their mutual wiflies
be crowned by marriage ; then, indeed, as their in-
terefts become the fame, if the tranfports of love are
not fuceeeded by the calm delights and the free con¬
fidence of friendfliip, they muft be unhappy. The
marriage ftate is peculiarly favourable to friendfliip.
Perfons whofe relations to each other are the more re¬
mote, will often find circumftancesconcurring to induce
them to cultivate a friendly intercourfe with each
other. But here indifference is almoft impoflible. It
is abfolutely requifite, in order that they may not ren¬
der each other miferable, that the hufhand and the
wife be united in the bonds of friendfhip. This feems
even to be one of the great laws of nature, by means
of which provifion is made for the happinefs and the
prefervation of fociety. But though the wife and the
hufband be particularly attached to each other by the
ties of friendthip no lefs than by thofe of love, yet
their mutual affeftion will not detach them from the
reft of the rvorld : their relations to the fociety around
them will ftill remain ; the hufhand will ftill cultivate
the intimacy of thofe of his own fex, and the wife will
ftill choofe female in preference to male friends. Upon
even a fuperficial view of life, we find reafon to declare
without hefitation, that acquaintance and intimacy
moft naturally take place among perfons of the fame
fex. The hufband and the wife are more than friends j
they are one bone and one flejh. It has been fometimes
flightly infinuated, and fometimes more openly affert-
ed, by people who have but carelefsly viewed the phe¬
nomena of focial life, or have been difpofed to cavil
againft the fair fex, that women are incapable of fin-
cerity or conftancy in friendfhip with each other. But
it feems unneceffary to offer a ferious refutation of this
cavil. Neither is the general charafter of the female
fex fo inferior to that of the male, nor are their cir¬
cumftances fo very different from ours, as to render
them totally incapable of thofe virtues which are ne-
ceffary to eftablifh and fupport mutual friendfhip.
They are in general poffeffed of more exquifite fenfi-
bility, nicer delicacy of tafte, and a jufter fenfe of
propriety, than we : nor are they deftitute of genero-
fity, fidelity, and firmnefs. But fuch qualities are
peculiarly favourable to friendfhip 5 they communicate
a certain charm to the manners of the perfon who is
adorned with them 5 they render the heart fufceptible
of generous difinterefted attachment; and they elevate
the foul above levity, infineerity, and meannefs. Com¬
petitions and jealoufies muft no doubt arife now and
then even among the molt amiable of the female fex,
as well as among us. Thefe will preclude or deftroy
G g 2 friendfhip.
F R I
FricndMp friendlhip. But the rivalry of beauty of
v-1 fathion, is not oftener fatal to fnendftup. among he
fair fex, than the contefts of pnde avarice van.ty,
and ambition among their haughty lords. It fuend-
fhip be ranked among the virtues, it is not lefs a female
than a male virtue. , . • r r
The delightful xntercourfe and intimacy of “iend-
ihip may be naturally expe&ed to fabfift not only be-
tween the hntband and the wife, but among all who
are cennefled by any of the relations of eonfangumi-
i- .1^0 Tvoi nlwavs continue
Relations
of conl'an.
r 2q6 ] F K I
drefs of intercourfe. Between the deceitful and the honeft,Friend^
’ friendfliip can never fubfift. For a while, the one may r-
impofe on the other } unfufpicious integrity may not oe
able to fee through the roaik under which the hideous
features of felfilh cunning are veiled j but the deceitful
friend muft ever be a ftranger to the delightful fenti*
ments of genuine friendlhip. To enjoy thele your vir¬
tues muft be fipcere, your affeaion for the perfon whom
you call your fiend unfeigned j in communicating o
each other yourjentirnents, in offering and liftening
lonnefled by any of the relations of confanguim- profecute the fame deftgns,
ty. The power of inllinfl does not always continue in lhe’fani3e amufements, candid fincenty mull
to unite the parent and the child. Its 0,hct' ftill be obferved between you. Attempt not to per-
temporary nature ; but when thefe are Lde each other, that your mutual aftefl.on is more
ceafes to operate. During the infancy, the child , ^ or y0ur mutual efteem more profound, than
and even the youth of his fon or daughter, the parent ’ . y If h fentiments or opinions which the
watches over'them with fond affeaion and labours ^ear t0 tlle other improper or .11-
with anxious afliduity to promote their welfare for n P ]et not l/falfe delicacy prevent him from de-
other reafon but becaufe the yearnings of paternal af- a ^ ft them ; let him not applaud
feaion draw him towards them. But “{ he were fincere, he muft blame. Join not
farther in life, and become able ‘h.e“fe1^ even ’ r friend in an undertaking which you fecret y
it has been fo ordered by the wifdom of nature, that  y r . difapreeable to
it has neen iu j — nWoV. unlefs
the attachment of the parent almoft dies away, unleft
the grateful afteftion and the merit of h's children afford
him reafon to rejoice over them a^.blefsf ^’fa^ly
{hocking, how miferable, the condition of that family,
whofe members are not united by the mutual efteem
and confidence of friendlhip! w-here the parent vxews
his children with jealoufy, lhame, 0]
row : and the children anxioufiy avoid the i°ciety ot
their parents ! Their interefts are fo nearly connefted ,
they have fo many occafions for a&ing m concert, and
S^ehiiouAgelher^jemayahiioffveu.
diflike,0“ sn’amufemen't mfufferably difagreeable lo
you. You cannot, confidently with fincer.ty and can.
dour : and you will foon begin to think the bleffmgs of
friendlhip too dear, when bought at the price of luch
fcC&ugb fmeerity is to be faithfully obfen-td ia
the intercourfe of friendlhip ; yet the harfimefs of co„.
tradiftion muft be carefully avoided, ihofe obliging
manners which are fo agreeable m an acquaintance or
cafual companion, are ftill more/Vn * H
they are neceffary to recommend the advantages of
„ / . . r • hr. tVip members oflociety,
mud UvTroCg together , that we may almoft ven the^ - neceuar^ io ^ ^ of fociety
ture to affirm, that the parent and the chiid, hke lefs nece{rary to communicate a chaim to
hufband and the wife, muff be ^mndsm™. they. r Pcoole often think
«
Laws of
friendfliip.
But TheaS of na™;; the inauence of habit, fenti¬
ments and circumaa,ices, all concur‘o form b«,wee
them the facred connexion of fnendffiip. brothers ana
fifters, the children of the fame parents, and for a while
members of the fame family, may be expefted to re¬
gard each other through life with kmdnefs and efteem ,
Kfe t would rather ehoofe to attribute to a ra-
tional attachment, founded on certain principles, than
to a blind inftinftive affeftion. , . .
Thefe are a few of the diftinftions and relations m
fociety which appear moft favourable to fnendfhip.—
Were we to defeend to minuter particulars, we might
enumerate all the varieties of tafte, of temper, and of
chrcumftances, by which mankind are diftmgu.lhed
from one another, and diftributed into particular claffes.
But this would be too tedious, and does not appear ne-
CeA7friendfhip is an attachment which takes place
between certain human charaaers when placed in cer-
“cumftaiices, there muft therefore be laws o
fupporting the aUachmmit and rcgwUtm^th^^ ^
wbicb tt“ P isSfw i and Ae mterconrfe
If MendSip ought Purely to be conneaed ,n fuch a
manner that this foundation be not injured. Fr.end-
aio muft diminifti neither our benevolence nor p u-
deice ■ it muft not feduce us from an honeft atten-
Bon“o our private intereft, nor contra* our focal
affs“°"rL may be confidered as the firft law of friend-
ftip Anifice and hypocrify are inimical to all focal
3."
the’ intercourfe of friendffiip. People often think
themfelves entitled to behave to thofe whom th y
call their friends, and whofe interefts they profefs to
regard as their own, with harffinefs, ne^ 1^enCe’>
indifereet familiarity j but nothing can be more fata
to friendftiip. It is a well known maxim, eftab
by general land uniform experience, that too much fa-
Julfarity occafions mutual contempt. And indeed how
can it be otherwife ? Mild obliging manners are under-
ftood as the natural and genuine expreffions of kmdne
and affieftion : boifterous rudenefs, petulance, and ne-
glea are naturally confidered as expreffive of oppofite
fentiments. But if friendffiip affume the tone, the car¬
riage and the language of enmity or indifference, it-
muft foon lofe all its native charms and advantages..
Let the friend, as well as the cafual companion, when
he finds reafon to difapprove of the ^nUrnents an
conduft, or to diffent from the opinions of his friend,
exprefs himfelf in the gentled terms, with honefty and
fincerity, but without carelefsnefs or hatfcnefs L t
no frequency of intercourfe nor union of interefts ever
template ca'relefs or contemptuous fam.h^' ^
and unmeaning ceremony may be banithed , b“t e?l i
and deHcacy, and refpeaful deference and obliging
attention muft fupply its room Much of the unhap
pinefs of the marriage Hate, and much of the 1 J
uneafinefs which arifes among thofe who are relat
rthe endearing ties of confanguinity, is occafioned,
bv the parties who are thus clofely^conneaed, thinking.
it7unneceffary to obferve the ordinary rules <d g°°£
breeding in their mutual intercourfe. Even kindneia.
F R I [ «37 ] F R I
riendfliip. puts on a dirgufting garb, and affumcs a harfh afpeft. which you may happen to conceive, nor even all the Fnemtihip.
•—y—-"' jbut mutual kindnels cannot there long fubfift. Home, projects which may doat in your imagination : but as y-—'
which ought to be a fan&uary to thelter from the much of the felicity of friendfhip arifes from the mu.
anxieties and ills of life, a little paradife where thofe tual confidence to which it affords room, call not any
pure and innocent pleafures might be enjoyed which man your friend in whofe prefence you find it proper
afford the moil genuine happinefs, and which are not to obferve the fame fufpicious caution as if he were
to be tafted in the bufile of the bufy and the diffipa- your enemy. The ancients, who talked of friendfhip
tion of the gay world j home thus becomes a place of with enthufiafm as one of the moft elevated among the
torment, which is never entered but with pain and un- virtues, required a ftill clofer union and a more difin-
willingnefs ; and from which the fon, the daughter, terefted attachment among friends than we dare ven-
the hufband, and the wife, eagerly feize every oppor- ture to infifl upon. The mutual duties which they
tunity to efcape. . __ have defcribed as incumbent on friends, appear fome-
Mutuai confidence is the very foul of friendfhip. If what extravagant. Among other things, fome of them
friendfhip be rightly defined to be a mutual affe£lion have gone fo far as to require a degree of mutual con¬
founded on mutual efteem, thofe who are united in fidence which would foon deflroy all confidence, and
the bonds of friendfhip cannot but repofe mutual con- could not fail to counteraft all the purpofes of friend-
fidence in each other. Am I confcious of none but fhip : they have required one friend to communicate
generous worthy fentiments, and none but upright ho- to another, not only all his own thoughts and purpofes,
neft intentions ? I readily difclofe all the fecrets of my but even thofe fecrets which have been confided to his
foul to him whom I regard as capable only of fimilar honour by any other friend. But the evil confequen-
defigns and fimilar fentiments. But it may be afked, ces which would refult are eafily to be forefeen. Per-
how far the confidence of friendfhip ought to be car- haps, like Atticus, you enjoy the friendfhip of men
tied ? Ivlufl I reveal to my friend all my fentiments, who are mutual enemies j and by communicating the
opinions, and defigns ? Muft I communicate to one fecrets of the one to the other, you will then become
friend the fecrets which have been intrufted to me by the betrayer of both. Or, though not abfolutely ene-
another >. Or muft I rather obferve the moft fufpicious mies, yet thofe who are your friends may happen not
caution in my intercourfe with my friends, remember- to be in habits of friendfhip with each other ; and they
ing that he who is now my friend may one day become may then perhaps not fcruple to divulge thofe fecrets
my enemy ? It feems moft prudent to obferve a me- of one another which you have imprudently blabbed
dium between fufpicious caution and unlimited confi- to them. Indeed, might we fuppofe all mankind ab-
dence. Were human virtue perfed, and were there folutely faultlefs, and not liable to moral imperfeaion,
no inftances of friends ever becoming enemies, thofe we need not fear thefe bad confequences from unbound-
who regard each other with friendly affeaion might ed confidence in our friends. But friendfhip would
very reafonably be required to fet no bounds to their in fuch a ftate of fociety be unknown : juft as in the
mutual confidence. But as this is far from being the golden age of the poets there are fuppofed to have
cafe, different meafures are to be obferved. Contraa been no diftinaions of property. We cannot here
no fnendfhips, if you think it neceffary to treat a forbear dropping an obfervation, which will readily be
friend with the fame referve as an enemy. Yet venture acknowledged as juft by all who have any tolerable
not to difclofe to your friend all the foolifh or evil knowledge of the morality of the philofophers of an.
defigns which the wantonnefs of imagination may fe- cient Greece. All their doarines and precepts appear
duce you to form. W hen you feel the emotions of calculated for a different order of beings than mankind,
pride, ot vanity, or of any evil paffion, if you are They glanced carelefsly at the phenomena of the moral
able to reprefs them by the ftrength of reafon and con- world ; and gleaning a few faas, immediately fet them-
fcience, it feems unneceffary for you to tell the ftruggle, felves to erea fyftems : From thefe, however wild and
or to boaft of the viaory. If, at any former period theoretical, they then pretended to deduce laws for
of life, you have been fo unfortunate as to commit the regulation of human condua ; and their rules are
aaions which you cannot now recollea without ftiame generally fuch as might be expeaed from the means
and contrition, there can be no reafon why you may which they appear to have employed in order to arrive
not, as far as poflible, bury the remembrance of them at them. An apology has however been offered for
m your own breaft.^ In Ihort, not to become tedious fome of them, which, in our opinion, could occur
bjr defcending to minute particulars, the laws of friend- only to fuperficial obfervers of human life. It has
imp do not require friends to unbofom themfelves to been alleged in behalf of the Stoics, that their fyftem
each other any farther than is neceffary—to give them indeed required more exalted virtue than human nature
juft ideas of each other’s character and temper,— to is capable of attaining •, but that, notwithftanding this,
enable them to be ferviceable to each other in the pro- it could not fail to produce the happieft effetts on the
iecution of honeft defigns,—and to afford each of manners and fentiments of its votaries. Inftances, too
them proper opportunities of exciting the other to vir- have been produced in fupport of thisaffertion j a Cato*
tue and wifdom, and of interpofing his influence to an Epictetus, an Antoninus. When we contemplate
preferve him from vice and folly. Whatever is necef- a model of perfeflion beyond what we can hope to
ary for any of thefe purpofes ought to be mutually reach, fay the advocates of the Stoic< philofophy,
communicated j whatever is not, may be concealed though we defpair of attaining, yet we are prompted
without violating the law's of friendftiip. As mutual to afpire after it. Now, .the moft natural way of rea^
efiem is the foundation of friendftiip, and as human foning here feems to lead to a very different concluw
nen mips are not always lafting, you ought not to fion. If an obje6t is fet before me which I muft not
pour into the ear of your friend all the impertinences hope to obtain, .1 am unwilling to wafte my time and
exhauft
F R I
[ 238 3
F R I
'Friendftiip. exhaufl my vigour in the purfuit of it: hid me afcend
1    an inaceeflible height, I view the vale below with new
fondnefs. Philofophy, as well as fuperftition and eu-
thufiaim, might in a few inftances triumph over the
principles of nature but was it always equally power¬
ful 5 Were all the difciples of Zeno Catos or Epicte-
tufes ? Have all the monks and anchorites of the Ko-
milh church been holy as the founders of their orders ?
No : The Greek philofophers who infefted Rome, and
taught thofe vohimjical doctrines which we hear fre¬
quently dignified with the name, fublime, were An¬
gularly corrupted and licentious in all their manners.
If thofe of the regular clergy of the church ot Rome
have been always more pure, they have been c™eRy
calumniated. Aik, then, only what I am capable of
performing: if you demand what is above my Itrengtn,
I fit {till in indolence. In its general tendency, the
Stoic philofophy was favourable rather to vice than to
But wre have not yet exhaulted all the duties of
friendlhip. We have inculcated fincerity, and mutual
refpect and obligingnefs of manners j we have alio en¬
deavoured to afcertain what degree of mutual confi¬
dence ought to take place between friends, j3111 an
important queftion Hill remains to be confidered: how
far is an union of inter efts to take place between friends ?
Am I to ftudy the intereft of my friend in preference
to my own ? May I lawfully injure others, m order to
ferve him ? Here, too, we mult confider the circum-
ftances and the llrength of human nature 5 and let us
beware of impofing burdens too heavy to be borne.
The greater and more perfect the union which reigns
r • .  „ ;n ko itc ftrcncih and hanpi-
cifely the fame degree of knowledge, to entertain ex- Friendfhip.
adtly the fame fentiments, or to ftand in cirqumftancqs'
precifely fimilar. But till this happen, the interefts of
twm can never be .precifely the lame. And we will
not, therefore, require the, friend actually to prefer his
friend to himfelfj nay, we will even allow him to prefer
himfelf to his friend} convinced that fuch is the defign
of nature, and that by prefuming to counteraft the
principles of nature we (hall be able to ferve no ufeful
purpofe. But as far as the firit principles of human
adlion and the inftitutions of fociety permit, we may
reafonably require of friends, that they mutually endea¬
vour to contribute each to the other’s intereft. You
will not defert your own family, nor negleft what is
abfolutely neceffary for your own prefervation, in order
that you may ferve a friend. It is not requifite that
you be either a Damon or a Pythias. Away with
what is romantic \ but fcruple not to fubmit to what
is natural and reafonable. When your friend needs
your direction and advice, freely and honeftly give it:
does he need more than advice 5 your aftive exertions
in his behalf ? the laws of friendfhip require you not
to refufe them. Is it neceffary for him to receive
flill more fubfiantial afiiflance ? You may even be
expedled to aid him with your fortune. But remem¬
ber, that even the amiable principle of benevolence muft
be ’fubjeft to the diredions of prudence j if incaPa'
ble of taking care of ourfelves, w e cannot be expected
to contribute to the good of others: fociety would not be
favourable to the happinefs of the human race, if every
individual ftudied the general intereft fo far as to neglect
his own. We are not born to be citizens of the world;
The greater and n»re perfea ‘he umen wmea re gne BrUrms, EngMnaen or Scotch™,
in fociety, the gteate. «U ^ ■ f « h 11 „„e, then, feek the intereft and happ.nefs ot
nefs ; the defer the union of friends, the more advan
tages will each of them derive from their union.
Where other ties befides thofe of friendfhip concur to
unite two individuals, their interefts will be more clofe-
ly conjoined than if they were conneded by the ties
of friendfhip alone. The order of nature feems here
to be —the hufband and wife—the parent and child-
brothers and fitters, the offspring of the fame parents
friends, conneded by the ties of friendfhip alone.
And, if we may prefume to guefs at the intentions of
the Author of nature from what we behold in his works
and read in his word, the clofeft union m fociety ought
to be that between the hufband and the wife •, their in¬
terefts are altogether the fame •, they ought mutually
to forego convenience and gratification for each other s
fake. The interefts of parents and children are fome-
what lefs clofely conneded •, much is due from the one
to the other, but fomewhat lefs than m the former
relation ; their interefts may fometimes be leparate,
but never ought to be oppofite. Next come brethren,
and other more diftant relations j and next, the hitnd.
In thefe cafes, where we fuppofe the attachment of
friendlhip to operate together with the. ties of _ na-
1 ^ *1^4. cm-p varioullv united
Let every one, then, feek the intereft and happinefs of
his friends with whom he is conneded by the laws of
friendfhip alone, in fubordination to his own particular
intereft and happinefs, and to the intereft and happi¬
nefs of thofe with whom he is conneded by the ties
of nature and the general inftitutions of fociety En¬
gage not in the fervice of your friend, nor lavifh your
fortune in his behalf, if by that means you are likely
to iniure either yourfelf or your family.. btitf lets
will you think it requifite to carry your friendfhip to
fueh romantic excefs as to commit crimes in the fervice
of vour friend. The ancients, whofe ideas ci the na¬
ture and duties of friendfhip were romantic and extrava¬
gant, have, fome of them, required that a friend fhould
hefitate at no adion, however atrocioufly wicked, by
which he can be ufeful to his friend. Have I been
guilty of theft or murder, or any other heinous viola¬
tion of the laws of morality or the inftitutions of fo¬
ciety : when I am brought to juftice for my crime, if
you, being my friend, are appointed to fit as my judge
the laws of friendfliip, fay thofe admirable mailers of
morality, require that you pronounce.me innocent,
though convinced of my guilt. But we need not de¬
friendfhip to operate together with the _ ties ot na- in ug abfurdity of enjoining fuch bafe deeds
and various dn.ies are due; fcarcely in any of them does
it appear that the interefts of two can become entirely
one. Still lefs can that be expeded to happen, "'here
the ties of friendlhip ad not in concert with thole of
nature. We give up, therefore, all thofe romantic
notions, which fome have fo earneftly infilled on, of
requiring the friend to confider his friend as himfelf.
We cannot exped any two individuals to pofteis pre¬
ss duties of friendfliip. The idea of a connexion, the
laws of which are inimical to the order of fociety, mu t
ftrike with horror every perfon who thinks ot it.
Such a connedion is the union of a knot of vll!am^Gere7ra!
confpiring againft the peace, nay even the exiftence 0Yewoftj
fociety. ' .
Such we apprehend to be the nature of rational offriendJ
friendlhip ; fuch the circumftances in the order ot na-foip.
F R I
S takes in
fc ling
Jiilliips
a ‘confe-
S'itui
;Uncy.
i. ture and of fociety which are mod favourable to this
' union j and fuch the duties, by the performance of
which it may be maintained. When founded on
thefe principles, and regulated by thcfe laws, friend-
fhip is truly virtuous, and cannot but be highly bene¬
ficial to the individuals between whom it lubliits, and
to the intereft of fociety in general. How delightful to
have fome perfon of an amiable and virtuous character
in whom you can confide ; who will join with you in
the profecution of virtuous defigns, or will be ready to
call you back when you heedlefsly itray into the paths
of vice and folly ! who will adminiiter to you honed,
upright advice j will rejoice in your profperity, will
glory over your virtues, and will be ready to confole
and relieve you when finking under the prefiure of
diltrels! Mult not your connexion with fuch a per¬
fon be favourable to your virtue, your intereft, and
your happinefs ? When we iurvey any fublimeor beau¬
teous fcene in nature, we with tor fome perfon of con¬
genial tafte and feelings to participate with us in the
noble enjoyments which the profpedt affords ; when we
read any fine piece of compofition, the pleafure which
we receive from it is more exquifite if others join with
us in applauding it. The landfcape which we have
often lurveyed, the poem which we have often read,
pi 'ale us anew, with all the charms of novelty, when
we have an opportunity of pointing out their beauties
to iome perfon to whom they have been hitherto un¬
known. Friendfhip communicates new charms and a
more delicate reliih to all our moft refined and elegant
pleafures. It enlivens our joys, it foothes and alleviates
our forrows. What Cicero has faid of polite letters
and philofophy, may be with ftill ftronger propriety
faid of friendihip. In every condition of life the influ¬
ence of virtuous friendftrip is favourable to our welfare
and our happinefs : in profperity ; in adverlity ; in the
filence and tranquillity of retirement, as well as amid
the hurry of bufineis \ in the bolom of your family,
and when lurrounded by your neareft connexions, no
lefs than when removed to a ftrange country. Indeed,
whatever advantages fociety beftows above what are to
be enjoyed in a lavage rtate, not lels numerous nor lefs
important are thofe which wre may derive from uniting
in the bonds of friendihip, rather than living in a ftate
of enmity or indifference.
But though friendfhip, when founded on mutual
efteem, and regulated by the laws of prudence, benevo¬
lence, and honefty, be produXive of fo many happy
effeXs j yet many inliances occur in the world,
in which connexions dignified with the name of
friendfhip are unfavourable both to the virtue and
the happinefs of thofe between whom they fubfift.
When men affociate from views of convenience ; when
their union is haftily formed without a knowledge
of each other’s temper and charaXer ; when they are
drawn^ together by accident, as when they happen to
agree in the purfuits of the fame interefts or pleafures j
when the young and the gay refort together to the
haunts of diflipation, and the covetous and ambitious
find it convenient to toil in concert for riches and
power : on all fuch occafioiis, the connexion which is
formed and dignified with the name of friendfhip is
unworthy of that honourable appellation. It is not
Virtuous j it is produXive of no happy effeXs, and is
quickly diffolved. He, therefore, who is not incapa-
4
E 239 1
F R I
ble of virtuous friendfhip, and is defirous of enjoying its Fnendflfip.
advantages, mult carefully confider the nature of the ——'
connexion which he wifhes to form, gain a thorough
acquaintance with the charaXer of the perfon whole
efteem and affeXion he wilhes to acquire, and attend to
thofe rules by the obfervance of which true friendihip
may be maintained.
Many inftances are related, which fhow what power Relation il-
it is poffible for friendihip to acquire over the human luftrating
heart. We need not here repeat the well known ftory d12 power
of Damon and Pythias, whofe generous friendftiip af_ °1 fr*erid-
forded a fpeXacle which foftened even the favage heart fh^hJman
of Dionyfius. It is known to every fchool-boy j and, heart,
after the affeXing narrative of Valerius Maximus, has
been ftudioufly detailed and commented on by almoft
every fucceeding ftory-teller or moralift. Addifon, in
one of his SpeXators, gives a beautiful little relation,
we know not upon what authority, which finely illuf-
trates the power of both friendihip and love. Two male
negroes, in one of our Weft Indian ifiands, nearly of
the fame age, and eminent among their fellows in Ha-
very for gracefulnefs of figure, ftrength, agility, and
dexterity, were alfodiftinguilhed for their mutual friend-
fhip and for their common attachment to a young fe¬
male negro, who was generally efteemed the moft beau¬
tiful of her complexion in the whole illand. The young
female appeared to be equally pleafed with both her
lovers 5 and was willing to accept either of them for a
hufband, provided they could agree between them-
felves which of them fhould yield to the pretenfions of
the other. But here lay the difficulty ; for while nei¬
ther would treacheroufly fupplant, neither of them was
willing to yield to his friend. The two youths, there¬
fore, long fuffered the fevereft affliXion, while their
hearts were torn between love and friendfhip. At
length, when they were no longer able to endure the
agony of fiach a conteft, being ftill unable-to reprefs
their paffion for their lovely countrywoman, and inca¬
pable of violating the laws of friendfhip,—on a certain
day, they both, in company with the objeX of their ill-
fated love, retired into a wood adjoining to the fcene of
their labours. 1 here, after fondly embracing the
maid, calling her by a thoufand endearing names, and
lamenting their own unhappy fate, they ftabbed a
knife into her breaft -r which, while ftill reeking with
her blood, was by each of them in his turn plunged
into his own. Her cries reached the people who were
at work in the next field : fome of them haftening to
the I pot, found her expiring, and the two youths already
dead befide her.
We have introduced this little narrative as a ftriking
inftance of the noble effeXs which naturally refult from
genuine friendihip. Here we fee it fuperior to the
force of the moft violent of pafficns. Had the eleva¬
ted fouls of thofe negro youths been refined and en¬
lightened by culture and education in the principles of
morality and true religion, we may reafonably fuppofe
that their friendihip would have triumphed over their
love, without prompting them to the ralh and defperate
deed which they committed. I0
Friendihip, thus amiable in its charaXer, thus be-notincon-
neficial in its influence and effeXs, the theme of un- with_
bounded panegyric to the philofophers and moralifts of!1!6 1^nt.o£
every age, has been faid by fome refpeXable modern tv< iaa
writers to be inconfiftent with the fpirit of that holy
religion
F R I
[ 240 ]
F R I
dfhip. religion which we profefs, and which we regard as the
v—' revelation of heaven. General benevolence is fre¬
quently inculcated through the gofpel : Jefus often
earneftly intreated his difciples, “ to love one ano¬
ther •” and directed them in what manner to diiplay
thei/ mutual love, by telling them that “ whatfoevet
things they could reafonably wilh to receive from
othcTs, the fame ought they to do to them.” The wr.ters
of the epiftles often enlarge on the topics of charity
and brotherly love. But private friendlhip is nowhere
recommended in the code of Chriftiamty. Nay, it is
fo inconfiftent with that univerfal benevolence which
the gofpel enjoins, that where the one is recommended
and enforced, the other may be underftood to be tacit¬
ly forbidden. But can that religion be true, or can it
' be favourable to the happinefs of its votaries, which is
inimical, nay, which is even not friendly to virtuous
friendlhip ? Such are the fuggeftions of Lord bhaitel-
bury and Soame Jenyns on this head.
We mull grant them, that the fyftem of morals or
religion which difcourages a connexion fo noble m its
origin, fo amiable in its charafter, and fo beneficial in
its influence, as virtuous friendlhip, is rather unfa¬
vourable to the happinefs and virtue of its votaries
But we mull confider the genius of Chrithanity with
more careful attention, before we fuffer ourfeNes to
be perfuaded that friendlhip is inconfiftent with it.
Univerfal benevolence is, indeed, inculcated in the
gofpel : we are required to love our neighbours as our-
felves : and our Saviour feems to infinuate, in the ftory
of the humane Samaritan, that we ought to regard as
neighbours all our brethren of the human race however
feparated from us by any of the diftinaions of f°clety-
But it would be unfair to conclude from this, that the
great Author of the gofpel meant to abolilh the order
of focial life, or to oppofe the ties of mature. Ihe e
may ft ill be refpeaed, though the laws of this bene¬
volence be obeyed. The parent is not required to de-
fert his child, in order that he may atlift or relieve his
neighbour j nor the child to leave his parent to penlh
under the infirmities of old age, while he haftens to lend
affiftance to a ftranger. The gofpel was not intended
to diffolve communities, or to abrogate the diftinaions
of rank. In Jefus, the end of the ceremonial law was
to a Ik him to confider for as a parent; and direfted Fnend%,
her to expert from him the refpedt and kindnefs of a —
fon. Thefe fafts and obfervations teach us in what
fenfe to underftand that univerfal benevolence which
is inculcated in the gofpel. Though we are to
love all mankind, yet it is not neceffary that all the
individuals of the human race fliare our affeaion alike.
Were we powerful, and wife, and benevolent, as the
Deity fuch extenfive benevolence might be required
of us : But our fphere of adion and obfervation is
narrow : we cannot extend our acquaintance or influ¬
ence beyond a very limited circle. Were we to en-
deavour to be equally ufeful to all mankind, we (hould
become incapable of being ufeful to any individual.
We cannot become citizens of the world m the ienie
in which fome philofophers have affe£ted to call them-
felves fuch, without becoming outcafts from every par¬
ticular fociety. A fon, a brother, a countryman, a
ftranger, lie around you, each in circumftances ol ex¬
treme diftrefs ; you pity their misfortunes, and would
gladly adminifter relief; but fuch is your benevolence,,
that you feel precifely the fame degree of compaffion
for each of them ; you cannot determine to whom you
{hould firft ftretch out an helping hand ; and you
therefore ftand like that venerable afs of the fchool-
men, whofe tantalizing fituation between two bundles
of hay has been fo long celebrated and lamented by
metaphyficians; and fuffer fon, and brother, and coun¬
tryman, and ftranger, to perilh, without relieving any
of them by your kind offices. It is therefore the de-
fign of the gofpel, that we {hould fubmit to the laws
of nature, and comply with the inftitutions of fociety.
Firft attend to felf-prefervation; next, perform the
duties of a wife or hulband,—a parent,—a child,—a
brother,—a citizen,—an individual of the human race.
You will do well, indeed, to regard all mankind with
benevolence ; but your benevolence will be unavailing
to the obie&s of it, if you overlook the diftinftions of
nature and thofe inftitutions which fupport the union
of focial life. , . • • • i . .u
But if the fpirit of Chriftiamty be not inimical to the
inftitutions and relations of fociety, neither can it be
unfavourable to friendftiip. If that benevolence which
the gofpel enjoins admit of any modifications, why not
r .1 .1  which conftitutes private
of rank. In Jefus, the end of the ceremonial law v as ^ parlicJular modification which conftitutes private
accomplilhed : by him, therefore, that burden o yp f- dft? > It is not> indeed, direftly enjoined; but
and ceremonies with which the Jews^had ^en loaded .P ^ forbidden> It is perfeftly confident with
the general tendency and fpirit of the gofpel. fyftem .
being favourable to the inter efts of fociety, it cannot
was taken away. But he who abolilhed the ceremo¬
nial law declared, that the obligations of the moral law
{hould be more permanent than heaven or earth : 1 e
duties which it enjoined were ftill to be religioufly 1 -
charged : The precepts of the gofpel were to illuftrate
and enforce, not to contradift, the inftitutions of the
moral law. The relative duties of parents and chil¬
dren were ftill to be performed ; though men were di¬
rected not to confine all their fentiments of benevolence
to domeftlc relations. Jefus, in his conduft, did not
fet himfelf to oppofe the order of fociety. In pnous
parts of the New Teftament all the .focial duties are
defined and enforced ; the mutual duties of parents and
children, of hulbands and wives, and of matters and
fervants. The fubmiflion of all the members of a com¬
munity to that power which is veiled wuth the autho¬
rity of the whole, is alfo ftriftly enjoined in the gofpel.
Jefus, when in his laft moments he recommended his
mother to the protection of his beloved difciple, choie
but be agreeable to our holy religion.
But it is recommended by no direCt precept, lay
thofe who would reprefent Chriftianity as inimical to
it; while it has been the favourite theme of the phiio-
fophers and moralifts of the heathen world.
But why {hould friendftiip be recommended by
means different from thofe which the gofpel employs
for the purpofe ? Make yourfelf well acquainted with
that admirable fyftem which you fo earneftly oppole ;
you will find that even the duties of private friendftup
are better explained and more powerfully enforced in
the gofpel, than by all the heathen philofophers and
poets from Hefiod to Plutarch. The gofpel makes a
diftinaion between the virtuous and the vicmus; it re-
prefents one charader as more amiable and refpeCtab
{han another. As it diftinguifties between virtue and
F R I [ 24
;er.dilup. vice, between piety and impiety j fo its great ob¬
ject is to deter us from vice, and to encourage us to
the praftice of virtue. It cannot be fuppofed, then,
that the gofpel will direft us to affbciate indifferently
with virtuous and profligate charafters. It does not.
It diredts us to feek improvement, by affociating with
thofe whom we have reafon to efteem. It diredds thofe
who are incorrigibly wicked to be expelled from fo-
ciety. What is this but to command us to enter into
habits of intimacy wherever there is ground for mutual
efteem ? But this is the only bafts of genuine friend-
fhip. When all the means which lead to a certain
end are laid before you, and when you are particu¬
larly diredted by fome high authority to employ thofe
means j though the end which you thus attain be not
pointed out, yet the commanding you to employ fuch
a feries of means, is evidently the fame as if you v'ere
diredted to accomplifh the purpofe to which they tend.
Thus, though the precepts of Chriftianity do not di-
redtly enjoin private friendfliip ; yet they have a diredt
tendency to form thofe exalted charadters who alone
are capable of true friendfhip ; they inculcate thofe
virtues which naturally give rife to this generous at¬
tachment, and are abfolutely neceffary to fupport it
where it is formed ; they inculcate benevolence by
the moft effectual motives, and admit of modifications
of that benevolence, correfpondent to the relations and
inftitutions of fociety : And therefore they may be
confidered in as ftrong and diredt terms as if it had
been exprefsly faid, “ Cultivate private friendlhip.”
Befides, friendfhip is rather an accident of fociety, a
natural confequence of our charadter as moral and Yo-
cial. beings, than a relation to be regulated and defined
ii by inftitutions.
1 endfhip This union, fo natural between virtuous perfons,
I bTur" haS been countenanced b7 the example of the Author
uour’iT of.our religion j to whole life, no lefs than to his doc¬
trines and precepts, we will do well to look for a ftan-
dard by which we may regulate our condudt. We al¬
lude to two remarkable inflances which occur in the
evangelical hiftory ; and with the recital of which, as
Hated in all their ftriking circumftances by a very ele¬
gant writer *, we {hall conclude the prefent article.
“.The evangelift, in relating the miracle which'
Chrift performed at Bethany by reftoring a perfon to
e to his bte who had lain fome days in the grave, introduces
mple.
V Mel-
th, Efq.
he con-
c .ling
' nJlation his narrative by emphatically obferving, that ‘ Jefus
&‘ro's J.ove.d Lazarus intimating, it Ihould feem, that the
ientiments which Chrift entertained of Lazarus w’ere
a diftindt and peculiar fpecies of that general benevo¬
lence with which he was aftuated towards all mankind.
Agreeably to this explication of the facred hiftorian’s
meaning, when the fitters of Lazarus fent to acquaint
Jefus with the ftate in which their brother lay, they
did not even mention his name ; but, pointing him out
by a more honourable and equally notorious defigna-
tion, the terms of their meffage were, ‘ Behold ! he
whom thou loyeft is fick !’ Accordingly, when he in-
iorms his difciples of the notice he had thus received,
his expreflion is, ‘ Our friend Lazarus fleepeth.’ Now
that Chrift did not upon this occafion ufe the word
^ . m loofe undiftinguifhed acceptation, but in a
reitrained aW ftriaiy appropriated fenfe, is not only
mamtett from this plain account of the faft itfelf but
appears farther evident from the fequel. For as he
Wa. IX. Part I.
i ] F R I
was advancing to the grave, accompanied with the re-Friendfliip,
lations of the deceafed, he difcovered the fame emotions t nHlamh ^
of grief as fwelled the bofoms of thofe with whom La- " v"-
zarus had been moft intimately conne&ed ; and fympa-
thizing with their common forrow, he melted into tears.
This circumftance was too remarkable to efcape parti¬
cular oblervation : and it drew from the fpeftators,
what one ftiould think it muft neceffarily draw from
every reader, this natural and obvious refie&ion, ‘ Be¬
hold ! how he loved him !’
“ But in the concluding cataftrophe of our Saviour’s
life, he gave a ftill more decifive proof that fentiments
of the ftrongeft perfonal attachment and friendlhip
were not unworthy of being admitted into his facred
bofom : they were too deeply, indeed, impreffed, to be
extinguiflied even by the molt excruciating torments.
In thofe dreadful moments, obferving among the af¬
flicted witneffes of his painful and ignominious fuf-
ferings, that faithful follower who is defcribed by the
hiltorian as ‘ the difciple whom he loved j’ he di-
ftinguiihed him by the moft convincing inftance of fu-
perior confidence, efteem, and affeCtion, that ever was
exhibited to the admiration of mankind. For, under
circumftances of the moft agonizing torments, when it
might be thought impoflible for human nature to re¬
tain any other fenfibility but that of its own inexpref-
fible fufferings, he recommended to the care and pro¬
tection of this his tried and approved friend, in terms
of peculiar regard and endearment, the moft tendqr
and facred objeCt of his private affeCtions. But no lan¬
guage can reprefent this pathetic and affeCting fcene
w ith a force and energy equal to thefublime fimplicity
of the Evangelitt’s own narrative : ‘ Now there flood
by the crofs of Jefus, his mother and his mother’s
filter, and Mary Magdalene. When Jefus faw his
mother and the difciple (Handing) by, whom beloved ;
he faith to his mother, Behold thy fon ! then he faith
to the difciple, Behold thy mother ! And from that
hour that difciple took her to his own home.’
“ It may fafely he afferted, that among all thofe
memorable examples of friendfhip, which have been
celebrated with the higheft encomiums by the ancients,
there cannot be produced a Angle inftance in which
the moft diftinguilhed features of exalted amity are
fo ftrongly difplayed as in the foregoing relation.
The only one, perhaps, that bears even a faint fimili-
tude to it, is that famous tranfaftion recorded by a
Greek author, which paffed between Eudamidas and
Aretheus. But when the very different circumftances
attending the refpeCfive examples are duly confidered,
it muft be acknowledged, that the former rifes as much
above the latter in the proof it exhibits of fublime
friendfliip, as it does in the dignity of the charaClers
concerned.
“ Upon the whole, then, it appears, that the divine
Founder of the Chriftian religion, as well by his own
example as by the fpirit of his moral dottrine, has not
only encouraged but confecrated friendfliip.”
TTIIESLAND, one of the united provinces of the
Low Countries. It is bounded on the eaft by the
river Lauvers, which parts it from the lordftiip of Gro¬
ningen, on the fouth by Overyffel, on the weft by
the Zuider-Zee, and on the north by the German
ocean. It is 30 miles from north to fouth, and 28 from
eaft to weft. The land is very fertile in corn and pa¬
id h flute $
F R 1 [ 24
i'riefland ft’ure j the horfes are large, and the cows and iaccp
prolific. It is divided into three parts •, We ft ergo Lo
Fright• the weft, Qftergo to the eaft, and Sevenwalden to the
fouth. The iflands of Sheling, Ameland, and other
ftnall ones, are dependent on this province. Ihe prin¬
cipal towns are Teuwarden the capital, Franeker, Doc-
kum, Harlingen, and Staveren.
Friesland, Eaft, a province of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, lying near the German ocean. It
is bounded on the fouth by the bifhopric of IVIunfter,
on the eaft by the country of Oldenburgh, on the weft
by the province of Groningen, and on the north by
the fea, being about 50 miles in length, and 30 in
breadth. It belongs to Pruflia, and was formerly call¬
ed the county of ILmbden. It is a very fertile country,
and feeds a great number of cattle $ but it was greatly
damaged by an inundation in I’yi'JS repair of
the dykes coft an immenfe fum. The principal towns
are Norden, L,eer, Effens, WTitmunde, nnd Aurick.
Embden was an imperial city, and the principal p^aco
jn the country \ but now belongs alfo to the king of
Pruflia, who bought it of the Dutch.
FRIGATE, in naval affairs, a fhip of war ufually
of two decks, light built, defigned for fwift failing.
When it hath but one deck, and confequently is of a
fmaller fize, they call her a light frigate.
Frigates mount from 20 to 44 guns, and are efteem-
ed excellent cruifers. The name was formerly knov n
only in the Mediterranean, and applied to a long kind
of veffel navigated in that fea with lails and oais. I he
Englifh were The firft who appeared on the ocean with
ihefe Ihips, and equipped them for war as well as for
commerce. ^ . , , ,
Frig ATE-Built, denotes the difpofition or the decks
of fuch merchant ftiips as have a defeent of four or five
fteps from the quarter-deck and forecaftle into the
waift, in contradiftin&ion to thofe whofe decks are on
a continued line for the whole length of the (hip, which
are called galley-built.
FRIGATOON, a Venetian veffel, commonly uled
in the Adriatic, built with a fquare ftern, and without
any foremaft, having only a mainmaft, mizenmaft, and
bowfprit. . ,
FRIGHT, or Terror, afudden and violent degree
$f fear. See FEAR. . .
Sudden fear is frequently produ&ive of very remark¬
able effeas upon the human fyftem. Of this many
inftances occur in medical writings.—In general, the
effeas of terror are a contraaion of the imall vei-
fels and a repulfion of the blood in the large and in¬
ternal ones } hence proceed a fuppreflion oi peripira-
tion, a general oppreflion, trembling, and anguilh oi
the heart, and lungs overcharged with blood.
Frights often occafion incurable difeafes, as epilep-
fy, ftupor, madnefs, &c. In acute difeafes, they have
evidently killed many, by the agitation into which
they have thrown the fpirits, already too much dilor-
dered. We have alfo accounts of perfons abiolutely
killed by terrors when in perfeft health at the time ot
receiving the {hock from them : people ordered to be
executed, but with private orders for a reprieve, have
expired at the block without a wound.—Out of many
inftances of the fatal effeas of fear recorded in writers,
die following is feleded as one of the moil Angular.
George Grochantzy, a Polander, who had mlilted as
2 ] F R I
a foldier in the fervicc of the king of Pruflk,. deferted 
during the war. A fmall party was fent in purfuit
of him ; and when he leaft expefted it, they furprifed
him finging and dancing among a company of peafants,
who were got together 111 an inn and were making
merry. This event, fo hidden and unforefeen, and at
the fame time fo dreadful in its confequenc.es, ftruck
him in fuch a manner, that, giving a great cry, he be¬
came at once altogether iiupid and infenfible, and
was feized without the leaft refiftance. They carried
him away to Glocau, where he was brought before the
council of war, and received fentence as a deferter.. He
luffered himfelf to be led and difpoled of at the will of
thofe about him, without uttering a word, or giving
the leaft fign that he knew what had happened or would
happen to him. He remained immoveable as a flatue
wherever he was placed, and was wholly pafiive uitn
refpeft to all that was done to him or about him. Du¬
ring all the time that he was in cuftody, he neither ate,
nor drank, nor flept, nor had any evacuation. Some
of his comrades were fent to fee him ; after that he was
vifited by feme officers of his corps, and by fome priefts;
but he ft ill continued in the fame ftate, without difeo-
vering the leaft figns of fenfibility. _ Promiles, intrea¬
ties, and threatenings were equally ineffeftual. Ihe
phyficians who were confulted upon his cafe, were 01
opinion, that he was in a ftate of hopelefs idiocy. _ It
was at firft fufpeaed, that thofe appearances were feign¬
ed j but thefe fufpicions neceffarily gave way, when it
was known that he took no fuftenance, and that the in-
voluntary functions of nature were in great meafure fui~
pended. After fome time they knocked off his fetters,
and left him at liberty to go whither he would. He
received his liberty with the fame infenfibility that he
had {bowed upon other occafions: he remained fixed
and immoveable j his eyes turned wildly here and there
without taking cognizance of any objeft, and the
mufcles of his face were fallen and fixed like thole or
a dead body. Being left to himfelf, he paffed 20 days
in this condition, w ithout eating, drinking, or any eva¬
cuation, and died on the ,20th day. He had been fome-
times heard to fetch deep fighs } and once he ruined
with great violence on a foldier, who had a mug of li¬
quor in his hand, forced the mug from him, and having
drank the liquor with great eagernefs, let the mug drop
to the ground.” • • 1
When a perfon is affe&ed with terror, the principal
endeavour ftiould be to reftore the circulation to its due
order, to promote perfpiration, and to allay the agita¬
tion of the patient. For thefe purpofes he may drink a
little warm liquor, as camomile tea, &c. the feet and
legs may be put into warm water, the legs rubbed, and
the camomile tea repeated every fix or eight mi¬
nutes j and when the fkin is warm, and there is a ten¬
dency to perfpiration, fleep may be promoted by a gen¬
tle opiate
Fudu.
But frights have been known not only to caufe, but* jforK
alfo to cure, difeafes. Mr Boyle * mentions agues, gout,^- P
and feiatiea, cured by this means.
To turn from the ferious. to the ludicrous effetts ot
fear, the following inftance of the latter fort, quoted
from a French author by Mr Andrews in his volume
of Anecdotes, {hows upon what flight occafions t is
paflion may be fometimes excited in a very hign
degree, even in perfons the moft unlikely to en^e.r^
-riff lit
-ilazin,
F R I [ 243 3 F R I
Charles Guftavus (the fucceflor fame rank and dignity with thofe who had been born
1 "netiti
oy'Ioral
fthce.
tain fuch a gueft.
of Chriftina of Sweden) was befieging Prague, when a
boor of moil extraordinary vifage defired admittance to
his tent j and being allow’ed entrance, offered, by way
of amufing the king, to devour a whole hog of one
hundred weight in his prefence. The old general Ko-
nigfmarc, who flood by the king’s fide, and who, fol-
dier as he wa», had not got rid of the prejudices of his
childhood, hinted to his royal mafter that the peafant
ought to be burnt as a forcerer. ‘ Sir,’ laid the fellow,
irritated at the remark, ‘ if your majetty will make but
that old gentleman take off his fword and his fpurs, I
will eat him immediately before I begin the bog.’ Ge¬
neral Konigfmarc (who had, at the head of a body of
Swedes, performed wonders againft the Auftrians, and
who was looked upon as one of the braved: men of the
age) could not ftand this propofal, efpecially as it was
accompanied by a moff hideous and preternatural ex¬
panlion of the frightful peafant’s jaws. Without utter¬
ing a word, the veteran fuddenly turned round, ran out
of the court, and thought not himfelf fafe until he had
arrived at his quarters ; where he remained above
twenty-four hours locked up 1’ecurely, before he had
got rid of the panic which had fo leverely affeffed
him.”
Fear (Dr Beattief obferves) Ihould not rife higher
than to make us attentive and cautious ; when it gains
an afcendancy in the mind, it becomes an infupport-
able tyranny, and renders life a burden. The object
of fear is evil j and to be exempt from fear, or at leaft
not enflaved to it, gives dignity to our nature, and in¬
vigorates all our faculties. Yet there are evils which
we ought to fear. Thofe that arife from ourfelves, or
which it is in our power to prevent, it would be mad-
nefs to defpife, and audacity not to guard againft.
External evils, which we cannot prevent, or could not
avoid without a breach of duty, it is manly and ho¬
nourable to bear with fortitude. Infenlibility to dan¬
ger is not fortitude, no more than the incapacity of
feeling pain can be called patience ; and to expofe
ourfelves unneceffarily to evil is worfe than folly, and
very blameable prefumption. .It is commonly called
fool-hardinefs; that is, fuch a degree of hardinefs or
boldnefs as none but fools are capable of. See the
article Fortitude.
FRIGID (frigidus), in a general fenfe, denotes the
quality of being cold. It is frequently applied to a
jejune ftyle, that is unanimated by any ornaments, and
eonfequently without any force or vigour.
FRiGiD-zone. See Zone, Geography Index.
FRIGIDITY, in Medicine, the fame with-J:>iPO-
tence.
FRIGORIFIC, in Phyjiolagy, fmall particles of
matter, which, according to Gaffendus and others, be¬
ing.actually and effentially cold, and penetrating other
bodies, produce in them that quality which is called
™(d, or, according to others, merely the abfence or di¬
minution of the particles of heat. See Cold, Che¬
mistry Index, and Salts.
FRILAZIN, the name of a clafs or rank of people
MQong the Anglo-Saxons, confifting of thofe who had
been flaves, but had either purchafed, or by fome other
means obtained, their liberty. Though thefe were in
reality free men, they were not confidered as of the
free, but were ftill in a more ignoble and dependent
condition, either on their former mafters or on fome
new patrons. Ibis cuffom the Anglo-Saxons feem to
have derived from their anceftors in Germany, among
whom thofe who had been made free did not differ
much in point of dignity or importance in the ftate
from thofe who continued in fervitude. This diffinc-
tion between thofe who had been made free and thofe
who enjoy freedom by defeent from a long race of free
men, {till prevails in many parts of Germany ; and
particularly in the original feats of the Anglo-Saxons.
Many of the inhabitants of towns and cities in England,
in this penod, feem to have been of this clafs of men,
who were in a kind of middle Rate between flaves and
freemen.
FRILL, in Falconry. When a hawk trembles or
fliivers, they fay flie frills.
FRINGILLA, a genus of birds belonging to the
order of pafferes. See Ornithology Index.
FRIO, a fmall ifland on the eoaft of the Brafils,
fituated in 320 2' S. Lat. and 410 31' 45" W. Long.
The land of Frio is high, with adiollowin the middle,
which gives it, at a ditiancc, the appearance of two fe-
parate iflands. The paffage between the ifland and the
continent is about a mile broad, and feemed to Sir Eraf-
mus Gower to be clear from ftioals.
FRIPPERY, a French term fometimes ufed in our
language to lignify the trade or traffic of old fecond-
hand clothes and goods. The word is alfo ufed for the
place where fuch fort of commerce is- carried on, and
even for the commodities themfelves. The company
of frippiers, or fripperers, at Paris, are a regular cor¬
poration, of an ancient flanding, and make a confider-
able figure in that city.
FRISII, Frisei, Frisiones, and Frisones, in An¬
cient Geography, a people of Germany, fo called either
from their ardent love of freedom, or from the frefh
and unbroken lands they occupied, contradiftinguiffied
from the old lands. Tacitus divides them, from their
extent of power and territory, into the Majores, fituat¬
ed on the coafts between the Rhine and the Ems > and
into the Minores, occupying the parts about the lakes
lying between the channels of the Rhine.
FRII, or Fritt, in the glafs manufa&ure, is the
matter or ingredients whereof glafs is to be made, when
they have been calcined or baked in a furnace.
A fait drawn from the allies of the plant kali, or from
fern or other plants, mixed with fand or flint, and baked
together, makes an opaque mafs called by glafsiDen^rf/y
probably from the Italian fritiare, to fry 5 or becaufe
the frit, when melted, runs into lumps, like fritters,
called by the Italians fritelli.
Frit, by the ancients, was called ammonitrum, of
aupss, fand, and nitre ; under which name it is
deferibed by Pliny thus : Fine fand from the Volturnian
fea, mixed with three times the quantity of nitre, and
melted, makes a mafs called ammomtrum ; which being
rebaked makes pure glafs.
Frit, Neri obferves, is only the calx of the materials
which make glafs 5 which, though they might be melted,
and glafs be made, without thus calcining them, yet it
would take up much more time. This calcining, or
making of frit, ferves to mix and incorporate the ma-
H h 2 terials
Frflazhi
I!
Frit.
3
F Pv I t 2
terials-together, and to evaporate all the fupertluous
humidity. The frit, once made, is readily fufed, and
turned into plafs. n i r
There are three kinds of frits. The firft, cryftal frit,
or that for cryftal metal, is made with fait of pulverine
and fand. The fecond, and ordinary frit, is made ot
the bare allies of pulverine or, barilla, without ex-
traaing the fait from them. This makes the orai-
nary white or cryftal metal. The third is frit for green
elafl'es, made of common allies, without any prepara¬
tion. This laft frit will require ten or twelve hours
The materials in each are to be finely powdered,
walked, and fearced •, then equally mixed, and frequent-
fy ftirred together in the melting pot. bee LtLASS.
FRIT ILL ARIA, Fritillary •, a genus ol plants
belonging to the hexandria clafs j and in the natural
method ranking under the loth order, Coronarue. bee
Botany Index. .
The different fpecies of fritillary were, according to
Beckman,, introduced into gardens about the middle ot
the 16th century. The crown imperial (frititlaria im-
perialis) is fuppofed by feme to be the lily which is
much celebrated in facred fenpture ; becaufe a figure
refembling this fplendid plant, they imagine is,found
reprefented on the coins of Herod Invent, vol. in.
FRIULI, a province of Italy, fubjeft to Venice, and
bounded by Carinthia in Germany on the north, by
Carnioia on the eaft, by the gulf of Venme on the
fouth, and by the Bellunefe and Feltr.n on the weft
FRIZE, or Frieze, in Architeaure, a part of the
entablature of columns, more ufually written and pro¬
nounced freeze. See Freeze. . , c
Frize, or Freeze, in Commerce, a kind of woollen
cloth or ftuff for winter wear, being fnzed or knapt
on one fide j whence, in all probability, it derives its
Of frizes, feme are croffed, others not crofled ; tne
former are chiefly of Engliih manufaftm-e, the latter of
PRIZING of Cloth, a term in the woollen manu¬
factory, applied to the forming of the nap of cloth or
■tuff into a number of little hard burrs or prominences,
covering almoft the whole ground thereof.
Some cloths are only fnzed on the back fide, as blac
cloths > others on the right fide, as coloured and mixed
cloths, rateens, bays, freezes, &c.
Prizing may be performed two ways. One "hh the
hand, that is, by means of two workmen, who conduft
a kind of plank that ferves for a frizmg inftrument.
The other is by a mill, worked either by water, or a
horfe, or fometimes by men. This latter is efteemed
the better way of frizing, by reafon the motion being
uniform and regular, the little knobs of the frizing are
formed more equably and regularly. The ftiuaure of
this ufeful machine is as follows :
The three principal parts are the frizer or crifper, th
frizing table, and the drawer or beam. Ihe^two firft
are tfo equal planks or boards, each about . o fee
long and 15 inches broad ; differing only in this, that
the frizing table is lined or covered ulth a kind of
coarfe woollen ftuff, of a rough fturdy nap; and the
frizer is incruftated with a kind of cement eempofed
of glue, gum arable, and a yellowJand, with a little
iqua-vitse, or urine. The beam or drawer, thus called,
44 ] FRO
becaufe it draws the ftuff from between the fnzer and Fuzing
the frizing table, is a wooden roller, befet all over with fJ!
little, fine, ftiort points or ends of wire, like thole ot ^
cards ufed in carding of wool. .
The difpofition and ufe of the machine is thus : The
table ftands immoveable, and bears or fuftains the cloth
to be frized, which is laid with that fide uppermoft on
which the nap is to be raifed j over the table is placed
the frizer, at fuch a diftance from it as to give room
for the ftuff to be paffed between them : fo that the
frizer, having a very flow femicircular motion, meeting
the long hairs or naps of the cloth, twills and rolls
them into little knobs or burrs j while at the fame time,
the drawer, which is continually turning, draws away
the ftuff from under the frizer, and winds it over its
own points. , . .
All that the workman has to do while the machine
is a-going, is to ifretch the ftuff on the table as fall as
the drawer takes it off, and from time to time to take
off the ftuff from the points of the drawer..
The defign of having the frizing table lined with
fluff of a Ihort, ftiff, ftubby nap, is that it may detain
the cloth between the table and the fnzer long enough
for the grain to be formed, that the drawer may not
take it away too readily, which muft otherwiie be the
cafe, as it is not held by any thing at the other end.
It were unneceffary to fay any thing particular of the
manner of frizing fluffs with the hand, it being the aim
of the workmen to imitate, as near as they can with
their wooden inftrument, the flow, equable, and circular
motion of the machine : it needs only be added, that
their frizer is but about two feet long and one broad;
and that to form the nap more eafily, they moiften the
furface of the ftuff lightly, with water mingled with
whites of eggs or honey.
FROBENIUS, John, a famous and learned print¬
er in the 16th century, was born at Hamelburgh in
Franconia, and fettled at Bafil. He had before flu-
died in that univerfity, where he acquired the reputa¬
tion of being uncommonly learned j and now fetting
up a printing houfe in that city, was the firft of the
German printers who brought that admirable art to any
degree of per fed ion. Being a man of great probity
and piety, as well as (kill, he was particularly choice
in the authors he printed ; and would never, for the-
fake of profit, fuffer libels, or any thing that might
hurt the reputation of another, to go through his-
prefs The great charafter of this printer was the
principal motive which induced Erafmus to refide at
Bafil, in order to have his own works printed by him.
A great number of valuable authors were printed by
Frobenius, with great care and accuracy •, among,
which were the works of St Jerome, Auguftine, and
Erafmus. He defigned to have printed, the ,GreeiC
Fathers-, but died in 1527, before he could execute
his defign. Erafmus wrote his epitaph in Greek and.
^John Frobenius left a fon named Jerome Frol emus,
and a daughter married to Nicholas Epifcopius j who,
ioining in partnerfhip, continued Frobenius’s printing
houfe with reputation, and printed correft editions of
the Greek Fathers.
FROBISHER, or Forbisher, Sir Martin, an
excellent navigator andiea.officer in the i6th-centui)y
was born near Doncafter in Yorkffiire, and was from
FRO
his youth brought up to navigation
Englifhman who attempted to find a north-weft paf-
fage to China, and in 1576 he failed with two barks
and a pinnace in order to attempt that paflage. In
this voyage he difcovered a cape, to which he gave the
name of ^ueen Elizabeth's Foreland, and the next day
difcovered a draft to which he gave his own name. This
voyage proving unfuccefsful, he attempted the fame
paiTage in 157? 5 ^ul- difcovering fome ore in an ftland,
and his commiflion directing him in this voyage only to
fearch for ore, and to leave the farther difcovery of the
north-weft to another time, he returned to England.
He failed again, with 15 (hips and a great number of
adventurers, to form a fettlement: but being obftrudl-
ed by the ice, and driven out to Tea by a violent
ftorm, they, after encountering many difficulties, re¬
turned home, without making any fettlement, but
brought a large quantity of ore.—He afterwards com¬
manded the Aid in Sir Francis Drake’s expedition to
the Weft Indies, in which St Domingo in Hii'paniola,
Carthagena, and Santa Judina, in Florida, were taken
and facked. In 1588, he bravely exerted himfelf in
defence of his country againft the Spanifh armada,
when he commanded the Triumph, one of the larged
fhips in that feivice $ and, as a reward for his diiiin-
guilhed bravery, received the honour of knighthood
from the lord high admiral at fea. He afterwards
commanded a fquadron which was ordered to cruife on
the Spaniih coaft ; and, in 1592, took two valuable
fhips and a rich carrack. In 1594 he was fent to the
affiftance of Henry IV. king of France againft a body
of the Leaguers and Spaniards, who had ftrongly en¬
trenched themfelves at Croyzon near Breft j but in an
alTault upon that tort, on the 7th of November, Sir
Martin was unfortunately wounded with a ball,of which
he died foon after he had brought back the fleet to
Plymouth, and was buried in that town.
FROBISHER'S Straits, lie a little to the northward of
Cape Farewell in Weft Greenland, and were difcover¬
ed by Sir Martin Frobilher. . W. Long. 48. 16. N.
Lat, 63 1 2.
FRODSHAM, a town of Chefhire in England,
162 miles from London, is noted for its ancient caltle.
It has a ftone bridge, over the river Weaver near its
conflux with the Merfey, and a harbour for fhips of
good burden. By means of inland navigation, it has
communication with the . rivers Dee, Kibble, Oufe,
Krent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon,
otCi which navigation, including its windings, extends
above 500 miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, York, Lancafter. Weftmoreland, Stafford, War¬
wick, Leictfter, Oxford, Worcefter, £ec.
FKOG. ; See Rana, / t? t ,
Bud Frog. See Rana, j Er?etology Index.
Frog,Fiji) of Surinam, a very lingular animal, of
vnich a figure is given by Mr Edwards, Hi/l. of Birds,
vol. i. There is no fpecimen in the Britith muleum,
nor in any private colleaion, except .that of Dr Fo-
thergill. It was brought from Surinam in South A-
merica.-—Frogs, both in Afia and Africa, according
to Merian, change gradually from fifties, to frogs, as
^hole in Europe ; but after many years revert again in¬
to fifhes, though the manner of their change has never
been inveftigated. In Surinam thefe fillies are called
JQ jes. Ihey are cartilaginous, of a ftibftance like our
[ 245 ] FRO
He was the firft muftela, and exquifite food : they are formed with re¬
gular vertebrae, and fmall bones all over the body di¬
vided into equal parts j are firft darkifh, and then
gray : their fcales make a beautiful appearance. Whe¬
ther this animal is, in its perfett ftate, a fpecies of frog
with a tail, or a kind of water lizard, Mr Edwards does
not pretend to determine ; but obferves, that when its
fize is confidered, if it fhould be deemed a tadpole at firil
produced from fpawn, and in its progrefs towards a
frog, fuch an animal, when full grown, if it bears the
fame proportion to its tadpole as thofe in Europe do,
muft be of enormous fize j for our full grown frogs ex¬
ceed the tadpoles at leaft 50 times. See Erpetology
Index.
FROME, a river that riffcs from feveral fprings in
the weftern parts of Dorfetlhire in England, the prin¬
cipal of which is near Everlfiot; and directing its courfe
almoft due weft, paffes under f rampton bridge, wathes
the town of Dorchefter, and falls into a bay of the
Engftlh channel called Puo/haven, near ^Vareham.
f ROME Setwood, a town of Somerfetftiire in England,
150 miles from London. It is the chief town of this
part of the country, which was anciently one great
foreft called Se/woodjbire; and in the latter end of the
laft century, in thofe called F-ome Woodlands, there
was a coniiderable gang of money coiners or clippers,
of whom many were taken and executed, and their co¬
vert laid open. Though the town is bigger than fome
cities, yet it has only one church ; but it has fix or
feven meeting houfes of Proteftant diffenters. The
inhabitants are reckoned about 13/500, whofe chief
manufaflory is broad cloth. > About 50 years ago,
more wire cards for-carding the wool for the fpinners
were made at this place • than in all England befides,
which was for the molt part fupplied with them from
hence j for here were no fifs than 20 mafter card-
makers, one of whom employed 400 men, women, and
children, in that manufacftory, atone time ; fothat even
children of 7 or 8 years of age could earn half-a-crown
a-week. The river here which abounds with trout,
eels, &c. rifes in the woodlands j and runs under its
flone bridge towards Bath, on the eaft fide of which
it falls into the Avon. This town has been a long
time noted for its fine beer, which they keep to a great
age, and is generally preferred by the gentry to the
wines of France and Portugal. It was governed for¬
merly by a bailiff, and now by two conftables of the
hundreds of Frome, chofen at the court leet of the
lord of the manor. -
FRONDESCENTIA, fromfrons, “ a leaf-” the
preeife time of the year and month In which each fpe¬
cies of plants unfolds its firft leaves.
All plants produce new leaves every year ; but all do
not renew them at the fame time. Among woody
plants, the elder, and moft of the honeyfucklesa-
mong perennial herbs,, the crocus and tulip, are the firft
that pulh or expand their leaves The^ time of Tow¬
ing the feeds decides with refpeift to annuals. The
oak and alh are conftantly the lateft in pulhing their
leaves: thegreateft number unfold them in fprirg; the
molTes and firs in winter. Thefe ftriking differences
with refpeft to fo capital a circumftance in plants as
that of unfolding their leaves, feem to indicate that
each fpecies of plants has a temperature proper or pe¬
culiar to ftfelf, and requires a certain degree of heat
to '
Frog Fifh
I!
Frondef-
centia.
FRO
t 2+6 1
FRO
Frond e-
fcentia
li
Frontinus.
to extricate tire leaves from their buds, and produce
the appearance in queftion.
This temperature, however, is not fo fixed or con-
ftant as it may appear to a fuperficial obferver. A-
inong plants of the fame fpecics, there are fome more
early than others j whether that circumftance depends,
as it moft commonly does, on the nature of the plants,
or is owing to differences in heat, expofure, and foil.
In general, it may be affirmed, that fmall and youn^
trees are always earlier than larger or old ones.
The puihing of the leaves is likewife accelerated or
retarded according to the temperature of the feafon j
that is, according as the fun is fooner or later in dil-
penfing that certain degree of heat which is fuitable to
each ipecies.
FRONT, the forehead, or that part of the face
above the eyebrows. The word is formed of the Latin
front; and that from the Greek <pgon»», “ to think, per¬
ceive j” of <p£nv, mens, “ the mind, thought.” Marti-
nius, to make out this etymology, obferves, that from
the forehead of a perfon we perceive what he is, what
he is capable of, and what he thinks of.
Front is alfo ufed where feveral perfons or things
are ranged fide by fide, and fhow their front or fore
* Front, in ArcliiteBure, denotes the principal face
or fide of a building, or that prefented to their chief
afpeft or view.
FRONTAL, in Architeflure, a little fronton or
pediment, fometimes placed over a fmall door or win¬
dow. . r 4 •
Frontal, Frontlet, or Brow-band, is alfo ufed m
fpeaking of the Jewifh ceremonies. This frontal con-
iifts of four feveral pieces of vellum, on each whereof
is written fome text of fcripture. . They are all laid on
a piece of a black calf’s leather with thongs to tie it by.
The Jews apply the leather with the vellum on their
foreheads in the fynagogue, and tie it round the head
with the thongs.
FRONTIER, the border, confine, or extreme, ot
a kingdom or province, which the enemies find in front
when they would enter the fame. Thus we fay, a
frontier town, frontier province, &c. Frontiers were
anciently called marches.
The word is derived from the French/rotf/zm’, and
that from the Latin frontaria ; as being a kind of front
oppofed to the enemy. Skinner derives frontier from
front; inafmuch as the frontier is the exterior and moft
advanced part of a ftate, as the front is that of the face
of a man.
FRONTIGNIAC wine, is fo called from a town
of Languedoc in France, fituated 16 miles fouth-weft
of Montpelier, remarkable for producing it.
FRONT1NAC, a fortrefs in Canada, fituated at
the head of a fine harbour, on the north-weft fide of the
outlet of Lake Ontario, where veflels of every defcrip-
tion may ride in perfea fafety. It is 300 miles from
Quebec, and in comparifon of that place has a very ihort
winter. . 0
FRONTINUS, Sextus Julius, an ancient Roman
writer was of confular dignity, and fiouriftied under
the emperors Vefpafian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, and
Traian. He commanded the Roman armies m Bri¬
tain; was made city praetor when Vefpafian ^ Ti¬
tus were confuls j and Nerva made him civator of the
aqueducls, which occafioned his writing De AquaduBi- Front!™
bus urbis Romes. He wrote four books upon the Greek ^
and Roman art of war $ a piece De Re Agraria, and , ^
another De Limitibus. Thefe have been often feparate-
lv reprinted ; but were all colleaed together in a neat
edition at Amfterdam in 1661, with notes by Robertas
Keuchenius. He died under Irajan.
FRONTISPIECE, in Architecture, the principal
face of a fine building. The word is formed of the
D'dlmfrontifricium, q. d. front is hominis infpeBio. Hence
alfo, by a figure, we Ihy, the frontifpiece of a book j
meaning an ornament with an engraven title on the
fiift page.
FRONTLET. See Frontal. i r . ,.
FRONTO, Marcus Cornelius, wascholen tor his
eloquence to inftruft the emperors Marcus Aurelius and
Lucius Verus in rhetoric ; in recompenfe of. which he
was promoted to the confulate, and a ftatue was erect¬
ed to his honour. He taught Marcus Aurelius not
only eloquence, but the duty of kings, and excellent
morals. Some fay he wrote againft the Chriftians. A
feft was formed ot thofe who looked upon him as a mo¬
del of perfea eloquence, and thofe were called Fronto-
niani. The Civilians, whofe names were Fronto, men¬
tioned in the Pandeds, were probably defeended from
FROST, in Phifology, luch a ftate of the atmof-
phere as occafions the congelation or freezing of water
and other fluids. See Cold, CHEMISTRY Index, and ,
Meteorology Index. . . ,
Water and other fluids are capable of containing the
element of fire or heat in two very different ftates. In
the one, they feem to imbibe the fire m iuch a manner,
that it eludes all the methods by which we are accui-
tomed to obferve it, either by our fenfation of feeling,
or the thermometer; in the other, it mamfefts itlelt
obvioufly to our fenfes, either by the touch, the ther¬
mometer, or the emiflion of light.
In the firft of thefe ftates, we call the body cold;
and are apt to fay that this coldnefs is occafioned by
the abfence of heat. But this manner of_ exprefling
ourfelves, excepting in a relative^ degree, is certainly
improper ; for even thofe fluids which are coldeft to the
touch contain a vaft deal of heat. Thus vapour which
is colder to the touch than the water from which it was
raifed, contains an immenfe quantity of fire, even more
than fufficient to heat it red hot. The like may be laid
of common fait, and fnow, or ice. If a quantity ot
each of thefe fubftances is feparately reduced to the de¬
gree of 28 or 30 of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, upon
mixing them together, the heat which would have rail¬
ed the thermometer to the degree above mentioned,
now enters into the fubftance of them in fuch a manner
that the mercury falls down to o.—Here an exceflwe
degree of cold is produced, and yet we are fure that the
fubftances contain the very fame quantity of heat that
they formerly did : nay, they will even feem exceeding¬
ly cold, when they muft certainly contain a great deal
more heat than they originally did \ for they ahfor 1
from all bodies around them *, and if a fmall veffel tu l
of water is put into the middle of fuch a mixture, it wi
in a Ihort time be full of ice.
It appears, therefore, that our fenfes, even when
aflifted by thermometers, can only judge of tne «ate in
aiuixeu ujr   j j o . , 1
which the element of fire is with relation to the to-
iFreft.
FRO [ 247 }
dies around us, without regard to the quantity contain- reafon,
F R O
ed in them. Thus, if heat flows from any part of our
body into any fubftance a finally in contact with it, tlie
fenfation of cold is excited, and we call that fubftance
coM; but Jf it flows from any fubftance into our body,
the fenfation of heat is excited, and we call that fub¬
ftance without regard to the abfolute quantity con¬
tained in either cafe.
Of all known fubftances, the atmofphere either ab-
forbs or throws out heat with the moil remarkable fa¬
cility : and in one or other of thefe. ftates it always is
v ith refpeft to the furface of the earth, and fuch bo¬
dies as are placed on or near it; for thefe, properly
fpeaking, have no temperature of their own, but are
entirely regulated by that of the atmofphere,—When
the air has been for fome time abforbmg the heat from
terreftrial bodies, a froft muft be the undoubted con-
fequence, for the fame reaion that water freezes in a
veflel put into a freezing mixture ; and were this ab-
forption fo continue for a length of time, the whole
earth would be converted into a frozen mafs. There
are, however, certain powers in nature, by which this
effea is always prevented 5 and the rnoft violent froft
we can imagine, muft always as it were defeat its own
jmrpofes, ai\d end in a thaw. To underftand this fub-
jeft, we muft obferve,
1. In that ftate of the atmofphere which we deno¬
minate froft, there is a moll intimate union between
the air and the water it contains j and therefore frofty
weather, except in very high latitudes, is generally
2. W hen fuch a union takes place, either in winter
or fummer, we obferve the atmofphere alfo inclined to
abforb heat, and confequently to froft. Thus in clear
fettled weather, even in fummer, though the day may
be exceflively hot by reafon of the continued funlhine,
yet the mornings and evenings are remarkably cold,
ana 10 me times even di (agreeably fo.
3. 1 he air being therefore always ready in the time
oi troll or in dear weather, to abforb heat from every
Jubilance which comes into con tad with it, it follows
that it mull alfo abforb part of that which belongs to
the vapours contained in it.
4. 1 hough vapour is capable of becoming much
colder than water without being frozen, yet by a con¬
tinued abforption it muft at laft part with its latent
neat, 1. e. that which effentially conftitutes its vapour
and without which it is no longer vapour, but water
or ice. . Nb fooner, therefore, does the froft arrive at
a certain pitch, than the vapours, everywhere dif-
perled through the air, give out their latent heat :
the atmoiphere then becomes clouded : the froft either
totally goes off, or becomes milder by reafon of the
great quantity of heat difcharged into the air : and
the vapours defcend in rain, hail, or fnow, according
time partlCUlar difP°rition the atmofphere at the
J. Even in the polar regions, where
,1 ^ 77 . me jpuicu regions, where it may be
bought that the froft muft increafe bevond meafure,
there are alfo natural means for preventing its running
extremes. I he principal caufe here is, the mixture
a great quantity of vapours from the more temne-
ate regions of the globe with the air in thofe dreary
Wav 3 {T * r1 18 We^ known, that aqueous vapour al¬
ways Uses frcm a *arni t0 a colder placei £or th.s
the vapours railed by the fun in the more tem¬
perate regions of the earth, mult continually travel
northward and fouthward in great quantities. Thus
they furnilh materials for thole immenfe quantities of
fnow and ice which are to be found in the neighbour¬
hood of the poles, and which we cannot imagine the
weak influence of the fun in thefe parts capable of raif-
ing. It is impoflible that a quantity of vapour can be
mixed with frofty air, without communicating a great
deal of heat to it ; and thus there are often thaws of
conliderable duration even in thofe climates where,
froni the little influence of the fun, we fliould fuppefe
the froft would be perpetual.
6. We may now account with fome probability for
the uncertain duration of frofts. In this country they
are feldom of a long continuance j becaufe the vapours
raifed from the fea with which our ifland is furround-
ed, perpetually mix with the air over the ifland, and
prevent a long duration of the fi-oft. For the fame
reaion, frofts are never of fuch long duration in mari¬
time places on the continent as in the inland ones.
There is nothing, however, more uncertain than the
motion of the vapours with which the air is conftantly
filled 5 and therefore it is impoflible to prognofticate
the auration of a froft with any degree of certainty.
In general, we may always be certain, that if a quan¬
tity of vapour is accumulated in any place, no intenfe
fioll can fubfill in that place for any length of time j
and by whatever caufes the vapours are driven from
place to place, by the fame caules the frofts are regu¬
lated throughout the whole world.
I lie effedls of froft in different countries are enu¬
merated under the article Congelation. In the
noithern parts of the world even folid bodies are li¬
able to be affefted by froft. Timber is often appa¬
rently frozen, and rendered exceedingly difficult to law.
IVxarl, chalk, and other lefs lolid terreftrial concre¬
tions will be lhattered by ftrong and durable frofts.
Metals are contradled by froft : thus, an iron tube, 12
feet long, upon being expefed to the air in a frofty
night, loft two lines of its length. On the contrary,
froft fwells or dilates water near one-tenth of its bulk.
Mr Boyle made feveral experiments with metalline
veffels, exceedingly thick and ftrong ; which beinw
filled with water, clofe flopped, and expofed to the
cold, burft by the expanfion of the frozen fluid with¬
in them. Trees are frequently deftroyed by froft, as
if burnt up by the moft exceffive heat j and in very
ftrong frofts, walnut trees, allies, and even oaks, are
fometimes fplit and cleft, fo as to be feen through,
and this with a terrible noife, like the explofion of fire¬
arms.
. Fnffi naturally proceeds from the upper parts of bo¬
dies downwards : but how deep it will reach in earth
or water, is not eafily known j becaufe this depth may
vary with the degree of coldnefs in the air, by a longer
or fhorter duration of the froft, the texture of the
earth, the nature of the juices wherewith it is impreg¬
nated, the conftitution of its more internal parts as to
heat and cold, the nature of its effluvia, &c. Mr
Boyle, in order to afeertain this depth, after four
nights of hard froft, dug in an orchard, where the
ground was level and bare, and found the froft had
fcarce reached three inches and a half, and in a garden
nearer the houfe only two inches below the furface.
Nine-
Fiofb
FRO [
’Froft. Nine or ten fucceflive frofly nights froze the bare
' ground in the garden fix Inches and a hall deep ; and
in the orchard, Where a wall (heltered it from the fouth
fun, to the depth of eight inches and a half. He alio
dug in an orchard, near a wall, about a week aftei-
wards, and found the frofi to have penetrated to the
depth of 14 inches. In a garden at Mofcow, the fr»ft
in a hard feafon only penetrates to two feet : and the
utmoft effeft that Captain James mentions the cold o
have had upon the ground of Charlton ifiand, was to
freeze it to 10 feet deep : whence may appear the dli¬
ferent degrees of cold of that ifiand and Rulha. And
as to the freezing of water at the above-mentioned
ifland, the Captain tells us it does not naturally con¬
geal above the depth of fix feet, the reft being by ac¬
cident. Water alfo, expofed to the cold air in large
cident. vv ater r r ^
' veffels, always freezes firft at the upper fur face, the
ice gradually increafing and thickening downwards :
for which reafon, frogs retire Jn ™e^her f
the bottom of ditches-, and it is faid that ftioals of
fiftr retire in winter to thofe depths of the fea and ri¬
vers where they are not to be found m fummen YV a-
ter like the earth, feems not difpofed to receive any
very intenfe degree of cold at a confiderable depth or
diftance from the air. The vaft maffes of ice found
in the northern feas being only many Hakes and frag¬
ments, which, Hiding under each other, are, by the
congelation of the intercepted water, cemented toge-
^Yn cold countries, the froft often proves fatal to
mankind -, not only producing gangrenes, but even
death itfelf. Thofe who die of it have their hands and
feet firft feized, till they grow paft feeling it after
which the reft of their bodies is fo invaded, that they
are taken with a drowfinefs, which, if indulged, they
awake no more, but die infenfibly. But there is ano¬
ther way whereby it proves mortal, viz. by freezing
the abdomen and vifeefa, which on diffeftion are found
to be mortified and black. . , .
The great power of froft on vegetables is a thing
fufficiently known -, but the differences between the
frofts of Ifevere winter, and thofe which happen in
the fpring mornings, in their effeas on plants and
trees, were never perfeaiy explained, till by Meff. Du
Hamel and Buffon in the Memoirs of the Paris Aca-
The frofts of fevere winters are much more terrible
than thofe of the fpring, as they bring on a privation
of all the produds of the tenderer part of the vege¬
table world -, but then they are not _ frequent,. luch
winters happening perhaps but once in an age ; an
the frofts of the fpring are in reality greater injuries to
us than thefe, as they are every year repeated
In regard to trees, the great difference is this, hat
the frofts of fevere winters affba even their wood their
trunks and large branches ; whereas thofe of the fpring
have onlv power to hurt the buds. . n. r
The winter frofts happening at a time when molt of
the trees in our woods and gardens have neither leaves,
flowers, nor fruits upon them, and have their buds fo
hard as to be proof againft flight injuries of weather,
efuecially if the preceding fummer has not been too
wet • in this ftate, if there are no unlucky circumftan-
res attending, the generality of trees bear moderate
“inters ver/tvell; but bard frofls, rvhich happen late
248 ] F R .0. . t,f
in the winter, caufe very great injuries even to thole ^
trees which they do not utterly deftroy. Thefe are,
I. Long cracks following the diredion of the fibres.
2 Parcels of dead wood enclofed round with wood yet
in a living ftate. And, 3. That diftemperature which
the forefters call the doub/e b!ea, which is a perfect cir¬
cle of blea, or foft white wood, which when the tree is
afterwards felled, is found covered by a circle of hard
and folid wood. r,
The opinions of authors about the expofiUon of trees
to the different quarters, have been very different, and
moft of them grounded on no rational foundation.
Many are of opinion that the effetts of froft are moft
violently felt on thofe trees which are expofed to the
north 1 and others think the fouth or the weft the moft
ftrongly affefted by them. There is no doubt but the
Froft.
north expofure is fubjed to the greateft cold. It does
not however, follow from this, that the injury muft be
always greateft on the trees expofed to the north m
frofts • on the contrary, there are abundant proofs that
it is on the fouth fide that trees are generally more in¬
jured by froft : and it is plain from repeated experi¬
ments, that there are particular accidents, under which
a more moderate froft may do more injury to vegetables,
than the moft fevere one which happens to them under
more favourable circumftances. _ t
It is plain from the accounts of the injuries trees re¬
ceived by the frofts in 1709, that the greateft o, all
were owing to repeated falfe thaws fucceeded by re¬
peated new frofts. But the frofts of the fpring feafon
furnifti abundantly more numerous examples ot this
truth : and feme experiments made by the Coi‘nt de
Buffoil at large in his own woods, P^ve mconteftably .
that it is not the fevereft cold or moft fixed froft that
does the greateft injury to vegetables.
This is an obfervation direftly oppofite to the com¬
mon opinion yet is not the lefs true, nor is it m any
way difeordant to reafon. We find by a number of ex-
periments, that humidity is the thing that makes froft
fatal to vegetables 5 and therefore every thing that can
occafion humidity in them, expofes them to thefe inju¬
ries, and every thing that can prevent or take off an
over proportion of humidity in them, every thing that
can dry them though with ever fo increafed a co d,
muft prevent or preferve them from thofe injuries. u-
nierous experiments and obfervat.ons tend to prove
this It is well known that vegetables always feel the
froft very feverely in lew places where there are
foes. The plants which Hand by a river lide are fre¬
quently found destroyed by the fprlng and autumnal
frofts, while thofe of the famefpec.es which Hand in
a drier place, fuffer little or perhaps none at all by
them; and the low and wet parts of forefts are well
known to produce worfe wood than the high and drier.
The coppice wood in wet and low parts of comm n
woods, though it pufti out more vigoroufly at firft than
that of other places, yet never comes to fc good a
growth ; for the froft of the fpring killing theie early
fop (hoots, obliges the lower part of the trees to throw
out lateral branches : and the fame thing bappens m a
greater or lefler degree to the coppme wood that gro'. s
under cover of larger trees m great forefts ; for here
the, vapours not being carried off either by the fun 0
wind, ft agnate and freeze, and m the lame manner de
ftroy the young (hoots, as the fogs of marffiy places.
F R 0 [ 249 ] FRO
Froit. it is a general oDlervation alio, that the froit is never
-V—' hurtful to ihe late (hoots of the vine, or to the flower-
buds of trees, except when it follows heavy dews, or a
Jong rainy feafon, and then it never fails to do great
tnifehief, though it be ever fo flight.
The froft is always obferved to be more mifehievous
in its confequences on newly cultivated ground than in
other places; and this is becaufe the vapours which
continually arife from the earth, find an eafier paflave
from thofe places than from others. Trees allb which
have been newly cut, fuffer more than others by the
fpring frofts, which is owing to their {hooting out
more vigoroufly.
Frofts alfo do more damage on light and fandy
grounds, than on the tougher and firmer foils, fuppo-
fing both equally dry y and this feems partly owing to
their being more early in their produftions, and partly
to their lax texture fuffering a greater quantity of va¬
pours to tranfpire.
It alfo has been frequently obferved, that the fide-
ftioots of trees are more fubjeft to periih by the fpring
frofts than thofe from the top; and M. Buffon, who
examined into this with great accuracy, always found
the effefts of the Ipring frofts much greater near the
ground than elfewhere. The {hoots within a foot of
the ground quickly periftied by them ; thofe which
{food at two or three feet high, bore them much bet¬
ter ; and thofe at four feet and upwards frequently re¬
mained wholly unhurt; while the lower ones were en¬
tirely deftroyed.
There is a feries of obfervations, which have pro¬
ved beyond all doubt, that it is not the hard frofts
which fo much hurt plants, as thofe frofts, though lefs
fevere,. which happen when they are full of moirture;
and this clearly explains the account of all the great
damages done by the fevere frofts being on the fouth
fide of the trees which are affe&ed by them, though
that fide has been plainly all the while lefs cold than
the north. Great damage is alfo done to the weftern
fides of trees and plantations, when after a rain with a
weft wind the wind ftiifts to the north at funfet, as is
frequently the cafe in fpring, or when an eaft wind blows
upon a thick fog before funrifing.
Froft, it is \Vell known, is particularly deftruflive to
tae bloffom of fruit trees. The following method of
fecuring fuch trees from being damaged by early frofts
may be acceptable to many of our readers. A rope is
to be interwoven among the branches of the tree, and
one end of it brought down fo as to be immerfed in a
bucket of water. The rope, it is faid, will a& as a
conductor, and convey the effefts of the froft from the
tree to the water. This idea is not new, for the fol¬
lowing palfage may by found in Colerus. “ If you dig
a trench around the root of a tree, and fill it with wa¬
ter, or keep the roots moift till it has bloomed, it will
not be injured by the froft. Or, in fpring, fufpend a
veiiel filled with water from the tree. If you wifli to
preferve the bloffom from being hurt by the froft, place
a yeffel of water below it, and the froft will fall into
floar Frost, a cold moift vapour, that is drawn up
a little way into the air, and in the night falls again on
the earth, when it is congealed into icy cryftals of va¬
rious figures. Hoar froft, therefore, is nothing but dew
Urned into ice by the coldnefs of the air.
vol. IX. Part I.
Melioration of Aromatic Spiritsby FROST. Mr Beaume Froft
obfqcves, that aromatic fpirituous waters have lels feent !l
when newly diftilled than after they have been kept Fro'‘VI'e’
about fix months: and he found that the good efteft '
of age was produced in a {hurt time by means of cold ;
and that, by plunging quart bottles of the liquor into
a mixture of pounded ice and fea fait, the fpirit, after
having luffered for fix or eight hours the cold hence
refulting, proves as grateful as that which hath been
kept many years. Simple waters alio, after having been
frozen, prove far more agreeable than they were be¬
fore. Geoffroy takes notice of this melioration by froft.
Hifi.AcacL 1713.
Melioration of Land by Frost, Sec Agriculture
Index.
IKO m a white light fubftance, formed on the
lurface of fluids by vehement agitation, confifting of
air included in thin films of water.
I ROTH Spit, or Cuckoo Spit, a name given to a white
froth, or 1'pume, very common in the fpring and firft
months of fummer, on the leaves of certain plants, par¬
ticularly on thofe of the common white field lychnis or
catchjly, thence called by fome fpatiing poppy.
All writers on vegetables have taken notice of this
froth, though few have underftood the caufe or orio-in
°f of late. It is formed by a little leaping animal,
called by lome theyfctf grajhopper, by applying its anus
eloie to the leaf, and difeharging thereon a fmall drop
of a white vifeous fluid, which, containing feme air in
it, is foon elevated into a fmall bubble : before this is
veil, formed, it depofits fuch another drop ; and fo on,
till it is every way overwhelmed with a quantity of thefe
bubbles, which form the white froth which we fee.
Withm this fpume it is feen to acquire four tubercles on
its back, wherein the wings are enclofed : thefe burft-
ing, from a reptile it becomes a winged animal : and
thus, rendered perfed, it flies to meet its mate, and
propagate its kind. It has an oblong, obtufe body
and a large head with fmall eyes. The external wings
(for it has four) are of a dulky brown colour, marked
with two white fppts : the head is black. It is a fpecies
of Cicada. 1
FUOWDE, Philip, an Englilh poet, was the fen
of a gentleman who had been poftmafter in the reign of
Queen Anne. He was fent to the univerfity of Oxford
where he had the honour of being diltinguiftied by Ad-
difon, who took him under his prote£lion. While he
remained there, he became the author of feveral pieces
of poetry, fome of which in Latin were pure and ele¬
gant enough to entitle them to a place in the Mufce
Ang/icamr. He likewife wrote two tragedies: The
Fall of Saguntum, dedicated to Sir Robert Walpole •
and Philotas, addreffed to the earl of Chejfterfield. He
died at his lodgings at Cecil Street in the Strand, in <
1738 ; and in the London Daily Poll had the follow¬
ing charafter given him: “ Though the elegance of
Mr Frowde’s writings has recommended him to the ge¬
neral public efteem, the politeneis of his genius is the
leaft amiable part of his charatfer ; for he efteemed the
talents of wit and learning only as they were conducive
to the excitement and praftice of honour and humanity.
Therefore, wkh a foul cheerful, benevolent, and virtu¬
ous, he was in converfation genteelly delightful, in
friendftiip pundually fincere, in death Chriftianly re-
ligned. No man could live more beloved, no private
^ ^ ‘ man :i
F R U
[ 250 ]
F R U
Frowde
II.
Fruit
man could die more lamented.” A fine eloge ! and we
have no reafon to doubt the truth of it.
FRUCTESCENTIA, (from fruBus, fruit, )
J comprehends the precife time in which, after the fall of
the flowers, the fruits arrive at maturity, an 1 per e
their feeds. . . , . . .1 •
In general, plants which flower in fpnng, ripen their
fruits in fummer, as rye •, thofe which flower ^ in fum-
mer have their fruits ripe in autumn, as the vine *, the
fruit of autumnal flowers ripens in winter, or the fol¬
lowing fpring, if kept in a ftove or otherwife defended
from exceflive frofts. Thefe frofts, fays M. Adanfon,
are frequently fo pernicious and violent as to deftroy
the g reate ft part of the perennial plants of Virginia
and Mifliflippi, that are cultivated in France, even
before they have exhibited their fruit, ihe plans
which flower during our winter, fuch as thofe of the
Cape of Good Hope, ripen their fruit in fpring m our
^FRUCTIFEROUS, fignifies properly any thing
that produces fruit. • j c j
FRUCTIFICATION of Plants, is defined by
Linnseus to be the temporary part of a vegetable appro-
priated to generation, terminating the old vegetaole,
and beginning the new. It confifts of the following
feven parts ; viz. the calyx, corolla, ftamen piftillum,
pericarpium, femen or feed, and receptaculum. See
^°FRU1T, in its general fenfe, includes whatever the
earth produces for the nouriihment and fupport of ani¬
mals ; as herbs, grain, pulfe, hay, corn, and flax,
every thing expreffed by the Latins under the name
Fruit, in Natural Htfory, denotes the laft produc¬
tion of a tree or plant, for the propagation or multipli¬
cation of its kind •, in which fenfe fruit includes all kinds
of feeds, with their furniture, &c.
Fruit, in Botany, is properly that part of a plant
wherein the feed is contained j caRed by the Latins
fruBus ; and by the Greeks 1 he fruit m the
Linnaean fyftem is one of the parts of fructification,
and is diftinguiftred into three parts, viz. the pericar¬
pium, feed, and receptacle, or receptaculum Jermnum.
See Botany- „ , . , nr.
Colours extraftedfrom FRUITS. See the article Co-
L0Blend*Fruit. See Artocarpus, Botany •
Fruits, with regard to commerce, are diftmguiftied
into recent, frefh, and dry, , ,
Recent FRUITS are thofe fold juft as they are gather¬
ed from the tree, without any farther preparation ; as
are moft of the produ&ions of our gardens and orchards,
fold by the fruiterers. , r , .
Dry Fruits are thofe dried in the fun, or by the
fire, with other ingredients fometimes added to them
to make them keep-, imported chiefly from beyond fea,
and fold by the grocers Such are raifins, currants, figs,
capers, olives, cloves, nutmegs, pepper, and other Ipi-
ces -, which fee under their refpeaive articles.
Under the denomination of dry fruits are alfo fre¬
quently included apples, pears, almonds, filberds, &c.
4 FRUIT-Flies, a name given by gardeners and others
to a fort of fmall black flies found in vaft numbers
among fruit trees, in the fpring feafon, and fuppofed to
do great injury to them. Mr Leeuwenhoeck preferved
Fruit,
fome of thefe flies for his microfcopical obfervations.
He found that they did not live longer than a day or
two, but that the females during this time laid a great
number of longifti eggs. The gardeners who fuppole
that thefe flies wound the leaves of the trees, are mif-
taken : it is true that they feed on their juices -, but
they have no inftruments wherewith they can extract
thefe for themfelves : they feed on fuchasaie naturally
extravafated j and when there is not a fufficient quanti¬
ty of thefe for their purpofe, they haunt the places to
which the pucerous refort, and feed on the juices which
thefe little creatures extravafate by means of the holes
they bore in the leaves wdth their trunks.
FltUIT Stones. The mifehiefs arifing from the cuftom
which many people have of iwallowing the ftones of
plums and other fruit are very great. The Philolophi-
cal Tranfactions give an account of a woman who lut-
fered violent pains in her bowels for 30 years, return¬
ing once in a month or lefs. At length, ^ a ftrong
purge being given her, the occafion of all tnefe com¬
plaints was driven down from the bowels to the anus \
where it gave a fenfation of diftenfion and iloppage,
producing a continual defire of going to ftool, but
without voiding any thing. On the afliftance of a
careful hand in this cafe, there was taken out with a
forceps a ball of an oval figure, of about ten drachms
in weight, and meafuring five inches in circumference.
This had caufed all the violent fits of pain which fhe
had fuffered for fo many years ; and, after voiding it,
fire became perfeaiy well. The ball extra&ed looked
like a ftone, and felt very hard, but it iwam in water.
On cutting it through with a knife, there was found
in the centre of it a plum ftone -, round which feveral
coats of this hard and tough matter had gathered.
Another inftance given in the fame papers is of a man,
who, dying of an incurable colic which had tormented
him many years, and baffled the effeas of medicines
was opened after death ; and in his bowels was found
a ball fimilar to that above mentioned j but fomewhat
larger, being fix inches in circumference, and weighing
an ounce and a half. In the centre of this, as of the
other, there was found the ftone of a common plum,
and the coats were of the fame nature with thofe of the
Thefe and feveral other inftances mentioned in the
fame place, fufficiently ftiow the folly of that common
opinion that the ftones of fruits are vvholefome. Fer
though by nature the guts are fo defended by their
proper mucus, that people very feldom fuffer by things
of this kind ; yet if we confider the various circumvo-
lutions of the guts, their valves and pells and at the
fame time confider the hair of the fkms of animals we
feed on, the wool or down on herbs and fruit, and the
fibres, veffels, and nerves of plants, which are not al¬
tered by the ftomach ; it will appear a wonder that
inftances of this fort of mifehief are not much more
common. Cherry ftones, fwallowed m great quanti¬
ties, have occafioned the death of many people ; and
there have been inftances even of the feeds of itraw-
berries collefting into a lump in the guts, and cauling
violent diforders, which could not be cured without
^FRUlTpy/es. With regard to thefe it may be ob-
ferved, 1. That the cutting and pruning them when
young hurt their bearing, though it contributes^
F R U [ 251 ] F U C
Truitery the richnefs and flavour gf the fruit, as well as to the
ii beauty of the tree. 2. That kernel fruit trees come
ruftunr jater t0 bear than ftone fruit trees: the time required
' by the firft, before they come to any fit age for bear¬
ing, being one with another five years j but when they
do begin, they bear in greater plenty than ftone fruit.
3. That ftone fruit, figs, and grapes, commonly bear
eonfiderably in three or four years, and bear full crops
the fifth and fixth year 5 and hold it for many years,
if well ordered. 4. That fruit trees in the fame neigh¬
bourhood will ripen a fortnight fooner in fome grounds
than in others of a different temperature. 5. That in
the fame country, hot or cold fummers fet confiderably
forwards, or put backwards, the fame fruit. 6. That
the fruit on wall trees generally ripen before thofe
on ftandards, and thofe on ftandards before thofe on
dwarfs. 7. That the fruit of all wall trees planted in
the fouth and eaft quarters commonly ripen about the
fame time, only thofe in the fouth rather earlier than
thofe in the eaft ; thofe in the weft are later by eight
or ten days ; and thofe in the north by 15 or 20.
For the planting, pruning, grafting, &c. of fruit trees,
fee Gardening.
FRUITERY, a place for the keeping of fruit, a
fruit houfe, or fruit loft.
A fruitery fhould be inacceflible to any thing of
moifture; and ftrould be as much as poflible fo, even to
froft.
FRUMENTACEOUS, a term applied by botanifts
to all fuch plants as have a conformity with wheat, in
refpefl of their fruits, leaves, ears, or the like.
FRUMENTARII, a kind of foldiers or archers un¬
der the weftern empire.
The firft time, we read of thefe officers is in the reign
of the emperor Adrian, who made ufe of them to inform
himfelf of whatever palled. They did not make any
particular corps diftinft from the reft of the forces, but
there was a certain number of them in each legion. It
is fuppofed, that they were at firft a number of young
perfons, difpofed by Auguftus throughout the pro¬
vinces, particularly on all the great roads, to acquaint
the emperor, with all expedition, of every thing that
happened.
Afterwards they were incorporated into the troops
themfelves, where they ftill retained their ancient name.
As their principal office was the giving intelligence,
they were often joined with the curiofi, with whom
they agreed in that part of their office.
Their name offrumentarii is derived from their be¬
ing alfo a fort of purveyors to the armies, cities, &c.
collefling all the corn from the feveral provinces to
furnilh the commonwealth.
FRUMENTATION, in Roman antiquity, a lar-
gefs of corn bellowed on the people. This practice of
giving corn to the people was very ancient among the
Romans, and frequently ufed to foothe the turbulent
humour of the populace.- At firft the number of thofe
to whom this largefs was given was indeterminate, till
Auguftus fixed it at 200,000.
FRUSH, or Running Thrush. See Farriery
Index.
FRUSTUM, in Mathematics, a part of fome folid
body feparated from the relE
I he fruftum of a cone is the part that remains,
vhen the top is cut off by a plane parallel to the bafej
and is other wife called a truncated cone. See CONIC Fruftum
ScBions. 1}
The fruftum of a pyramid is alfo what remains after s'
the top is cut off by a plane, parallel to its bafe.
The fruftum of a globe or fphere is any part there¬
of cut off by a plane, the folid contents of which may
be found by this rule : To three times the fquare of
the femidiameter of the bafe add the fquare of its
height j then multiply that fum by the height, and
this product multiplied by .5236 gives the folidity of
the fruftum.
FRUTEX, a Shrub. Shrubs, according to Lin¬
naeus, make a branch of the feventh family in the ve¬
getable kingdom ; and are diftinguilhed from trees, in
that they come up without buds. But this diftindlion
is not univerfal, though it be generally juft with regard
to thofe of Europe. Nature hath made no abfolute di-
ftinflion betw-een trees and ftirubs. Frutex, in its ge¬
neral acceptation, is a plant whofe trunk is perennial,
gemmiparous, woody, dividing and fubdividing into a
great number of branches. In Ihort, it is the epitome
of a tree, exemplified in the rofe buffi.
FRY, inZoology, fignifies the fpawn, or rather young,
of fifti.
FRYING-PAN, a dangerous ftioal, which has receiv¬
ed this appellation from its figure. It is fituated at the
entrance of Cape Fear river, in North Carolina, the
fouthern part of which is in long. 750 W. and 330 22'
N. Lat. 24 miles fouth-eaft by louth of the light-houfe
on Bald Head.*
FRYTH, John, a martyr to the Proteftant reli¬
gion in the reign of Henry VIII. He wras the fon of
an innkeeper at Seven Oaks in Kent j and educated
in King’s college, Cambridge, where he took the
degree of bachelor of arts. Thence he removed to
Oxford, and was made a junior canon of Wolfey’s col¬
lege. He had not been long in this univerfity before
he became acquainted with William Tyndale, a zealous
Lutheran, with whom he converfed frequently on the
abufes in religion. Fryth became a convert to Luthe-
ranifm, and publicly avowed his opinions. He was
apprehended, examined by the commiffary, and con¬
fined to his college. At length having obtained his -
liberty, in 1528 he went over to Germany, where he
continued about two years $ and then returned to
England, more than ever determined in his religious
fentiments. Finding at that time but few affociates, .
he wandered about from place to place, till at laft he
was taken up at Reading as a vagrant, and fet in the
flocks, where he remained till he was near expiring for
want of fuftenance. He was at length relieved by the
humanity of Leonard Cox, a fchoolmafter j who finding
him a man of letters, procured his enlargement, and
adminiftered to his neceflities. Fryth now fet out
for London, where, with more zeal than prudence, .
he began to make profelytes j but wras foon apprehend¬
ed by order of the chancellor Sir Thomas More, and
fent prifoner to the Tower. Refufing to recant his
opinions, he was condemned to the flames, and accord¬
ingly burnt in Smithfield, on the 4th of July 1533.
He left feveral works behind him, which w'ere printed
in folio in 1573.
FUAGE, in old Englilh writers, a tax of i2d. for
every fire, levied in the time of Edward III.
FUCINUS LACUS, in Ancient Geography, a lake of
I i 2
FUG
Fucinus. Italy in the country of the Marfi.
no, from a cognominal citadel, lying on the fouth of
the Abruzzo Ultra, in the kingdom of Naples, near the
Apennines. This lake was under the protefrion of a
god of the fame denomination, whofe temple {food on
its banks. According to the teftimony of ancient au¬
thors, it was fubjeft to extraordinary rilings and de-
creafings. The actual circumference is 47 miles : the
breadth in the wideft part is 10, in the narroweft 4^
its depth 12 feet upon an average. But all thefehave
varied prodigiouily. Two miles up the plain, behind
Avezzano, the fragments of boats, {hells, and other
marks of its ancient extent, have been cafually difco- .
.vered: and, on the contrary, there are people who re¬
member when it did not flow nearer than within two
miles of Avezzano. An immenfe tradt of excellent
lands is loll at every increafe of its level. All round
this noble piece of water rifes a circle of grand moun¬
tains, fome of them the higheft in Italy, if we except
the Alps, and many of them covered with fnow •, and
at the foot of them are numerous villages, with rich
and well cultivated farms. The environs of the lake,
Mr Swinburne defcribes as all well enclofed, and the
{ides of the hills as covered with fine woods-, its w-aters
abound with filh of various kinds, and thither repair at
{fated feafons innumerable flights of wild fowl. As
the {welling of the lake was attended with incredible
damage, the Marfi had often petitioned the fenate to
drain it : Julius Csefar would have attempted it, had he
lived longer. His fucceflors were averfe to the pro-
je£t j till Claudius, who delighted in expenfive diflicult
enterprifes, undertook it. During the fpace of 11
years he employed 30,000 men in digging a paffage
through the mountain ; and when every thing was
ready for letting off the w-ater, exhibited a fuperb na¬
val fpedfacle on the lake. A great number of con¬
demned criminals were obliged to a£f the parts of Rho¬
dians and Sicilians in feparate fleets, to engage in ear-
ne{f, and to deftroy one another for the entertainment
of the court and the multitude of fpe6fators that co¬
vered the hills : A line of well armed veffels and rafts
loaded with foldiers furrounded the fcene of adfion, in
order to prevent any of the wretches from efcaping -,
but it was with great difficulty and many threats that
they could be brought to an engagement. When
this favage diverfion was ended, the operations for
opening the paffage commenced, and the emperor
was very near being {vvept away and drowned by the
fudden ruffling of the waters towards it. However,
either through the ignorance or negligence of the
engineers, the work did not anfwer as was expeffed,
and Claudius did not live long enough to have the faults
amended : Nero abandoned the fcheme through envy.
Hadrian is faid to have let off the waters of the Fuci-
nus -, but none now efcape except through hidden chan¬
nels formed by nature, which are probably fubjedt to
be obifrudfed, and thus oceafion a fuperabundance of
water in the lake, till fome unknown caufe removes the
obitrudlions and again gives free paflage.
Sir William Hamilton, who vifited the Fucinus in
1785, fays, “ it is the moft beautiful lake he ever faw,
and would be complete if the neighbouring mountains
were better wooded.” It furniflies abundance of filh,
though not of the heft quality. There are a few large
trout, but moftly tench, barbel and dace. In the
[ 252 ] F u E
Now Logo di Cela- fhallow water on the borders of the lake, he faw thou-
fands of water fnakes purfuing and preying upon a
little kind of fifli like our thornbacks, but much bet¬
ter armed j though their defenfive weapons feemed to
avail them but little againft fuch ravenous foes. The
opening made by Claudius he defcribes as ftill entire,
though, in many parts filled with earth and rubbifin He
w ent into it with torches as far as he could. It is a
covered underground canal three miles long, and part of
it cut through a hard rock } and other parts fupported
by mafon work, with wells to give light. Hadrian is
faid to have let off the waters of the lake: and our
author is of opinion, that if the canal were cleared and
repaired it would itill anfwer that purpofe, and there¬
by reftore a great deal of rich land fit for cultiva¬
tion.
FUCUS, a name given by the ancients to certain
dyes and paints. By this name they called a purple
fea plant ufed by them to dye woollen and linen things
of that colour. The dye was very beautiful, but not
lafting -, for it foon began to change, and in time
went wholly off", ihis is the account Theophraftus
gives of it.
The women of thofe times alfo ufed fomething called
fucus, to ftain their cheeks red ; and many have fup-
poied, from the fame word exprefling both, that tho
fame fubftance was ufed on both occafions. But this,
on a ftridl inquiry, proves not to be the cafe. Ihe
Greeks called every thing fucus that would ftain or
paint the flefh. But this peculiar fubftance ufed by
the women to paint their cheeks was dillinguiflied from
the others by the name of rizion among the more cor¬
rect writers, and was indeed a root brought fiom Syiia
into Greece. The Latins, in imitation of the Greek
name, called this root radicula ; and Pliny very erro-
neouffy confounds the plant with the radix lunaria, or
f ruthion of the Greeks.
Xhe word fucus was in thofe times become fuch an
univerfal name for paint, that the Greeks and Romans
had a fucus rnetallicus, which was the cerufe ufed for
painting the neck and arms white : after which they
uted the purpuriffum, or red fucus of the ri%iuw, to
give the colour to the cheeks. In after-times they alfo
ufe a peculiar fucus or paint for the purpofe, prepa¬
red of the creta argentaria, or filver-chalk, and fome of
the rich purple dyes that were in ufe at that time : and
this feems to have been very little different from our
rofe-pink ; a colour commonly fold at the celour-lhops,
and ufed on like occafions.
Fucus, in the Linnsean fyftem of botany, is a ge¬
nus of the order of alga;, belonging to the cryptoga-
mia clafs of plants.
FUEGO, or Fogo, one of the Capede Verd iflands,
in the Atlantic ocean. It is much higher than any of
the reft j and feems at fea to be one Angle mountain,
though on the lides there are deep valleys. There is a
volcano at the top which burns continually, and may
be feen a great way off at fea. It vomits a great deal
of fire and fmoke, and throws out huge pieces of rock
to a vaft height} and femetimes torrents of melted mat¬
ter run down the fides. The Portuguefe, who firft in¬
habited it, brought negro {laves with them, and a flock
of cows, horfes, and hogs -, but the chief inhabitants
now are blacks, of the Romiffi religion. W. Long.
24. 20. Lat. . 5. 0. F
FUG [ 253 ] FUG
Fuel FUEL, whatever is proper to burn or make a fire j
I! as wood, turf, peat, bituminous earths, coal, &c.
"ueue* , FUEN-HOA, a city of China, in the province of Pe-
v tcheli, celebrated for its extent and the number of its
inhabitants, as well as for the beauty of its ftreets and
triumphal arches. It is fituated near the great wall,
amidll mountains 5 and has under its jurifdi&ion, bo¬
lides two cities of the fecond, and eight of the third
clafs, a great number of fortrefi'es, which bar the en¬
trance of China againil the Tartars.
FUG ALIA, in Roman antiquity, a feaft fuppofed
by feme to be the fame with the refugium, held on the
24th of February, in memory of the expulfion of the
kings and the abolifhing of monarchical government.
Others again diftinguilh the fugalia from the regifuge.
And others think, that the fugalia was the fame with
the poplifugia, or the feaft of Fugia, the goddefs of
joy, occafioned by the rout of an enemy, which was the
reafon the people abandoned themfelves to riot and de¬
bauchery.
FUGITIVE, a perfon obliged to fly his country
or remove from a place where he had fome abode or
eftablilhment, on account ot his crimes, debts, or other
occalions.
FUGITIVE Pieces, among the learned, denote thofe
little compofitions which are printed on loofe flieets or
half Iheets $ thus called, becaufe eafily loll and icon
forgotten.
FUGUE, in Mujic, (from the Latin fuga, “ a
chafe”), a piece of mufic fometimes longer and fome-
times Ihorter, in which, agreeable to the rules of har¬
mony and modulation, the compofer treats a fubjeft ;
or, in other words, what exprefles the capital thought
or fentiment of the piece, in caufing it to pafs fuccedive-
ly and alternately from one part to another.
Thefe are the principal rules of the fugue ; of which
fome are peculiar to itfelf, and others common to it
with what the French call imitation.
x. The fubjecl proceeds from the tonic to the do¬
minant, or from the dominant to the tonic, in riling or
defeending.
2. Every fugue finds its refponfe in the part imme¬
diately following that which commenced.
3. That refponfe ought to refume the fubjecl in the
interval of a fourth or fifth above or below the key,
and to purfue it as exadlly as the laws of harmony will
admit; proceeding from the dominant to the tonic
when the fubjeft is introduced from the tonic to the
dominant, and moving in a contrary c/iredlion when the
fubjedl is introduced from the domin ant to the tonic.
One part may likewife refume the fame fubjedl in the
odlave or unifon of the preceding j but in that cefe, it
is a repetition rather than a real refponfe.
4. As the odlave is divided into two unequal parts,
of which the one contains four gradations defeending
from the tonic to the dominant, and the other only
three in continuing the afeent from the dominant to the
tonic ; this renders it necelfary to have fome regard to
this change in the expreflion of the fubjedl, and to
make fome alterations in the refponfe, that we may not
quit the cords that are eflential to the mode. It is a
different cafe when the compofer intends to alter the
modulation ; for there the exadlnefs of the refponfe it-
lelf, .when taken in a different tone, produces the al¬
teration proper for this change.
5. It is necelfary that the fugue Ihould be planned in
fuch a manner, that the refponfe may commence before
the clofe of the firlt air, fo that both the one and the
other may be in part heard at the fame time : that, by
this anticipation, the fubjedl may be as it were eon-
nedled with itfelf, and that the art of the compofer may
difeover itfelf in this concourfe. It is abfolute mockery,
inltead of a fugue, to impofe upon the hearers the fame
air, merely tranfpofed from one key to another, with¬
out any other rellraint than an accompaniment after¬
wards formed at pleafure. This deferves at bell no
better name than what the French call imitation. See
Imitation.
Befides thefe rules, which are fundamental, there are
others which, though preferibed by talle alone, are not
lefs effential. Fugues, in general, render mufic more
noify than agreeable j it is for this reafon that they are
more agreeable in the chorus than anywhere elfe. Now,
as their chief merit confills in fixing the ear on the
principal air or fubjedl, which for this reafon is made
to pafs inceffantly from part to part, and from mode
to mode, the compofer ought to exert his care in pre-
ferving that air always diftindl; or to prevent it from
being abforbed in, or confounded with, tlm other parts.
To produce this effedl, there are two different ways $
one in the movement, which mull be inceflantly con-
tradled with itfelf j fo that, if the procedure of the
fugue be accelerated, the other parts move gravely and
w’ith protradled notes ; or, on the contrary, if the mo¬
tion of the fugue be flow and folemn, the accompani¬
ments mull have more and quicker bufinefs. The other
method is to extend the harmony, by removing the
parts at a greater dillance one from the other ; left the
others, too nearly approximated to that which contains
the lubjedt, Ihould be confounded with it, and prevent
it from being diflinguilhed with fufficient clearnefs j.
fo that what would be an imperfedlion anywhere elfe,
becomes here a beauty.
The unity of melody Ihould be preferved : this is
the great and general rule, which mull frequently be
pradlifed by different means.' The cords mult be
chofen, and the intervals, fo that one particular found
may produce the chief effedl j this can only refult from
the unity of the melody. It will fometimes be neceffary
to employ voices and inltruments of different kinds,
that the parts which ought to prevail may be moll
eafily diltinguilhed ; this again fliows the neceflity of
preferving the unity of the melody. Another objedl of
attention, no lefs neceffary, is, in the different connec¬
tions of modulation which are introduced by the pro¬
cedure and progrefs of the fugues, to caufe all thefe
modulations to correfpond at the fame time in all the
parts, to connedl the whole in its progrefs by an exadl
conformity of modes : lelt, if one part be in one mode,
and another in another, the general harmony Ihould be
in none at all, and for that reafon Ihnuld no longer be
able to produce Ample effects upon the ear, nor Ample
ideas in the mind *, which is another reafon for prefer¬
ving unity of melody. In a word, in every fugue the
confufion of melodies and modulations is at once what
a compofer has moll to fear, and will find the greateft
difficulty in avoiding ; and as this kind of mufic never
produces a pleafure above mediocrity, one may fay that
a fine fugue is, though the mafterpiece of an excellent
haiHionift, ungrateful to his toil.
Fugue#
There
, Fugue
ti
Fuller.
»See
Canon.
F U L [2
There are flill feveral other kinds of fugues j fuch as
the perpetual fugue *, the double fugue, the inverted
fugue.
The inverted fugue is a manner of compofition, m
which the Hying part proceeds in a contrary direction
to the other fugue, which had been formerly fixed m
the fame piece of mufic. Ihus, when the firft fugitive
part is heard in afeending from the tonic to the domi¬
nant, or from the dominant to the tonic, the counter
fugue ought to be heard in defeending from the domi¬
nant to the tonic, or from the tonic to the dominant,
and vice verfa. Its other rules are exaflly like thofe of
the common fugue.
FULCRUM, in Mechanics, the prop or fupport by
which a lever is fuftained.
FULDA, a confiderable town of Germany, in the
circle of the Upper Rhine, and in the Ruchow, with a
celebrated abbey ; whofe abbot is primate of the ab¬
beys of the empire, perpetual chancellor of the emperor,
and fovereign of a fmall territory lying between Heffe,
Franconia, and 'T huringia. It is feated on the liver
Fulda, 55 miles fouth of Caffel, and 58 north-eaft of
Francfort. E. Long. 9. 33. N- Lat. 50. 32.
FULGORA, a genus of infefts belonging to the or¬
der of hemiptera. See Entomology Index. .
FULHAM, a village of Middlefex, four miles from
Londons' The Danes in 869 wintered at this place
till they retired to the continent. It was in the Con-
queror’s time held of the king by the canons of St
Paul’s; and there is an ancient houfe here, which is
moated about, and belongs to the fee of London, whole
bifhop has a palace here, andthe demefne has belonged
to that diocefe from 1067. From this place to Putney
there is a wooden bridge over the i hames, where not
only horfes, coaches, and all carriages, but even foot
paflengers pay toll. The church here is both a reftory
and a vicarage.
FULICA, the Gallinule and Coot, a genus oi
birds belonging to the order of grallse. See Ornitho¬
logy Index.
FULIGINOUS, whatever proceeds from a thick
footy fmoke, fuch as lamp black. . .
FULIGNO, a city of Italy, in the pope’s territories,
IO miles north of Spoletto.
FULIGO, in Natural Hi/Ionj, a fpecies of pumice-
ftone. See Pumice.
FULLER, Dr Thomas, a learned Engliih divine,
was born at Alvinckle, near Oundle, in Northampton-
fhire, about the year 1608, and ftudied at Cambridge.
He was chofen minifter of St Rennet’s there 5 and at
about 23 years of age, his merit procured him a fel-
lowlhip in Sidney-college, and a prebend in Sahlbury
cathedral. He was foon after prefented to the reftory
of Rroad Windfor in Dorfetfhire 5 and afterwards was
made lecturer of the Savoy in London : but upon the
nreflfmg of the covenant, he retired to Oxford 5 and
foon after accompanied Sir Ralph Hopton. as his
chaplain in the army, which he attended in their
marches from place to place. After the death of King
Charles I. he obtained the living of Walthara-abbey,
and was appointed lefturer of St Clement’s j and
Riortly after removed to the lefture of St Rridge s,
Fleet-ftreet. Upon the reftoration, he recovered his
prebend in the cathedral of Salifbury, was appointed
chaplain extraordinary to his majefty, and created
3
54 ] F U L
doftor of divinity. It is faid, his memory was fo te- Ful!tr.
nacious and convprehenfive, that he could make ufe of''"-“r—
a fermon verbatim if he once heard it. He once un¬
dertook, in palling to and from Temple-bar to the
Poultry, to tell at his return every fign as it Rood in
order on both fides of the way, repeating them either
backwards or forwards ; and this talk he aftually per¬
formed. He wrote, 1. A Hiftory of the Holy War.
2. The Church-Hiftory of Rritain, in folio. 3. An-
dronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician, in 8vo. 4. A
Pifgah-fight of Paleftine. 5. A Hiftory of Englifti
Worthies j and other works. He died in Augult 1661 j
and was interred in the chancel of Cranfoid church, in
Middlefex, whither his body was attended by at lead;
200 of his brethren of the miniftry. _
Fuller, a workman employed in the woollen ma-
nufaftories to mill or fcour cloths, lerges, and other
Ruffs, in order to render them more thick, compadf,
and durable. See Fulling.
Fuller's Earth, m Natural Hi/lory, a fpecies of clay,,
of a grayilh alh-coloured brown, in all degrees from
very pale to almoR black, and it has generally fome-
thing of a greenilh cafl. It is very hard and firm, of a
compadt texture, of a tough and lomewhat dully furface
that adheres llightly to the tongue. It is very fofi to
the touch, not Raining the hands, nor breaking eafily
between the fingers. It has a little harflinefs between
the teeth, and melts freely in the mouth. Thrown into
water, it makes no ebullition or hilling 5 but Iwells
gradually in bulk, and falls into a fine foft powder. It
makes no effervefcence with aquafortis.
The greateft quantity and the fineR earth of this
kind in the world, is dug in the pits at Wavedon, near
Woburn in Redfordlhire. The Rrata in thefe pits lie
thus : From the furface to the depth of fix feet, there
are feveral layers or beds of fand, all reddilh, but fome
lighter coloured than others. Under thefe there is a
thin Rratum of a fand-flone, which they break through,
and then there is the fuller’s earth. The upper Rra¬
tum of this is about a foot thick : the workmen call it
cl edge, and throw it afide as ufelefs ; being commonly
fouled with the fand which originally covered it, and .
which infinuates itfelf a good way into it.
they come to the fine fuller’s earth for fale, which lies
to the depth of eight feet more. The matter of this
is divided into feveral layers, there being commonly
about a foot and a half between one horizontal fiffure
and another. Of thefe feveral layers, the upper half,
where the earth breaks itfelf, is tinged red 5 which
feems to be owing to the running of the water upon it
from among the fands above ; fome of which are pro¬
bably of a ferruginous nature, or have ferruginous
matter among them. This reddifli fuller’s earth the
■workmen call crop ; and between the cledge and this
there is a thin flratum of matter, of lefs than an inch,
which in taRe, colour, and external appearance, re-
fembles the terra Japonica of the fliops. The lower
half of the Rrata of fuller’s earth they call wall-earth.
This is untinged with the red colour of the other, and
feems the moR proper for fulling. Under the fuller s
earth there is a Rratum of white and coarfe Rone about
two feet thick. They feldom dig through this; but it
they do, they find more Rrata of land..
This earth is of great ufe in fcouring cloths, Runs,
&c. imbibing all the greafe and oil ufed in preparing,
F U L {2
drefllng, &c. of the wool 5 for which reafon It is made
a contraband commodity, and is not to be exported
under the penalty of is. for every pound weight. See
Fulling.
Fuller's Weed, or Teazle. See Difsacus, Botany
Index.
FULLERY, a place where cloths, &c. are fulled.
See the next article.
FULLING, the art or a<51 of cleanfing, fcouring,
and prilling cloths, fluffs, and dockings, to render
them ftronger, clofer, and firmer : called alfo milling.
Pliny (lib. vii. cap. 56.) affures* that one Nicias, the
fon of Hermias, was the firft inventor of the art of
fulling : and it appears by an infcription, quoted by Sir
G. Wheeler, in his Travels through Greece, that this
fame Nicias was a governor in Greece in the time of
the Romans.
Fulling of woollen cloths, depends, like felting, fo
entirely upon the ftru&ure of wool and hair, that thofe
who have read our account of that procefs, will not
find it difficult to comprehend the following obferva-
tions.
I he afperities with which the furface of wool is
everywhere furrounded, and the difpofition which it has
to affume a progreffive motion towards the root, render
the fpinning of wool, and making it into cloth, difficult
operations. In order to fpin wool, and afterwards con¬
vert it into cloth, its fibres muft be covered with a
coating of oil, which, filling the cavities, renders the
afperities lefs fenfible j in the lame way as oil renders
the furface of a very fine file lefs rough, when rubbed
over it. When the piece of cloth is finilhed, it muft be
cleanfed from this oil j which would caufe it to foil
whatever it came in contaft with, befides giving it a
diiagreeable fmell, and prevent its taking the colour
v'hich is intended to be given to it by the dyer. To
deprive it of the oil, it is carried to the fulling-mill,
where it is beat w ith hammers in a trough full of water,
in which fome clay has been mixed; the clay combines
with the oil, which it feparates from the cloth, and both
together are wafhed away by the frelh water which is
brought to it by the machine j thus, after a certain time,
the oil is entirely walked out of the cloth.
But the fcouring of the cloth is not the only objeft
m fulling it j the alternate preffure given by the mallets
to the piece of cloth, occafions, efpecially when the
Icouring is pretty far advanced, an effeft analogous to
that which is produced upon hats by the hands of the
hatter ; the fibres of wool which compofe one of the
threads, whether of the warp or the woof, affume a
progreffive movement, introduce themfelves among
thofe of the threads neareft to them, then into thofe
which follow j and thus, by degrees, all the threads,
both of the warp and the woof, become felted together.
Fhe cloth, after having, by the above means, become
Ihortened in all its dimenfions, partakes both of the
nature of cloth and of that of felt 5 it may be cut with¬
out being fubjedl to ravel, and, on that account, we
are not obliged to hem the edges of the pieces of which
clothes are made. Laftly, as the threads of the warp
and thofe of the woof are no longer fo diflinft and fepa-
rated from each other, the cloth, which has acquired a
greater degree of thieknefs, forms a warmer clothing.
Knit worfted alfo is, by fulling, rendered lefs apt to
rnn, in cafe a flitch Ihould happen to drop in it.
55 ] F U L
The fulling of cloths and other fluffs is performed Fulling,
by a kind of water-mill, thence called a fulling orfcour-
ing mill.
Thefe mills, excepting in what relates to the mill-
ftones and hopper, are much the fame with corn-mills :
and there are even fome which ferve indifferently for ei¬
ther ufe : corn being ground, and cloths fulled, by the
motion of the fame wheel. Whence, in fome places,
particularly in France, the fullers are called milters^ as
grinding corn and milling fluffs at the fame time.
The principal parts of the fulling-mill are, The
wheel, rvith its trundle j which gives motion to the tree
or fpindle, whofe teeth communicate it to the peftles
or Hampers, which are hereby raifed and made to fall
alternately according as its teeth catch on or quit a
kind of latch in the middle of each peftle. The peftles
and troughs are of wood j each trough having at leaft:
two, fometimes three peftles, at the difcretion of the
mafter, or according to the force of the ftream of wa¬
ter. In thofe troughs are laid the cloths, fluffs, &c.
intended to be fulled : then, letting the current of
water fall on the wheel, the peftles are fucceflively let
fall thereon, and by their weight and velocity ftamp
and prefs the fluffs very ftrongly, which by this means
become thickened and condenfed. In the courfe of
the operation, they fometimes make ufe of urine,
fometimes of fuller’s earth, and fometimes of foap.
To prepare the fluffs to receive the firft impreffions of
the peftle, they are ufually laid in urine ; then in ful¬
ler’s earth and water j and, laftly, in foap diffolved in
hot water. Soap alone would do very well j but this
is expenfive : though fuller’s earth, in the way of our
dreffing, is fcarce inferior thereto , but then it muft be
well cleared of all ftones and grittineffes, which are apt
to make holes in the fluff. As to urine, it is certainly
prejudicial, and ought to be entirely difcarded j not
fo much on account of its ill fmell, as of its (harpnefs
and faltnefs, which qualities are apt to render the fluffs
dry and harfti.
The true method of fulling with foap is delivered by
Monf. Colinet, in an authentic memoir on that fubjeft,
fupported by experiments made by order of the mar¬
quis de Louvois, then fuperintendant of the arts and
manufa&ories of France j the fubftance of which we
fhall here fubjoin.
Method of Fulling Cloths and Woollen Stuff’s with
Soap.—A coloured cloth, of about 45 ells, is to be laid
in the ufual manner in the trough of a fulling-mill *
without firft foaking it in water, as is commonly prac-
tifed in many places. To full this trough of cloth, 15
pounds of foap are required j one-half of which is to
be melted in two pails of river or fpring water, madfr
as hot as the hand can well bear it. This folution is to
be poured by little and little upon the cloth, in pro¬
portion as it is laid in the trough : and thus it is to be
fulled for at leaft two hours ; after which it is to be ta¬
ken out and ftretched. This done, the cloth is imme¬
diately returned into the fame trough, without any
new foap, and there fulled two hours more. Then
taking it out, they wiring it well, to exprefs all the
greafe and filth. After the fecond fulling, the remain¬
der of the foap is diflolved as in the former, and caff:
four different times on the cloth ; remembering to take
out the cloth every two hours, to ftretch it, and uni
the plaits and wrinkles it has acquired in the trough. *
When.
Funambu-
lu,.
FUN T 256 3
railing When they perceive it fufficiently fulled, and brought
to the quality and thicknefs required, they fcour it tor
good in hot water, keeping it in the trough till it be
quite clean. As to white cloths j in regard theie lull
more eafy and in lefs time than coloured ones, a third
part of the foap may be fpared.
FULLING of Stockings, Caps, &zc. Ihould be performed
fomewhat differently; viz. either with the feet or the
hands: or a kind of rack, or wooden machine, either
armed with teeth of the fame matter, or elfe horles or
bullocks teeth. The ingredients made ufe of herein
are, urine, green foap, white foap, and fuller's earti.
But the urine alfo is reckoned prejudicial here. YV oven
blockings, &.c. fhould be fulled with foap alone : tor
thofe that are knit, earth may be ufed with the foap.
Indeed it is frequent to full thefe kinds of works with
the mill, after the ufual manner of cloth, 6tc. But
that is too coarfie and violent a manner, and apt to da¬
mage the work unlefs it be very ftrong.
FULMAR, in Ornithology. See Procellaria,
Ornithology Index.
Fulmar, or Foumart. See Mu^tela, Mammalia
Index. . . , , ,
FULMINATING, fomething that thunders or re-
fembles thunder. ^ , n e.
FULMINATING Gold, Sliver, Copper,-fiackJiher, &lc.
See Chemistry Index.
FULMINATION, in Chemijlry, the fame with de¬
tonation. , r .
FULMINATION, in the Romifh canon law, a jentence
of abifhop, official, or other ecclefiaftic appointed by
the pope, by which it is decreed that fome bull ient
from the pope {hall be executed.
FUMARIA, Fumitory, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the diadelphia clafs, and in the natural method
ranking under the 24th order, Corydales. See Botany
jTtidcx 9 0
FUMIGATION, in Chemijlry, a kind of calcina¬
tion, when metals or other hard bodies are corroded
or foftened by receiving certain fumes for that pur-
^ Fumigation, in Medicine, By the. fubtile fumes
that are infpired as well as inhaled into our bodies,
much benefit or prejudice is produced, according to the
nature of the matter, and the conftitution into which
it is received } as is evident from the palfies produced
among workers in lead-mines, &c. and the benefits re¬
ceived in many cafes when the air is impregnated w ith
falutary materials. Catarrhs and catarrhous coughs are
relieved by fumes received writh the breath and, by
the fame method, expe&oration is affifted in.humoural
afthmas •, and even ulcers in the lungs are faid to have
been healed by this method. The advantage of mer¬
curial fumigations in the cure of venereal ulcers is
known to every practitioner.
FUMITORY. See Fumaria, Botany Index.
FUNAMBULUS, among the Romans, was what
we call a rope-dancer, and the Greeks fchanobates. See
Rope-DANCEE.
There was a funambulus, it feems, who peiform¬
ed at the time when the Hecyra of Terence was
added; and the poet complains, that the. fpeftacle
prevented the people from attending to his comedy.
/la populusjludioJlupidus in funambulo, ammum occu-
tarat.
FUN
At Rome, the funambuli firft appeared under the Furambu.
confulate of Sulpicius Pteticus and Licimus Stolo,
who were the firit introducers of the fcenic repre-
fentations. It is added, that they were firft exhibited
in the ifiand of the Tyber, and that the cenfors
Meffala and Caffius afterwards promoted them to the
theatre.
In the Floralia, or ludi Florales, held under .Galba-,
there were funambulatory elephants, as we are inform¬
ed by Suetonius. Nero alfo ffiowed the like, in honour
of his mother Agrippina. Vopifcus relates the fame of
the time of Carinus and Numerianus.
FUNCHAL, the capital of Madeira, fituated round
a bay, on a gentle afeent, and containing about 15,000
inhabitants. It is watered by feveral dreams from
the mountains ■, and is defended by a cattle on a
fteep rock, which is furrounded by the fea at high
water. The houfes are built of brick or free-ftone y
but the ftreets are narrow, dark and dirty. W. Long,
16. 49. N. Lat. 32. 38.
FUNCTION, the aft of fulfilling the duties of any
employment. _ • r c
Function, being alfo applied to the adhons of the
body, is by phyficians divided into vital, animal, and
natural. The vital funftions are thofe neceffary to life,
and without which the individual cannot fubfift j as
the motion of the heart, lungs, &c. The func¬
tions are fuch as it cannot fubfift any confiderable
time without 5 as the digeftion of the aliment, and its
converfion into blood. Under animal fundlions are
included the fenfes of touching, tafting, &c. memory,
judgment, and voluntary motion •, without any or all
of which an animal may live, but not very comfort¬
ably. ....
The animal fun&ions perform the motion of the
body by the adlion of the mufcles; and this adlion
confifts chiefly in the fhortening the flefny fibres,^
which is called contraBion, the principal agents of
which are the arteries and nerves diftributed in the
fleffiy fibres. . . n.
All parts of the body have their own fundlions, or
adlions, peculiar to themfelves. Life confifts in the ex-
ercife of thefe funaions, and health in Cue free and ready
exercife of them. . t
Function, a term ufed in analytics for an algebraical
gxpfgftloii any how compounded of a certain letter or
quantity with other quantities or numbers ; and the ex-
preffion is faid to be a fundion of that letter or quanti-
ty. Thus 4 .v, or a x-F 3*% or 2 x—a Ja'—x',
or xc, or is each of them a fundion of the quan-
tity x.
FUND, in general, fignifies any fum of money ap¬
propriated for a particular purpofe. Thus, that part
of the national revenue which is fet apart for the pay¬
ment of the national debt, is called the finking fund.
But, when we fpeak of the funds, we generally mean
the large fums which have been lent to government,
and conftitute the national debt ; and for which the
lenders, or their affignees, receive interest from, reve¬
nues allotted for that purpofe. The termfock is ufed
in the fame fenfe, and is alfo applied to the fums which
form the capital of the bank of England, the Eaft In¬
dia and South Sea companies ; the proprietors of which
are entitled to a ffiare of the profits of the refpeclive
companies.
Fund.
FUN [ 257 j FUN
[Fund. The practice of funding was introduced by the Ve-
j netians and Genoefe in the 16th century, and has been
adopted fince by moft of the nations in Europe. Prin¬
ces had often borrowed money, in former times, to
fupply their exigencies, and fometimes mortgaged their
territories in fecurity : but thefe loans were generally
extorted, and their payment was always precarious $
for it depended on the good faith and fuccefs of the
borrower, and never became a regular burden on po-
fterity. The origin of funds is derived from the pecu¬
liar manners and circumftances of modern Europe.
Since the invention of gunpowder, and the progrefs
of commerce, the military occupation has become a
diftinft employment in the hands of mercenaries j the
apparatus of war is attended with more expence j and
the decifion of national quarrels has often been deter¬
mined by command of money rather than by national
bravery. Ambitious princes have therefore borrowed
money, in order to carry on their projefts with more
vigour. Weaker ftates have been compelled, in felf-
defence, to apply to the fame refource; the wealth in¬
troduced by commerce has afforded the means ; the
regularity of adminitlration, eftablilhed in confequence
of the progrefs of civility, has increafed the confidence
of individuals in the public fecurity j the complicated
fyftem of modern policy has extended the fcenes of war,
and prolonged their duration ; and the colonies efta-
blilhed by mercantile nations have rendered them vul¬
nerable in more points, and increafed the expence of
defending them.
When a greater fum has been required for the an¬
nual expence than could eafily be fupplied by annual
taxes, the government have propofed terms to their
own fubje&s, or foreigners, for obtaining an advance
of money by mortgaging the revenue of future years
for their indemnification. This mortgage may either
be for a limited period, or perpetual. If the fum allot¬
ted annually for the benefit of thofe who advance the
money, be confiderably greater than the interefls of
the fums advanced, they may agree to accept of fuch
allowance, for a limited time, as a full equivalent.
Thus, they may either agree for the cafual produce
of the revenue affigned ; or a fixed annuity for a great¬
er or lefs number of years ; or a life annuity to them-
felves or nominees-, or an annuity for two or more lives;
or an annuity, with the benefit of furvivorfhip, called a
tontine, in which fcheme, the whole fum to which the
original annuitants were entitled continues to be diftri-
buted among the furvivors.
J he eftabliihment of the funds was introduced in
Britain at the Revolution; and has fince been gradually
enlarged, and carried to an amazing extent. The va¬
rious methods above mentioned have been ufed in their
turns, but perpetual annuities have been granted for
the greateft part; and, even when the money was ori¬
ginally advanced on other conditions, the lenders have
been fometimes induced, by fubfequent offers, to accept
of perpetual annuities, inftead of the former terms.
I he debt for which perpetual annuities are granted, is
called the redeemable debt, and the other is called the
irredeemable debt. Although the debts thus contracted
by government are feldom paid for a long term of
years; yet any creditor of the public may obtain
money for what is due him when he pleafes, by tranf-
ferring his property in the funds to another; and
VOL. IX. Part I.
regular methods are appointed for tranfaCling thefe
transfers in an eafy manner. By means of this, the
flocks become a kind of circulating capital; and have
the fame effeCt, in fome refpefts, as the circulating
money in the nation. When a ftockholder transfers
his fhare, he may fometimes be able to obtain a greater
price than the original value, and at other times be ob¬
liged to accept of a lefs one. The value of the funds
depends on the proportion between the interelt they
bear, and the benefit which may be obtained by ap-
plying the money to other purpofes. It is influenced
by the plenty or fcarcity of money, and by the quan¬
tity of the public debt; and it is impaired by any event
which threatqns the fafety, or weakens the credit, of
the government.
1 he bufinefs of flock-jobbing is founded on the va¬
riation of the prices of flock. Perfons poffelfecEof real
property may buy or fell flock, according to their no¬
tion that the value is likely to rife or fall, in expecta¬
tion of making profit by the difference of price. And
a praClice has taken place among perfons who often
poffefs no property in the funds, to contraCl for the
fale of flock againft a future day, at a price now a-
greed on. For inflance : A agrees to fell B 1000I. of
bank flock, to be transferred, in 20 days, for i2col.
A has, in fact, no fuch flock ; but, if the price of
bank Hock, on the day appointed for the transfer,
fhould be only 118 per cent. A may purchafe as much
as will enable him to fulfil his bargain for 1180I. and
thus gains 2ol. by the tranfaClion ; on the contrary,
if the price of bank flock be 125 per cent, he will lofe
50I. The bufinefs is generally fettled without any
adual purchafe or transfer of flock, by A paying to B,
or receiving from him, the difference between the cur¬
rent price of the flock on the day appointed and the
price bargained for.
This praCHce, which is really nothing elfe than a
wager concerning the price of flock, is contrary to
law ; yet it is carried on to a great extent. In the
language of Exchange Alley, where matters of this
kind are tranfaCled, the buyer is called a bull, and the
feller a bear. As neither party can be compelled by
law to implement thefe bargains, their fenfe of honour,
and the difgrace and lofs of future credit, which at¬
tend a breach of contraCl, are the principles by which
the bufinefs is fupported. When a perfon declines to
pay his lofs, he is called a lame duck, and dare never
afterwards appear in the Alley. This opprobrious
appellation, however, is not bellowed on thofe vhofe
failure is owing to want of ability, providing they
make the fame furrender of their property voluntarily,
which the law would have exaCted if the debt had been
entitled to its fanftion.
The interefl or dividend on the flock is paid half-
yearly ; and the purchafer has the benefit of the inte¬
refl due on the flock he buys, from the lafl term to the
time of purchafe. Therefore the prices of the flocks
rife gradually, ceeteris paribus, from term to term, and
fall at the term when the interefl is paid. In compar¬
ing the prices of the different flocks it is neceffary to
advert to the term when the lail interefl was paid :
and, allow-ance being made for this cireumdance, the
prices of all the government flocks, which bear inte¬
refl at the fame rate, muff be nearly the fame, as they
all depend on the fame fecurity.
K k
When
fund.
FUN
[ 25
When a loan is propofed, {uch terms muft be offer¬
ed to the lenders, as may render the tranfaition bene¬
ficial : and this is now regulated by the prices of the
old itocks. If the flocks, which bear interefl at 4 per
cent, fell at par, or rather above, the government may
expe£l to borrow money at that rate j but, if thefe
flocks are under par, the government mufl either grant
a higher interefl, or fome other advantage to the lend¬
ers, in compenfation for the difference. For this pur-
pofe, befides the perpetual annuity, another annuity
has fometimes been granted for life, or for a term of
vears. Lotteries have frequently been employed to
facilitate the loan, by entitling the fubfcribers to a cer¬
tain number of tickets, for which no higher price is
charged than the exaft value diflributed in prizes, though
their market price is generally 2I. or 3I. higher. Some¬
times an abatement of a certain proportion of the ca¬
pital has been granted, and a lender entitled to hold
100I. flock, though in reality he advanced no more
perhaps than 95I.
It belongs to the chancellor of the exchequer to
propofe the terms of the loan in parliament : and he
generally makes a previous agreement with fome weal¬
thy merchants, who are willing to advance the money
on the terms propofed. The iubfcribers to the loan
depofit a certain part of the fum fubfcribed ; and are
bound to pay the reft by intlalments, or Hated propor¬
tions, on appointed days, under pain of forfeiting what
they have depofited. For this they are entitled, per¬
haps, not only to hold their fhare in the capital, but to
an annuity for 10 years, and to the right of receiving
a certain number of lottery tickets on advantageous
8 ] FUN
rowed. In time of peace, the revenue exceeds the
expence, and part or the public debt has frequently
Fund,
55,282,978
38,888,277
terms. They may fell their capital to one perion, their
annuity to a fecond, and their right to the tickets to a
third. The value of all thefe interefls together is call¬
ed omnium } and, in order to obtain a ready iubfcxip-
tion, it ought to amount to 102I. or upwards, on loci,
of capital. This difference is called the bonus to the
fubfcribers. • • 1 r
The capital advanced to the public, in the form oi
transferable Hocks, and bearing interefl from taxes ap¬
propriated for that purpofe, is called the funded debt.
Befides, there is generally a confiderable fum due by
government, which is not difpofed of in that mannei,
and therefore is diflinguifhed by the appellation of the
unfunded debt. This may rife from any fort of national
expence, for which no provifion has been made, or for
which provifion has proved infufficient. I he chief
branches are,
ifl, Exchequer Bills. Ihefe are iffued from the ex¬
chequer, generally by appointment of parliament, and
fometimes without fueh appointment, when exigencies
require. They bear interefl from the time when iffued,
and are taken in by the Bank of England, which pro¬
motes their circulation.
2d, Navy Bills The fums annually granted for the
navy have always fallen fhort of what that fervice re¬
quired. To fupply that deficiency, the admiralty if-
fues bills in payment of vidluals, Hores, and the like,
which bear intereff fix months after the time iffued.
The debt of the navy thus cantra&ed is difcharged,
from time to time by parliament.
In time of war, the public expences, fince the Revo¬
lution, have always been much greater than the annual
revenue} and large fums have confequently been bor-
been paid off. But, though there have been more years
of peace than of war fince the funds were eflablifhed,
the debts contradled during each war have much ex¬
ceeded the payments during the fubfequent peace.
This will appear by the following abflratt of the pro-
grefs of the national debt.
Debt at peace of Ryfwick, 1697 L*2i,5i5>472
Debt at the beginning of war 1701 16,394,701
Difcharged during peace 1697 to 1701 5,121,071
Debt at peace of Utrecht 1714, includ¬
ing value of annuities afterwards fub-
fcvibed to South Sea Hock
Contrafted in war 1701 to 1714
Debt at beginning of war I74°> mold¬
ing j ,oco,oocl. charged on civil liH
Difcharged during peace 1714 to 1739
Debt at peace of Aix-la-Chapelle* 1748
Contradled during war 1740 to 1748
Debt at beginning of war 1756
Paid off during peace 1748 to 1756
Debt funded at the peace 1763, includ¬
ing 95839,597b then owing, which
was funded in the fubfequent years
Befides this, there was about 6,coo,cccl.
of debt paid off, without ever being
funded.
Funded debt, 1775
Paid off during peace 1.763 to I775>_ke“
fides unfunded debt above mention¬
ed -
Funded at the peace 1783
4759545623
75328,355
79>19353i3
31,238,690
73,289,673
5,903,640
i335957,27°
125,000,000
8,959,270
211,363,254
The following is a Hate of the national debt at a later
period.
Amount of funded debt on 5th January
1805 - - * ■L* 603,925,792
Stock created by loan of 1805
58,700,000
Transferred for the redemption of the
land tax
L. 642,625,792
22,000,000
Redeemed by the commifiioners for ma¬
naging the finking fund
L. 620,625,792
113,500,000
Leaving as the amount of the national
debt on the 31H January 1806 L. 507,125,792
It is to be obferved that nearly 100 millions of the
above amount of 507 millions, confiff of 4 and 5 per
cent. Hock j and if this be converted into 3 per cent,
flock, it will make the total amount 557 millions ; and
taking the 3 per cent. Hock at 60 per cent, the preient
average price, the total capital of the debt in money is
334 millions of pounds flerling.
The original provifion of the finking fund, of a mil¬
lion per annum, with the additions that have fince been
made to it 5 and the dividends on Hock, bought up by
the commiffioners for managing that fund, amount at
this time (1806) to about eight millions per annum. It
has been calculated that the future rate of accumulation
of the finking fund, continuing the fame as hitherto,
n&nicl}«
FUN , [ 259 ] FUN
' |fund namely, at 5 per cent, the whole amount of the nation-
11 al debt will be extinguifhed in 24 years j for the an-
] ndirnen- income of the commiffioners for the management
^ ^ ‘ ; of the finking fund being eight millions, this will pro¬
duce by the year
1810 the fum of L. 34,480,000
1820 156,700,000
1830 356,000,000
which laft fum exceeds the prefent national debt.
FUNDAMENT, in Anatomy^ the loweft part of
the intefiinum reflum, called by anatomifis the anus.
See Anatomy. *
FUNDAMENTAL, in general fomething that
ferves as a bafe or foundation for another.
Fundamental, in Mafic. A fundamentalfound is
that which forms the loweft note of the Chord, and
from whence are deduced the harmonical relations of
: ee Tmic. the reft •, or, which ferves for a key to the tone f. The
fundamental bafs is that which ferves for a foundation
to the harmony. A fundamental chord is that whofe
bafs is fundamental, and in which the founds are ran¬
ged in the fame order as when they are generated, ac¬
cording to the experiment fo often repeated by M.
d’Alembert, in his Preliminary Difcourfe and Elements
| ;eMufu. °f Mufic But as this order removes the parts to an
extreme diftance one from the other, they muft be ap¬
proximated by combinations or inverfions; but if the
bafs remains the fame, the chord does not for this rea-
fon ceafe to bear the name of fundamental. Such an
example is this chord, ut mifol, included in the inter¬
val of a fifth : whereas, in the order of its generation,
ut fol mi, it includes a tenth, and even a feventeenth j
fince the fundamental ut is not the fifth of fol, but the
o&ave of that fifth.
Fundamental Bafs. This part in mufic is, accord¬
ing to Roufieau, and indeed according to all authors
who have proceeded upon M. Rameau’s experiment,
in its primary idea, that bafs which is formed by the
fundamental notes of every perfedt chord that confti-
tutes the harmony of the piece 5 fo that under each
chord it caufes to be heard, or underftood, the fun¬
damental found of that particular chord } that is to
fay, the found from whence it is derived by the rules
of harmony. From whence we may fee, that the
fundamental bafs can have no Other contexture than
that of a regular and fundamental fucceflion, without
which the procedure of the upper parts would be illegi¬
timate.
To underftand this well, it is neceffary to be known,
that, according to the fyftem of Rameau, which Rouf-
feau has followed in his Didlionary, every chord, though
compofed of feveral founds, can only have one which is
its fundamental, viz. that which produces this chord,
and which is its bafs according to the diredf and natu¬
ral order. Now, the bafs which prevails under all the
other parts, does not always exprefs the fundamental
founds of the chords \ for amongft all the founds which
form a chord, the eompofer is at liberty to transfer to
the bafs that which he thinks preferable j regard being
had to the procedure of that bafs, to the beauty of the
melody, and above all to the exprefiion, as may after¬
wards be explained. In this cafe the real fundamental
iound, inftead of retaining its natural ftation, which is
in the bafs, will either be transferred to fome of the
other parts, or perhaps even entirely fupprefled, and FundameiD
fuch a chord is called an inverted chord. tah
In reality, fays Rameau, a chord inverted does not
differ from the chord in its dirett and natural order from
which it was produced : but as thefe founds form differ¬
ent combinations, thefe combinations have long been
taken for fundamental chords •, different names have
been given them, (which may be feen at the word Ac¬
cord, in Rouffeau’s Dictionary). Thefe names, by the
perfons who bellowed them, were thought to create and
fa notify their diftindtions ; as if a difference in names
could really produce a difference in the fpecies.
M. Rameau in his I reatiie of Harmony has Ihown,
and M. d’Alembert in his Elements of Mufic has ftill
more clearly evinced, that many of thefe pretendedly
different chords were no more than inverfions of one
fingle chord. Thus the chord of the fixth is no more
than the perfedt chord of the third transferred to the
bafs ; by adding a fifth, we fiiall have the chord of the
fi.xth and fourth. Here there are three combinations
of a chord, which only confifts of three founds j thofe
which contain four founds are fufceptible of four
combinations, fince each of thefe founds may be tranf-
ferred to the bafs. But in adding beneath this another
bafs which, under all the combinations of one and the
fame chord, always prefents the fundamental found $ it
is evident, that confonant chords are reduced to the
number three, and the number of diffonant chords to
four. Add to this all the chords by fuppofition, which
may likewife be reduced to the fame fundamentals, and
you will find harmony brought to a degree of fimplicity
in which no perfon could ever hope to fee it whilft its
rules remained in that ftate of confufion where M. Ra¬
meau found them. It is certainly, as that author ob-
ferves, an aftohilhing occurrence, that the practice of
this art could be carried fo far as it really was, without
knowing its foundation ; and that all the rules were fo
exaftly found, without having difeovered the principle
on which they depended.
After having fliown what is the fundamental bafs be¬
neath the chords, let us nowr fpeak of its procedure, and
of the manner in which it connects thefe chords among
themfelves. Upon this point the precepts of the art
may be reduced to the fix following rules.
1. The fundamental bafs ought never to found any
other notes than thofe of the feries or tone in which
the compofer finds himfelf, or at leaft thofe of the fe¬
ries or tone to which he choofes to make a tranfition.
This of all the rules for the fundamental bafs is the firft
and moft indifpenfable.
2. By the fecond, its procedure ought to be fo impli¬
citly fubjeHed to the laws of modulation, as never to
fuffir the idea of a former mode to be loft till that of a
fubfequent one can be legitimately affumed ; that is to
fay, that the fundamental bafs ought never to be devi¬
ous, or fuffer us to be one moment at a lofs in what
mode w’e are.
3- By the third, it is fubje&ed to the connexion of
chords and the preparation of diffonances : a manoeuvre
which, as we fliall afterwards fee, is nothing elfe but
a method of producing this connexion, and which of
confequence is only neceffary when the connexion can¬
not fubfift without it. See Connexion, Prepara¬
tion.
4, By the fourth, it is neceffftated, after every dif-
Kk 2 fonance.
FUN
f 260 ]
F U N
Fundamen- fonance, to purfue that career which the t-efolution of
tal. ‘■'l- JnHJrnpnfablv prefcribes. See Resolu-
tbe diffonance indifpenfably prefcribes
TIOcN'By tbe fifth, which is nothing elfe but a confe-
quence of the former, the - fundamental bafs ought
only to move by confonant intervals j except alone
in the operation of a broken cadence, or after a chord
of the feventh diminithed, where it rues diatonica y.
Every other motion of the fundamental bais is illegi-
By the fixth, in {hort, the fundamental bafs or
harmony ought not to be fyncopated •, but to diftm-
sruith the bars and the times which they contain, by
changes of chords properly marked with cadences * m
inch a manner, for inftance, that the diflonances which
ought to be prepared may find their preparation m ie
imperfeft time, but chiefly that all the repofes may hap¬
pen in the perfect time. This fixth rule admits of an
infinite number of exceptions ; but the compofer ought
however to be attentive to it, if he would form a mufic
in which the movements are properly marked, and in
which the bars may end gracefully.
Wherever thefe rules are obferved, the harmony (hall
be regular and without fault : this, however, will not
Binder the mufic from being deteilable. See Comfosi-
” A*word of illuftration on the fifth, rule may not be
ufelefs. Whatever turn may be given to a iunda-
mental bafs, if it is properly formed, one of theie
alternatives muft always be. found ; el.t!?er .
chords moving by confonant intervals, "'thout which
thefe chords would have no connexion ; or diffonant
chords in operations of cadence: in every other cafe,
the dilTonance can neither be properly placeu nor pro.
^" From^thenee it follows, that the fundamental bafs
cannot move regularly but in one of thefe three man¬
ners : ift, To rife or defeend by a third or by a fixth.
2dly By a fourth or a fifth. 3dly, To rife diatonically
by means of tbe diffonance which forms the connexion,
ur by a licenfe upon a perfeft chord. With refpe.a
to a diatonic defeent, it is a motion abfolutely prohibit-
Pd to the fundamental bafs ; or, at moft, merely tolerat¬
ed in cafes where two perfea chords are m fucceffion,
divided by a clofe expreffed or underftood. I his rule
has no other exception : and it is from not difeerning
the foundation of certain tranfitions, that M. Rameau
has caufedthe fundamental bafs to defeend diatonically
under chords of the feventh *, an operation which is
impraaicable in legitimate harmony. See CADENCE,
Dissonance. . ,
The fundamental bafs, which they add for no other
reafon than to ferve as a proof of the harmony, muff
be retrenched in execution, and often in praftice it
would have a very bad effed ; for it is, as M. Rameau
very properly obierves, intended for the judgment, and
not for the ear. It would at lealt produce a monotony
extremely naufeous by frequent returns of the fame
chord, which they difguife and vary more agreeab y
by combining it in different manners upon the continue
bafs, without reckoning upon the different inverfions of
harmony, which furniih a thoufand means of adding
new beauties to the mufic and new energy to the ex prei¬
kon. See Chord, Inversion.
But it will be objeaed, If the fundamental bais is
not ufeful in compofing good mufic, if it mull even beFond»tk.
retrenched in praaice, what good purpofe, then, can v   
B ferve ? We anfwer, that in the firit place, It ierves
for a rule to fcholars, upon which.they may learn to
form a regular harmony, and to give to all the parts
fuch a diatonic and elementary procedure as is pre-
feribed them by that fundamental bais. It does more,
as we have already faid : it proves whether a harmony
already formed be juft and regular ; for all harmony
which cannot be fubjefted to the teft of a fundamenta
bafs, muft according to all rules be. bad. tinally, It
ferves for the inveftigation of a continued bais ui}def a
given air : though, in reality, he who cannot direftly
form a continued bafs will fcarcely be able to form a
fundamental bafs, which is better ; and much lefs ftill
will he be able to transform that fundamental bais in¬
to a legitimate continued bafs. Thefe which follow
are, however, the principal rules which M. Rameau
prefcribes for finding the fundamental bafs of a given
1. To afeertain with precifion the mode in which the
compofer begins, and thofe through which he pafles.
There are alfo rules for inveftigating the modes ; but
fo long, fo vague, fo incomplete, that with reipeft to
this, the ear may be formed long before the rules are
acquired ; and the dunce who ftiould try to ufe them
would gain no improvement but the habit of proceed¬
ing always note by note, without even knowing where
he is. . , .1 • •
2. To try in fucceflion under each note the princi¬
pal chords of the mode, beginning by thofe which are
moft analogous, and palling even to the moft remote,
when the compofer fees himfelf under a neceffity ot
doing^ confider whet]ier chord chofen can full the
upper part in what precedes and m what follows, by a
juft fundamental fucceffion ; and when this is imprafti-
cable, to return the way he came. . , n
4 Not to change the note of the fundamental bais
till after having exhaufted all the notes which are allow¬
ed in fucceffion in the upper part, and which can enter
into its chord ; or till fome fyncopated note m the air
may be fufceptible of two or a greater number of notes
in the bafs, to prepare the diffonance which may be al-
terwards refolved according to rule.
r To ftudy the intertexture of the phraies; the
poffible fucceffion of cadences, whether full or avoided;
and above all, the paufes which for ordinary return at
the end of every four, or of every two bars, o that
they may always fall upon perfeft and regular ca-
dences. •
6. Inffiort, to obferve all the rules formerly given
for the compofition of the fundamental bais.—1 heie
are the principal obfervations to be made for finding
one under any given air ; for there are fometimes ieve-
ral different ones which may be inveitigated. But,
whatever may be faid to the contrary, .if the air has ac¬
cent and chara&er, there is only one juft fundamental
bafs which can be adapted to it. ... r t.
After having given a fummary explication ot the
manner in which a fundamental bafs ffiould be com-
pofed, it ffiould remain to fuggeft the means of trani-
forming it into a continued bais •, and this would be
eafy, if it were only neceffary to regard the diatonic
procedure and the agreeable air of this bais. But let
FUN [261] FUN
tnclamen. us not imagine that the bafs, which is the guide and
ta* fupport of the harmony, the foul, and as it were the
funeral interPreter the air) fliould be limited to rules fo
. y 1 - fimple : there are others which depend upon principles
more certain and more radical j fruitful, but latent
principles, which have been felt by every artiit of ge¬
nius, without having been detected by any one. Rouf-
feau hopes, that in his letter upon French mufic he
infinuated this principle. For thofe who underftand
him, he imagines he has faid enough concerning it,
and can never fay enough of it for thofe who do not.
See Roujfeau's Mifceilanies, vol. ii. p. 1.
He does not here mention the ingenious fyftem by
M. Serre of Geneva, nor his double fundamental bafs $
becaufe the principles which, with a fagacity merito¬
rious of praife, he had half detedted, have afterwards
been unfolded by M. Tartini, in a work of which Rouf-
feau has given an account in his article System.
FUNDI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Latium,
on the Via Appia, near Cajeta j enjoying all the privi¬
leges of Roman citizens, except the right of fuffrage
and of magiftracy. Now Fondi; a city of Naples, on
the confines of the pope’s dominions. F. Long. 14. 20.
N. Lat. 41.35.
FUNDY, a bay of confiderable extent in North
America, opening between the iflands of Penoblcot
bay, in the county of Lincoln, and Cape Sable, the
fouth-weft point of Nova Scotia. It reaches about 200
miles in a north-eaft direction, and forms a very nar¬
row iithmus with Verte bay, which reaches into the
land in a fouth-weft diredlion from the ftraits of Nor¬
thumberland. It is 12 leagues from St John’s in New
Brunfwick, to the Gut of Annapolis in Nova Scotia,
where the tides are remarkably rapid, and rife to the
height of 30 feet. The tides in this bay are fo rapid,
that it is faid, they will overtake animals feeding on
the fhore.
FUNEN, or FlONIA, a confiderable ifland in Den¬
mark, feated on the Baltic fea, and feparated from Jut¬
land by a ftrait called the LeJJer Belt, and from the
ifland of Zealand by another called the Great Belt. It
is fertile in wheat and barley ; and abounds in cattle,
horfes, game of all forts, and fifh. Odenfee is the ca¬
pital town.
FUNERAL RITES, ceremonies accompanying the
interment or burial of any perfon. The word is form¬
ed of the Latinyi/nwr ; and that of funalia, on account
of the torches (which were fines- cera circumdati) ufed
in the funerals of the Romans •, though others derive
funus from the Greek (povoj, death or faughter.
Ihefe rites differed among the ancients according to
the different genius and religion of each country.
The firft people who feem to have paid any particu¬
lar refpeft to their dead, were the Egyptians, the po-
fterity of Ham, the firft cultivators of idolatrous wor-
fhip and fuperftition after the flood ; they were alfo
the firft who afferted the immortality of the foul, its
migration into all kinds of animals in earth, air, and
fea, and its return to the human body ; which they
fuppofed to be within the term of 3000 years : Hence
proceeded their very great care in embalming of their
dead bodies, and their being at fuch vaft expences, as
they were, in building proper repofitories for them ;
for they were more felicitous about their graves than
their houfes: This gave birth to thole wonders of the
world, the pyramids, which were built for the burial of Funeral,
their kings, with fuch vaft charges, and almoft incre-"■v"*"*'
dible magnificence. See Pyramid.
Whenever a perfon died among the Egyptians, his
parents and friends put on mournful habits, and ab-
Itained from all banquets and entertainments. This
mourning lafted from 40 to 70 days, during which
time they embalmed the body. See Embalming.
When this ceremony was finiihed, the embalmed
body was reftored to the friends, who placed it in a kind
of open theft, which was preferved either in their
houf'es, or in the fepulchres of their anceftors. But
before the dead were allowed to be depofited in the
tomb, they underwent a folemn judgment, which ex¬
tended even to their kings. Of this remarkable cuftom
we have a particular account in the firft book of Dio¬
dorus Siculus. “ 1 hole who prepare to bury a rela¬
tion, give notice of the day intended for the ceremony
to the judges, and to all the friends of the dtceafed j
informing them, that the body will pafs over the lake
of that diltridt to which the dead belonged : when, on
the judges affemblmg, to the number of more than 40,
and ranging themfelves in a femicircle on the farther fide
of the lake, the veffel is fet afloat, which thofe who fu-
pei intend the funeral have prepared for this purpofe,.
This veffel is managed by a pilot, called in the Egyp¬
tian language Charon ; and hence they fay, that Or¬
pheus, travelling in old times into Egypt, and feeing
this ceremony, formed his fable of the infernal regions,
partly from what he faw, and partly from invention.
The veffel being launched on the lake, before the cof¬
fin which contains the body is put on board, the law-
permits all, who are lo inclined, to produce an accufa-
tion againft it. If any one fteps forth, and proves that
the deceafed has led an evil life, the judges pronounce
fentence, and the body is precluded from burial j but
if the accufer is convidled of injuftice in his charge, he
falls himfelf under a confiderable penalty. When no
accufer appears, or when the accufation is proved to be
an unfair one, the relations, who are affembled, change
their expreflions of forrow into encomiums on the dead -
yet do no?, like the Greeks, fpeak in honour of his
family, becaufe they confider all Egyptians as equally
well born : but they fet forth the education and man¬
ners of his youth, his piety and juftice in maturer life,
his moderation, and every virtue by which he was di-
ftmguilhed 5 and they fupplicate the infernal deities to
receive him as an affociate among the bleft. r\ he mul¬
titude join their acclamations of applaufe in this cele¬
bration of the dead, whom they confider as going to
pafs an eternity among the juft below.” Such is the
defeription which Diodorus gives of this funeral judi¬
cature, to which even the kings of Egypt were fub-
jeft. The fame author afferts, that many fovereigns
had been thus judicially deprived of the honours of
burial by the indignation of their people : and that
the terrors of fuch a fate had the moft falutary influ¬
ence on the virtue of their kings.
The funeral rites among the Hebrews were folemn
and magnificent When any perfon was dead, his re¬
lations and friends rent their clothes j which cuftom is •
but faintly imitated by the modern Jew's, who only
cut off a bit of their garment, in token of affliftion. It
was ufual to bend the dead perfon’s thumb into the
hand, and faften it in that pofture with a ftring ; be¬
caufe
FUN [262
Funeral, caufe the thumb then having the figure of the name of
' God, they thought the devil would not dare to ap¬
proach it. When they came to the burying place, they
made a fpeech to the dead in the following terms :
“ Blefled be God, who has formed thee, fed thee,
maintained thee, and taken away thy life. O deadhe
knows your numbers, and {hall one day reftore your
life ” &.c. Then they fpoke the elogium, or funeral
oration, of the deceafed ; after which they faid a pray¬
er, called the righteoufnefs of judgment; then turning
•the face of the deceafed towards heaven, they called
out, “ Go in peace.” . r ■> r
Among the ancient Greeks it was ufual fometimes
before the interment, to put a piece of money into the
mouth of the deceafed, which was thought to be Cha¬
ron’s fare for wafting the departed foul oyer the in.er-
nal river. This ceremony was not ufed in thole coun¬
tries which were fuppofed to be fituated in the neigh¬
bourhood of the infernal regions, and to lead thither
by a ready and direft road. The corpfe was hkewiie
furnithed with a cake, compofed of flour, honey, &c.
which was defigned to appeafe the fury of Cerberus
the door-keeper of hell, and to procure the ghoft a
fafe and quiet entrance. During the time the corple
continued in the houfe, there flood before the door a
veffel of water : the defign of which was, that thole
concerned about the body might purify themfelves by
• « • .1 *  t- C O C W f * I I
walking } it being the opinion of the Greeks as well
as of the Jews, that pollution was contraaed by touch¬
ing a dead body. j c • r
The ceremonies by which they expiened t eir or-
row for the death of their friends were various *, but
it feems to have been a conftant rule to recede as much
as poflible in habit and behaviour from their ordinary
cuftoms. For this reafon they abtlained from banquets
and entertainments *, they divefted themfelyes of all or¬
naments j they tore, cutoff, or fliaved their hatr, whic
they caft into the funeral pile, to be confuted with
the body of their deceafed friend. Sometimes they
threw themfelves on the ground and rolled in the dufl,
or covered their head with allies ; they beat their
breads, and even tore their fleih with their nails, upon
the lofs of a perfon they much lamented. When per-
fons of rank, fuch as public magiftrates or great ge¬
nerals died, the whole city put on a face of mourn-
incr: all public meetings were intermitted; theichools,
baths, {hops, temples, and all places of concour.e, were
After interment followed the epulte or feafts, at which
the company ufed to appear crowned; when they fpoke
in praife of the dead, fo far as they could go with
truth, it being efteemed a notorious wickedneis to lie
upon fuch an occafion. And not only at thofe feafts,
but even before the company departed from the le-
pulchre, they were fometimes entertained with a pane¬
gyric upon the dead perfon. . , . , ,
The Grecian foldiers, who died in war, had not
only their tombs adorned with infcriptions fliowing
their names, parentage, and exploits, but were alio
honoured with an oration in their praife. Particularly
the cuftom among the Athenians m the interment ot
their foldiers was as follows, namely, “ Ihey ufed to
place the bodies of their dead in tents three days before
the funeral, that all perfons might have opportunity
to find out their relations, and pay their laft relpects
] fun
to them. Upon the fourth day, a coffin of cyprefs Funeral,
was fent from every tribe, to convey the bones of their \
own relations ; after which went a covered herfe, in
memory of thofe whofe bodies could not be found. All
thefe, accompanied with the whole body of the people,
were carried to the public burying place, called Lerami¬
cus and there interred. One oration was fpoken in com¬
mendation of them all, and their monuments were adorned
with pillars, infcriptions, and all other ornaments ufual
about the tombs of the molt honourable perfons. I he
oration was pronounced by the fathers of the deceafed
perfons who had behaved themfelves moft valiantly.
Thus after the famous battle at Marathon, the lathers
of Callimachus and Cymegyrus were appointed to
make the funeral oration. And upon the return of
the day, upon which the folenimty was fiiit held, the
fame oration was conftantly repeated every year ”
Interring or laying the dead in the ground Items
to have been the moft ancient pra&ice among the
Greeks; though burning came afterwards to be gene¬
rally ufed among them. It was cuftomary to throw
into the funeral pile thofe garments the decealed
ufually wore. The pile was lighted by one of the de-
ceafed’s neareft relations or friends, who made prayers
and vows to the winds to aflift the flames, that the
body might quickly be reduced to allies; and during
the time the pile was burning, the dead perfon’s friends
me LUOC Llie pile    O’ . ...
flood by it, pouring libations of wine, and calling upon
the deceafed. .
The funeral rites among the ancient Romans were very
numerous. The deceafed was kept feven days; and
every day walked with hot water, and lometimes with
oil that, in cafe he were only in a Humber, he might
be* thus waked; and every now and then his friends
meeting, made a horrible outcry or Ihout, with the
fame view ; which laft atlion they called conc/amatio.
The third conclamation was on the feventh day; when,
if no figns of life appeared, the defunft was dreffed and
embalmed by the pollinaores ; placed m a oed near
the door, with his face and heels towards the ftreet;
and the outfide of the gate, if the deceafed were of
condition, was garnilhed with cyprefs boughs. In
the courfe of thefe feven days, an altar was railed near
his bed fide, called acerra ; on which his friends every
day offered incenfe : and the libitinaru provided things
for the funeral. . t
On the feventh day a crier was fent about the city,
to invite the people to the folemnization of the fune¬
ral in thefe words: Exequias L. 7 it. f/n, quibus ejt
commodum ire, jam tempus ejl. Ollus (1. e. die) ex ctdibus
ejfertur. The people being affembled, the laft concla¬
mation ended, and the bed was covered with purple:
a trumpeter marched forth, followed by old women
called preeficce, finging fongs in praife of the decealed:
laftly, the bed followed, borne by the next relations;
and if the perfon were of quality and office, the waxen
images of all his predeceffors were carried before him
on poles. The bed wasfollowed by his children, kindred,
&c atrati, or in mourning : from which aft of follow-
ing'the corpfe, thefe funeral rites were called exequue.
The body thus brought to the roftra, the next of km
laudabat defunBum pro rojlris, made a funeral oration m
his praife and that of his anceftors. T his done the
body was carried to the^yra, or funeral pile, and there
burnt; his friends firft cutting off a finger, to be bu-
FUN [ 263 ] FUN
■unera!. ried with a fecond folemnity. The body confumed,
the allies were gathered j and the prieft fprinkling the
company thrice with clean water, the eldert of the
prceficce crying aloud, Meet, difmilfed the people, who
took their leave of the deceafed in this form, Va/e,
va/e, vale: nos te or dine quo natura permiferit fequemur.
—The allies, enclofed in an urn, were laid in the fe-
pulchre or tomb.
The ancient Chriftians tedified their abhorrence of
the Pagan cuftom of burning their dead ; and always
depofited the body entire in the ground : and it was
ufual to bellow the honour of embalming upon the mar¬
tyrs at lealf, if not upon others. They prepared the
body for burial by walhing it with water, and drefling
it in a funeral attire. The exportation or carrying forth
of the body was performed by near relations, or per-
fons of fuch dignity as the circumftances of the deceaf¬
ed required. Pfalmody, or linging of pfalms, was the
great ceremony ufed in all funeral proceflions among the
ancient Chriltians.
In the Romijh church, when a perfon is dead, they
tvalli the body, and put a crucifix in its hand. At its
feet Hands a vellel full of holy water, and a fprinkler,
that they who come in may fprinkle both themfelves
and the deceafed. In the mean time feme priell Hands
by the corpfe, and prays for the deceafed till it is laid
in the earth. In the funeral proceffion, the exorcilt
walks firlt, carrying the holy water ; next the crofs-
bearer, afterwards the reft of the clergy, and laft of all
the officiating prieft. They all fing the mijerere, and
fome other plalms j and at the end of each pfalm a re¬
quiem. We learn from Alet’s ritual, that the faces of
deceafed laymen mult be turned towards the altar,
when they are placed in the church ; and thofe of the
clergy towards the people. The corpfe is placed in
the church furrounded with lighted tapers; after the
office for the dead, mafs is faid j then the officiating
prieft fprinkles the corpfe thrice with holy water, and
as often throws ineenfe on it. The body being laid in
the grave, the friends and relations of the deceafed
fprinkle the grave w ith holy water.
The funeral ceremonies of the Greek church are
much the fame with thofe of the Latin. It needs
only be obferved, that, after the funeral fervice, they
kifs the crucifix, and falute the mouth and forehead of
the deceafed ; after which each of the company eats a
bit of bread and drinks a glafs of wine in the church,
wifiiing the foul a good repofe, and the afflifted family
all confolation.
Funeral Games, a part of the ceremony of the
ancient funerals.
It was cuftomary for perfons of quality among the
ancient Greeks and Romans, to inftitute games with
all forts of exercifes, to render the death of their friends
more remarkable, ihis practice wms generally received,
and is frequently mentioned by ancient writers. Pa-
troclus’s funeral games take up the greateft part of one
of Homer’s Iliads j and Agamemnon’s ghoft is intro¬
duced by the fame poet, telling the ghoft of Achilles,
that he had been a fpeclator at a great number of fuch
folemnities.
Ihe celebration of thefe games among the Greeks
tnoftly confided of horfe races ; the prizes were of dif¬
ferent forts and value, according to the quality and
Magnificence of the perfon that celebrated then1., The
garlands given to vigors on this occafion were ufually
of parfiey, which was thought to have fome relation to
the dead.
Thofe games, among the Romans, confifted chiefly
of proceftions j and fometimes of mortal combats of
gladiators around the funeral pile. They, as well as
the Greeks, had alfo a cuftom, though very ancient, of
cutting the throats of a number of captives before the
pile, as vidftims to appeaie the manes of the deceafed,
Caefar relates, that the Gauls had this cuftom.
The funeral games were aboliftied by the emperor
Claudius.
FUNERAL Oration, a difeourfe pronounced in praife
of a perfon deceafed, at the ceremony of his funeral.
This cuftom is very ancient. In the latter part of
the account above given of the Egyptian ceremonies
of interment, may be perceived the firft rudiments of
funeral orations, and what was the fubjeft of them,
-which were afterwards moulded into a more polite and
regular form by other nations, who adopted this cuftom.
Nor can we omit remarking, that thofe funeral folemni¬
ties were attended not only with orations in praife of
the deceafed, but with prayers for him : which prayers,
it feems, were made by one who perfonated the de¬
ceafed : an entire form of one of them is preferved by
Porphyry, and perhaps it may in fome meafure gratify
the reader’s curiofity to recite it from him. “ When
(fays he) they (the Egyptians) embalm their deceafed
nobles, they privately take out the entrails, and lay
them up in an ark or cheft : moreover, among other-
things which they do in favour of the dsceafed, lifting
up the ark or cheft to the fun, they invoke him j one of
the libitinarii making a prayer for the deceafed, which
Euphanteshas tranflated out of the Egyptian language,
and is as follow's:—O lord, the fun, and all the gods
who give life to men, receive me and admit me into
the fociety of the immortal ones ; for, as long as I
lived in this world, I religioufly worffiipped the gods
whom my parents (bowed me, and have always ho¬
noured thole who begat my body j nor have 1 killed
any man, nor have I defrauded any of what has been
committed to my truft, nor have I done any thing
which is inexpiable. Indeed, whilft I was alive, if
I have finned either by eating or drinking any thing
which was not lawful \ not through myftlf have I
finned, but through thefe, {bowing the ark and cheft
where the entrails were. And having thus fpoke, he
cafts it into the river, but the reft of the body he
embalms as pure.”
The Grecians received the feeds of fuperftition and
idolatrous worfhip from the Egyptians, through the
coming of Cecrops, Cadmus, Danaus, and Erechtheus,
into Greece-', and among other cuftoms tranfplanted
from Egypt, were the mlemnities ufed at the burial of
the dead. Of thefe, an encomium on the deceafed
always formed a part, as particularly noticed under the
preceding article.
From the Egyptians and Grecians, efpecially from
the latter, the Romans received many of theirs laws
and cuftoms, as well as much of their polytheifm and
idolatrous worffiip. It is well known, that the cuftom
of making funeral orations in praife of the dead ob¬
tained among them ; and the manner in which their
funeral fervices were performed has been already de-
feribed. The corpfe being brought into their great
oratory,
Funeral;
—-y-—“I
F U N
[ 264 ]
F U N
Funeral, oratory, called the r^ra, the next of the km l^abat
' defundurn pro rojlris, that is, made a funeral oration in
the commendation principally of the party deceafed,
but touching the worthy ads alfo of thofe hisprede-
ceffors whofe images were there prefent. ^he acc0^
p-Jven by Dr Rennet is in thefe words : In all the
funerals of note, efpecially in_ the public or xud^ive,
the corpfe was foft brought with a vaft train of follow¬
er! intone forum •, here one of the neareft relations
afcended the roftra, and obliged the audience with an
oration in praife of the decealed. I none of the kin¬
dred undertook the office, it was difcharged by fome
of the molt eminent perfons in the city for leai™nS
and eloquence, as Appian reports of the fune
Sylla. And Pliny the younger reckons it as the laft
addition to the happinefs of a very great man, that he
had the honour to be praifed at his funeral by 1116 X110
eloquent Tacitus, then conful; which is agreeable to
Quintilian’s account of this matter, Nam et
&c For the funeral orations (fays he) depend very
often on fome public office, and by order of fena e
are many times given in charge to the magiftrates to
be nerformed by themfelves in perfon. The invention
of this cuftom is generally attributed to Valerius I op-
licola, foon after the expulfion of the regal family.
Plutarch tells us, that honouring his col]e^eRS ^ "
auies with a funeral oration, it to pleafed the Homans,
that it became cuftomary for the belt men to cfle^at®
the funerals of great perfons with fpeeches in their
ctmendSns.”8 This Julius Oefar; accord,ng^
cuftom made an oration m the roftra, in Pralfe of h.ls
Cornelia, and his aunt Julia, when dead 5 wherein
he (bowed that his aunt’s defcent, by her mother s
fide, was from kings, and by her father s rom t e
gods. Plutarch fays, that “ he approved °f the law
ff the Romans, which ordered fuitable praifes to^be
given to women as well as to men after death. —
Though by what he lays m another place, it feem
tharfhe old Roman law was, that funeral orations
Ihould be made only for the elder ^
therefore he fays, that Csefar was the firft that mad
one upon his own wife, it not being then ufua
to take notice of younger women in that way . but
bv that action he gained much favour from the P°PU-
la^e who afterwards looked upon him, and loved him
livery mild and good man The re,fon why uch
a law was made in favour of the woman, Livy tells us
was this, That when there was fuch a fcarcity of money-
in the public treafury, that the fum agreed upon to
give the Gauls to break up the fiege of the city an
capitol could not be raifed, the women colleTed
among themfelves and made it upwho hereupon had
Zt only thanks given them, but this additional ho-
nour, that after death, they (Vould bc f^mnly pra fed
ns well as the men: which looks as if, before th.
time, only the men had thofe funeral orations made
f0Thismcuftom of the Romans very early obtained
among the Chriftians. Some of them funeral fermons
ovations are now extant, as that of Eufeb.us
Funeral,
Fungi.
(lonftantine ^ and ^thofe of Nazianzen on Bafil and
Cfarius, aidof A^ofeon Va^
oration, for ^^
Antioch : in which orations, they not only prailed the
4
dead, but addreffed themfelves to them, which feems to
have introduced the cuftom of praying to departed ^
faints Now thefe orations were ulually made betore
the bodies of the deceafed were committed to the
ground ; which cuftom has been more or lefs continued
ever (ince, to this day. „ . ,
Thus it appears, that thofe rites and ceremonies
among the heathens, which have been del,vered from
one people to another, are what have g.ven birth to
FuNEBAL Sermons and Orations, among Lhriftians.
Though this praaice is confiderably improved, and
cleared of many things which would fmell too rank of
paganifm, and is thrown into a method which, perhaps,
may be of fome fervice to Chnftiamty } yet, notwith-
ftanding this new drefs, its original may very eafily be
difeerned. The method in which the charafters of
deceafed perfons are given in our funeral fermons, is
very much the fame with that obferved in thofe pagan
orations ; where firft an account is given of the paren¬
tage of the deceafed, then of his education ; after that,
we hear of his conduft in riper years: then his many
virtues are reckoned up, with his generous noble, and
excellent performances.-Nor hft the practice be con¬
demned becaufe of its rife and original j for vhy may
not the cuftoms of heathens, if juft and laudable m
themfelves, and nowife pernicious to Chnftiamty in their
confequences, be followed by Chriftians ? Only, fince
we are come into this praftice, there is one thing we
ftmuld take care to follow them in •, and that 1S> not to
make thofe fermons or orations for every one j but for
thofe only whofe charafters are diftinguiffied, vho
have been eminently ufeful in the world, and m the
church of Chrift. The old heathens honoured thofe
alone with this part of the funeral folemmty, who vere
men of probity and juftice, renowned for their wifdom
and knowledge, or famous for warlike exploits . Th s,
as Cicero * informs us, being part of the law for burials, # Df Lq
which direfts, that the praifes only of honourable per- ■ *•
fons (hall be mentioned in the oration. It would be
much more agreeable, therefore, if our funeral dif-
courfes were not fo common, and if the charafters
given of the deceafed were more juft; devoid of that
fulfome flattery with which they too often abound.
FUNGI (from rQoryos, fungus), the name of the
4th order of the 24th clafs of vegetables, in the Lin-
nsean fyftem j comprehending all thofe which are of
the muthroom kind, and which m lournefort confti-
tute the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th genera of.
the firft feftion in the clafs xvn. I his order m the
Linnaean arrangement, contains 10 genera 5 and it con-
ftitutes one of the natural order of plants m the Frag-
menta Methodi Naturalis of Linnaeus, bee Rotany
^But as the claffification of this order only has been
given under the article Botany we (hall here detail
fome of the fpeculations of naturalifts concerning their
nature and mode of produftion.
The ancients called fungi children of the earth, mean¬
ing, no doubt, to indicate the obfeunty of their origin.
The moderns have likewife been at a lofs in whatrank
to place them *, fome referring them to the animal,
fome to the vegetable, and others to the mineral kmg-
d° MTTrs wilck and Munchaufen have not fcrupled to
rank thefe bodies in the number of animal produftiom j
FUN [ 265 ] FUN
Fungi, becaufe, when fragments of them, or their feeds were
—macerated in water, thefe gentlemen perceived a quan¬
tity of animalcules dil'charged, which they fuppofed
capable of being changed into the fame fubltance. It
was the ancient opinion, that beef could produce bees j
but it was referved for Meffrs Wilck and Munchaufen
to fuppofe, that bees could produce . beef. Wilck af-
ferts, that fungi confiit of innumerable cavities, each
inhabited by a polype j and he does not helitate to
afenbe the‘formation of them to their inhabitants, in
the fame way as it has been faid that the coral, the
lichen, and the mucor, were formed. Hedwig has late¬
ly ihown how ill founded this opinion is with refpeft to
the lichen ; and M. Durande has demonitrated its fal-
fity with regard to the corallines. “ Indeed (fay-. M.
Bonnet, talking of the animality of fungi) nothing but
the rage for paradox could induce any one to publilh
fuch a fable j and I regret that pofterity will be able
to reproach our times with it. Obfervation and expe¬
riment ihould enable us to overcome the prejudices of
modern philofophy j now, that thofe of the ancient
have difappeared and are forgotten.”
It cannot be denied that the muihroom is one of the
moft periihable of all plants, and it is therefore the
moil favourable for the generation of infers. Con-
fidering the quicknefs of its growth, it mult be fur-
niihed with the power of copious abforption j the ex¬
tremity of its veffels mull be more dilated than in other
plants. Its root feems, in many cafes, to be merely
intended for its fupport: for fome fpecies grow upon
Hones or moveable land, from which it is impoflible
that they can draw much nouriihment. We mull
therefore fuppofe, that it is chieily by the. ftalk that
they abforb. 1 hefe (talks grow in a moift and tainted
air, in which Boat multitudes of eggs, fo final], that
the very infe&s they produce are with difficulty feen
by the microfcope. Thefe eggs may be compared to
the particles of the byffus, 100,000 of which, as M.
Gleditfch fays, are not equal to the fourth of a grain.
May we not fuppofe, that a quantity of fuch eggs are
abforbed by the veffels of the fungus, that they remain
there, without any change, till the plant begins to de¬
cay ? Befides, the eggs may be onlydepofited on the
furface of the plant, or they may exilt in the water into
which they are thrown for examination. Do not v'e
fee that fuch eggs, difperfed through the air, are hatch¬
ed in vinegar, in pafte, &c. and wherever they find a
convenient nidus for their developement ? Can it be
furprifing then, that the corruption of the muihroom
fhouid make the water capable of difclofing certain be¬
ings that are really foreign to both ?
It is not more eafy to acquieice in the opinions of
thofe naturaliffs who place the fungi in the mineral
kingdom, becaufe they are found growing on porous
ftones, thence called lapides fumrarii; which, how¬
ever, mult be covered with a little earth, and be wa¬
tered with tepid water, in order to favour the growth.
Such mulhrooms are no more the produce of the Hone,
than the lichen is of the rock to which it adheres, or
fht mots of the tree on which it is found. We have
only to obferve the growth of mufiirooms, to be con¬
vinced, that this happens by developemt nt, and not by
additi, n or combination of parts as in minerals. The
opinion of Buccone, who attributed them to an unflu-
ous matter performing the fun&ion of leed, and acoui-
VOL. IX. Part I. 1
ring extenfion by appofition of fimilar parts; and that of Fungi.
Morifon, who conceived that they grew fpontanecufiy
out of the earth by a certain mixture of fait and ful-
phur, joined with oils from the dung of quadrupeds ;
have now no longer any adherents. Fungi are produ¬
ced, they live, they grow, by developement j they are
expofed to thofe viciflitudes natural to the different pe¬
riods of life which characterize living fubftances j they
perffh and die. They extradl, by the extremity of
their veffels, the juices with which they are nouriftied j
they elaborate and aflimilate them to their own fub-
ftance. They are, therefore, organized and living be¬
ings, and conlequently belong to the vegetable king¬
dom. But whether they are real plants, or only the
production of plants, is ffill a matter in difpute with the
ableff naturalitls.
Some ancient authors have pretended to difeover the
feed of muffirooms; but the opinion was never gene¬
rally received. Petronius, when he is laughing at the
ridiculous magnificence of his hero Trimalcio, relates,
that he had written to the Indies for the feed of the
morelle.
Thefe productions were generally attributed to the
fupertluous humidity of rotten wood, or other putrid
fubttances. The opinion took its rife from obferving
that they grew mod copioufiy in rainy weather. Such
was the opinion of Tragus, of Bauhin, and even of Co-
lumna, who, talking of the peziza, fays, that its fub-
ftance was more folid and harder, becauie it did not ori¬
ginate from rotten wood, but from the piluita of the
earth. It is not furprifing, that, in times when the
want of experiment and obiervation made people be¬
lieve that infeCts could be generated by putrefaction,
we thould find the opinion general, that fungi owed
their origin to the putrefcence of bodies, or to a vifeous
humour analogous to putridity.
Malpighi could not fatisfy himfdfasto the exiftence
of feeds which other botanifts had pretended to difeover.
He only fays, that thefe plants muff have them, or
that they perpetuate themfelves and (hoot by fragments.
Micheli, among the moderns, appears to have employ¬
ed himfelf moff fuccefsfully on this fubjeCt. Pie ima¬
gined, that he not only faw the feeds, but even the da-
mina, as well as the little tranfparent bodies deflined to
favour the diffemination and the fecundation of thefe
feeds. Before this author, Lifter thought he perceived
feeds in the Fungus perofus cn.JJus megrrus of John Bau¬
hin : the little round bodies that are found in the pezi-
zae and hevellae, at that, time, pafled for feeds ; which
did not appear at all probable to Marfigli, confidering
that the eye, when affilted with the very biff micro”
fcopes, could perceive nothing fimilar in much larger
fungi. Indeed thefe bodies may be the caplules 01 co¬
vers of the feeds, if they are not the feeds themfelves.
However this may be, Marfigli, obferving that fungi
were often without roots or branches, and that they
wanted flowers and leeds, the means which nature em¬
ploys for the production of perfeCt plants, thought him¬
felf warranted in doubting whether thefe beings could
be ranked in th^ number of vegetables.
The doubts of Marfigli prompted him to obferve the
formation of fungi. Their matrix he called intus ; he
imagined they grew in places where they met with an
unCtuous matter, compofed of an oil mixed with nitrous
fait, which, by fermentation, produced heat and moif-
• B 1 ture,
1
FUN [ 266 ]
Fungi, ture, »nd inGnuated itfelf between the fibres of wood ; tables
that is, he imagined them to be the produfrion of a va¬
cuus and putrefcent humour, Lancifi, in like manner,
confidered fungi as owing their exigence to the putre-
fadlion of vegetables, and fuppofed them a difeafem
the plant ; but he imagined, “ that the fibres of the
tree were neceffary to their produaion,” as is the cale
in the formation of galls ; he compared them to tie
warts and other excreicences of the human body. He
added, that fuch fungous vegetable tumours muu ne-
ceffarily aflTiime various forms and figures, from the
fluids which diftend the tubes and veffels relaxed by
putrefcence, from the duftility of the fibres and their
direction, and from the a£tion of the air.
This opinion has been refuted by the celebrated na-
turalift M. de Juflieu, in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences for the year 1728. He maintains, that the
fungi have a great analogy with the lichen which is
allowed to be a vegetable *, that, like the lichen, they
are divefted of ftalk, branches, and leaves } t at,
like it, they grow and are nourilhed upon the trunks
of trees, on pieces of rotten wood, and on all forts of
putrid vegetables ; that they referable the lichen too in
the rapidity of their growth, and the facility with \vhich
many of them may be dried, and reftored to their form¬
er figure upon being immerfed in water ; and, laflly»
that there is a great fimilarity in the manner m which
their feeds are produced. . He affirms, that only t re
warts and excrefcences which grow on animal bodies,
and the knots and other tumors that are to be found on
trees, can be compared with one another *, for they are
compofed equally of the folid and liquid fubftance of
the plant or animal on which they, grow •, whereas, the
matter of the fungi is not only quite diftincl from that
of the plants on which they are found, but often entire¬
ly fimilar to the fubftance of thofe that fpring immedi¬
ately from the earth.
The organization, fays M. de.Juffieu, which diftin-
guilhes plants and other produ&ions of nature, is vih-
ble in the fungi ; and the particular organization of
each fpecies is conftant at all times and in all places ; a
circumftance which could not happen if there were not
an animal reproduftion of fpecies, and consequently a
multiplication and propagation by feed. 1 his is not,
he fays, an imaginary fuppofition for the feeds may
be felt like meal upon muffirooms with gills, efpecially
when they begin to decay •, they may be feen with a
magnifying glafs, in thofe that have gills with black
margins j and, laftly, fays he, botanifts can have no
doubt that fungi are a diftina clafs of plants, becaufe,
by comparing the obfervations made m different coun¬
tries with the figures and the defcriptions of fuch as have
been engraven, the fame genera and the fame fpecies
are everywhere found. j -r rr
Notwithftanding this refutation by M. de Juflieu,
another naturalift, M. de Necker, has lately maintain¬
ed in his work entitled Mtjatologia, lhat the lungi
ought to be excluded from the three kingdoms of na¬
ture and be confidered as intermediate beings. He has
obferved, like Marfigli, the matrix, of the fungi: and.
has fubftituted the word carchte (qnitium faciens) mltead
FUN
? but he thinks that they differ very much from Fun^
them in refpeft of their origin, ftruaure, nutrition V*-
and rapidity of growth. He fays, that the various vef.
fels which compofc the organization of vegetables are
not to be found in the fungi, and that they feem en¬
tirely compofed of cellular fubftance and bark j fo that
this fimple organization is nothing more than an ag¬
gregation of veffels endowed with a common nature,
that fuck up the moifture in the manner of a fponge;
with this difference, that the moifture is affimilated in¬
to a part of the fungus. Laftly, lhat the fru6hfica-
tion, the only effential part of a vegetable, and which
diftinguiffies it from all other organized bodies, being
wanting, fungi cannot be confidered as plants. . I his
he thinks confirmed by the conftant obfervation or
thofe people who gather the morclle and the muffi-
room, and who never find them in the fame fpots
where they had formerly grown. As the generation oi
fungi (fays M. Necker) is always performed when the
parenchymatous or cellular fubftance has changed its
nature, form, and fun6tion, we muft. conclude that it is
the degeneration of that part which produces the e
bodies. , , , .
But if fungi were owing merely to the degeneration
of plants, they would be ft ill better entitled to con ft 1-
tute a new kingdom. They would then be a decom-
pofition, not a new formation or new bodies. Be¬
sides, we cannot deny, that in thofe bodies which
form the limit between the animal and vegetable king¬
doms, the organization becomes fimple, as the organs
deftined for nutrition are multiplied : but, as the lalt in
the clafs of infefts belongs to the animal kingdom,
fungi ought, notwithftanding the fimplicity of their
organization, ftill to belong to the vegetable kingdom.
The parenchymatous or cellular fubftance, which, as
Mr Bonnet fays, is univerfally extended,, embraces the
whole fibrous fyftem, and becomes the principal inttru-
ment of growth, muft naturally be more abundant m
thefe productions •, and this accounts for the rapidity
of their enlargement. Befides, growth, whether flow
or rapid, never was employed to determine the pre-
fence or abfence of the vegetable or animal charafter.
The dr aba verna, which in a few weeks, (hoots, puts
forth its leaves, its flowers, and fruit, is not lels a
plant than the palm. The infeft that exifts but for a
day, is as much an animal as the elephant, that lives for
centuries. As to the feeds of the fungi, it is probable
that nature meant to withdraw from our eyes the dii-
femination of thefe plants, by making the feeds almolt
imperceptible-, audit is likewife probable that natu-
ralifts have feen nothing but their capfules. Since,
however, from the imperfeCtion of our fenfes, we are
unable to perceive thefe feeds, ought we to infer that
they do not exift ? Are we authorized to conclude this,
becaufe we do not find muftirooms where we have
found them a year before ? Undoubtedly not ; for the
greater part of plants require a particular foil, and the
fame mould that this year will fofter a rare plant, wi
next year allow it to perifti. Neither are we at liberty
to deny the exiftence of thefe feeds, becaufe thofe bo¬
dies which have been called their feeds, and the rag-
has fubftituted the word carchte (initium faciens) mlteaa cuttings of the plants themfelves, have not
jfeSO - “S, PPVs .Vi4
r* 1   Hi
ment of the filaments or fibrous roots is perceived. He
allows, that fungi are nouriftied and grow like vege-
3
have referved for herfelf the care of diffeminating cer¬
tain plants: It is in vain, for mftance, that the bot.^
FUR [ :
Fungi nift fows the duft found in the capfules of the orchis,
II which every one allows to be the feed. But, after all,
urbiflier. what are thofe parts in the fungi cafually obferved by
naturalifts, and which they have taken for the parts of
fructification ? Thefe are quite diltinCt from the other
parts 5 and whatever may be their ufe, they cannot
have been formed by a prolongation of the cellular
fubftance, or of the fibres of the tree on which the
fungus grows : they are, therefore, owing, like flower
and fruit, to the proper organization of the plant.
Thefe plants, therefore, have a particular exiflence,
independent of their putrefying nidus. The gills of
certain fungi, which differ elfentially from the reft of
the plant in their conformation, would be fufficient to
authorife this latter opinion. But can putrefaction
create an organic fubftance ?
Nature undoubtedly diffeminates through the air,
and over the furface of the earth, innumerable feeds of
fungi, as well as eggs of infefts. The plant and the
animal are excluded, when the nidus or the tempera¬
ture is favourable for their developement. No fortui¬
tous concourfe, either of atoms or fluids, could pro¬
duce bodies fo exquifitely and fo regularly organized.
It is fufHeient to throw one’s eyes on the beautiful
plates which Schaeffer has publiftied of them, and com¬
pare them, by the glafs, with the warts and other
excrefcences of animals, to be convinced that they
have not the fame origin. The function of the cellu¬
lar fubft%nce in vegetables muft be greatly fuperior to
that in animals, if it could produce any thing but de¬
formities.
The greater part of fungi exhibit a configuration
much too regular, conftant, and uniform, to be the ef-
fetft of chance or putrefaCtion. As this form is pre-
ferved the fame in all places where fungi ha\# been
found, it follows, that they contain in themfelves the
principles of their reproduction. They referable the
mifletoe, and other parafitic plants, which are perfect¬
ly diftinft from the trees on which they grow. The
fungi, therefore, are organized and living fubftances,
or true plants. If the manner of their production is
unknown, that of fome infeCts is fo too.
FUNGIBLES, in Scots Law, are fuch things as
are eftiraated by number, weight, or meafure 5 as coin,
butter, ale, &c.
FUNGITiE, in Natural Hi/lory, a kind of foflil
coral, of a conic figure, though fometimes flatted and
ftriated longitudinally.
FUNGUS, in Surgery, denotes any fpongy excref-
cence. See Surgery Index.
FUNNEL of a Chimney, the fhaft or fmalleft
part of the wafte, where it is gathered into its leait di-
inenfions.
Palladio direCts, that the funnels of chimneys be
carried through the roof four or five feet at leaft, that
they may carry the fmoke clear froin the houfe into
the air. See Chimney.
He alfo advifes, that chamber chimneys be not made
narrower than 10 or 11 inches, nor broader than 15 •,
for if too narrow, the fmoke will not be able to make
its way ; and, if too wide, the wind will drive it back
♦nto the room.
FUR, or Furr, in commerce. See Furr.
FURBISHER, a perfon who furbifties, poliihes, or
cleans arms, as guns, fwords, piftols, &c. which is
67 ] FUR
chiefly performed with emery. See the article E- Furbifher
MERY. ||
FURCA, in antiquity, a piece of timber refembling FliriFS>
■ a fork, ufed by the Romans as an inftrument of pu-
nifhment.
The punifhment of the furca was of three kinds :
the firft only ignominious, when a mafter, for fmall
offences, forced a fervant to carry a furca on his {boul¬
ders about the city. The fecond was penal when the
party was led about the circus, or other place, with
the furca upon his neck, and whipped all the way.
The third was capital, when the malefaftor having his
head fattened on the furca, was whipped to death.
FURCHE', in Heraldry, a crofs forked at the ends.
FURETIERE, Antony, an ingenious and learned
Frenchman,-was born at Paris in 16205 an<^ after a
liberal education became eminent in the civil and canon
law. He was firft an advocate in the parliament 5 and
afterwards taking orders, was prefented with the abbey
of Chalivoy, and the priory of Chuines. Many works
of literature recommended him to the public 5 but what
he is chiefly known by and valued for is, his Univerfal
DiHionary of the French Tongue, in which he explains
the terms of art in all fciences. He had not, however,
the pleafure of feeing this ufeful wrork publiflied before
his death 5 which happened in 1688. He was a member
of the French academy 5 and the difputes and quarrels
which he had with certain members of it made a great
noife in the world.
FURIA, in Zoology, a genus of infers belonging
to the order of vermes zoophyta. There is but one
fpecies, viz. the infernalis, which has a linear fmooth
body ciliated on each fide, with reflexed feelers preffed
to its body. In Finland, Bothnia, and the northern
provinces of Sweden, it was not unfrequently that
people were feized with a pungent pain, confined to a
point, in the hand or other expofed part of the body,
which prefently increafed to a moft excruciating de¬
gree, and hath fometimes been fuddenly fatal. This
diforder was more particularly obferved in Finland,
efpecially about boggy and marftiy places, and always
in autumn. At length it was difcovered that this pain
inftantly fucceeded fomewhat that dropped out of the
air, and in a moment penetrated and buried itfelf in
the flefti. The Finlanders had tried variety of applica¬
tions to no purpofe, until at length a poultice of curds
or cheefe was found the moft effectual in eafing the
pun : and the event confirmed that the infeft was al¬
lured by this application to leave the flefti 5 as, on its
removal, this worm, no longer than the fixth of an inch,
wfas found in it, and thus the caufe of this painful difeafe
explained. But by what means this creature is raifed
Into the air, is as yet unknown
FURIES, in Pagan antiquity, certain goddeffes
whofe office it was to punifti the guilty after death.
They were three in number: Alefto, Megmra, and
Tifiphone} who were defcribed with fnakes inftead of
hair, and eyes like lightning, carrying iron chains
and whips in one hand, and in the other flaming
torches 5 the latter to difcover, and the former to punilh,
the guilty : and they were fuppofed to be conftantly
hovering over fuch perfons as had been guilty of any
enormous crime.
Mythologifts fuppofe, that Tifiphone puniftied the
crimes which fprang from hatred or anger 5 Megsera,
E 1 2 thofe
Furies
II
Furnace.
F U R [ 268
thofe from envy ; and Aleflo, thofe from an infatiable
purfuit after riches and pleafure. i hey " ere » or llnppt d
at Cafma in Arcadia, and at Carm.a .n Peloponnelus.
They had a temple at Athens near the Areopagus, and
their priefts were chofen from amongft the judges of
that court. At Telphufia, a city in Arcadia, a black
ewe was facrtficed to them.
FURLING, in naval affairs, fignifies the operation
of wrapping up and binding any fail clofe to the yard j
which is done by hauling upon the clew-lines, bunt-lines,
&c. which wraps the fail clofe together, and being
bound fail to the yard, 1 he fail is furled. . .
FURLONG, an Englilh long meafure containing
the one-eighth of a mile, and therefore equal to 660
feet or 220 yards. . . f
FURLOUGH, in the military language, is a licenle
granted by an officer to a foldier to be ablent from his
dutv for 3. limited time. - p
FURNACE, is a veffel or building, for the purpo e
of containing eombutlible materials, whether of coal or
“nd fo conltruaed that great heat may be pro
duced and concentrated. There is a great variety of
furnaces, and they are vanoufly conftruaed acc°r mg
to the views of the operator, and the purpoles to whu h
they are applied. But in all furnaces there are four
things which require to be particularly attended to. I.
To be able to concentrate the heat, and dirt
much as poffible to the fubftances which are to be aded
upon. 2! To prevent the diffip.ation of the heat alter
Reproduced.1 3- To obtain the greateft quantity of
heat from the fmalleft quantity of fuel j and 4- dc.be
able to regulate at pleafure the neceffary degree o nc . ,
“ I0 ^'^“^KrfirflobleaTn-e.y to concen-
ufuul to euufine fbefi. m a c,
]
FUR
Furnace,
Requilhes
of a good
furnace.
heat.
rcavity properly conllruded, furniflied with a door
or opening, by which the fuel is introduced 5 a grate
for fupportmg it, and allowing a free paffage to the air
as we 1 as fw the affies to fall through into the cavity
below called the ajh-pit In this way the ^at pro
duced by the combuftion of the fuel is confined by the
fides of the furnace, and fo concentrated that its force
!S f by keeping
placing the fubftanoe to be acted upon m fuch a man-
£ Zt the fire may have its full effea as tt goes up
the dmmney. wllich !s not the leafi important,
To produce 3' x tRporeateft quantity of heat from the
the greateft is to produce he greatelt qu /conomicll int of
propornon f^eft^uanrtty of worthy of the attention
though it is often difficult to attain it. In this view much
depends upon the proportion between the fpaces between
S bars oPf the final, and the widenefs and he.ght of
Ae chimney. This is obvious from confidenng the
circumftances which regulate the procefsof combufi.on ;
r r rt 'is depends on the current of air paffling thiough
the combuftible matter. When the fuel m the furnace
is kindled, a certain degree of heat is produced , hut
without a current of freffi air paffing through the burn¬
ing matter, the fire is inftantly extinguiffied 5 and with¬
out this ft ream of freffi air the inflammation cannot go
en. But when this takes place, the air within the fur-
of heat.
nace is rarefied, and being no longer a balance for the
external air, it is driven up the chimney by a current of
denfer air, rufliing in at the openings. This having
paffed through the fuel, is alfo rarefied, and paffes off,
giving place in its turn to a new current, fo that in this
way there is a conftant flux of air up the chimney.
From this it muft appear, that the greater the rarefac¬
tion of the air in the fire-place is, the greater will be
the intenfity of the heat produced. By conftrufting a
furnace in a particular way, the heat may be lo ma¬
naged that the under part of the chimney may be
nearly as ftrongly heated as the fire-place itfelf; fo that,
although a ftrong current of air pafles through the fuel,
yet as the heat is ufelefsly fpent on the chimney, there
is a great and unneceflary wafte of fuel.. To prevent
this, there is a contrivance by which the throat of the
chimney is occafionally contra&ed, by means of a Hiding
plate, which, when it is pulhed in, clofes up the whole
vent ; but may be drawn out in fuch a way as to form
a larger or fmaller opening as may be thought neceffary.
Till the fuel is thoroughly kindled, and the furnace
fully heated, the plate ftiould be quite drawn out, fo
that the large ft column of air which the furnace w ill
admit, may pafs through the fuel. 1 he plate is then
put in to a certain length, and fo_ regulated that the
fmoke may be prevented from iffuing at the door ol the
furnace. The current of air increafes in proportion to
the rarefaction of the air in the fire-place, and this in¬
creafes the inflammation of the fuel •, and the heat now
being reflected from every point of the furnace, ^xceP^;
ing the narrow paffage by which the fmoke piles oft,
becomes extremely intenfe. If a large quantity of fuel
be introduced at once, it will confume (lowly, and re¬
quire little attention, in companion with tho^e lurnaces
where this precaution is not obferved. When the in¬
tenfity of the heat is not very great, the fliding-plate
may be of call iron 5 but to refill great degrees of heat,
it will be found more convenient to have it made ot
fire clay. But it muft be obferved, that the advantage
derived from the Aiding plate is loft to thofe furnaces
which are of a large conftruaion, and where great
quantities of metal are to be melted *, and there it is
commonly found, that the wafte of fuel is very great.
4. To attain the fourth objeft, namely, to be able to Met
regulate conveniently the degree of heat, a certaln Pr0‘tlle heat
portion of air only is to be allowed to pais through the
fuel. With this view it is neceffary to have the com¬
mand of the furnace below, becaufe the parts above are
often filled with fmall quantities of foot. To manage
this in the moft effeClual manner, the door of the ath-pit
is to be perfeftly clofed, and furniffied with a feries ot
round holes which have a certain proportion to each
other. In the furnaces conftruCled according to Ur
Black’s direClion, the areas of thefe holes are as I, 2,
4, 8, 16, &c. in geometrical progreffion. Seven ®r
eight of thefe in the door of the afti-pit give a fufficien
command over the fire When the utmoft intenfity of
heat is required, all the paffages are thrown open and
the height of the chimney is mcreafed, fo that the
height of the column of rarefied air being augmente ,
the motion of the current of air through the fuel is
proportionably more rapid, and confequently the ea
of the furnace becomes more intenfe. In t e con r
tion of a furnace recommended by Macquer, another
tube is applied to the affi-pit, having the extremity
FUR [ 269 1 FUR
mace, moft diftant from the furnace avideft, and gradually
tapering as it approaches it. By this contrivance, it
was propofed to increafe the velocity of the current of
air as it paffes from a wider into a narrower tube.
But it is found that the air will not ultimately move
with greater velocity than if the tube w’ere not applied.
It may indeed be ufeful where the furnace is placed in
a fmall apartment, and the tube itfelf forms a commu¬
nication with the external air.
After thefe preliminary obfervations on the general
principles of furnaces, we propofe in the following trea-
tife to give a fliort account of the conftrudlion and ap¬
plication of fome of the more important furnaces which
are employed in the arts and manufadtures.
But before w'e enter into the detail and defcription
of particular furnaces, we fhall lay before our readers
the defcription of one w'hieh was invented by Meffis
Robertons of Glafgow', for the purpofe of confuming its
own fmoke, and faving fuel.
inace for ** To conftrud! furnaces (fays the editor of the Phi-
tuning lofophical Magazine, from which this account is taken),
i wn on fuch a principle as fhould enable them to confume
^e* their own fmoke has long been a defideratum 5 and we
believe the public in general, but efpecially thofe who
have been annoyed by the fmoke of fleam engines,
founderies, and fimilar erefrions in their neighbourhood,
will be glad to learn that a furnace has been contrived
which effectually gains this end.
“ The conftruCtion is extremely Ample, and rvill be
eafily underftood by the following defcription, and the
plate to which it refers.
’late Fig. I. reprefents a vertical feftion, and fig. 2. a
XXV. front view of a fleam-engine boiler, furniihed with one
1. Sc. 2. of Meffrs Robertons furnaces j and the fame letters
refer in both to the fame parts of the conftruftion.
“ The opening A, through which the fuel is intro¬
duced into the furnace, is fhaped fomewhat like a
hopper, and is made of caft iron built into the brick¬
work H, H. From the mouth it inclines downward
to the place where the fire refts on the bottom grate B.
The coals in this mouth-piece or hopper anfwer the
purpofe of a door (a), and thofe that are loweft are by
this means brought into a ftate of ignition before they
are forced into the furnace. Below' the lower plate of
the hopper K, e the furnace is provided with front bars
G (b), which not only ferve to admit air among the
fuel, but offer a ready way to force the fuel back, from
time to time, from c to d (c), to make room for frefli
quantities to fall into the furnace from the hopper or
mouth-piece. By this arrangement the fuel is brought
into a fiate of ignition before it reaches the farther fide
of the bottom grate, where it is flopped by the rifing
breaft, b, of the brick-work, fo that any fmoke liberated Furnace,
from th raw coals in the mouth-piece, muft pafs o^er '““'y—*
thefe burning coals before it can reach the flue FFF.
But this, though it would caufe a large quantity of the
fmoke to be burnt, would not completely prevent the
efcape and afcent of fmoke up the chimney ; for it is
not merely neceffary that the fmoke fhould be expofed
to a heat fufhcient to ignite it before it efcapes: unlefs,
at the fame time, a quantity of frelh air, able to furnilh
a fufficiency of oxygen for the combuftion of the fmoke,
can be brought into conta£l with it, it will ftill efcape
in an undecompofed ftate. The judicious admiflion of
frefli air, in fuch a manner that it can reach the fmoke,
without previoufly palling through the fire, and parting
with its oxygen in its paffage, and in fuch quantity as
not to cool the bottom of the boiler, but merely to
caufe the Imoke to burn, conftitutes the chief merit of
this invention ; and to us it appears that it will fully
anfwer the propofed end. Below' the upper fide of the
mouth-piece or hopper, and at about the diftance of
three-fourths of an inch from it, (this fpace being a
little more or lefs, according to the fize of the furnace),
is introduced a caft iron plate a n. This plate is above
the fuel, and the fpace between it and the top of the
hopper is open for the admiflion of a thin ftream of air,
which, rulhing down the opening, comes firft in contaft
with that part of the fire which is giving off the great-
ell part of the fmoke, viz. the fuel that has been lart in¬
troduced, mixes with it before it paffes over the fuel in
the interior, which is in a high flate of combuftion, and
enables it to enflame fo completely, that not a particle
of fmoke ever efcapes undecompofed.
“ The quantity of air thus admitted to pafs over the
upper furface of the fire, is regulated by a very Ample
contrivance. The plate a n refts at each end @n a flud,
or pin, projefling from the cheeks of the mouth-piece
A, or is furnilhed at each end with a pivot which works
in the cheeks} the faid pins or pivots being placed
about midway between the outfide and infide of the
mouth-piece or hopper, fo that, by elevating or de¬
prefling the edge a of the plate, the opening at n is
enlarged or diminilhed. When that degree of opening
which produces the bell effects are obtained, which is
eafily known, the plate a n is kept in its place by means
of a piece of iron introduced above it, and anfwering
the purpofe of a wedge.
“ Under the grates is the alh-hole I, the upper part
of which is furnilhed wuth doors SS, which, when Ihut,
prevent the heat from the front bars G from coming
out into the apartment, and incommoding the w'ork^
men.
“ Invited by an advertifement, we w'ent to Meffrs
Bunnell
(a) “ In the management of this furnace, what is chiefly to be attended to is, that the hopper be kept full of
coal, and either wholly or in part ftnall coal, to prevent, as much as poflible, air getting in by that paffage’, it is
alfo neceffary at fome times to ufe a flmtter of thin plate-iron, to be applied to the mouth of the hopper to ex¬
clude the entrance of air by that paflage.
(b) “ 'Ihefe bars are, in fadl, a grated door, kept in their pofition by a catch L, and which may be opened
at pleafure for cleaning the fire out. In fmall furnaces an opening here is all that is neceffary 5 the bars may
be dilpenfed with.
(c) “ Between the back end, </, of the bottom bars, and the breaft brickwork is reprefented in the plate
a feftion of a fluitter, which is fometimes opened for the purpofe of getting out the refufe of the fuel.
I
FUR
t 27° 1
FUR
ur naee
Bunnell and Silver, Bedford-ftreet, Covent Garden, to
•V— ’ fee ontj of ^hefe furnaces at work, and we were not a
little gratified in obferving that the fmalleft appearance
of fmuke could not be perceived iffuing from the top of
the chimney. The advantages of fuch an improvement
can hardly be better illuftrated than by mentioning
what had aftually happened with this iteam engine.
The fmoke, before the improved iurnace was employed,
incommoded the neighbourhood fo much, that it \vas
flopped as an intolerable nuifance. Now it is fo far
from diflurbing any one, that, without being admitted
to fee the engine, it would be adually impoffible to
know when it is at work.
46 Thefe furnaces, we underftand, nave alio been a-
dopted by many intelligent manufa&urers at Leeds and
at Manchefter. At the latter place, if we may credit
newfpaper reports, feveral manufaclurers have had then
works indiaed as nuifances for not having adopted the
improvement; the magiftrates arguing, that, though
the welfare of the place required that iuch inconveni¬
ences (hould be fubmitted to while no poflible cure for
them was known, the health and comfort of the inhabi¬
tants equally demand, now that the evil can be done
away, that fmoking furnaces Ihould not be permitted in
the place. .
“ We earneftly recommended to owners oi Iteam en¬
gines, and alfo to thofe who are annoyed by them, to
endeavour to bring this improvement into general ule.
Indeed, we entertain no doubt of its being umveriaLy
adopted fooner or later 5 for it yields advantages not
only in point of cleanlinefs, comfort, and health, but
alfo in point of intereft *, all the fmoke ufually difchar-
ged at the top of the chimney, being in fact, 10 much
good fuel, that only wanted the contaft of frefh air to
inflame it under the boiler. It is a faft well known,
that the flame which is often feen ifluing from the chim¬
neys of founders, &c. has no exiftence except at the
top of the chimney : while afeending the flue it is only
denfe fmoke, eonfifting of the azote of the atmofpheric
air decompofed in palling through the fire of hydro¬
gen coal tar, and carbonaceous matter, of fuch a high
temperature, that it only wants oxygen to make it in¬
flame fpontaneoufly : this it obtains from the atmosphe¬
ric air into which itafeends, and then prefents fuch ap¬
pearances as would make a hafty obferver adopt the opi¬
nion that the flame had afeended, as flame, from the
fuel in the furnace which is by no means the cafe. A
confideration of this Ample fad will convince any per-
fon that it is not an inconfiderable proportion of the
fuel that is thus wafted. Nor is this the only lofs fuf-
tained : the quantity of heat required not merely to ren¬
der fuch a portion of the fuel volatile, but to give to it
a temperature able to produce the effeft of which we
have taken notice, is itfelf furnilhed at the expence of
an extra and unneceffary quantity of fuel. 1 he whole
wafte in many cafes is, we are perfuaded, not lefs than
Furnace for an eighth of the whole fuel employed.”
{'melting One of the moft important furnaces, particularly tor
this country, where, although great and eflential im¬
provements have been made by induftry and ingenuity,
the manufa&ure is yet in its infancy, is that for the
fmelting of iron. . j . m r
We ihall therefore enter more fully into the detail oi
the hiftory, conftruaion, and general principles of the
operation'of blaft furnaces j and in tracing their pro¬
iron
greflive hiftory, it may be obferved, that in this coun- Furnace,
try it has experienced a revolution, of which no analo-1 1 v""**
gous inftanee has occurred in other countries.
In the early and barbarous periods of fociety, before Hiftory
the introduction of agriculture, the furfaceof a country
is ufually covered with extenfive forefts. From this cir-
cumftance wood, as being moft acceflible, abundant,
and of eafieft application, is ufually employed by man¬
kind for the purpofes of fuel. In the progrefs of popu¬
lation and improvement, other advantages were derived
from the general ufe of wood as fuel } and among thele
the improvement of the climate, and clearing land^ for
the purpofes of agriculture, were none of the leaft. Ihe
application of wood as fuel to different manufaftories,
had no doubt alfo an early origin •, and in the manu¬
facture of iron, if conducted on a fcale of any extent,
the demand for fuel of this kind muft have been very
great. If, then, during the gradual improvement and
profperity of this country, this manufacture, in place
of remaining ftationary, or declining, from diminiftied
confumption, has increafed in capital and extent, with¬
out fome fubftitute for wood, the art would have been
long before this time entirely loft, becaufe it depended
on a flock which muft have rapidly declined, and even
its very exiftence was often far from being compatible
with the views and intereft of landhoMers; Such were
the circumftances in which Great Britain vas placed,
from the reign of Charles II. to the middle of the 18th
century. -During this period, being in a profperous
ftate, the manufactures and commerce of the country
increafed the demand for iron, while the fupply of
wood, one of the moft necefthry materials in its_ manu¬
facture, was greatly diminilhed. It is true, indeed,
that, previous to this period, pit-coal had been employ¬
ed as a fubftitute j but the prejudice of fome, and the
felfifti views of others, and efpecially the want of lufh-
cient mechanical powers, obftruaed the progrefs of
this mode of manufacture. When, however, theie dit-
ficulties were furmounted, and it was found that the
change of fuel in the blaft furnace was likely to prove
beneficial, this manufacture acquired new vigour and
improvements fucceeded each other in rapid fucceflion.
In a period of about 50 years, a complete revolution
was effeted, not only in relinquiftiing the mode of ma¬
king iron with charcoal and in employing pit-coal in
the blaft furnace, but alfo in the immenfe increafe ol
the manufacture. , ,
At what period the manufature of iron commenced and p» ^
in Britain, cannot be preciiely afcertained. It has, S^
however, been fuppofed, that the Phoenicians, who
wrought the tin mines of Cornwall, may have introdu¬
ced into the country men who were {killed in metallic
ores, and were capable of eftimating their value, y
converting thefe mineral riches to fuch purpofes as then-
own neceffities, or the wants of the inhabitants, might
require. It is probable alfo, that the mvafion ot Lng-
land by the Danes, and their eftabhihment in this
country, added fomething to their former knowledge
In the art of mining and manufacturing the ores of iron.
In fupport of this conjeaure, the large heaps of Icoria
found in many parts of England, and having a conh-
derable thicknefs.of foil upon them, have been denomi¬
nated from time immemorial, “ Danes cinders', an
indeed fo early as the year 1620, large oaks were found
in a ftate of decay, upon the tops ox iome of thole hi ^
FUR
i ii'nace.
—
Ni oerof
fur :es in
Eh; nd.
Pit
firft .ed,
of fcoria. But although thefe may have been very an¬
cient manufactures, it is the lefs probable that the pro¬
duction of thefe cinders is to be aferibed to the Wait
furnace ; for at that remote period the manufacture was
chiefly directed to the fabrication of fmall portions of
malleable iron, in what were called foot-blaits and
bloomeries. The art of caiting or moulding in iron
was either altogether unknown, or in fo rude a ftate,
that it could not be profecuted with much profpeCt of
advantage. Pig or cait iron, if it was at all produced,
was then of the moft refraCtory nature for being con¬
verted into malleable iron. It was not till a future pe¬
riod, when improvements had been made in machinery,
and the advantages of a divilion of labour were known,
that different furnaces were conftruCted j one for manu¬
facturing pig iron, and another for converting it into
malleable iron. To this the blaft furnace feems to have
owed its exiilence, and it is to be confidered as an im¬
provement of the advantages which are derived from a
divihon of labour. The blaft furnaces being exclufively
appropriated to the making of pig iron, the attentive
manufacturer would foon perceive that the products of
the furnace were often different from each other. Re¬
peated obfervation and experience would enable him to
ascertain what was the caule of this difference. Obfer-
ving that an additional quantity of fuel rendered the
forged pig iron more fuflble, this circumftance would
fuggeft the practicability of carting it into fhape. Hence
probably arofe the art of moulding, which afterwards,
as well as the bar-iron forge, became an appendage to
the Mart furnace. After this new manufacture became
familiar, the advantage of dividing the produCt of the
blaft furnace into gray melting iron, or into forged pigs,
according to the demand, would be obvious.
In the year 1615, according to Dudley, who has
ftated the fact in his Melallum Mortis, there were no
lefs than 300 blait furnaces in England for fmelting
iron ore with charcoal, and each furnace was fupplied
with, fuel upon an average of 40 weeks in the year.
Taking the average produce of pig iron at each furnace
of 15 tons per week, or 600 tons per annum, the total
annual quantity will amount to 180,000 tons, which is
a greater quantity than has ever been produced in Bri¬
tain fince that period. It is fuppofed that this quantity
may be greatly exaggerated, but at the fame time it is
allowed that the iron manufacture was, at this early
period, highly profperous and productive. But in the
progrefs of agriculture tmd the increafe of population,
it was neceffary to clear the land for the purpofe of cul¬
tivation. From this circumftance, as well as from the
great confumption of wood for the navy, the fupply of
fuel was greatly diminifhed ; fo that the iron manufac¬
ture became confequently lefs productive.
It is curious to remark that, although pit-coal was
krunvn long before this period, and was wrought at
Newcaftle previous to the year 1272, and great quan¬
tities of it were annually exported to Holland and the
■Low Countries, and was ufed in the fmith’s forge, and
ot er manufactures which require a ftrong continued
heat, yet in England the prejudice againft its ufe in the
manufacture of call iron was fo inveterate, that when it
was firft propofed and attempted, every obftacle which
could be devifed was thrown in its way. During the
reign of James I. feveral patents were granted for the
exelufive privilege of manufacturing iron with pit-coal.
t 471 ]
FUR
None of the adventurers, however, fucceeded in their Furnace,
attempts till the year 1619, when Dudley made pig-
iron in a blaft furnace, but produced only three tons in
the week. At this time the price of iron had rifen, in
confequence of many of the iron works having flopped
for want of wood as fuel. To thofe manufacturers,
therefore, who could flill be furnilhed with a fupply of
wood, the manufacture was highly profitable, fo that
they oppofed any new attempt by which the price of
Iron was likely to be diminifhed.
After this period, the progrefs of the iron manufac¬
ture was greatly interrupted from other caufes. Amidft
the diftraCtion occafioned by the civil wars which raged
in England, little improvement was to be expeCted.
It appears, however, that patents were granted during
the Commonwealth, for the exclufive privilege of ma¬
nufacturing iron in the new way ; and in one of thefe,
it was believed at the time, that the ProteClor himfelf
had a fliare. All thefe experienced the fate of the
former, and no manufacture of any extent was fueceE-
fully eftabliftied. In the year 1663, Dudley in his ap¬
plication for his laft patent, ftated that he could pro¬
duce at one time feven tons of pig iron in the week
with a furnace of an improved conftruCtion, 27 feet
fquare, and with bellows which one man, without much
fatigue, could work for an hour.
Thus, as the demand for wood for the purpofes of
fuel in this manufacture increafed, and the growth of
timber was greatly diminiflied, the manufacturer was
forced by neceflity to have recourfe to the ufe of pit-
coal ; and when various valuable improvements had
been made on machinery, and particularly when the
beneficial effeCts of the fleam engine had been afeer-
tained, the iron manufacturer faw himfelf in pofleffion
of a command of power in the management of his ma¬
terials, of which he had formerly no conception. The
fmall furnace fupplied with air from bellows conltruCted
of leather, which was moved by means of oxen, horfes,
or men, went into difufe, when larger furnaces were
introduced, with an increafe of the column of air, for
the purpofe of exciting combuftion. But at this period,
when the manufacture derived new vigour from the in¬
troduction of the fleam engine, and the general im¬
provement in machinery, it feemed, from the operation
of other caufes, and particularly from the deficiency of
fuel, to decline rapidly. The demand for iron in the
manufactured ftate, and particularly for bar iron, had
increafed, while the quantity produced gradually dimi-
nifhed. Recourfe was now had to foreign markets for
a fupply, and the importation of Ruffian and Swedifti 1
iron then commenced. Of the 300 blaft furnaces fpoken
of by Dudley, 59 only exifted; and eftimating their
annual produce at about 295 tons to each furnace, the
total amount did not much exceed 17,000 tons.
Such was the ftate of the manufacture of iron in
England and Wales, before the introduction of pit-
coal ; and thus it appears, that in a period of from 100
to 130 years, it had fuffered a diminution of more than
50,000 tons annually. It proved of Angular benefit to
this manufacture, that the fteam engine, which had
then become a powerful machine, was introduced, for
the purpofe of raifing and comprefling the air, and
could be employed in thofe places where materials were
abundant, but where there was a deficiency of water for
moving, the machinery. Befides, experience now taught
the. .*
FUR
[ 272 ]
FUR
Tjirnace. the manufa'&ure, that the produce of his furnace could
     be increafed by enlarging the diameter of ttie fteam cy¬
linder, for rendering the vacuum under the pitfon more
perfect •, and it uas foon found that, by mcreafmg thete
effeas, fuch a quantity of pig iron could be produced
from the coak of pit-coal, as would be attended with a
fuitable profit. It is fcarcely to be wondered at, that
this circumftance Ihould have long remained a tecret j
for a fmall quantity of air only being neceffary to ig¬
nite the charcoal furnace, whether it arofe from the pe¬
culiar inflammability of the fuel, or the fmall capacity
of the furnace, it was always under the eye of the ma-
nufa£turer, and he would more frequently experience
the inconveniences of overblowing than underblowing
the furnace. It feems too extremely probable, that
pit-coal, being confidered in every refpeft inferior to
charcoal, the manufacturer would proceed with great
caution in enlarging the column of air, or mcreafing
its denfity *, and thus the advantages to be derived [rom
its ufe would be in a great meafure loft. When, how¬
ever, experience had taught them a different leffon, the
limits to the quantity of air that might be direfted to a
coak blaft furnace, before any injurious effects arole,
were not very obfervable. It was found, indeed, that
the denfity of air diminiftied the quantity of the pro¬
duce, and the fame law feemed to hold with regard to
pit-coal as well as to wood,-that the fofter qualities
might be overblown, while the. ftrata of a denfer and
more com pad! confiftence remained undimmifhed be¬
fore a heavier blaft. . f •
Comes into Between the years 1750 and 1760 the coa.c ot pit-
and on an annual average, not lefs than 15,000 tons of Furnace,
^Ab'out the end of the reign of &ueen Elizabeth we
are informed by Dudley, that blait furnaces had been
conftruftt-d on f<> large a fcale, and with iuch a power
of machinery, as to yield a daily produce ot more than
two tons of charcoal iron •, but it is probable that io
large a produce could only be obtained m fituatums
where there was a copious fupply of water, and wvere
the water wheels and bellows employed were of large
fize. In the more ordinary modes of conducting this
procefs, furnaces of a much fmaller fize were »
and thefe received the fupply of air from hand bellows
which were moved by men, and fometimes by cattle.
From the fuperiority of the manufadture of iron guns,
mortars, &c. England poffeffed at this time a conlider-
able export trade •, but as pit-coal had not yet been ap¬
plied to any departments in the manuiaanre of iron, it
feems probable that thefe articles were caft from the
large blaft furnaces, becaufe the flame of wood, com¬
paring it with that of pit coal, poffefling but feeble ef-
feas, would render the application of the reverberating
furnace (if it was then known), of no ufe in the calling
of guns and mortars. The want of pit-coal m every e-
partment of the foundery, greatly retarded the perfec¬
tion to which the art of moulding might have arrived
and even obftruaed its improvement. I he backw ard
ftate in which the art of calling and moulding l°ng re¬
mained in this country, (hewed that the want of this
material of the fmelting fuel m the blaft furnace was
long feverely felt; and •
Cfctries into Between the years 1750 and 1760 the coak of pit- lo"g.evere y ^^ ^joyed fewer advantages,
general ufe. coal was preUy generally fubftituted for charcoa!, m e ^ ^ id rog^.efs in the improvement of this
uioU The iron manufacture affumed new vi- m \ P nr.t imnrobable
blaft furnace.' The iron manufacture affumed new _
gour, and in a period of 30 years it experienced in
England and Wales a very remarkable progrefs. From
the general and increafing ufe of pit-coal, it is probable
that many of the charcoal works were fooncr relinqmlh-
ed than they would otherwife have been, the hlttory
of the celebrated foundery of Carron in Scotland, a -
fords us a curious inftance of the progrefs of the ule ot
pit-coal in this manufacture. Thefe extenfive opera¬
tions commenced about the year 1760. I he blowing,
as was the praCtice at the time, was performed by means
of large bellows, moved by a water wheel, but as
there was a fcanty fupply of air, and as this was defi¬
cient in denfity, the weekly produce of the furnace
rarely exceeded 10 or 1 2 tons, and often m fummer this
quantity was.confiderably diminiftied. With a view to
improve the operation, immenie quantities of wood
charcoal were prepared, and it was found that the pro¬
cefs of fmelting fueceeded much better with this kind of
fuel than with the mineral coal which was dug out in
the neighbourhood. But in the improvement of ma¬
chinery, more effeCtual means were difeovered to pro¬
cure a blaft nf fufficient force and denfity for the igni¬
tion of pit coal, wheels of greater power were conftruc-
ted • the ufe of the bellows was rehnquilhed, and in
their place large iron cylinders, fo contrived as to blow
both up and down, were introduced. Thus, a larger
column of air, of three or four times the former denfity,
was obtained, and the beneficial effeas anfing from the
improve ents were foon perceived j for the fame fur¬
nace which formerly produced 10 or 12 tons in the
week, fometimes yielded 40 tons in the fame time ■,
who m many umci ~
made more rapid progrefs in the improvement of this
manufafttire. Before this period, it is not improbable
that the ufe of pit-coal might have been fuggefted to
the manufaaurer, and that this material, employed as a
fuel, might have been confidered as an auxiliary, or as
a fubftitute in various departments of the procefs. I he
inflammability of this fubftance, and its tendency to be
converted into a cinder, as well as the general decay of
wood, would afford fufticient ground for what ^ght be
confidered by many as a ufelefs {peculation ^ be-
nefits of this manufacture as it then flood had been
carefully inveftigated, and fully appreciated by chofe
wdio were interefted in it. The fupply of wood only
feemed to limit its extent, but for want of a lu*Lie
fupply of materials, the eftabhfhment of new wmks be
came impracticable, thole alrocdy engaged in the bufi
nefs wereP anxious to preferve the fupply they enjoyed,
however limited, rather than encourage an7 £
or change in the procefs, which, by the iubftitution ot
pit-coal for charcoal from wood, would probably give
new adventurers and fpeculators a fupenority of the
market. Befides, many of the furnaces ^Jef
then going, were at a great diftance from
that the general ule of this fubftance, and the aa
tages to be derived from it, would be highly injurious
t0 Such was "the ftate of this manufaftore when the ufe
of pit-coal in this procefs was dilcovered^r when it
propoled to employ it for th.s purpofe. With this ^
James I. in the year 16x2, granted a patent ImSimon
Sturtevant, for the exclufm manufaftinrc of ^
pit-coal, for the period of 31 years. In 0-tain;ivfltge)
4
other
venturer
!!iley ob-
Sis a pa-
^pts
l.de it.
FUR [2
privilege, the patentee obliged hirnfelf to publilh a full
account of his difcoveries, and this appeared in a work
in quarto, under the title of “ Metallica.” It appears,
however, that Sturtevant had not fucceeded in his
fchemes; for in the following year he gave up his privi¬
lege, but it is not known to what caufes the failure is
to be aleribed.
After Sturtevant, a John Ravenfon, embarked in the
fame hazardous undertakings and although he procured
a patent without much trouble, he had loon to encoun¬
ter difficulties in the way of ultimate fuccefs, analogous
to thofe which had prevailed over the perfeverance of
Sturtevant, and induced him to relinquilh the farther
profecution of his fchemes. He obtained his patent on
conditions fimilar to thofe on which his predeceflbr pro¬
cured it, in confequence of which he publilhed his
Metallica” in 1613. All his fucceflbrs were like
him, obliged to refign their patents from the want of
adequate fuccefs.
Dudley procured his patent in the year 1619, and
notwithftanding he affirmed that he manufa&ured not
more than three tons per week, he found it a lucrative
undertaking. This difcovery he brought to perfe&ion
at the works of his father in Worcefterlhire j but by
the influence of thofe who wilhed to lhare in the emolu¬
ments ariflng from the manufa&ure of iron with pit-
coal, his patent was limited to 14 inftead of 31 years.
He informs us himfelf, that, during the greater part of
this period, he was enabled to fell pig and bar iron
much cheaper than any of his competitors ; but as his
remarkable fuccefs drew their envy upon him, his de¬
voted works wrere at length deltroyed by a lawlefs mob,
urged on,, it is fuppofed, to perpetrate fo atrocious a
deed oy his rivals in bulinefs. In this unmerited treat¬
ment of the fanguine but unfortunate Dudley, the coke
pig procefs unqueflionably experienced an irreparable
lofs. He had fo many rivals to contend with, by virtue
of the original ground he occupied as a manufadturer,
and his attachment to the caufe of royalty was lb fin-
cere, that his improvements were effedtually prevented
from arriving at lading or general utility. Could he
have procured a new patent after the reftoration, there
is little doubt but he wmuld have again entered with
avidity on the laborious paths of difcovery. In peti¬
tioning for the. recovery of his ancient privileges, we
find him declaring that inftead of three, he was enabled
to manufadlure feven tons per week of cuke pig iron, in
confequence of a large furnace, and an improved bel¬
low's.
lo .fland clear as much as poffible of the method of
operation which Dudley had difcovered, one Captain
Buck, .Major Wildman, and feme others, conftrudfed
large ah-furnaces in the foreft of Dean, into which they
put clay pots, for containing the requifite preparations
c ore and charcoal. Pit-coal was employed for the
purpofe of heating the furnaces 5 and it is highly pro¬
bable that thefe new adventurers were fanguine enough
to believe that, by tapping the pots below, the feparat-
cd metal would flow out. This ftrange method of affiay-
mg w-as loon found impradicable ; for the heat was not
Efficient mtenfity to produce an entire feparation.;
rue pots gave way, and the profecution of this ridiculous
leh-me was fpe^dily relinquiffied.
i he manufadture of iron received no fartheriia-
pren'emenb for abo^t a century after this period. It
73 1 FUR
was found to be pra&icable j but bowr to procure fuch a Fumuen.
quantity as to produce a lucrative return, was not to ' * “r
be derived from the mere knowledge of the particular
proportions of the raw materials. Had machinery
reached that degree of perfedlion in the time of the ill
fated Dudley which it has fince done, we have good
reaion to believe that the rapid progrefs of the pig iron
manufacture would have dated its origin from the sera
ot that enterprifing genius.
We {hall conclude this hiftorical account of the iron Produce ef
manufacture, with a view of the progreffive quantity b*.
produced at the different furnaces in Great Britain at BrUain‘
different periods.
r s Tons,
in 1620, the 300 blaft furnaces mentioned by
Dudley, which exifted in England and Wales,
produced each at an average
At a later period, but previous to the ufe of pit-
coal, 59 furnaces produced each on an average
In 1788, 24 charcoal furnaces, which were then
going in England, produced each on an
average
In 1.788, 53 blaft furnaces, in which coak from
pit-coal was ufed, yielded each on an average,
nearly . _
In 1788, eight furnaces in Scotland produced
on an average, each
In 1796, there were in England and Wales,
104 furnaces, from each of which was obtain¬
ed on an average
In 1796, 17 furnaces in Scotland produced
each on an average
But from the above flatement we are not enabled to
draw an accurate conclufion ofthedegree of improvement
which has been introduced in blowing machinery ; for
among the furnaces mentioned in 1796, were included
a number of charcoal blafts, which yielded only a fmall
pioduce. But the average produce of iron manufac¬
tured at pit-coal blaft furnaces, at no lefs an amount than
a 1 • r Tons.
At melting furnaces - „ 1200
At forge pig works _ . 2000
To what we have now faid, we fliall only give a view Prices at
of the prices of the produce of this manufacture, and (hft«rent
the channels of confumption for this immenfe quantity Peno<i'3*
of materials. " }
250
294
545
907
875
1048
946
Charcoal pig iron fold in 162c for
Ditto for melting in 1788
Ditto in 1798
Coak pig iron in the time of Dudley
Ditto in 1788,
Ditto in 1798,
Melting iron in 1802,
Per Ton.
L.6 o o
o
10
o
xo
10
10
The produce of pig iron in England and Wales,
and in Scotland, from 168 furnaces, has been calculated
at the immenfe quantity of i7?,ooc tons. It will be *
impoffible to fay with abfolute precifion what are the
channels into which this immenfe quantity of raw ma¬
terials p.afles for confumption j but the following views rw ^
wdl enable the reader to account for part of it." tion
Tons. iron.
Annual confumption in the erection of new fur¬
naces, forges, &c. - _ 50C0
^ 111 Annual
FUR
[ 274 ]
FUR
Furnace.
Annual confumption at forges in Britain, for
the manufacture of bar icon - ■
Purchafed by government in the date of can¬
nons, mortars, &c on an average of three
years, including the wafte m melting, 6ic.
with what is employed in the navy as bal¬
lad - * - '
Ditto by the India Company
Ditto for merchantmen
Ballail for India and merchantmen
Tons.
70,000
14,899
5>70°
11,000
5,000
Principles
of the blaft
furnace.
Plate
ccxxv.
fig-. 3.
.Defcription
of a fur¬
nace.
Let us now confider the condemn and general
principles of the blad furnace. The term ^ is em-
ployed at iron founderies, to figmfy the column of air
Ivhich is forced into the furnace for the purpofeoi promot¬
ing combudion. The velocity of this blad is Prod^
by the blowing machine impelling the contents of th
air-pump through one or two final apertures, and m
this way a column of air of various denfity is produced.
Here we propofe to avail ourfelves of what has been
done by Mr Muihet, .formerly of the Calder iron works
near Glafgow, a manufaaurer himfelf, who with much
philofophicaldilcrimination joins a great deal of excellent
practical obfervation. The many valuable hints which
he has fuggeded, will, we mid, not only be acceptable,
but prove highly beneficial in direfting and aihdjng
ihe views and operations of thofe concenied in this im-
^’iCha^e'a'cSr view of his reafonings and obferva-
tions on the nature and principles of the Wa! fun.ace
we (hall fird give his defcription of the building and
apparatus, and then detail what he has faid concerning
its management and mode of operation. .
Fie cf. reprefents a blad furnace with part of the
blowing machine. A, the regulating cylinder, eignt
feet diameter and eight feet high. B, thefloating pidon
loaded with weights proportionate to the power of
machine. C, the valve, by which the air is paded from
the pumping cylinder into the regulator : its length 26
inches and breadth 11 inches. D, the aperture by
which * the blad is forced into the furnace. Diameter
of this range of pipes 18 inches. The wider theie
pipes can with conveniency be ufed, ’efsf1&tlthehlr1^
tion, and the more powerful are the effeas of the blad.
F the blowing or pumping cylinder, fix feet diameter,
-nine feet high : travel of the pidon m this cylinder
from five to^feven feet per droke. F, the blowing
pidon and a view of one of the valves, of which there
are fometimes two, and fometimes four didnbuted over
the furface of the pidon. The area of each is propor-
ioned to the number of valves: commonly they are
t2+46 inches. G, a pile of fol.d done buildmg, on
which the regulating cylinder reds, and to which t
flanch and tilts of the blowing cylinder are attached.
H the fafety-valve, or cock-, by the fimple turning
of which the blad may be admitted to, or (hut oft from
the furnace, and paffed off to a collateral tube on the
oppofite fide. I, the tuyere, by which the blaft enters
the furnace. The end of the tapered pipe, which ap-
nroaches the tuyere, receives fmall pipes of various dia¬
meters from two to three inches, called no/e pipes.
Thefe’are applied at pleafure, and as the ftrength
and velocity of the blad may require. K, die bottom
of the hearth, two feet Iquare. L, the top of the
hearth two feet fix inches fquare. KL the height tace.
of the hearth fix feet fix inches. L is alfo the bottom
of the bodies, which here terminate of the fame fize as
the top of the hearth only the former are round, and
the latter fquare. M, the top of the bodies, 12 teet
diameter and eight feet of perpendicular height. IN,
the top of the furnace, at which the materials are
charged; commonly three feet diameter. Mrs, tie
internal cavity of the furnace from the top of the bodies
upwards, 30 feet high. NK, total height of the inter¬
nal parts of the furnace, 44^ feet. OO, the lining.
This is done in the niced manner with fire bricks made
on purpofe, 13 inches long and three inches thick
PP a vacancy which is left all round the outfide oi
-L * ’ . J . .1 1 j  1 .c Keoi-
the fird lining, three inches broad, and which is beat
full of coke-dud. This fpace is allowed for any ex-
panfion which might take place in contequence oi the
{welling of the materials by heat when defeendmg to
the bottom of the furnace. the fecond lining,
fimilar to the fird. R, a cad-iron hntel on which the
bottom of the arch is fupported. RS, the rife of the arch.
ST height of the arch \ on the outiide 14 feet, and 10
feet wide VV, the extremes of the health, ten feet
fquare. This and the boih-dones are always made from
a coarfe gritted freedone, whole frad'ture prefents large
rounded grains of quartz, connefted by means of a ce-
meFigle4. reprefents the foundation of the furnace, and Fig. 4.
a full view of the manner in which the falle bottom is
AA, the bottom dones of the hearth. L, dratum
of bedding fand. CC, paffages by which the vapours,
which may be generated from the damps, are palled oft.
DD Dillars of brick. The letters in the horizontal view,
of the fame figure, correfpond to fimilar letters m the
dotted elevation. „ t ^
Fig. 5. AA, horizontal feffion of the diameter of the Fig. s.
bodied, the lining and vacancy for duffing at M. C,
viewr of the top of the hearth at L. , _
Fig. 6. vertical fide-fe£tion of the hearth and bodies; Figi
{hewing the tymp and dam-dones, and the tymp and
dam-plates. «, the tymp-done. b, the tymp-plate,
which is wedged firmly to the done, to keep it firm in
cafe of fplitting by the great heat c, dam-done, whicn
occupies the whole breadth of the bottom of the hearth,
excepting about fix inches, which when the furnace is
at work, is filled every cad with drong fand This
done is dismounted by an iron plate of confiderab
thicknefs, and of a peculiar ftiape and from this cal'
ed the dam-plate. The top of the dam-done and plate
is two, three, or four inches under the level of the tu¬
yere hole. The fpace betwixt the bottom of the tymp
and the dotted line is alfo rammed full of drong land,
and fometimes fire-clay. This is called the tymp-dop-
ping, and prevents any part of the blad from being un-
'''The'rq^rot'it bafe of this blaft-fumace is 38
feet; th^extreme height from the falfe bottom to the
t()^HavbTg Cgiven the'above defcription of the condrue-Mode o
tion of th" furnace, Mr Mudiet next proceeds to take oferat
view of its mode of operation and management i he
operations (he obferves) I am about to defenbe ha
never as vet received any explanation confonant to tru
philosophy or chemical fafts; yet there are fe' J1
Bring
asi prepa.
FUR [2
prefent a more beautiful chain of affinities, decompoli-
J tion, and recombination, than the manufafture of iron
in all its various ftages. An extenlive foundery is a la¬
boratory fraught with phenomena of the moft intereft-
ing nature in chemiltry and natural philofophy : are
we not then juftly furprifed to find that prejudice ftill
reigns there •, and that the curious manipulations of thefe
regions are ftill throuded with error and mifconception j
as if their dingy ftrufture forbade the entrance of genius,
er configned her laborious unlettered Tons to an endlefs
ftretch of mental obfeurity ?”
Having deferibed the furnace, he continues, “ I
fliall proceed to detail the train of preparation neceil'ary
before the furnace is brought to produce good melting
iron.
“ The furnace being finiffied, the bottom and fides
of it, for two feet up the fquare funnel, receive a lining
of common bricks upon edge, to prevent the ftones from
Ihivering or mouldering when the fire comes in contact
with it. On the front of the furnace is erefted a tem¬
porary fire-place, about four feet long, into the bottom
of which are laid correfponding bars. The fide-walls
are made fo high as to reach the under furface of the
tymp-ftone; excepting a fmall fpace, which afterwards
receives an iron plate of an inch and a half thick, by
way of a fcover : This alfo preferves the tjmp ftone
from any injury it might luftain by being incontad with
the flame. A fire is now kindled upon the bars, and
is fed oeeafionally with fmall coals. As the whole ca¬
vity of the furnace ferves as a chimney for this fire, the
draught in confequence is violent, and the body of heat
carried up is very confiderable. In the courfe of three
weeks the furnace will thus become entirely free from
damp, and fit for the reception of the materials : when
this is judged proper the fire place is removed, but
the interior bricks are allowed to remain till the opera¬
tion of blowing commences. Some loofe fuel is then
thrown upon the bottom of the furnace, and a few baf-
kets of cokes are introduced ; thefe are allowed to be¬
come thoroughly ignited before more are added. In
this manner the furnace is gradually filled ; fometimes
entirely full, and at other times j-Sths or 3*4ths full.
The number of balkets full depend entirely upon the
fize of the furnace : that in the plate will contain 900
balkets. If tbe coal is fplint, the weight of each baf-
ket-full will be nearly ncib’. X 900=99,0001b. cokes.
As this quality of cokes is made with a lofs of nearly
50 per cent, the original weight in raw coals will be
equal to 198,0001b. When we reflect that this vaft body
of ignited matter is replaced every third day, when tbe
furnace is properly at work, a notion may be formed of
the immenfe quantity of materials requifite, as alfo the
confequent induftry exerted to fupply One or more fur¬
naces for the fpace of one year.
“ When the furnace is fufficiently heated through-
75 1 FUR
out, fpeciilc quantities of cokes, iron-ftone, and blail- Funiact.
furnace cinders are added : thefe are called charges.
The cokes are commonly filled in balkets, which, at •“ l ‘ -
all the various iron-works are nearly of a fize. The
weight of a balket, however, depends entirely upon the
nature and quality of the coal, being from Jo to 11 2lb.
each (d). The iron-ftone is filled into boxes, which,
when moderately heaped, contain jblb. of torrefied iron-
ftone ; they often exceed this when the ftone has been
feverely roafted. The firft charges which a furnace re¬
ceives, contain but a fmall proportion of iron-ftone to
the weight of cokes : this is afterwards increafed to a
full burden, which is commonly four balki ts cokes,
3 20lb } two boxes iron-ftone, 1 1 zlb. ; one box of plait-
furnace cinders, 60 or 701b. (E). At new works, where
thefe cinders cannot be obtained, a iimilar quantity of
limeftone is ufed.
“ The defeent of the charge, or burden is facilitated
by opening the furnace below two or three times a-day,
throwing out the culd cinders, and admitting, f r an
hour at a time, a body of frefti air. This opeiati is
repeated till the approach of the iron-ftone and ui.d r,
which is always announced by a partial fufion, and the
dropping of lava through the iron bars, introduced to
fupport the incumbent materials while thofe on the bot¬
tom are carried away. The filling above is regularly
continued, and when the furnace at the top has acquired
a confiderable degree of heat, it is then judged tune to Fime to
introduce the blail j the preparations neceffary fur which F- lhe
are the following :— WIL
“ The dam-ftone is laid in its place firmly imbedded
in fire-clay ; the dam-plate is again imbedded on this
with the fame cement, and is fubje£t to the fame incli¬
nation On the top of thi-! plate is a flight depreffion,
of a curved form, towards that fide fartheft did ant from
the blart, for the purpok of concentrating the fcoria,
and allowing it to flow off in a conneHed ftream, as it
tends to furmount the level of the dam. From this
notch to the level of the floor a declivity of brick-work
is eredted, down which the fcoria of the furnace flows
in large quantities. Th opening betwixt the dam and
fide-walls of the furnace, called the fau/d, is then built
up with fand, the loofe bricks are removed, and the fur¬
nace bottom is covered with powdered-lime or chare al-
duft. The ignited cokes are n w allowed to fall down
and are brought forward with iron bars nearly to a level
with the dam. The fpace between the furface of tbe
cokes and the bottom of the tymp-plate is next rammed
hard with ftrong binding fand ; and thefe cokes, which
are expofed on the outfide, are covered with coke-duff.
Thefe precautions being taken, the tuyere-hole is then
opened and lined with a foft mixture of fire-clay and
loam : the blaft is commonly introduced into the fur¬
nace at firft with a fmall difeharging-pipe, which is
afterwards increafed as occafion may require. In two
Mm2 hours
(d) “This fame variety in the coal renders it almoft impoffible, under one deferiptioh, to give a juft idea of
the proportions ufed at various blaft furnaces; to avoid being too diffufe, I fliall confine my defeription connefted
to SqUi^ °f 3 medmm ^uality’ or a m^xture tylint and free-coal, a balket of which will weigh from 781b,
fiiJ1 u ^ ^ preference at firft is always given to blaft-furnace cinders in place of lime ; being already vitri-
vitr’id cruft16 °f fufl0n* and tend to Pre^rve furface of the hearth by glazing it over with a black
Furnace
Unfed ir.e-
Ku kt out.
•Jhara tiers
of the pro¬
duce.
F U U t 2
hours after Mowing, a confiderable quantity of-lava will
be accumulated ; iron bars are then intro ucec, an
perforations made in the compreffed matter at the bot¬
tom of the furnace 5 the lava is admitted to all parts of
the hearth, and foon thoroughly heats and glazes the
furfaces of the fire-ilone. Shortly after this it riles to a
level with the notch in the dam-plate and by its own
accumulation, together with the forcible aa,on of the
Malt, it flows over. Its colour is at firfl black ,
frafture denfe and very ponderous *, the form it aflumes
in running off is flat and branched, fometimes in long
ftreams, and at other times lels extenlive. It the pre¬
paration has been well condufted, the colour of the un¬
der will foon change to white; and the metal, which
in the Hate of an oxyde formerly coloured be
1c ft in a difengaged date in the furnace When the
metal has rifen nearly to a level with the dam, it is
then let out by cutting away the hardened loam of the
fauld, and conveyed by a channel, made in land, to
its proper deftination j the principal channel, or run¬
ner1, is called the/aw, the lateral moulds are called the
In fix days after the commencement of blowing,
the furnace ought to have wrought hcrfelj clear, an
have acquired fapacity fufficient to contain from 5coo
to 7ooo weight of iron. The quality ought alfo to be
richly carbonated, fo as to be of^value and eftimation
in the pig-market. At this period, with a quality of
coal as1 formerly meolioned, .he charge »■ »
creafed to the following proportions .--live baikets
cokes, qoolb. j fix boxes iron-ftone, 3361b.) one box
An^’nalyfis of the fmelting operation, and the ten¬
dency which the individual agents have to produce
change in the quality and quantity of the ^n, come
next under confideration. Let us, however firft notice
the charaaeriflic features exhibited by the difleien
kinds of iron while in fufion, whereby the quality of the
metal may be iuftly defined. , , •
“When fine (N° I.) or fuper-carbonated crude iron
is run from the furnace, the ftream of metal as it iffm s
from the fauld, throws off an infinite number ^
limit fparkles ef carbone. 1 he furface s covered
with a fluid pellicle of carburet of iron, which, as t
)ws rears itfolf up in the molt delicate folds: at fiift
the fluid metal appears like a denfe, ponderous ftream
but, as the collateral moulds become fide,. , 1 ex
a general rapid motion from the furface of tde pigs
the centre of many points ) millions of the fineft undu¬
lations move upon each mould, delaying the greateft
nicety and rapidity of movement, conjoined with an
uncommonly beautiful variegation of colour which
language is inadequate juftly to defenbe. Such metal,
in quantity, will remain fluid for 20 minutes after it is
run from the furnace, and when cold will have its
faee covered with the beautiful carburet of 1101 a -
ready mentioned, of an uncommonly rich and biilhant
appearance. When the furface of the metal is not car¬
bureted it is fmooth like forged iron, and always con¬
vex In this ftate iron is-too rich for melting without
the addition of coarfe metal, and is unfit to be u.ed m
a cupola furnace for making fine callings, where thin-
mefs and a good Ikin are requifite. . -
„N° 4.or oxygenated crude iron, nhen .ffuing from
the Waft tonace, throws off from all parts of the flmd
76 1 F U K
furface a vaft number of metallic fparks: they a rife Furnas
from a different caufe than that exerted in the former v-
inftance. The extreme privation of carbone renders the
metal fubjeft to the combination of oxygen fo loon as
it comes into contact with atmofphenc air. 1 ns truth 13
evidently manifeited by the ejedion of fmall fpherules
of iron from all parts of the iurfaee ) the deflagration
does not, however, take place till the globule hasbeen
thrown two or three feet up in the air j it then inflames
and feparates with a flight hifling explofion, into a
great many minute particles of a brilliant fire. \v hen
thefe are collected they prove to be a true oxyde ot
iron but fo much faturated with oxygen, as to poflels no
magnetic obedience. The furface of oxygenated iron,
when running, is covered with waving flakes of an obfeure
fmoky flame, accompanied with a hiflmg noife) form¬
ing a wonderful contrail with the fine rich covering of
plumbago in the other ftate of the metal, occafionally
parting and exhibiting the iron in a ftate of.the greatelt
apparent purity, agitated in numberlefs minute fibre*-,
from the abundance of the carbone united with the metal,
“ When iron thus highly oxygenated comes to reft,
fmall fpecks of oxyde begin to appear floating upon the
furface : thefe increafe in fize ) and when the metal has
become folid, the upper furface is found entirely cover¬
ed with a fcafo of blue oxyde of various ftuckneiles, de¬
pendent upon the ftage of oxygenation or extreme-
privation of carbone. This oxyde, in common contains
ibout 1 5 per cent, of oxygen, and is very obedient to
the magnet. In place ol a dam blue fmooth furfa e,
convex and richly carbonated, the metal will exhibit
a deep, rough, concave face, which, when the oxyde
is removed, prefents a great number of deep pits
This iron in fufion ftands lefs convex than carbonated
iron, merely becaufe it is lefs fufceptible of a ftate m ex¬
treme divifion ) and indeed it foems a principle m A
metallic fluids, that they are convex in proportion to
the quantity of carbone with which they are faturat _ .
This iron flows dead and ponderous and rarely parts m
fhades but at the diftance of fome inches from each othm
“ This is a flight fketch of the appearance ol the
two extreme qualities of crude or pig iron, when in a
ftate of fulion. According to the divifion formerly
made, there ftill remain two intermediate ftages ot
quality to be deforibed : thefe are, carbonated and
earbomxygenated iron ) tfiat is N° 2--d 3 of the ma-
nufafturers. Carbonated iron exhibits^ like N ,
beautiful appearance in the runner and pig. i he break¬
ings of the^uid, in general,are lefs fine ) the agitation
lefs delicate ; though the divifion of the fluid is equa,j
if not beyond that of the other. When the interna
ebullition of the metal is greateft the undu ating lhades
are fmalleft and moft numerous : fometimes they aflun ^
the fliape of fmall fegments ; fometnnes fibrated groups,
and at other times minute circles, of a mellower co«m
that the ground of the fluid. The furface of the metal,
expofed to the external air, when cooling is generally
flightly convex, and full of punTures : thefe^ m iron u
a weak and fufible nature, are commonly fmaft n the
diameter, and of no great depth. In ft^ng
punctures are much w ider and deeper. I bis c »
however, is not infallible, when p.g-iron of d fie rent
works, is taken colfoaively. At each individual wo k
however, that iron will be ftremgeft whole honeycombs
are lai-geft and deepeft. w Carbo*
1'rnaee.
FUR [2
“ Carbo-oxygenated, or N° 3. pig-iron, runs fmooth-
ly, without any great degree of ebullition or difengage-
ment of metallic fparks. The partings upon its furface
are longer, and at greater diftanees from each other
than in the former varieties ; the lhape they aflame is
either elliptical, circular, or curved. In cooling, this
metal acquires a confiderable portion of oxyde j the
furface is neither markedly convex nor concave ; the
punctures are lefs, and frequently vanifh altogether.
Their abfence, however, is no token of a fmooth face
fucceeding : in qualities of crude iron oxygenated be¬
yond this, I have already mentioned that a concave fur¬
face is the confequence of the extreme abfence of car-
bone ; and that, in proportion as this principle is abfent,
the lurface of the iron acquires roughnefs and afperity.
“ It may perhaps be proper here to mention, once
for all, that although, for convenience, the manufadtu-
rer has, from a juft eftimation of the value of the metal
in a fubfequent manufacture, affixed certain numbers
for determinate qualities of iron, yet it is difficult to
lay at what degree of faturation of carbone each refpec-
tive term commences : fuffice it then to fay, that the
two alternative principles, oxygen and carbone, form
two diftinfl clafles, that in which oxygen predominates,
and that in which carbone predominates •, the latter
comprehends N° 1. and 2. of the manufacturers, the
former includes oxygenated, white and mottled ; and the
equalization of thefe mixtures form, as has already been
noticed, the variety of carbo-oxygenated crude iron.
_ “ I lhall now obferve feme things relative to the va¬
rious faces which crude iron aflumes. N° I. and 2. with
their intermediate qualities, poflfefs furfaces more or lefs
convex, and frequently with thin blifters : this we at¬
tribute to the prefence of carbone, which being plenti¬
fully interfperfed betwixt and throughout the particles
of the metal, the tendency which the iron has to llnink
in cooling is entirely done away ; it tends to diftend the
aggregate of the mafs, and to give a round face, by
gradually elevating the central parts of the furface,
■which are always laft to lole their fluidity.
“ Again, that quality of iron known by the name
®f N°3. or carbo-oxygenated, is moft commonly found
with a flat furrace. If we ft ill farther trace the appear¬
ance ol the furface of pig-iron, when run from the fur¬
nace, we fliall find N° 4. either with a white or mottled
fraefure, pofiefled of concave faces rough and deeply
Pftted. Beyond this it may be imagined that every
degree of further oxygenation would be productive of
a furface deeper in the curve, and rougher, with addi¬
tional afperities. The contrary is the cafe : when crude
iron is fo far debafed as to be run from, the furnace in
clotted lumps highly oxygenated, the furfaee of the.
pigs is fuund to be more convex than that of N° r. iron ;
but then the frafture of fuch metal, prefents an impure
mafs covered on both faces with a mixture of oxydated
iron, of-a blueilh colour, nearly metallic. In fhort, this
quality of iron is incapable of receiving fuch a degree
Oi fluidity as to enable us to judge whether the convexi¬
ty of its furface is peculiar to its ftate, or is owing to its-
vant or diviflon as a fluid, whereby the gradual confo-
hdation of the metal is prevented.
, hefe features fufficiently diftinguifh betwixt tbe
various qualities of crude iron after they are obtained
from the blaft furnace : there are, however, criterions
not ^ infallible, whereby we can prejudge the qi.ufti.
77 1
FUR
ty of the metal many hours before it is run from the Furnace,
furnace. Thefe are the colour and form of the fcoria, ~ ^ .
the colour of the vitrid cruft upon the working bars,^^^'' '
and the quantity of carburet which is attached to it. colour and
i he variety of colour and form in the cinder almoft form of the
univerfally indicate the quality of the metal on thefcoria-
hearth. Hence, from a long courfe of experience, have
arifen the following denominations : “ Cinder of ful-
phury iron “ Cinder of N° 1. N° 2. and N° 3.
and “ Cinder of ballaft iron.” Although at different
works, from local circumftances, the fame kind of fcoria
may not indicate precifely the fame quality of iron,
yet the difference is fo fmall that the following deferip-
tion of the various cinders may convey a very juft idea
of their general appearance.
“ When the fcoria is of a whitifh colour and fhort
form, branching from the notch of the dam, and emit¬
ting from its ftream beautiful fparks of ignited carbone,
refembling thofe ejeffted from a crucible of caft fteel in
fufion, expofed to external air, or to the combuftion of
fine fteel filings in a white flame ; if, when ifluing from
the orifice of the furnace, it is of the pureft white co¬
lour, poffefting no tenacity, but in a ftate of the greateft
fluid divillon, and, when cold, refembles a mafs of heavy
torrefied fpar, void of the fmalleft vitrid appearance,
hard and durable, it is then certain that the furnace
containsiron, i. e. fuper-carbonated iron. At
blaft furnaces, where a great quantity of air is thrown
in per minute, fuper-carbonated crude iron will be ob¬
tained with a cinder of a longer form, with a roiuffi,
flinty fra&ure towards the outfide of the column. °
“ 1 hat cinder which indicates the prefence of car¬
bonated iron in the hearth of the furnace, forms itfclf
into circular compact ftreams, which become oonfoli*
dated and inferted into each other 5 thefe are in length
from three to nine feet. Their colour when the iron
approaches the firft quality, is a beautiful variegation
oi white and blue enamel, forming a wild profulion of-
the elements of every known figure ; the blues are
lighter or darker according to the quantity of the metal
and the adtion of the external-air while cooling. When
the quality of the pig-iron is fparmgly carbonated, the
blue colour is lefs vivid, lefs delicate ; and the external
furface rougher, and more fullied with a mixture of co¬
lour. I he fame fcoria, when fufed in veflels which are
allowed to cool gradually, parts with all its variety and
fhade, and becomes of a yellowifti colour, fometimes
nearly white when the quantity of incorporated metals,
has been fmall.
“ The cinder which is emitted from the blaft furnace
when carbo-oxygenated (or N° 3.) iron is produced,,
a flumes a long zig-zag form. The ftream is flightly
convex in the middle ; broad, fiat, and obliquely fur¬
rowed towards the edges. The end of the, ftream fre¬
quently rears itfelf into narrow tapered cones, to the
height of fix or eight inches : .thefe are generally hollow
in the centre, and are eafily dcmolifiled, owing to their-
oxceffive brittlenefs. The colour of this lava is very
various 5 for the moft it is pale yellow, mixed with
green. Its tenacity is fo great, that if, while fluid, a
fmall iron- hook is inferted into it at a certain degree of
Heat, and then drawn from it with a quick but fteady
motion, 20 to 30 yards of fine glafs thread may be
formed with eafe. If the colours are vivid and varie¬
gated, the thread will pollefs, upon a minute fcakyall
111®*
T UR f 2
Varnacc- Ihe various tints of colouring whioVt is found m ll'e
  , lumnar roafs. When by accident a quantity ot this
lava runs back upon the discharging pip1_1S UP
return of the blaft impelled with fuch ve octty as tu be
blown into minute delicate fibres, fmaller than t e
moft duftile wire ; at firft they float »P0!1 the air
vool, and when at reft very much referable that tub-
fta«CThe prefence of oxygenated crude iron (N° 4O «n
the furnace hearth, is indicated by the lava relolving 1 -
{elf into long ftreams, fometimes branched, fometimes
columnar, extending from the notch to the lowed par
of the declivity, here it commonly forms large oat,
hollow cakes, or inclines to form conical figures : thele
are, however’, feldom perfed •, for the quantity of fluid
lava, conveyed through the centre of the column, ac¬
cumulates fafter than the internal fides of the cone are
confolidated ; and thus, when the ftru^ure is mAy la
finiftred, the fmall crater vomits forth its fuperabundant
lava, and is demoliftied. The current of fuch lava tails
heavily from the dam as if furcharged with meta! a
emits dark red fparks refembling the agitation of ft^
embers. Its colour is ftill more varied than the former
defcriptions of fcorise, and is found changing its hues
through a great variety of greens (haded with browns.
Another variety of fcoria, which indicates the fame
quality of iron, affumes a fimilar form 5 but has a black
ground colour mixed with browns or is entirely black.
When the latter colour prevails, the texture of the c -
der becomes porous •, the quantity o 11011 .b n. 1
very confiderable, and fuch as will be eafily extrafted
in the affay-furnace with proper fluxes. In cafes 0
total derangement in the furnace, the fcoria viU ft
retain this black colour, although the quantity of metal
rnav amount to 25 per cent.-, the figure, however,
becomes denfe, and its fpecific gravity mcreafes m pro¬
portion to the quantity of metal it holds incorporated
“ The next fource of information, as to the quail y
of the iron in the furnace, is to be got from the co om
of the fcoria upon the working bars which are Fi
time to time iiferted to keep the furnace free from
lumps and to bring forward the fcoria. When fuper-
carbonated crude iron is in the hearth, ^vitnd cruft
upon the bars will be of a black colour and fmooth lur-
face, fully covered with large and brilliant plates of
i>1U™As\he quality 0f the metal approaches to N° 2.
(carbonated), the carburet upon the fcona decreafes
both in point of quantity and hze. . • • th
“When catbo-oxygenated iron (M 3.) 19 10
furnace, the working bars are always coated with a
lighter coloured fcoria than when the former vane ies
exift • a fpeck of plumbago is now only found here and
S and that o/the fmaUeft fize When the quality
of the metal is oxygenated (N° 4-), ^ the
plates of carburet difappeared, but alfo _ the coally co¬
lour on the external furface of the fcona J what now
attaches to the bars, is nearly of the Jame nature and
colour as the lava emitted at the notch of the dam ■
“ Thefecriterions are infallible •, for, as the fufibility
or carbonation of the metal is promoted m a direft ratio
to the comparative quantity of the coally principle m
the furnace, fo in the fame proportion will the vitnd
cruft encircling the working bars exhibit the prefence
-of that principle in the furnace.
78 1 * F U u
“ In the fmelting operation a juft proportion and af- Fi™
fociation of materials and mechanical conftruftion ought
to be blended in order to produce the oeft poflible ef-
feas Under the former are comprehended the cokes,
iron-ftone, limeftone, and blaft by the latter is under-
ftood the furnace, the power of the blowing-machine,
or the compreffion and velocity under which the air is
difeharo-ed into the furnace, and the genius or mechani¬
cal (kill of the workmen. According to this divihon
I (hall endeavour to point out the very various eflefts
which difproportion in any cafe produces, and vice
Ver^,\r\ the precedingobfervations the coal and iron ftone
have been traced through their various ftages of prepa¬
ration, and that ftage pointed out in which they were
moil fuitable for the profitable manufafture of the me¬
tal. It will be neceflary to carry along with us this
fad, that in the exa& proportion which tne quantity oi
carbone bears to the quantity of metal in the ore, and its
mixtures, fo will be the fufibility and of courfe the va¬
lue of the pig-iron obtained. Ihe importance of this
truth will ftill farther appear when we confider the very
various qualities of pit-coal, the differerftproportions of
carbone which they contain, and the various properties
attached to every fpecies of this mwreof
“ Among the many ftrata of coal wuich . a , coalexa.
led fome I have found to contain 70 parts in the icc. mme(j.
This large proportion is peculiar to the dod-coal, ulc-d
at tome ot the ironw orks in England, and juttly prefer-
red for the purpofe of manufadure to the pureft and
hardeft variety of fplint-coal. The latter I have foun ^
to average from 50 to 59 parts of carbone m the 100 ,
and the feft, or mixed qualities of coal, from 45 to 53
parts. Such various proportions of carbone plainly point
out that the operations to be followed at each indivi¬
dual iron-work ought not to reft upon precedent un-
lefs borrowed from thofe works where exaftly the fame
quality of coal is ufed. This analyfis alfo lays open
part of the fource from whence originates the widely
different quantities of metal produced per week at va¬
rious blaft-furnaces, and the great difproportions of ore
ufed to different coals. ,
“ Experience has (hewn that the three qualities of coal
juft mentioned, will fmelt and give carbonation to the
following proportions of the fame fpecies oi touched
iron ftone :
112 lb. of clod-coal cokes will fmelt - 13° ^
112 lb. of fplint-coal cokes will fmelt - 105 b-
112 lb. mixed foft and hard coal cokes will fmelt 84 lb.
“ Let the iron ftone be fuppofed in the blaft furnace to
yield 40 per cent, then we find that the one-twentieth
of a ton of the refpettive qualities of cokes mi nn
and carbonate the following proporfons of -roy ^
j 1 a lb. clod-coal cokes, 130 lb. iron ftone at 4 P
cent. — 52lb iron ; 112lb. of fplmt-coal c"k's’ I°,S d
of the (lone = 42 lb. of iron ; and 1 1 2 lb. “ andd1”
coal cokes, 84 lb. of the iron ftone = 33 tw lb- ™ " '
We then have for the quantity of metal produced by
one ton of each quality of cokes .
Clod-coal 52 X 20 =1040 lb.
Splint ditto 42 X 20= 840 b.
Mixed ditto 33t^ X 20 — 7°2
« This furnifhes a datum whereby we eafily obtain
F U R [ 279 ]
furnace, the quantity of the various cokes neceflary to produce 4.2 parts of nthes.
T"—' one ton of carbonated crude iron by common propor¬
tion : for if 10401b of metal are produced by one ton,
or 22401b. of clod-coal cokes, the quantity of the fame
cokes requifite for the produftion of one ton, or 2 2401b.
of metal will be—
T. C.QJb.
4824.61b.=2 308
Splint-coalcokes 840:2240:: 2240:5973.3lb.rr2 13 1 9
Mixed ditto 702:2240::2240:7i47.51^=3 337
E 'fence
' educe
«' differ-
winds
Dal.
“ If to the quantity of cokes neceffary to manufac¬
ture one ton of crude iron, we add the quantity of vo¬
latile matter driven off in the procefs of charring, which
may be thus ellimated upon the average of each qua¬
lity :
Clod-coal ^ or 37?-perc. produce in cokes4 « 62 4 per c.
Splint coal 4—50 4or 50
Mixed coal 4—6 2,5 i — 371
“ Then, for the quantity of the refpeclive coals ufed
in the raw date, we have the following refults in pro¬
portion :
Clod-coal 5
Splint coal 4
Mixed coal 3
4824.6
5973-3
7147.1
T.
77I9l — 3
11946 = 5
l6lj8y=r 8
c.
8
6
11
qjb.
2 19
2 18
o 16
“ Thefe great difproportinns of quantity, ufed to fa¬
bricate one ton, or 2240 averdupoife pounds of the fame
quality of crude iron, will convey a ftriking and im-
prelhve idea of the multifarious qualities of coal which
may be applied and made to produce the fame effedls.
It fhould alfo convince the manufa&urer that the ttudy
and analyfis of his own materials is the firft and radical
approach to true knowledge, and certainty of operation.
Dived him of this knowledge, and view him guided by
the cudoms and rules prevalent at another manufactory,
where the coals and ores may be as different as has been
already mentioned, and we will no longer wonder at
the uncertainty of his refults, and the numberlefs errors
of his direction.
Detore I enter into the practical difeuflion of the
application of coal, I beg leave to indulge myfelf in the
following calculations:—We have already feen that the
production of 22401b. of carbonated crude iron requires
48241b. of clod-coal cokes; thefe may be averaged to
contain 4.5 per cent, of adies, which, deduCted from
4^24> gives 46071b. of carbone ufed for one ton of
metal: this fum, divided by 2 240, farther gives, for
one lb. of cad iron thus manufa<dured, 2.0561b. of
carbone.
“ We next find that 22401b. of the fame metal re¬
quires of fplint coal cokes 5973.31b. ; we farther find,
from a table of the analyfis of coal, furnilhed in a for¬
mer paper, that 100.parts of the raw coal contained
F U R
As it is there dated to lofe 50 per Furnace;
cent, in charring, 100 parts of cokes will contain 8.4 ——y-—=*
of a dies; and 8.4 per cent, dedufted from 5973.3,
gives 54721b. of carbone. This again, reduced by
22401b. gives for each pound of metal manufactured,
2.4421b.
“ Again, 7147.11b. of cokes obtained from foft
mixed coals are confumed for every ton of 2240 aver¬
dupoife pounds of crude iron produced; every 100 parts
of the lame coals contain 3.3 parts of adies; and 100
parts of cokes contain nearly 6.5 per cent, of adies,
which, deduCted from 7147.3, gives 66^2.6 carbone,
wTich divided by 2240, gives, for the quantity uled for
one pound of cad iron, 2.9781b.
“ From thefe calculations it appears, that 22401b. of
carbonated iron, requires of carbone from clod-coal
46071b.; of carbone from fplint-coal, 54721b.; and
of carbone from mixed coal, 66721b.: that one pound
of carbonated iron requires of carbone from clod-coal
cokes 2.0561b.; from fplint, 2.4421b.; from mixed,
2.9831b.; and that carbonated crude iron may be ob¬
tained when widely different quantities of carbone have
been confirmed.
“ In feeking for a dilution of the latter faCt, we mud
have recourfe to the different degrees of inflammability
of the carbone, according to the various laws of conti¬
nuity impofed upon it in its foflil condruction. It can
eafily be conceived, that, owing to this druClure, and
the nature of the interpofed adies, the particles of car¬
bone of iome cokes will be more eafily oxygenated that
thofe of others; in the fame way that we find fplint-
coal, when expofed to ignition in contact w ith open air,
affords one-third of more cokes than are obtained from
foft mixed coals, though the latter, when diitilled, yield
more pure carbone than the former.
“ By experiment it is proven that 100 grains of
carbonic acid gas is compofed of 72 parts of oxygen,
united with 28 parts of carbone : if the quantity of the
carbone of clod-coal, viz. 2.0561b. ufed for the manu¬
facturing of every pound of cad iron, is reduced to
grains, we will find it to confid of 14392 grains ; this,
divided by 28, gives the acidifiable principle of 514
X 100=51400 grains of carbonic acid gas (f) : hence
as one cubic foot of this gas, at 29.84 of barometrical
preffure, and 54.5 of temperature, weighs nearly 761
grains, we find that in the formation of every pound of
cad iron —- ^— —^7)54 cubical feet of carbonic acid
701
gas will be formed ; and in the production of one ton
of metal, the adonidiing quantity of 151289,60 cubic
feet. This quantity, however incredible it may feem,
is only w hat would be formed under the above preffure,
and at the above temperature : w hen we take into the
account the high temperature at which the decompofi-
tion and recombination are effeCted, with the confe-
quent
(f) “ Ihis is fuppofing, for the moment, that the whole of the carbone is oxygenated, either by the oxygen
contained in the ore, or obtained from the difeharging-pipe by the decompofition of the atmofpheric air : this
owever, is not driCtly true, as the metal takes up a fmall portion, by weight, of the carbone ; and when, by
accident, moidure has been introduced into the furnace, either through the medium of the blad, or of the mate¬
rials. its decompofition furnilhes a portion of both oxygen and hydrogen, which may diffolve, and alfo carry off",
Atmofpheric air being found to hold water in folution, a fmall quantity of hydrogen
a part of the carbone.
will, even in the dried weather, be prefent in the blad-furr.ace.
£ U R
\ 2^0 ]
¥ U R
T-urnncc. quent mcreafe of elaftic force and of volume, our ideas
' T’-—' are aim oft unable to commenfurate the fum of the gas
hourly formed, and thrown off, ignited to the higheft
degree of heat. . , ,
“ If the fame mode of calculation is adopted with the
other qualities of coal, we will have the following re-
fults :
c‘ For the fplint-coal 2,442 lb
jqo — 61050 grains of carbonic acid,
Fumatftj
„rlW4=6Io,SX
f 0 =82,85 cubic feet for 1 lb
761
= 185,58401^10 feet for one ton.
2,983 or -—777-“ ~ 710 X 100 = 71000 grains carbo-
which gives
and 82,85 X 2240
For the mixed coal
28
nlc acid j that is,= 93,3 cubical feet for 1 lb. •,
JO l
and 93,3 X 2240 = 208,992 cubical feet for one ton.
By the fame calculation we may attain a pretty accu¬
rate notion of the quantity of atmofpheric aiv neceffary
to produce I lb. or one ton of call iron j an average ot
the three varieties of coal will be fufficiently accurate
r , 14^92 X I7°94 X 20881
for this purpofe 5 thus
174554 or 2,4935 lb. of narbone are confumed upon
the average of each pound of pig-iron : this is found to
, . .. i7455t 
produce of carbonic acid gas ——
=: 62.341 X too
— 62.30041 grains j which again divided by j6i, the
grains in one cubic foot, gives 81.86 cubic feet for the
gas difeharged in manufa&uring one pound of caft iron.
As carbonic acid contains, as has already been noticed,
72 parts of oxygen in 100, then we have for the quan¬
tity of oxygen gas 100 : 72 :: 62400.41 : 448.56-29
grains oxygen gas 5 and as, at the ordinary temperature
and preffure of the atmofphere, a cubic foot of oxygen
gas weighs 591 grains, we find 44856.29 divided by
591 = 75.89 cubic feet of oxygen gas neceffary to
•form the acidifying principle of 81.86 cubic feet of
.carbonic acid gas 5 and that the fame quantity of oxy¬
gen gas is neceffary to the production of one pound ot
carbonated crude iron. This leads us to the following
itatement for the quantity of atmofpheric air ufed du¬
ring the fame operation ; firft jiremifing that the confix-
tuent parts of atmofpheric air are nearly 73 of azote
and 27 of oxygen gas ; of atmofpheric air_ then necet-
fary, we have 27 : 100 :: 75,89 : 281 cuhic feet.
“ I fhall now proceed from mere calculation to matter
*,f fa£t, and attempt to prove the correCtnefs of the
former by the approximation of the latter to its remits.
Let a blaft-furnace be fuppofed to produce 2ci tons of
pig-iron per week, — 45360 avoirdupoife pounds 5 this
divided by days, hours, minutes, and teconds, gives per
day 6480 .pounds, per hour 270, per minute 34 lb. and
per fecond 525 grains. j r a *
“ From this it is evident that one pound ot calt iron
Is produced in I3TVV feconds ; experience has fhewn
that a blaft-furnace, producing, in any of the above
periods, the refpeftive quantity of metal, requires a dd-
charge of air per minute nearly equal to 1350 cubic
feet-, this, divided by 4,5 lb. the quantity produced per
minute gives, for one pound of iron, 300 cubic feet.
The quantity, by calculation, we have ieen to be 281
r-bic feet, difference 195 a fum noway confiderabla
when we refleCV upon the inequality of the movements ^
of a blowing machine, and when it is recolleCted that
feme allowance ought alfo to be made for what air may
pafs through the furnace undecompofed, or may be loft
at the place of entrance. _
“ From this coincidence of theory with practice, we
cannot help admiring the rigorous principles on which
theLavoilierianfyftemis founded*, norarewelefs pleated
to find, that, fmall as the operations of the chemift may
be, yet they are a juft epitome of what takes place in
the philofophy of extenfive manufaftories. 1 he follow¬
ing table exhibits the quantity of carbone which may be
ufed upon an average, v ith the relative quantity oi car¬
bonic acid formed, and air ufed :
“ In the manufa&ure of I. lb.—I ton of iron,
The pure carbone requifite is 2.49— 5385*44
Carbonic acid formed 81.86—183366.40006.ft.
Oxygen gas ufed 75*89—169993.60cub.ft.
Atmofpheric air employed 281.00—62944c*00tu^)*^*
“ From the foregoing particulars upon coal may b&
learned how much is dependent upon the nathe con-
ftruCtion of coal and :ts conftituent parts *, I fhall next
advert to the effe£b produced by its improper prepara-
“ When coals intended for the blaft-furnace are fuf- Qualities0!
ficiently charred, they ought, in point of colour, to be^ -^
of a filver-gray ; their frafture will appear lamellated
and porous if fplint-coals have been uled > fofter coals
form themfelves into branches (lightly curved, and,
when properly prepared, are always very porous. I
have frequently found that the better the cokes were
charred, the more water they will ablorb. Coals half
burnt do not take up half fo much water, becaufe
their fradfure continues in part to be fmooth and lels
porous than when thoroughly burnt.
“ When half-prepared cokes are introduced into
the furnace, the metal formerly carbonated will lofe
its gray fracture, and approach to the quality of oxy¬
genated iron. Their prefence is ealily dete&ed by the
unufual quantity of thick vapour arifing along with
the flame. Befides, the water and fulphur, which raw
coals introduce into the furnace, and which always
impair the quantity of carbone by the various foktions
effe&ed by the prefence of oxygen, hydrogen, &c. the
fitnefs of the coal for combuftion, and the fupport ot
the ore, is much diminifhed by this fecond courfe of
ianition and difengagement of bitumen. Ihe prefiure
of the incumbent ores alio fradture and reduce the
cokes into fmall pieces, which produce a confiderable
portion of coke-duft } this is partly carried to the top
of the furnace before the blaft 5 fometimes below it
appears in immenfe quantities, ignited to whitentfs,
and liquid as land. Coal thus detached from the ma s,
ex pofi d to the action of a compreffed current of air, is
unfit for conveying the carbonic principle to the metal j
and as it frequently belongs to the juft proportion of
charcoal neceffary to fmelt the ores, and to carbonate
their iron, its lofs mult be felt, and the quality of iron
impaired. .. r(T n,
“ When cokes of any quality are expofed to a moitt^^
ixv w.k.w'i 1 a^ . . cokes
atmofphere, fo as to abforb wrater, their effedfs m tie,v
(llHli*
blaft furnace become much reduced, and the prefence
of the water is productive of the molt hurtful confe-forbing
quences in the produdtion ot carbonated crude ^run'
have found, by repeated experiment, that one pound ot
1 nace.
Kill: (if
iro: itone
req re dif¬
fer* : pro-
PO' Ins of
■cok
FUR [2
well prepared cokes will, when laid in water, take up
' l| ounce in the fpace of half an hour ; at this rate, a
balket of cokes weighing 80 lb. faturated with water,
will contain 140 ounces of water, or 85 lb. If the
charge contains fix baikets, then we fee that upwards
of 50 lb. of w'ater is introduced regularly along w’ith
the charge, furnifliing an additional quantity of oxygen
equal to 42^ lb. and of hydrogen equal to 74 Ib.j but
it frequently happens that the cokes contain a larger
portion of water than is here Hated. When cokes thus
furcharged are introduced in quantity into the blaft
furnace, the quality of the metal is not always inftan-
taneoufly changed, and frequently the colour and form
of the cinder remain long without any great alteration.
The contadl of wetted cokes with the ore is firft feen
by the great difcharge of pale blue gas, with the whiter
flame at the top of the furnace j next, the accumulating
oxyde upon the lurface of the pig when confolidating
indicates their prefence. Iron thus oxygenated fre¬
quently exhibits, while fluid, that agitation and deli¬
cate partings peculiar to carbonated metal : the re¬
melting of this iron is never attended with advantage,
and is always unprofitable to the founder.
“ From the properties which have been aflign-
ed to pit-coal, the following fadls may be dedu¬
ced :—That charcoal is the balls of the manufac¬
ture of crude iron ; that its proper application pro¬
duces the moll valuable qualities of pig-iron ; that, by
diminilhing its relative proportion, or contaminating
its quality by heterogeneous mixtures, the value and
fulibility of the metal is loll ; but that, by a proper
increafe, and always in proportion to this increafe, will
the fufibility and value of the iron be mended. From
the whole, an important leffon may be learned of the
pernicious eflfedls of water in the furnace, and how’
abfolutely neceflary it is to prepare the cokes without
uling water, either to damp the fires, as in the ufual
mode, or to cool the cinders obtained from the tar
kilns, to prevent their confuming in the open air : in
all this hurtful operation confiderable quantities of wa¬
ter become fixed in the cokes, which require a very
great degree of heat to expel.
“ The preparation of iron Hone has already been
fully attended to, and the phenomena which it exhi¬
bits under every ilage minutely defcribed. In confe-
quence of various experiments we are authorifed to
draw the following conclufions : That when pure cal¬
careous iron-llone is ufed, it admits of having the
local quantities of cokes diminilhed} that argillaceous
requires a larger portion than the calcareous genus ;
and that filiceous iron-llone requires a greater pro¬
portion of fuel than any variety of the former genera.
We have alio feen that fufibility, either connected
with llrength or otherwife, is derived from the mix¬
ture of the ores ; and that exceflive brittlenefs, inti¬
mately connedled wuth infulibility, is alfo derived from
the fame fouree. From a review of thefe fadls, we
are forcibly imprefled with the importance of com¬
bining the prepared iron-llones with proportions of
fuel iuited to their various natures, in order to pro¬
duce all the varieties of iron with the greatell poffible
economy. Contemplating farther the fame fubjedl, it
is eafy to be conceived that a want of knowledge of
the component parts of iron-llones, and the effefls
which individually they produce, mull lead to great
VOL. IX. Part I. ^
81 ]
F U It
uncertainty of operation in the fmelting procefit, Furnace,
wherein the beautiful economy of nature, and even -—"v—
real property, will be often unprofitably facrificed to
precedent.
“ Befides the above caufes of alteration, dependent The oxy-
upon mixtures of the earths, the exiilence of oxygen gen of the
in various quantities in the ores ought never to be^ron'^one
overlooked in proportioning the cokes to the iron-
llone. This powerful agent, whole form and fubllanee
contlantly eludes oiir vifion j whofe exiftence is only
afcertained by the wonderful changes produced by its
various combinations with the iron$ and whofe prefence
in tile fame iron-ltone, in various quantities, may pro¬
duce fuch variety of refult as to charadterife the ores,
as containing good or bad iron, furely forms the moll
intereiling mixture which ores or iron-llones poflefs.
It will be a momentous epoch in the manufadlure of
iron when the exiitence of fuch a principle lhall be
fully admitted by the manufadlurer, and its agency,
from certain vifible effedls produced, adopted to explain
its accompanying phenomena. Till that period he will
not perceive the utility of ascertaining the quantity of
oxygen, and devifing economical methods of taking it
from the ore. An attention to this powerful principle
can alone root out thofe prejudices fo inimical to the
real interells of the manufadlurer, and which feem to
glance at nature, as having improvidently combined
her moll ufeful metal with mixtures which could refill
the ingenuity of man, or fet his comptehenfive intelledl
at defiance. In the progrefs of this great inquiry, is it
not poffible that the prefent cxpenfive exertions may in
part be fuperfeded. Is it not poffible, that, by laying
open the fources of information to individuals at large,
a greater mafs of intelledl may engage in the pradlice
of this art ? While the prefent extenfive and lofty
buildings are neceffary, the bulinefs is entirely confined
in the hands of men of great capital: the extent of
their manufactures require that a large tradl of country
be devoted to their fupply ; a natural confequence is,
that innumerable tradls of land are overlooked, or held
unworthy of notice, merely becaufe they cannot, in a
period neceffary to clear a great capital and inlure a
fortune, afford the neceffary fupply of materials. Such
fituations, according to the prefent ftate of the iron
bufinels, mult remain unexplored. Should, however,
a defire for truth once gain footing in the manufactories
of iron, and fhould this natural impulfe of the unpre¬
judiced mind keep pace with other branches of iniel-
leflual information, we may not defpair of feeing many
imperfections removed, which were the unavoidable
confequence of the period of their creation.
“ In the application of iron-ltone in the blalt furnace,
the following particulars ought rigoroully to be attend¬
ed to :—
“ 1. Their mixture, whether day, lime, orfilex; their and its
relative proportions to each other, judging accordingotherqm-
to the rules formerly laid down; which of them may admitto br:
of a diminution of fuel; which of them wi.ll afford the;Con^ere<J’
quality of iron at the time requinte; and w hich of them
will be molt likely, by a judicious arrangement, to give
the greatelt produce of metal, united with value and
economy. Iron Hones, united rvith large portions of
filex, have already been Hated to require a greater pro¬
portion of fuel to carbonate their metal than the other
genera. When ballad or forge-pigs are wanted, it
Nn is
FUR [ 2«
Futiuce. is obvious that filiceous iron-ftones ought to be ufed j
not that they contain a greater quantity of iron,
but becaufe they form a fubltitute for the other kinds,
which may be more advantageoufly fmelted for the pro¬
duction of more valuable qualities.
“ 2. The quantity of metal which each individual
iron-ftone may contain, is another obje£t of conlidera-
tion. Befides the proportion of mixtures, which chiefly
contribute to the fulibility of iron-ftones, a fecond de¬
gree of fufibility is dependent upon the richnefs of the
ore in iron j this is fo obvious in the ufe of the Cumber¬
land and Lancalhire ores, that the confequences of their
introduction will be perceived, by the change of the
fcoria and metal, in half the time that change would be
effeCted by ordinary iron-ftones. It has been frequent¬
ly noticed, that crude iron contained pure carbone in
proportion to its fufibility j then the more fufible or lu-
percarbonated qualities muft take up, comparatively, a
confiderable portion of the carbonaceous principle from
the fuel. From this refults a ftriking confequence, that
the quantity of fuel ftiould, over and above its relation
to the mixtures, bear a juft proportion to the quantity
of iron in the ftone : for example, let the weight per
Quantity of charge of fuel at a blaft furnace be 4001b. and let this
fuel to be be fupp0fed fufficiently to fufe and carbonate the iron
FTT' contained in 36olb. of iron-ftone j let the quantity of
richnefs of metal be fuppofed 35 per cent, then the produce will be
the ore. 126 lb. Should a change take place, and iron ftone
richer in iron be applied, though the fame by weight,
and ftiould this iron ftone yield of torrefied ftone 45 per
cent, its produce will be 1621b. or 401b. more than the
• former. As there exifts no greater proportion of car-
bone in the furnace, it is evident that the exifting quan¬
tity, being diftributed over nearly one-third of more
metal, muft therefore be in more fparing quantity in
the whole, and the value of the metal confequently re-
u Xhe weight of oxygen contained in iron ftones
is the next objeft of ferious confideration. I have al¬
ready ftiewn, from experiment, that our iron ftones na¬
turally contain from 9 to 14 per cent, of oxygen, which
remains after torrefaftion j it has alio been ftiewn, that
this quantity of hurtful mixture may be eafily doubled
by over-roafting or under-roafting the ftone •, and that
the bad effefts entailed are in the ratio of its combina¬
tion with the iron. From a review of the fafts
which have been adduced on this fubjedt, its agency
and effeas will eafily be credited by men of fcience j
its property of conftituting the acidifying bafe of all
the ids readily explains the unalienable confequence
of its prefence with acidifiable bafes. The effedts are
ftill more pernicious when the oxygen is furnilhed by
the decompofition of water in raw iron ttone •, the hy¬
drogen in this cafe, fet free, alfo feizes a portion of the
carbone j and thefe abftraaions, united to that produced
by the native portion of oxygen in the ftone, form an
aggregate which frequently reduces the value of iron
40 per cent. So long as the principles of fcience are
overlooked in the manipulations of the foundery and
forge, the exiftence of fuch agents will be treatol as
chimeras of the philofopher and ehemift, and the effects
hourly produced by them induftrioufly attributed to
raufes which, in point of unity or confiftency, will not
* PM. bear the flighteft touch of inveftigation*.
■fl%.volv. 2'he compreflion, velocity, and effects ot the air are
3
FUR
of the utmoft importance in blaft furnaces. The pro. Furnace,
dueftion, management, and dire&ion of theft effeas are
therefore ferious objea® of conhderation to the manu-
fafturer of iron, fince on their proper application the
fuccefs of his operation chiefly depends. And here we
fhall renew our obligations toMr.Muftiet lor his in-
terefting obfervations on this lubjea. “ hen it is
confidered,” he fays, “ that in the {melting operation
the reduaion of immenfe quantities of materials is ef-
feaed by a compreffed current of air impelled by the
whole power of a blowing machine, the confequences of
the change of air, either in quantity or quality, muft
be very obvious: when, farther, we contemplate the
metal called into exiftence by means of combuftion thus
excited; when we confider iron as having the moft
powerful affinity for the bafe of that part of the air
which maintains combuftion } and when we view the
debafed ftate to which the metal is reduced by coming
into improper contaa with it, we muft conclude, that
the application of blaft in the manufatfuring of iron
calls for the moft minute and thorough inveftigation.
In order to take a comprehenfive view of this fubjeef,
the following divifion will be requifite :—
« Xhe intimate connexion which the quantity
of blaft bears to the area of the internal cavity of the
furnace, and to the nature of the pit-coal. ^
“ 2d, The various modes by which air us procured,
and how thefe refpeaively affed the quality of the air.
« The various changes to which air is fubjected
by a change of temperature in the atmofphere, with the
eonfequent effefts. . . . ,
“ 4th, H ow- far increafed or diminilhed velocity and
compreflion alter the refnlts of the furnace.
“ 5th, The form and diameter of the dueharging-
^ I ft Then, in the conftru<Slion of a blaft-furnace and Quantity
blowing-machine, the quantity of air to be ufed ought of air
to depend upon the internal dimenfions of the former
which, again, ought to be formed according to the
quality of the pit-coal. Upon the foftnefs or hardneistbe fur.
of the coal, ought more immediately to depend the „ace;
height of the blaft-furnace. T his neceflary precaution v
has given rife to a vaft variety of furnaces, of different
capacities, from 30 to 50 feet in height, and from mne^
to x 6 feet diameter at the bodies. Furnaces from 3o to
06 feet are ufed for the fofter qualities of coal, iuch as
a mixture of free-coal and fplint. Furnaces from 36
> to 4 c are appropriated to the burning of fplmt-coal
cokes : and in Wales, fuch is the fuperior ftrength and
quality of the pit-coal, that the furnaces admit ot being
reared to the height ot 50 feet. ... r
« Thefe various qualities of coal, it has been tormer-
ly {hewn, have appropriate weights of iron-ftone, an,
to ufe the language of the manufa&ory, are capable
“ of fupporting a greater or left burden of mine. ± he
former qualities admit not of having the air difeharged
in great quantity, unlefs it is impelled under an uncom¬
mon degree of compreflion and confequent velocity, in¬
compatible with the operations of a fteam-engine.
reafon is obvious: when air, loofely compreffed, or
comparatively fo, is throw n into a body of ignited tuel,
the mechanical ftrufture and continuity of whole par¬
ticles are foft, the air is much more eafily de com poled)
the ignition, of courfe, is more rapid : the defeent oi
materials is promoted beyond their proper ratl0>^
FUR
i'irnace. Jang before the carbonaceous matter has penetrated the
ore, or united to the metal, to conftitute fulibility. I
fhall adduce an example, as being the moft illuftrative
of this doctrine.
] iftrated “ Suppofe a blaft furnace, 35 feet high, it wide at
1 an ex- the boihes, properly burdened, and producing N° 1.
t pie- pig-iron. Letthedifchargeof the air be fuppofed equal to
a preflure of two pounds and a half upon the fquare inch,
or equivalent to one-fixth of the atmo'phere, or five
inches of mercury : under thefe circumftances let it far¬
ther be fuppofed, that 1500 cubical feet of air are dif-
charged in one minute •, and that the diameter of the
difcharging pipe is 2.625, th6 area of which is equal to
6.890625 circular inches. Let the difcharging pipe
be increafed to three inches diameter, and let the fame
quantity of air be paffed into the furnace ; it is evi¬
dent that as the area of the difcharging pipe is increafed
to nine circular inches, or nearly one-third more than
formerly, the compreffion of air muft be proportionally
diminifhed. The alteration is foon perceived by its
effe&s; the quantity of fcoria increafes from the furnace,
whilft the confumption of the materials above is alfo
confiderably augmented. In a few hours the fcoria will
have undergone a complete change, from pure white,
enamelled with various blue lhades, to a green, brown,
or black colour, confiderably charged with the oxide of
iron (g). The fame effedls will continue, in greater
or Idler degree, till all the materials are reduced which
wereexifting in the furnace at the period of diminiihed
compreflion. The philofophy of this fad may be in-
veftigated in the following manner
“While the juft affociatiom of proportions remained,
the air was difeharged under fuch a degree of compref¬
fion as to excite proper combuftion : the decompofition
of the air by means of the ignited fuel, was not effeded
in immediate contad with the feparating metal, but
had, by its uncommon degree of denfity, refifted de¬
compofition in the ignited palfage, and had been de-
compofed upon the cokes at a greater elevation in the
furnace. As a proof of this, we frequently fee a tube
formed throughout the whole breadth of the furnace,
quite black and apparently cold, formed of the fufed
materials: when this is removed, a confiderable defeent
momently takes place of cokes heated vifibly beyond
the common pitch: thefe inflame rapidly, but are foon
again cooled to blacknefs by the inceffant difeharge of
air upon them. The defeending mixture of iron and
lava is in like manner cooled along the line of blaft ;
the. tube is again formed, and, if not removed, will re¬
main for days together, while the furnace will be othar-
ways working in the heft manner.
“ When by accident or defign the compreflion and
velocity of blaft are diminilhed, the tube begins to
burn, and throws off a great many fiery-coloured fparks,
the fides and roof fail, and are carried before the blaft
m all diredlions. Sometimes confiderable clots of im-
perfeft iron are recoiled with fuch violence as to efcape
the vortex of blaft, and iflue from the tuyere-hole with
fuch velocity as to inflame the air, and fall down in the
ftate of oxide. In the end the tuyere will appear
to flame, and all the paflage inwards fliews an af-
F U R
tonifhing degree of whitenefs. The decompofition of Fupnaee.
the air is inftantaneoufly effefted upon its entering the
ignited paflage ; the iron by this means is expofed to
the oxygen that is difengaged ; and the vaft quantity of
caloric let free, in confequence of its union with the
iron and carbone, produces the aftonilhing heat now vi-
fible, but which formerly took place at a mere proper
height in the furnace.
“ From this it will appear, that although a greater ap¬
parent degree of heat is vifibly produced by the hidden
decompofition of the air, and a more rapid defeent of
materials for fome time is the confequence, yet, as the
quality of the iron is impaired, and as in the end the
furnace will return to its old confumption of materials
as to quantity, the effe&s of a loofe foft blaft are obvi-
oufly pernicious.
“ It fometimes happens, that when a loofe blafi is fur- Pernicious
charged with a confiderable portion of moillure, oreffedts of
comes in contact with cokes which had been wet when r^oift.ure in
introduced into the furnace, the inflammation which in^h^fue’
takes place at the tuyere is prodigious : fine fire clay
will be melted down and blown to flag in a few mi¬
nutes ; the fides of the furnace, compofed of very infu-
fible fire ftone, is next attacked, and in a few hours
will he fo completely deftroyed as to flop the working,
and require immediate repair. Effects limilar to thofe
now deferibed will be felt when the blaft is improperly-
proportioned to coal of a ftronger continuity of frac¬
ture and fuperior quality. Befides the effe&s produced
by the fudden decompofition of iron, others of like na¬
ture are produced where a foft coal is ufed, a fmall fur¬
nace, and a great difeharge of blaft.
“ It has been found that crude iron, to be properly-
matured, ought to remain in the blaft furnace, accord¬
ing to circumftances, 48 to 60 hours ; that is, from the
period that the iron ftone is introduced till fuch time as
the metal begins to occupy its place in the hearth in a
ftate of perfect feparation. When the contrary is the
cafe, the mixtures arrive at the hotteft parts of the fur¬
nace before the metal has taken up a fufficient quantity
of carbone from the fuel j the a&ion of the blaft, and
the immediate heat by which the ore is furrounded,
forces the iron from its connexions to the bottom of
the furnace. The quality is de-carbonated, and reduced
in its value : to reftore this again, the local portion
of fuel is increafed ; this adds to the expence of manu-
faXuring, and diminiflies, in fome meafure, the fmelt-
ing of the furnace.
“When fplint-coa! cokes are ufed in the blaft furnace,
the blaft admits of being thrown in under the highell
poflible pitch of compreflion $ the uncommon denfity of
the charcoal fuftains a very powerful difeharge of blaft
before it is diflipated to facilitate the general defeent.
Moft frequently, large mafl.es of thefe cinders pafe
through the whole ignited cavity, and are thrown out
below, poflefling all the acutenefs of their original form
and fraXure.
“ This quality of coal is ufed in all the Curfon blaft
furnaces, where, to enfure a refpeXable produce, the
air is difeharged under a preflure equal to 3^ pounds
upon the fquare inch, or 6| inches of mercury.
N n 2 ' « The
t 283 ]
(g) “ The metal w ill have loft nearly all its carbone, and have become inferior in value 25 to 30 per cent.
F U K [2
Furnace. “ The fame quality of coal was ufed at the Devon
' iron works, where at one time, having all the blait ot
a 48 inch cylinder engine thrown into one furnace,
the column of mercury fupported was upwards of leven
inches : the quantity of air difcharged under inch an
impelling power, I found to exceed 2600 cubical feet
Pe‘‘Thfcoals ufed at the Cleugh, Cleland, and Clyde
iron works, are nearly of the fame quality at each—a
mixture of fplint and foft coal. The Mmrkirk and
Glenbuck iron works have a coal different from any of
the former, and in fome particular fpots it confiderably
refembles the Englifh clod coal. _ ...
Methods of “ 2d, The various methods of procuring air tor the
dueftin.-T blaft furnace may be reduced to the following : Ht,
air into the ^at procured by cylinders, and difcharged into the
furnace, . r ,   ..r „ VipoviIv loaded.
by cylin¬
ders and
water
blowing
machines;
by means
ot the wa¬
ter vault.
The air
vault.
mat procured uy      0 1 1 j
furnace by means of a floating pifton heavily loaded,
and working in a large receiver or regulating cylinder .
2d, That wherein pumping cylinders only areuled, and
the air thrown into chefts inverted in water, called
the water vault: 3d, That mode wherein the air is dil-
charged from the pumping or forcing cylinder into an
air-tight houfe, called the air vault. .
“ The firft method is the original mode of blowing,
and is ftill much ufed at thofe iron works whofe erec¬
tion has been prior to the laft fifteen years. By this
mode the quality of the air is lefs fubjeft to alteration
by a change of atmofphere. The principal objeftion to
this manner of blowing, is the want of capacity m the
receiving cylinder •, which cannot be increafed fo much
as to take away the confiderable intervals which occur
at different parts of the engine ftroke. Ibis effeft is
fenfibly feen by the fpeedy and irregular afcent and de-
fcent of the column of mercury. In water blowing
machines, where the air is raifed by three or four cylin¬
ders worked by means of a crank, and where the air is
received into an air cheft, and forced into the furnace
by the continual aftion of the blaft of each fucce ive
cylinder, the current of the air is fteady, and lupports
the column of mercury with great uniformity.
“ The ufe of the water vault has of late years become
very general among new erefted works. Its properties
are a fteady and very cold blaft : the largenefs of the
receiving citterns gives them a fufficient capacity to re-
every pound Sf air raifed by the furnace, and d.f
tribute it to the greateft advantage. I his is not the
cafe with the floating piftons, where a certain quantity
of fpare wind is thrown out at every return of the
gine^ left the great pifton and weight fhould be blown
out of the cylinder altogether j which indeed, fome-
times happens. The only objeaion which remains m
force aga'inft the ufe of the water-vault, is the tendency
which the air has to take up a confiderable portion of
water in folution, and introduce it into the furnace. A
iudicious arrangement of the condufting pipes would in
fome meafure obviate this, as well as the more dange¬
rous tendency which water has to rife m a pipe fpeedily
emptied of its air by the flopping of the engme a
ftream of water thus conveyed to the furnace, would be
productive of the moft awful confequences.
1 “ The air afforded by the air vault is much inferior
to that obtained in the former methods. This immenfe
magazine of compreffed air generates a cGnfiderable por-
lion of heat, which greedily feizes the damps, which
84 ] FUR
are unavoidable in underground excavations, and con- Furnace,
veys them to the furnace. The blaft is, how ever, fteady v '
and uniform-, and when the infide of the building is
completely fecured againft the paffage of air, it is pro-
duftive of confiderable effeas in the furnace. In the
fummer months, however, the air becomes fo far debat¬
ed as to affea the quality of the iron, and change it
from gray to white. Every change in the temperature
of the atmofphere during this period, is indicated by
various changes in the furnace.
“ The largeft air-vault hitherto in ufe was excavated
out of folid rock at the Devon iron works : the fiffures
of the rock admitted confiderable quantities of water ;
and the fame degree of damp would always prevent the
poflibility of making the fide walls and root air-tight
by means of pitch and paper, &c. 0
Befides the various natures of blaft, as to the T n ?
“ Behdes the various natures u. j l j-r and ftate oS
ftrength and equality of the current afforded by the air con.
ferent modes of conftru&ing the blowing machines, af^,.^
variety in the quality of the air obtained is alfo an in¬
variable confequence : this is fufficiently known by the
effefts which it produces in the blaft furnace, and
ought to be fubjebt to fcrupulous examination.
“ In this, as in other countries, larger produces ot
caft iron are obtained in the winter months than during
the fummer and autumn feafons : the quality of the me¬
tal is alfo much more carbonated, and with a leis pro¬
portion of fuel. In many parts of Sweden, where the
fummer heats are intenfe, the manufatfurer is obliged to
blow out or ftop his furnace for two or three months :
not only is he unable to make carbonated metal but
is frequently incapable of keeping the furnace in fuch
trim as to make a produce of any quality whatever. In
Britain, during the months of June, July, and Auguit,
more efpecially in dry feafons, the quality of the iron,
with the local proportion of fuel, will be depreciate
30 per cent, and the quantity reduced to two-thirds
or three-fourths. - , . • r 11 -
“ In feeking for a folution of this umverfally ac¬
knowledged facft, our attention is naturally direfted to
an examination of the various ftates of air. 1 hat the
quality of the air in winter is more fit for combuftion
than in fummer, is a truth which requires no farther
demonftration. Greater coolnefs, whereby an almoft
complete refrigeration of moifture takes place, and the
prefence of perhaps a greater relative proportion of oxy¬
gen, may account for this phenomenon. On c°"-
trary, the quality of air during the funrmer months be¬
comes much contaminated for combuftion, by holdTg
in folution a much greater quantity of moifture : he
abundance of nitrous particles may alfo dmumfti the
ufual proportion of oxygen. . .
“ This will account for the inferior effe&s of com¬
buftion both in common fires and in the bkft furnace j
it will alfo in a great meafure tend to folve the curious
phenomenon of the pig-iron taking up lets carboiie
fummer, although reduced with a fupenor quanU 7 0
fuel The air difcharged moft probably contains 1
oxygen j yet the metal is much lefs carbonated than at
other times, when contrary proportions of thefe ex .
Moft probably the deficient carbone is earned off bj
diffolving in hydrogen, forming a conftant.ftream
hydro-carbonic gas, while the oxygen that is fet fre
unites to the iron j and while it reduces its quality, at
4
-
FUR [ 285 ] FUR
•imace. the fame time the quantity is reduced by a portion of
1 the metal being loft in the fcoria (h).
] 1 is not “ To correfl thefe occafional imperfe£lions in the qualx-
f kiently ty of the air, and to devife methods to procure air al-
s mded to. wayS £t for proper combuftion, ought to be an objeifl:
of much confideration to the manufaifturer of caft iron.
Whether fuch a confideration has given rife to the dif¬
ferent modes of receiving and difcharging the air now
in ufe, I cannot fay j I rather think not: a great quan¬
tity of air has hitherto been a greater objefl than a
certain and uniform quality j and in a country where
there is more temperate and cold weather than hot, it
is by far the moft important objeft : to unite both,
however, would be an attainment of the greateft utility,
and would rank the difcoverer amongft the well-deferv-
ing of his country. How far the mechanifm of our
prefent machinery has been adapted to the exigencies
of our atmofphere, will appear upon examining the na¬
ture and properties of the air, judged by its effects upon
the blaft furnace.
Iklsof “ The air produced by the blowung and receiving
t air from cylinder is lefs changed, and lefs fubjeft to change, than
t cylm- t£at produce(l and lodged in contact with. a vaft body
of air or water. If the blowing cylinder is fixed in a
dry cool fpot, the only difference which the air under¬
goes is an increafe of temperature ; this is fo very con-
fiderable, that upon entering the blowing cylinder im¬
mediately after (topping the engine, I have found the
thermometer rife T 5 to degrees higher than the
furrounding air. That this heat is generated in the
cylinder is unqueftionable; but whether it is occafioned
by the fri&ion of the pifton leather upon the fides of
the cylinder, or expreffed from the air by its fevere
compreflion, I have not yet been able to decide. It
very probably arifes from both caufes, although the lat¬
ter is fufficient to produce a much greater degree of
heat. What effeft this increafe of temperature has upon
combuftion we are unable to fay, as the degree of heat
accumulated will at all times bear a reference to the
temperature of the furrounding air, and as there is no
method likely to be devifed where heat ivould not be
generated by the adlion of the particles of air upon
each other. When the bulb of a thermometer is
held in the middle of the current of blaft, as it iffues
from the difcharging pipe, a temperature is indicated
as much lower than the temperature of the fur¬
rounding air, as the temperature of the cylinder was
higher; and it is moft probable that a much lower de¬
gree would be obtained, were it not for the previous
expreffion of fome heat in the blowing cylinder. Upon
the whole, I think, the quality of the air obtained in
this way of blowing uniformly moft fit for combuftion,
provided the numerous paufes and irregularities of the
current of air were done away.
ft 1 the ** Air forced into the furnace under water preffure
r always contains a confiderable portion of moifture 5 the
blaft of courfe is colder, as it iffues from the difcharg¬
ing pipe. The temperature differs fo much from that
of the external air as to fink the thermometer from 540
down to .28° and 30°. Such effe&s are produced by
air coming into contact with water, that, although the Furnace,
temperature of the atmofphere is 60, 65, to 70, yet the ^ ~
blaft at the orifice feldom rifes above 38: the cold pro¬
duced in this manner is much increafed if the air is fur-
charged with fo much water as to be vifible in the ftate
of a fine fpray. The leading feature, therefore, of the
water vault, as to its effe£ts upon the quality of the air,
feems to indicate an almoft uniform degree of tempera¬
ture in the blaft : this can only be occafioned by the
warm air in fummer taking up a greater portion of the
water in folution, the efcape of which at a fmall orifice,
and under a great degree of compreffion, produces the
very great depreffion of the thermometer. I have al¬
ready hinted at the bad effefts produced by moift blafts,
and (hall, in a proper place, more minutely attend to
them.
“ The moft inferior quality of air ufed in the blaft From the
furnace is that thrown into the air vault, and afterwards ah vault,
expreffed from thence by its own elafticity and the fuc-
ceflive ftrokes of the engine. The capacity of fuch a
building is from 60 to 70,000 cubical feet; this, when
filled, generates a much fuperior degree of heat to that
fenfible in the blowing cylinder. As this heat is pro¬
duced many feet diftant from any mechanical motion, *
it is moft evident that it is extricated from the air, and
will readily unite with the moifture which penetrates
the building : the quality of the air introduced into the
furnace will therefore be in proportion to the quantity
of moifture taken up $ this will be much more in fum¬
mer than in winter, as the temperature of the former
exceeds that of the latter. The fenfation, on entering
the air vault in the coldeft months, immediately after
flopping the engine, is exa£lly fimilar to that experi¬
enced upon entering a crowded room in the hotteft fum¬
mer day j the walls are covered with damp, and the
fuperior regions of the vaults readily obfcure the flame
of a candle. The feeling, upon remaining in the air
vault when the engine is at work, is lefs marked than,
would be expefted where fo great a compreflion of air
exifted ; the fenfe of hearing, owing to the moifture in
the conducing medium, is confiderably impaired, and
refpiration is performed w ith fome difficulty j the light
of a candle is faint, and not vifible at the diftance of
a few feet.
“ I have explained the neceffity of juft proportions
exifting betwixt the area of the interior of the blaft fur¬
nace, the quantity of air thrown per minute, and the
the quality of coal. The various modes of blowing,
and their refpeftive effefts, deduced from ftri£l obfer-
vation, were alfo attended to. We have now, thirdly, to
adduce examples where the various changes of the at~
mofphere, as to heat and preffure, occafion the moft fen¬
fible difference in the quantity of materials confumed,
and in the quality and quantity of metal produced.
“ It has been already demonftrated, that the air in
winter, by containing lefs moifture, is more proper for
combuftion, and more calculated to produce carbonated
crude iron, than the air exifting at any other feafon.
From this fuperior quality the manufadturer obtains
advantages, which induce him to wilh for a continuance
of
(h) “ May not the fuperabundant azote of the fummer atmofphere produce part of thefe effedts, by diffolving
a portion of the carbone, and forming carbonated azotic gas, as has been proved by M. Lavoifier.”
furnace.
JBffefts of a
change of
weather.
Air from
*y lingers
preferred.
FUR
of cool air throughout the whole year
are not, however, uniform j they depend greatly upon
a light or heavy atmofphere. I he keener and more
ftill the air, the more rapid the combuftion. During a
fevere froft, the defeent of the materials is facilitated from
one-tenth to one-fifteenth more than in rainy or hazy
weather, and at the fame time the quality of the iron is
rather improved than impaired. When a change from
frort to fnow or rain takes place, the effe&s frequently
become almoft immediately obvious j the colour of the
flame at the furnace head is changed ; the tuyere of the
furnace inflames, and burns with great violence •, the
lava, as it flows from the notch of the dam ftone, be¬
comes lengthened and tenacious $ the form of it is
changed, and the colour undergoes the moft vifible al¬
terations 5 the iron no longer retains its complete fatu-
ration of carbone, but flows out fenfibly impaired of its
fluidity •, and, when cold, the privation of carbone is
moft evident by the examination of its fra&ure.
“ When fuch confequences arife from the tranfition
fo frequent in winter from froft to thaw, it will be ea-
fily conceived that the change effe&ed during the mild-
e/and warmer months muft produce proportionally ad¬
ditional effetts. The increafe of temperature by taking
up, and holding in folution, a much greater portion of
aqueous vapour, will account for the ordinary effects
which are annually obfervable in every work. Where
thefe pernicious conftquences approach to extremity, a
folution of the phenomenon will likely be obtained by
the examination of the blowing apparatus. If air is fit¬
ted for combuftion in proportion as it is free from wa¬
tery folutions, we are not to expeft fimilar refults from
thefe blaft furnaces m fummer, which are blown by air
from the regulating cylinder, and thofe blown by air
from a water or air vault. I have for years, feen this
ihft verified, and fuperior quantity and quality of iron
during the hot weather, obtained from a furnace excit¬
ed by means of blaft, from the fimple regulating cylin¬
der, with a lefs proportion of fuel than from furnaces
whofe air was exprefted by means of the water or air
vault. Obfervations thus made, where every day the
effe&s of the different means could be juftly eftimated
and compared, have led me to the following conclu-
fion : That the quality of the air, as furnilhed us by
nature in our atmofphere, is uniformly more fit for the
manufa&ure of crude iron to profitable account, when
difeharged Amply by means of cylinders and piftons,
than when brought into contaft with moifture either in
the water vault or air vault.
“ So imperfeft has the quality of the fummer air been
found in this country for combuftion, where the water
vault was ufed, that experiments have been made to re¬
pair the deficiency of effeft by introducing fteam into
the furnace by means of an aperture above the tuyere.
The inducing motive to this aft, was a belief, that
combuftion was diminilhed in confequence of a diminu¬
tion of oxygen gas during the fummer ; that, by intro¬
ducing water upon a furface of materials ignited to
■whitenefs, decompofition would enfue, a larger quan¬
tity of oxygen would then be prefented to the fuel, and
fuperior effefts, as to combuftion, obtained in this man¬
ner than hitherto witneffed. The idea was ingenious,
and, in its application to the manufafture of caft iron,
original $ but the whole train of fafts, which have
.been detailed, as to th» effefts of a fuperabundant
[ 286 ] FUR
Thefe effefts quantity of oxygen, was overlooked. The event pro- Furnacr.
ved in the moft complete manner, and on a great fcale,
the pernicious effefts of moifture. 1 he furnace gra¬
dually became cooled where the fteam entered •, the
heat, fet free by the decompofttion of the water and the
difengagement of the oxygen, increafed to an alarming
pitch a confiderable way up the furnace ; the quality of
the iron became brittle, and as white i* the fraft.ure as
filver f the introduftion of the fteam was ftill continued,
the defeending materials were inftantly robbed of their
heat to facilitate the decompofition of the water, and
by and by the furnace clofed entirely over, and the ex¬
periment ceafed.
u This experiment, performed in a furnace 18 feet
high, is a complete proof that heat is difengaged from
bodies while they pafs from the fluid to the aeriform
ftate. The firft inftant of the difeharge of fteam, a very
confiderable portion of heat would be withdrawn from
the fufing materials and united to the water. This, in
its turn, would be ignited to whitenefs, and decompo-
fed upon the metals and cokes, in a fuperior region of
the furnace. The procefs continuing for feveral hours,
the materials at the tuyere w'ere at laft fo completely de¬
prived of the caloric by the continual torrent of fleam,
that they loft fluidity, cooled rapidly, and at laft be¬
came black. Had another aperture for fteara and for
air been opened above thefe, now entirely fhut up by
the confolidated materials, the fame .effefts would have
been produced j the immenfe quantity of calorie, dif-
engaged by the decompofition of the ignited water,
would now approach nearer to the top of the furnace,
another ftratum of fufing materials would again become
confolidated, till in the end the whole furnace would
be fet fall from top to bottom. From the introduftion
of fteam into the blaft furnace, either as fuch, or under
a fuperior degree of expanfive force, the following im¬
portant truths may be learned : '1 hat the quantity of
oxygen which enters into our atmofpheric compound, is
generally more fit for the manufafture of the fuperior
qualities of crude iron than any mixture which may be
furnilhed by the addition of water : that, although the
decompofition of water, by furnilhing a fuperior quan¬
tity of oxygen, and by throwing oft a relative propor¬
tion of caloric, increafes the effefts of combuftion im¬
mediately in the vicinity of this chemical analyfis ; yet,
as the water had previoufly abftrafted the heat neceffary
to its decompofition from the inferior ftrata, a greater
quantity by no means exifts in the furnace. Ihe water,
in faft, only ferves as a medium to convey the heat
from one particular fpot; but, by attempting to fly off
with it, meets decompofition, and renders up not only
the abftrafted heat, but that which was contained in the
oxygen of its decompofition. _ . ,.r .
‘♦4th, The compreflion and velocity of the air dif-Compj
charged into the furnace, confiderably affect the refu^sveiocityof
of the fmelting operations. In the confideration of thisthe aircon*
fubjeft, the various qualities of coals will be found tofidertd.
have an intimate conneftion with the area of the dif-
charging pipe and the compreflion of the blaft. It has
already been more than once obferved, that a foft .or
mixed quality of coal is more fufceptible of combuftion
than either the fpjint or clod coal : the confequence of
this is, that, unlefs the neceffary compreflion of air is
ufed, decompofition is too early accompliflied, and the
cokes become oxygenated by combuftion in a greater
[ 287 ] y FUR
FUR
jifnaec- ratio than is proper for the carbonation of the metal.
V.-Y—To avoid this, the column of air ought to be difehar-
ged, in the cafe of foft coals being unavoidably ufed,
under fuch a degree of compreflion, as to refift entire
decompofition in the ignited paflage. In that cafe, the
iron does not fo immediately come into contact with
oxygen, as the decompoiition is chiefly effected in the
fuperior llrata of the feparating materials. Under the
former cireumftance, of a loofe unconnefled ftream of
air being thrown upon cokes eafily combuftible, the
quality of the metal, with the fame quantity of fuel,
becomes oxygenated, the tuyere becomes fiery, and fre¬
quently emits fparks of metallicoxyde. The feparating
iron may be viewed as it oozes from the ore in fmall
globular maffes, frequently on fire, changing its ftate
to that of an oxyde. The combination of oxygen, by
altering its denfity, makes it fubjeft to the re-aftion of
the blait, which at times gives it a dire£lion from the
tuyere with confiderable violence. Thofe parts of the
iron (by far the greatell) thus oxydated, which efcape
not at the tuyere, mix along with the fufed earths of the
ores and limeftone, alter their colour, and flow from
the furnace more unrevived than at their firlt introduc¬
tion. It is, however, very different, even with this in¬
ferior quality of coal, where the denfity of the blaft is
proportioned to the inflammability of the fuel. Quali¬
ties and quantities of crude iron may be produced from
this, equal to thofe from coals reckoned of a fuperior
nature. The metal becomes as highly faturated with
carbonic principle as that made from clod or fplint coal.
The tuyere evinces that decompofition is effected in its
proper place. The fluid mafles of iron, as they become
expreffed from the ore, are fbivered into fpray, before
the denfe column of air, without exhibiting the lead:
fymptom of decompofition. They again unite under
the level of the blaft, increafe in fize, and fink through
the fluid ftratum of earths to the bottom of the furnace.
This fa£t holds out one of the ftrongeft proofs of the
great affinity which carbone and iron mutually poffefs
towards each other. In the cafe of the iron feparating
in an oxygenated ftate deftitute of carbone, it immedi¬
ately falls a prey to its affinity for oxygen. In the lat¬
ter cafe, the iron, being completely carbonated, refills
decompofition by the facrifice of a very fmall portion
of its carbone. It further proves, that the affinity of
oxygen is greater to carbone than to iron ; and that,
before iron becomes oxydated, all the carbone is taken
up.
“ The continuity of the particles of fplint coals ren¬
ders the cokes of difficult combuftion, capable of with-
ftanding a moft powerful difeharge of air, in quantity
and in the degree of compreflion, without entailing ef-
fimilar to thofe produced with the ufe of fofter
coals : this renders the operations with fplint coal lefs
fubjeft to cafuality and to change. Carbonated Iron
with a proper blaft is more uniformly obtained, and
frequently a very fupexiorquantity. Similar eftefls are
produced with the clod coal, but in a more eminent
degree. Difcharging pipes are ufed four inches in the
diameter, and the compreffion only equal to tw'o pounds
on the fquare inch; yet the fame fatal effefls are not
known as in the ufc of foft coal, which, with fuch a co¬
lumn of air, would require the preffure to be equal to
s-hree pounds and a half upon the fquare inch at leaft.
** 5th, Upon the form and conftrufticn of the dif¬
charging pipe effe&s of more confiderable importance Furnace,
depend than is either generally allowed or even concei- v—
ved. At feme iron works, no peculiar fhape is adopt-Form of
ed : if the tube is fufficient to convey the air, and the
mouth of it nearly of the fize w anted, the interior con-p'1’? *m*
ftruflion is entirely overlooked. This indifference,iJOrtaD*’
however, is by no means general: varioufly conftrufted
pipes are ufed at different works, and at feme places it
is preferred to throw in the air from two pipes whofe
areas are only equal to one of the ufual fize.
“ To underftand properly the objeftionable parts of
the conftruftion of nofe pipes, it muft be recollefled,.
that much has been faid to depend upon the blaft reach¬
ing the oppofite extremity of the furnace, as little im¬
paired of the compa&nefs and velocity of its original
difeharge as poflible. When it is otherwife, the refults
in the internal operations of the furnace muft be confe-
quently altered. If the compreflion is diminiihed one--'
half or two-thirds when it reaches the oppofite wall, de¬
compofition in that portion muft be effected before the
air has attained its elevated fituation in the furnace. It
is even poflible to difperfe the whole column of air in
fuch a manner that the ignited materials of the oppofite
fide may receive little of its effe£ts to promote com¬
buftion.
“ A difcharging pipe is frequently ufed, in length
12 inches or more, the difcharging aperture 3 inches,
the other end 5 inches j but this is arbitrary, depend¬
ing upon the fize of the adjoining pipe. From a pipe
thus conftrufted, the air difperfes or diverges too fud-
denly j and at a fmall diftance from the orifice, a con¬
fiderable portion of it anfrvers but imperfedlly the pur-
pofes of combuftion. Part of it is fpeedily decompofed,
and the oxygen brought into immediate contadl with
the iron. The quantity of metal is reduced by the
former, and the quality injured by the latter. Though
long cuftom, by a continued ufe of fuch fliaped pipes,
has prevented their pernicious effedts from being obfer-
ved, yet they muft prove in many cafes detrimental to
the economical diftribution of air, and the manufafture
of iron.
“ A nofe pipe, of another conftrudion, even more
exceptionable, is alfo ufed 5 and the air dilperfes ftili
more feddenly, in a degree fomewhat proportionate
to the more hidden contra&ing of the pipe, a -confider¬
able quantity never enters the furnace, but, ftriking
on the exterior wall, is thence repelled.
u A difcharging pipe, of the following conftruflion,^6^ form
would obviate, in a great meafure, the imperfe&ions ofofconftmc"
the two former : the length of the tapered piece is I2tl0n'
inches, of the ftraight pipe, fix inches j extreme diame¬
ter, as in the others, five inches $ diameter of ftraight
pipe, three inches. From fuch a pipe it is conceived
that the blaft will proceed to the greateft .poflible dif¬
tance unimpaired in compreifion and velocity. So far,
therefore, as the abfolute force of the blaft and breadth
of the furnace will permit, decompofition will be pre- ’
vented on the level of the pipe, and the manufafturer
freed from the evils which I have above detailed, as at¬
tendant upon decompofition in that quarter.”
The following is a defeription, alfo taken from Mr Defcriptitn
Mulhet, of an air and a water vault which is employed of an air
to equalize the difeharge of air into a blaft furnace, vault**1***
“ Fig. 7. reprefents a vertical fedlion of the elevation Fig. j,
of an air vault 60 feet long and 30 feet wide, confifting * 7’
of
turnace.
Ti*. S.
Tig. 9.
FUR f 288
of four arcKes of regularly progreffive fizes Thisbuild-
' ins is generally conftrufted under the bndgehoufe,
where the materials are daily colkaed for filling the
furnace. AB, reprefents the acclivity to the furnace
top The fpace- betwixt the arch tops and the level ot
the floor is filled with materials as denle as can be pro¬
cured. The walls of the under part are three iett
thick befides a lining of brick and plafter from 18
Inches to two feet. Still further precautions are necei-
fary and alternate layers of pitch and ftout paper are
requifite to prevent the efcape of the compreffed air.
C a view of the arched funnel which conveys the air
from the cylinder to the vault. Large iron pipes with
a well fitted door, are preferable, and left apt to emit
air. D, an end view of the pipe by which the b.ait is
carried to the furnace. 111
“ Fig 8. is a horizontal feftion of fig. 7. at the dotted
line <7 representing the width of the crofs arches which
are thrown in each partition to preferve an eafy com-
munication betwixt the vaults. D is a fea.on of the
firft range of pipes, meant to conduft the air to the lu -
nace In like manner pipes may be taken off from any
part of the vault for the different purpofes of blowing
furnaces, fineries, hollow fires, &c. .
“ F’g Q reprefents a vertical longitudinal lection ot
what is generally called the water-vault. The walls of
this building may be erefted to the height of eight 01
nine feet, their thicknefs fimilar to thofe of the air
vault A brick lining, and even puddling with clay
betwixt it and the ftone building, is neceffary to pre¬
vent the water from oozing by the accumu ated prel-
fure A is an end view of the horizontal range of
pipes which conveys the blaft from the blowing cylinder
to the inverted cheft. BBB, the range which condufts
the air to the interior of the inverted cheft, and con¬
veys it to the furnaces, proceeding along the extremi¬
ties of the columns broken off at BB. C an inverted
cheft made of wood, iron, or even of well-hewn flags
fet on end and tightly cemented, is 54 feet within m
length, 18 feet wide, and 1 2 feet high. 1^/Wn-
fions, however, vary at different works When the
eheft is made of wood or iron, it is generally bolted by
means of a flange to the logs on which it is fupported,
left the great preffure of the air fliould overcome t re
gravitation of the cheft, and difplace it. DD view of
the centre log, and ends of the crofs logs, on which the
cheft is laid. Thefe fhould meafure 18 inches in height,
fo as that the mouth of the cheft may be that diltance
from the furface of the floor, and the water allowed to
retreat from the interior of the cheft with the leaft
poflible obftruaion. EE, the outfide walls of the
building. EF, the brick-works, made perfectly vatci
tight ' The dotted line G, reprefents the furface of
the water when at reft. Let the depth of the water,
outfide and infide of the cheft, be eft.mated at Fur
feet. When the engine is at work, fliould the prdluie
of the air have forced the water down to the dotted line
H three feet and a half diftant from the line G, and
"only fix inches from the mouth of the cheft, it follows,
that the water muft have rifen in the outer building, or
cheft three feet and a half above G, and have its
higheft furface nearly at reft at I. In this cafe the
ftrength of the blaft is reckoned equal to [even feet o
water, or nearly fix inches of mercury. The rPac_e^e*
flwixt the cheft and outfide building is three feet. When
1
FUR
the engine is at reft, and the water has aftumed its level, Furnace,
the quantity of water within the chtft ftiould be equal —v-
to that without. r ,
“ Fig. 10. is a ground plan of fig. 9. The crofs logs Fig. iQ,
on which the ciftern is fupported are dotted svithm but
drawn full in the fpace betwixt the flange of the cheft
and outer building. The breadth of the flange-tops of
the binding bolts, and thicknefs of the metal of the
cheft, are alfo drawn. The letters bear a reference to
^ An'acclunt of fome curious phenomena obferved by Singular
Mr Roebuck in the air vault of a blaft furnace has been phenomena
pJbl"the Jth volume of the TrauMions o
Royal Society of Edinburgh. ibis, as well as fome
remarks of praftical utility on the management of blaft
furnaces, we doubt not, will be mterefting to our
readers. We (hall therefore give it in his own woids.
It is addreffed in the form of a letter to Sir James
H « I have (fays he) examined my memorandums, con¬
cerning the obfervations I made on the condenfed air
in the air vault of the Devon iron works near Alloa
on the north fide of the frith of Forth j and, according
to your requeft, I now tranfmit you an account ol
them : and alfo of an experiment I made, when a part¬
ner and manager of thefe works, in order to increafe
the produce of blaft furnaces. ' .
The two blaft furnaces at Devon are of large dimen-
fions, each being 44 feet high, and about 13 feet wide
in the bullies, ot wHeft part, and are formed on a fteep
bank, by two pits funk in a very folid ftratum of coarfe-
grtht“re afterward, 11,aped and lined in the
ufual manner of blaft furnaces, with common bucks and
fire bricks, and the hearth was laad with bl
of the ftone that had been dug out, and "h‘ch ferve
the purpofe of lire Hones. At the back of the two
r ^ f uQT-f tlie air vault is excavated^ and
furnaces, next the bank, me air vn from
formed by a mine driven in the folid rock, diftant trom
[he funJces about 16 feet. The bottom of the air
vault is only about four feet higher than the level of
the bottom of the furnaces/ This vault has an a^er-
ture at one end to receive the air from the blowing
machine, and has two at the oppofite end, one
receives the eduftion pipe, and the other is a do r t
give admittance occafionally into the- vault. As the
Lk is extremely clofe and folid, the vau t is dry ex- ^
cent that a little water oozes very gently from the fide
next the bank in fmall drops, and does not appear
exceed an Englilh pint in 24 hours. _ it
Thefe furnaces are provided with air, or blaft,
is termed, by the means of a fire-engine ^ the
Newcomen’s eonftrudlion. 1 iamt er 0
cylinder is 48^ inches-, and the fquare area of its P#°
being about 1866^ fquare inches, the power of thu
fort of engine cannot be rated at more than 71b. i°_
fquare infh, amounting m all to about 13062lb
power was employed to w ork an air pump, °r blow mg
, evlinder of 78 inches diameter, and about feven
long. The number of fquare inches on the P1",011
thegair pump is 4778, and therefore this area ^ g
multiplied by 2|, will FlfCV3I39;P3 noler ad
ance hat nearly balances the above-rated power
(hows that the air, which w-as expelled ^ ^
yiurap, could not be cendenfed mo.e in
FUR
[
< air
•Util of the
ti u
h.
tvay of working, than with a comprefling power of a-
bout 2|lb. on each fquare inch. As the engine was
not regulated, at firit, to make a longer ftroke than
about four feet eight inches, only one furnace being
ufed, the quantity of air expelled at each ftroke of the
machine was about 155 cubic feet, which it difcharged
through a valve into the air vault, about 16 times in a
minute. When two furnaces afterwards were blown,
the engine was regulated to work much quicker, and
} nenfions with a longer ftroke. The air vault is 72 feet long,
14 feet wide, and 13 feet high ; and contains upwards
of 13,000 cubic feet, or above 80 times the contents of
the air pump. The top, Tides, and bottom of this vault,
where the leaft fiffure could be difeovered in the beds
of the rock, were carefully caulked with oakum, and
afterwards plaftered, and then covered with pitch and
paper. The intention of blowing into the vault is to
equalize the blaft, or render it uniform, which iteffedhs
more completely than any machinery ever yet contrived
for the fame purpofe. The air is conducted from the
vault by the edudion pipe, of 16 inches diameter, into
an iron box or wind cheft, and from this it goes off to
each furnace, in two fmaller pipes that terminate in
nozles, or blow-pipes, of only 2 J to 3! inch diameter, at
the tuyere of the furnace.
“ When the furnace was put in blaft, after having
been filled with coakes, and gently heated for more
than fix weeks, the keepers allowed it to have but little
blaft at firft, giving it a fmall blow-pipe of about 2^-
inehes diameter, and likewife letting off a very confider-
able quantity of air, at the efcape or fafety valve on
the top of the iron wind cheft, as it is a received though
erroneous opinion among them, that the blaft muft be
let on very gradually for feveral months. From the
conftrudion of this valve, it was impoflible to afeertain
the exadf proportion of the blaft which was thus loft,
but I believe it was very confiderable. The confe-
quence was, that the furnace, after it had been in blaft
for feveral days, never feemed to arrive at its proper
degree of heat, but was always black and cold about
the tuyere in the hearth, and appeared in danger of
choking, or gobbing as it is termed.
“ After various experiments tried in vain, by the
keepers and the company’s engineer, and others, (in¬
deed they tried every thing, except giving the furnace
R greater quantity of air, which, as I afterwards afeer-
tained, was all that it wanted), they concluded, that
the air vault was the caufe of the whole mifehief; and,
to confirm their opinion, they faid they had now dif-
coyered that water was, in confiderable quantities,
driven out of the air vault through the blow-pipe, which
cooled the furnace •, and they infifted, that the power
of the engine was fuch as to force water out of the
folid rock ; fo that this method of equalizing the blaft
never would fucceed. 1 he other managing partner
jvas fo much alarmed by thefe reprefentations, that
he began to confult with the engineer, and others,
about finding a fubftitute for the air vault at any ex¬
pence. J
“ As the plan of the blowing apparatus had been
adopted at my recommendation, and was now fo loud¬
ly condemned on account of the water, 1 had other mo¬
tives, than mere intereft, for trying to become better
acquainted with the phenomena attending it. I accor¬
dingly determined to go into the air vault, and to re-
VoL. IX. Part I.
‘ aufts
inv
€« .
289 ] FUR
main inclofed In the condenfed air while the engine was Furnace,
blow ing the furnace. It is an experiment that perhaps v~ 11 ^
never was made before, as there never exifttd fuch an
opportunity. I could not perfuade the engineer, or any
other of the operative people about the work, to be my
companions, as they imagined that there was much dan¬
ger in the experiment. Mr Neil Ryrie, however,
one of the clerks of the Devon company, had fufficient
confidence in my reprefentations to venture himfelf along
with me.
“ 1 he machine had been flopped about two hours Phenomena
previous to our entering the vault, and we found a,n the air
dampnefs and miftinefs in it, which difappeared foon vau^’ art*
after the door was Ihut faft upon us, and the engine fenlatiors
began to work in its ufual manner. After four or fiveofp rfons
ftrokes of the engine, we both experienced a fingular wa^n ^
fenfation in our ears, as if they were flopped by the
fingers, which continued as long as we remained in the
condenfed air. Our breathing was not in the leaft af.
fe6ltd. 1 had no thermometer with me, but the tem¬
perature of the air felt to us the fame as that w ithout
the vault. Sound was much magnified, as we perceived,
w hen we talked to each other, or ftruck any thing ; par¬
ticularly, the noife of the airefcaping at the blow-pipe,
or wafte-valve, was very loud, and feemed to return
back to us. Ihere was no appearance of wind to
dillurb the flame of our candles 5 on the contrary, I was
furprifed to find, that when we put one of them into
the edu&ion pipe, which conveys the wind from the
vault to the furnaces, it was not blown out. There
was not the fmalleft appearance of any drops of water
ifiuing out of this pipe. The oozing and dropping of
water from the fide of the rock, next the bank, feemed
the fame as before the condenfation was made in the
vault. In ftiort, every thing appeared, in other refpeffs,
the fame as when we were in the common atmofphere.
Having remained about an hour in the condenfed air,
and fatisfied ourfelves that no water, during that time,
that we could in the leaft difeover, was agitated and
forced out of the rock and vault by the power of the
blaft, as was imagined and infifled on, we gave the
fignal to flop the engine. As foon as it ceafed to w ork,
and the condenfation abated, and before the door of the
vault was unferewed, the whole vault in a few fecomls,
became filled with a thick vapour, fo that we could v
hardly fee the candles at four or five yards diftanee.
'The door being now' opened, the work people, anxious
to know’ our fituation, and what had occurred, came
into the vault, and prevented any further obfervations.
“ I now endeavoured to account for this curious ap¬
pearance of the water, which only (bowed itfelf ocea-
fionally, in very fmall quantities, at the tuyere, at a hole
I ordered to be' made in the bottom of the wind cheft:
to colleft it more accurately, for it never was ob-
ferved, but either when the engine, after working
flowly, was made to work quicker, or, after having-
been flopped for a few minutes, was fet to work again.
“ I confidered the vapour which we had difeovered T},e vapour
in the vault to arife from the moifture of the fide ofobfervedm
the rock next the furnace, which being expelled by'he vault
the great heat of the furnace, and converted into va- accouated
pour, was able to force its way through the pores of lor‘
the rock into the vault, but that being in a manner
confined within the rock, by the preffure of the con¬
denfed- air, it found itfelf at liberty to come into the
Q 0 vault.
FUR [ 290 ] FUR
"Furnace vault, only when the condenfation abated confiderably,
1 or was totally removed by the going flow, or flopping
pf the engine. It alfo occurred to me, that the air,
in a ftate of condenfation, might poflibly be capable
of holding a greater quantity of water in folution,
which might precipitate fuddenly into vapour or mill
when the condenfation abated. I imagined, there¬
fore, that the very fmall quantities of water we at
times drfeovered, proceeded from nothing elie but this
Vapour, in its pnflage to the furnace along with the
blafl, being condepfed into water, by the coolnefs of
the eduilion pipe and iron wind cheft. Ihe quantity
of water did not appear to amount to a gallon in
twenty-four hours.
“ A few days after I had made this experiment,
the water ceafed entirely to make its appearance,
either at the tuyere, or at the hole in the wind cheft,
but the furnace did not come into heat for a long
while after, and indeed not till the keepers let much
more air into it by a larger blow-pipe, and allowed
leCs air to efcape at the fafety valve. It is probable
that the rock was now become perfeftly dry by the con¬
tinued heat of the furnace.
“ My experiment had the good effe£t to remove all
the prejudices againft the plan I had adopted of blow¬
ing the furnaces, and like wife prevented the other
partner from laying out a large fum ef money, by
flopping the works, and altering the blowing machi¬
nery. Indeed, it has fince been admitted, by all who
have feen it at work, to be the moft Ample and eftec-
tive method of equalizing the blaft which has yet been
put in practice.
Wind “ This experiment led me, fonm time afterwards,
gauge ap- to apply a wdnd gauge that I contrived, to afeertain
plied and precifely the ftate of the condenfation of the air thrown
its effects. the furnaces. I found that a column of quick-
fllver was raifed five inches, and fometimes, though
feldom, fix inches, and, in the interval of the engine to
receive air into the air pump, it fell only half an inch.
At this time only one furnace was worked. But when
two furnaces were in blaft, the engine only raifed the
mercurial gage about four inches, becaufe the Devon
company, for feveral reafons, did not, while I conti¬
nued a partner, think proper to allow the blowing ma¬
chinery to be completed, by putting to work their
fecond boiler of 20 feet diameter for the fire engine,
according to my original defign, wdiich, by adjufling
the machinery, would have enabled us to blow two
furnaces with twTo boilers, with as much efttft, in
proportion, as one furnace with one boiler. 1 bis in-
flrument had the advantage of enabling the work
people to difeover the real pow'er of their blaft, and
know the exa£t condition of the air valves, and the
■wearing of the blowing pifton ; for if thefe were not
tight, and in order, (although the engine might, to
appearance, be doing well, by making the fame number
of difeharges of the air pump as ufual per minute),
yet the wind gage would not .rife fo high, and would
fliew that there was an imperfection fomewhere, by
xeafon of a quantity of air efcaping at the valves, or
pifton, that could not fo eafily otherwife be known.
This contrivance was confidered as of much ufe, and
was afterwards always quoted in the company’s journal
books, to {how the aCtual ftate of the blowing machine,
in comparing the daily produce of the furnaces.
“ I hope you tvill not think me tedious, when I Ftirr!c,
explain to you another experiment, which appears to
me to be of confiderable importance to all manufac¬
turers of caft iron.
“ I had reafon to conjeClure, from my own obfer-
vations on the effefts of blowing machinery on blaft
furnaces, as well as from the knowledge I had ac¬
quired from my father Dr Roebuck, and from my
communications with other experienced iron matters,
that a great part of the power of fuch machinery was
mifapplied in general praftice, by throwing air into
furnaces with much greater velocity than neceffary, The velJ
and that, if this velocity was, to a certain degree, di-city oft..!
miniftied, the fame power, by properly adjufting theblaft>
blowing machinery, of whatever nature, would be ca¬
pable of throwing into the furnace a proportionally
greater quantity of air. For, Since the quantities of
any fluid, iffuing through the fame aperture, are as the
fquare roots of the preffure; it follows, that it would
require four times the preffure, or power, to expel
double the quantity of air, through the fame aperture,
in the fame time 5 but if the area of the aperture was
doubled, then the quantity of air expelled by the fame
power, and in the fame time, would be increafed in
the ratio of the fquare root of 2 to 1, though its velo¬
city would be diminiftied exaftly in the fame propor-,
tion. Again : I confidered that the quantity and in-
tenfity of heat, produced in blaft furnaces, and confe-
quently its effefts in increafing the produce, might be
only in proportion to the quantity of air decompofed
in the procefs of combuftion, without regard to its
greater velocity ; that is to fay, whether or not the
fame quantity of air was forced, in the fame time,
into the furnace through a fmall pipe, or through one
of larger dimenfions j for, in attending to the procek
of a common air furnace for remelting of iron, where
there is a very large quantity of air admitted through
the large areas between the bars, it is w ell known, that
a much greater intenfity of heat is produced than takes
place in a blaft furnace j and yet the air does not enter
into the fire through the bars with increafed denfity or
great velocity. I therefore thought it probable, that
increafing the quantity of air thrown into the blaft: fur¬
nace in a confiderable degree, although the velocity at
denfity might be much lefs, would have the effeft of in- ami its
creafing its heat, and operations, and produce. And quantity
as, from the principles above ftated, with regard to the confidere ’
machinery, I faw I could greatly increafe the quantity
of air thrown into the furnace, by enlarging the dia¬
meter of the blow-pipe, and regulating the engine ac¬
cordingly, without being obliged to employ more
power, I was anxious to make this experiment.
“ A fyftem of management, of which I did by no
means approve, was adopted by the other partners of
the Devon company, foon after the works were begun
to be erefted j and, in the profecution of it, they or¬
dered their fecond furnace to be put in blaft, without
permitting thofe meafures to be taken that were necef¬
fary to provide and maintain a fufficient flock of mate¬
rials ; and alfo w ithout allowing their blowing machine
to be completed, according to the original defign, by
the addition of its fecond boiler. As might have been
expected, a trial of feveral months to carry on two
furnaces, with only half the power of fleam that was
neceffary, and an inadequate flock of materials, proving
unfuccefsiul.
FUR
] rnace
ar fta-
lyl «ed by
ex .'imect
unfuccefsful, the company, as a remedy, inftead of ma-
king up the above deficiencies, ordered one of the fur¬
naces to be blown out, and flopped altogether. This
improper meafure, however, afforded me the opportu¬
nity of immediately putting in pra&ice the plan I have
mentioned.
“ When one of the furnaces was flopped, the other
continued to be blown by a blow-pipe of 2^ inches
diameter, and the produce of the furnace, for feveral
weeks thereafter, was not 20 tons of iron per week at
an average. The engine at this time was making
about 16 flrokes a minute, with a flroke of the air
pump, about 4 feet 8 inches long *, but when I altered
the diameter of the blow-pipe, firfl to 3, and immedi¬
ately after to 3-I- inches diameter, and regulated the
working gears of the engine, fo as to make a flroke of
5 feet 2 inches long, and about 19 ftrokes in a mi¬
nute, on an average, the produce was immediately in-
creafed. It continued to be, on an average of nine
months immediately after this improvement, at the rate
of 33 tons of iron per week, of as good quality as
formerly ; for, during this period, from the 2ifl No¬
vember 1795 to July 30, 1796, this one furnace yield¬
ed 1188 tons of iron. No more coals were confumed in
working the blafl engine, or other expences about the
blowing machine incurred, and therefore no more power
was employed to produce this great effedl. It is alfo ef
much importance to remark, that the confumption of
materials, from which this large ^roduce^was obtained,
was by no means fo great as formerly. The furnace
required very confiderably /$/}/we/, // iron /tone'and
lefs limeJloney than were employed to produce the fame
quantity of iron by the former method of blowing 5 and
according to the flatements made out by the company’s
orders, as great a change was effedted in the economi¬
cal part of the bufinefs.
“ From the fuccefs of this experiment, fo well au¬
thenticated, and continued for feveral months, I am led
to be of opinion, that all blafl fur»aces, by a proper ad-
juflment of fuch machinery as they are provided with,
might greatly and advantageoufly increafe their pro¬
duce, by affuming this as a principle, viz. ‘ That with
the given power it is rather by a great quantity of air
thrown into the furnace, with a moderate velocity, than
by a lefs quantity thrown in with a greater velocity, that
the greatef benefit is derived, in the fmelting of iron
Jlones, in order to produce pig-iron? However, it is by
[ 291 ]
FUR
experiment alone, perhaps, that we can be enabled Furnace,
to find out the exadl relations of power, velocity, V“" 1
and quantity of air requifite to produce a maximum of
effedl (1).”
In order to illuflrate what is faid above, a ground
plan of the air vault and furnaces of the Devon Iron
Works is given in Plate CCXXVI. $ of which the ex¬
planation follows.
Explanation of Fig. 11.
A, The air vault, formed by a mine driven in theFfg. it.
folid rock of coarfe-grained freeflone.
B, The blowing cylinder.
C, The pipe that conveys the air from the blowing
cylinder to the air vault.
_ D? Fhe edudlion pipe that carries the air from the
air vault to the iron wind-chefl.
E, The iron wind chefl (about 2^ feet cube),
in which is inferted a wind-gauge, reprefented in
fig. 12.
FF, The two blow-pipes for each furnace, which
terminate in apertures of 3^ inches diameter at the
tuyeres of the furnaces.
GG, The two blafl furnaces, placed in two pits funk
in the folid rock.
HH, The tymps of the furnaces from whence the
call iron is run off into the cafling room, LL.
O, The door to give occafional admittance into the
air vault.
M, Ihe excavation, in which is placed the blowing
machine.
Explanation of Fig. 12.
A, The end of the wind-gauge (about I 2 inches Ffg. iss
J°ng)> which is open to the atmofphere, being half fill¬
ed with quickfilver.
B, Ihe end that is inferted in the iron wind chefl,
and expofed to the preffure of the condenfed air of the
air vault.
To Mr Mufhet we are alfo indebted for the following Defcriptien
account of air furnaces, which are employed in iron of an air
founderies for the purpofe of cafling large pieces of furnace,
ordnance, and other heavy articles.
1 hefe furnaces, he obferves, “ are employed for melt-
ing pig iron with the flame of pit coal. " Furnaces of
this kind are conflrufled of various fizes according to
circumflanees. The fmall fizes will run down from
O o 2 feven
r (0 “ If Q. be the quantity of a fluid, iffuing in a given time through an aperture of the diameter D, V its
velocity, and P the power by which it is forced through the aperture : then the area of that aperture being as
U , the quantity of the fluid iffuing in the given time will be as VD1, or VD^Q.
Again, this quantity multiplied into its velocity, will be as the momentum of the fluid expelled or as the
power by which it is expelled, that is, V*Da=P, or VD^/P.
Here, therefore, if D is given, V is as y'P, as Mr Roebuck affirms.
\/P
^ f° that, while P remains the fame, f) w ill increafe as D increafes, and V will diminifh in
the fame ratio.
. - -I be problem, therefore, of throwing the greateft quantity of air into the furnace, with a given power, flridl-
^ ^aS n° 7naxtmumi but the largefl aperture of which the engine can admit muff be the bell. It is
probable, however, that there is a certain velocity with which the air ought to enter into the furnace ; this will
pio uce a limitation of the problem, which, as Mr Roebuck fuggefls, is not likely to be difcovered but by ex¬
periment.” Note by Mr Playfair.
Alfo, becaufe V= and alfa
FUR [29
["even to ten hundred -weight, and are ufed in fmall
Furnace    __   _ _, _ u ,
founderies for what the trade call jobbing,
Plate “ Fig. 13. (Plate CCXXVI.) a ground plan of two
CCXXVI. large ah- furnaces, and chimney for melting pig or call
fig- i3*
Fig. 14.
iron with the flame of pit coal.
<< Xhe letters ABCD point out the exterior dimen-
fions of the ftalk or chimney, which _is firft erefted,
leaving two openings or arches into which the fore-part
of the furnaces are afterwards built. 1 he breadth of
the chimney at the particular place which the plan ex¬
hibits is 16 feet from A to B, and from A to D or from
B to C fix feet fix inches. The plan is drawn at that
elevation where the flame enters the chimney by the
flue or throat, narrowed on purpofe to throw back part
of the flame, and keep the furnace equally hot through¬
out, as may be more particularly viewed in the vertical
fedlion, fig. 14. . ,
“ BE, the furnace bars on which the coals reft, and
where the combuftion is maintained.
“ FF, openings called leafing holes, by which the
coals are introduced to repair the fire.
“ GG, fire brick buildings called bridges. Thefe
are meant to concentrate the flame, that it may. aft as
violently on the metal as poflible. Upon the height of
the bridge much depends in fufing the metal fpeedily,
and with little lofs. The height of this may be feen
in the vertical feftion, fig. 14. G. ^
“ HH, the charging doors, by which the metal is
introduced in the ihape and ftate of pig iron, lumps,
fcraps, &c. &c. The iron generally occupies the fur¬
nace acrofs to I, called the back wall, and is never
meant to approach the bridge nearer than the dotted
line, left the metal in melting ftiould run back into
the grates, in place of defcending into the general re-
iervoir or cavity below. The corners or notches, hjiyiji,
receive a ftout call iron frame lined with fire bricks.
This is hung by means of a chain and pulley, and can
be raifed and depreffed at pleafure. This frame is, pro¬
perly (peaking, the charging door, and is always care¬
fully made air tight by means of moiftened fand.
“ KK, the flues or openings by which the flame en¬
ters the chimney. Thefe are 15 inches, by 10. On
maintaining thefe openings of a proportionate fize to
the other parts depend in a great meafure the powers
and economy of the furnace.
it lading doors, by which ladles are introduced,
in the cafe of fmall furnaces, to lift out the metal and
diftribute it to the various moulds.
“ MMMM, binding bolts to limit within proper
bounds the expanfion which takes place in the build¬
ing when the furnace is highly heated.
“ Fig. 14. vertical feftion of one of the furnaces, and
its appropriatfe ftalk or chimney.
“ E, the grates.
“ F, the leafing hole.
“ G, the bridge.
“ H, the charging door.
“ K, the flue or opening into the chimney.
“ L, the lading door.
“ MM, the binder or binding bolt.
« N, the interior of the ftalk or chimney, 30 inches
fquare. # #
“ OO, the fire brick work, nine inches thick.
“ PP, fpace of two inches for fluffing with fand.
« QQj common brick building.
i } FUR
“ Rl^ caff iron lintels, over which are thrown dou- Furnaa
ble nine inch arches, fo that at any time the inferior
building can be taken down to make repairs, without
{baking or in the leaft injuring the chimney.
S, The dotted lines here are meant to reprefent
what is called the tapping hole. When a large piece
of goods is to be call, lifting the metal with ladles
would be impracticable. A {harp pointed bar is driven
up this opening. -I he iron then flows freely out into
a large bafon of fand made for its reception. It is then
conduced, by collateral channels, into the mould.
“ The {pace under the curved dotted lines from G to
L, by S, is filled with a mixture of fand and allies.
When the furface is prepared to melt, the whole of the
bottom receives a ftratum of iharp clean fand about two
inches thick. This is broken up at night, and. frefii
fand is fubftituted for it before the fire is kindled in the
morning. - , -
“ Fig. 15. is a horizontal feCtion of the chimney or Fig. t$.
ftalk, taken where the flues affume a perpendicular di¬
rection. The letters in this figure correfpond to thofe
in the vertical fedion, fig. 14. The height of the
chimney ought not to be lefs than 45 feet : if 50 feet,
the effeCt will be fooner and of courfe better pro¬
duced.
“ The effeCt wilhed to be produced in air furnaces is
the fufion of a certain portion of pig or caff iron, for the
purpofe of being poured or run into moulds to form ar¬
ticles of almoft every defeription. . . I
“ The preparation previous to melting is as follows: Prepare
After the bottom of the furnace is laid, and fmoothed^J
with frelh fand, and all the openings made air tight,
the furnace man introduces a kindling at the leafing
hole, accompanied with new pit coal. In a few
minutes a confiderable volume of dark flame mixed
with fmoke is produced. The fire quickly gathers
ftrengtb •, more coal is introduced; and the furnace now
becomes filled with a yellow-coloured flame. By con¬
tinuing this operation for an hour, or an hour and a-
quarter, the furnace and flame will have become com¬
pletely white j the latter fteady, and at times apparently
without motion. The furnace man now judges, the bot¬
tom to have been fufficiently hardened for receiving the
pig iron without any ritk of finking. The charging
door is now opened, and the pig metal thrown careful¬
ly and regularly upon that part of the bottom, formerly
deferibed as being appropriated for its reception. Ihe
door is again doled and made air tight, and the ope¬
ration of firing continued with unremitting care and
attention.
“The time of melting depends entirely upon, the
quantity of metal introduced. The furnaces deferibed
above are capable of melting from 50 to. 60 hundred
weight of metal each, and when there is a moderate
circulation of air they will perfornj this work in 2-s or
3 hours. In half an hour after the metal is introduced
it affumes a blackifli red colour. It then begins to
brighten with every additional fire, and in ‘about one
hour appears white, and begins to lofe fliape, and re-
femble a wreath of fnow.
“ An eye accuftomed to fuch heats will now difeern
the metal beginning to drop, and run down the inclined
plane in very beautiful ftreamlets. refembling quick-
filver. Eight or ten of thefe are vifible at a time, and
after proceeding half way down begin to form junftions
FUR
C1 im-
ft ces to
b :.ttend
eijo du-
ri its
ojiation.
with each other, and How connected into the general
^ cavity or refervoir. By-and-by this becomes filled,
and literally forms a beautiful molten mirror, in which
fometimes part of the interior furnace is reflected.
“ The furnace man, by fearching at the bridge wjth
his fire-iron or teafer, judges when the metal is nearly
all gone. Of this he is certain by looking up from the
peep-hole of the lading door. If the ftreamlets of the
running metal have ceafed, then the whole is melted,
and ready for running out.
“ In the operation of melting, the three following
circumltances ought to be particularly attended to : the
• thinnefs or hotnefs of the metal ; the walte or lofs fuf-
tained in melting; and the quantity of coals em¬
ployed.
“ The firlt is of the utmoft importance, as many ar¬
ticles in thefoundery bufinefs require the metal in a Hate
of the greatelt divifion ; otherwife they will be found
imperfedt when taken from the fand, and unfit for fale.
The furnace man, therefore, is always on the watch
to replace the fire as it decays, and keep a large
and (harp volume of flame conltantly pafling over the
metal.
“ The wafte or lofs of real metal is alfo an objedt of
great importance. This always bears a relation to the
quality of the iron, the flrength and cleannefs of the
coals, and the judgment and attention of the raelter.
Strong iron is found always more difficult to fufe 5 this
neceffarily expofes it for a long period in contact with
the flame. The reverfe happens with metal that is
more fragile, and eafier broken in the pig. The length
of the expofure m fuiing depends on this j and other
circumflances being alike, the lols or wafte of metal will
alfo be in the fame ratio.
“ There are, however, other fadts not unworthy of
notice. N° 1. pig iron, or richly carbonated metal,
when run from an air furnace, will be found in point
of quality little better than N°2. or carbonated iron.
This is owing to a quantity of its carbone being de-
ftroyed during the fufion. The lofs in melting N° 1,
iron, therefore, chiefly confifts of carbone ; and the de¬
ficiency of metal ought never, with a clean bottom, to
exceed 1 cvvt. in 20.
Carbonated or N° 2. iron alfo becomes deprived of
a confiderable portion of its carbonaceous mixture in
fufion ; and when run from the air furnace is feldom
better than N° 3. metal. The lofs fuftained in melting
may be averaged at 74 per cent.
“ N° 3. pig iron is, after melting in an air furnace,
found whitiili or mottled. It is feldom tufceptible of
the fame nice degree of divifion as the fuperior quali¬
ties, and iofes in fufion a much larger proportion of
metal, feldom under 10 per cent, and frequently I2|-
or 15.
The quantity of coals requifite to melt a given-
quantity of iron is various, as much depends upon the
quality and iufibility of the metal. If the furnace goes
one heat a day with N° 1. or 2. iron, the quantity of
coals will be from 20 to 25 cwt. for a ton of iron. If
two or three heats a day, or as many tons of iron are
melted at one kindling, the proportion of coals will be
nearly weight for weight of the iron melted when the
coals are mixed wuth a fair proportion of finall: with
fiiong large fplint coals, one ton of good pig iron may
[ 293 1
FUR
be completely reduced with from 1 2 to 15 cwt. includ- Furnace,
ing the previous heating of the furnace
In the reduction and fufion of ores, the improvement
of the blowing apparatus, or the machinery contrived for 245.
the purpofe of forcing a current of air into furnaces,
where a high degree of temperature was neceflary, has
always been an important object of confideration to the Importance
manufadurer •, and indeed, it appears that the hiftory and of blowing
improvement of this kind of machinery have progref-mac^ner^*"
fively advanced, in feme cafes have exceeded the im¬
provement of other departments of the manufa&ures of
this country.
In fmelting fome metallic ores, as for inftance, thofe
of lead and tin, the magnitude and powers of blowing
machines have been lefs attended to, becaufe the re¬
quifite temperature for that purpofe is far inferior to
what is neceffary for the redu&ion of the ores of iron.
Lead and tin being naturally fufible, and eafily vola¬
tilized in a temperature beyond a bright red heat, have
hitherto fixed the limits with regard to the fize of the
furnace, and the quantity of blaft. The air furnace is
generally employed in the manufacture of copper, except-
ing in (mail blaft: furnaces, in which the precipitated-
oxide of this metal is received, and they are fimilar to
the furnaces called cupolas, and ufed at iron foun-
deries.
1 ne lead mill, as it is called, or machine for the re¬
duction of the ores of lead, is of a very fimple conilruc-
tion. In the middle of a fquare building a water wheel
is-ereCted, and tq the lhaft of this wheel, four fmall
wheels of caft iron, about x 8 inches in diameter, are
attached. I. wo pairs of bellows placed at equal dif-
tances, and on each fide of the ftiaft, are fupported on
a ftrong frame of wood. During the revolution of the
lhaft of the water wheel, the fmall wheels are alfo car¬
ried round, and alternately deprefs the end of the lever
which is attached by means of an iron chain, to an
equally balanced beam. When this lever defeends, the
oppofite end of the beam is elevated, and to this end
there is attached by another iron chain, the moveable
fur face of the bellows. The blaft: produced in this way
is foft, and far inferior, either with regard to quantity
or denfity, to the blaft: neceflary for an iron furnace.
The length of the bellows is ufually about 10 feet, the
breadth acrofs the breech about five or fix, and
they move at the rate of about 30 ftrokes a minute.
^ But in the manuraCture of iron, and particularly fince which muft
the ufe of pit-coal was introduced, it is abfolulely ne-beofgrea6
ceifary to have a more powerful blowing machinery. Power in
This, therefore, has always been an eflential requifite, fhimamJ"
and has been aconftant objeCt in this manufatture j for “
in proportion to the quantity of air thrown into the fur-
nace, the produce and quantity of metal is increafed.
In the earlier periods of this manufacture, when the
fuel employed was charcoal from wood, the procefs was
more eafily managed. Furnaces which were built of
fmall fize, and which were then called bloomerles were
confidered of fufficient capacity to yield profit, if they
produced a bloom or two of iron in the day, each bloom
amounting to about 90 or 120 lbs. For fmaller opera¬
tions, hand-bellows, and what were called fuel blafts
were deemed of fufficient power j but when the refining
furnace began to be employed, and the iron manufac¬
ture branched out into the making of pig iron, and the
je fining
FUR [ 294 ] FUR
Progreflive
improve¬
ment of
t Furnace, refining of it into bar or malleable iron, the advantage
v and neceffity of a powerful blaft were immediately feen.
The firft moving power introduced was that of the wa¬
ter wheel} and this working two or more pairs of lea¬
thern bellows, was found to produce effects fufficiently
powerful for the purpofe.
Machinery eonftru&ed in this way, and fet in mo¬
tion by the power of water, continued to be employed
for this purpofe, till the principles of the fteam engine
were fully underilood, and this powerful machine
came into general ufe. The fteam engine, befides ma¬
ny other advantages, could be employed in fituations
where the want of water prevented furnaces being
erefled, but otherwife commodious, in being near the
neceflary materials of ore and fuel. The firft fubfti-
tute for the leathern bellows were cylinders compofed
of wood, clofely jointed, and ftrongly hooped. Thefe
in their turn gave place to cylinders of caft iron,
fmoothly and accurately bored j and this kind of ap¬
paratus being difcovered and applied in the manufac¬
ture of iron, the blowing machine now affumed a more
perfect and more manageable form.
But without attempting to defcribe any of the blow¬
ing machines in our own country, the power and ef-
fedls of \vhich are familiar to thofe to whom this know¬
ledge is moft interefting, we fhall give a (hort defcription
of an apparatus ol this kind, which is fet in motion by the
preflure of a column of water, and is ere£led near Na¬
mur in the Netherlands. I he account of this machine is
given by Baillet, infpeflor of the mines, who obferves,
that its conftru&ion is Ample, and not very expenfive,
and that it may be kept up without requiring much re¬
pair. This machine, befides, can be employed to blow
feveral furnaces at once. It does not require any great
moving power, and the confumption of water is much
lefs than in the blowing apparatus of leather or wood.
In confequence of thefe advantages, the number of fur¬
naces has been greatly increafed fince this apparatus
was firft eretted, and the extent of the manufa&ure has
been doubled. This apparatus poffeffes another fuperi-
ority over the ordinary blowing machines. The latter,
to be put in motion, require a water wheel*, but the ap¬
paratus which is here alluded to, is fet in motion mere¬
ly by the preffure of a column of water.
^ The following is the defcription of this blowing ma¬
chine, as it was firft ere&ed at Marche upon the Meufe.
It was invented and conftru&ed by Janniens, proprietor
of the forges, and it confifts of two cylinders of three
feet eight inches diameter, and of thirty inches high,
placed vertically near each other. One of thefe cylin¬
ders is reprefented at fig. 16. A pifton of wood co¬
vered with leather, (fig. 17.) moves in each cylinder,
and forces the air through the tubes 0, 0, 0, which are
fitted to the upper part of the cylinders, and are con¬
duced to the different furnaces where combuftion is to
be excited. The bafe of thefe tubes is furnifhed with
valves, to prevent the return of the air. The pifton
is, befides, furniftied with two lids or covers, w, iu,
Fig. 18. (fig, 18. and 19.) which open when it defcends, and
and 19. when it rifes. The pifton is furrounded with a
band of leather in the ufual way, to make it tight.
The moving power in this apparatus, is a water
wheel erected on the horizontal {haft, s. On this draft
are fixed the arms t, /, proje&ing from its circumfe¬
rence, which alternately elevate the ftalk of the pifton.
‘ 3
blowing
machine by
the pref¬
fure of
water.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 17.
The defcent of the pifton is regulated by the weight/, Furnace,
which a£ls -as a counterpoife j and the fpring of wood,v—
g, which is balanced when the ftalks of the pifton are
at their lowed; delcent, ferves to retard the velocity,
and to prevent any fudden or violent ftroke.
Two of thefe cylinders, erefted at one of the forges
at Marche, furniftr air to two furnaces, which employ
charcoal from wood, and one with coke from pit-coal.
The ftroke of the pifton is about 18 inches, and 25
ftrokes in a minute, and with this length of ftroke and
velocity, the two piftons produce nearly about 400 cu¬
bical feet of air. The confumption of w ater, having a
fall of about 10 feet, is about 80 cubical feet.
Two ftmilar cylinders, erefted at another furnace at
the fame place, move with the velocity of 19 ftrokes
per minute. "I. he length of each ftroke is about 22
inches, fo that it produces about 360 cubical feet of air.
For this, with a fall of 10 feet, 75 cubical feet of wa¬
ter are neceffary.
In the conftruftion of this blowing machine, no pe¬
culiar difficulty occurs. It is not neceffary that the cy¬
linders thould be accurately turned in the infide. All
that i^ required is, to grind or polifti their inner furface
with fand done. It was in this way that the cylinders
and apparatus, juft deferibed, were prepared.
The pifton, which is made of wood, has in the_ mid¬
dle of it a mortoife, «, fig. 17* and I9* to admit the
ftalk, />, which is kept in its place by four bands or
ftraps of iron, x, fig. 17.
The band of leather, 3, is about three lines in
thicknefs, and about five inches broad. It is nailed to
the pifton, and ought to be raifed above the groove or
gutter, v.
The grooves y,y, are funk in the pifton, in propor¬
tion to the thicknefs of the leather, and their external
diameter ftiould be fomewhat fmaller than that of the
cylinder. The large lids or covers of the pifton are of
wood, lined with (beep-{kin 5 and their hinges, which
are made of leather, are fixed with (crews to the wood .
a bridle of leather limits the extent of the opening.
The fmall valves, which are fixed at the upper open¬
ing of the cylinders, at the end of the tubes for con¬
ducting the air, are alfo of wood, and covered with
flieep-fkin.
The tubes or pipes which conduct the air are made
of iron plates, or of tinned iron, and they terminate in
pipes of a convenient diameter, and proportioned to
the different furnaces. They fhould alfo be furniflied
wdth keys or cocks, for regulating at pleaftire the quan¬
tity of the air.
The frame which fupports thefe cylinders is of a very
fimple conftruftion, as will appear by infpe&ing fig. 16.
It is attached and fecured to part of the wall of the
building.
All that is neceffary to keep this apparatus m order,
is with a brufti to cover the internal furface of the cylin¬
ders with oil once every 10 days.
The following are the dimenfions of the principal
parts in the old French meafure.
The large valves of the pifton, 8 inches by 6.
The interval between thefe valves, 14 inches.
Stalk of the pifton, 6 inches fquare.
The rollers on the axis T Length, 12 inches,
of the wheel. |Diameter, 36 inches.
Diameter
Fi'io.
FUR [
Diameter of the cylinder, 38 inches.
* Height of ditto, 26 do.
Baillet, who has given the above defcription, pro-
pofes a new application of the moving force to this kind
of blowing machine 5 and he obferves, that a very im¬
portant advantage may be derived from thefe cylinders,
fince the fimple preflure of a column of water may be
fubftituted for the moving power. In fig. 2D. the ap¬
paratus is fo arranged as to Ihew in what way this effect
may be produced.
The (talk, f of the cylindrical apparatus c, is com¬
mon to the pifton of the fraall cylinder d, in which it
can convey the column of water be. When the cock
h, is open, and that at / is Ihut, the prelfure of the co¬
lumn muft elevate the ftalk J\ and the pitton of the
blowing cylinder. Then the cock h being flmt, and
that at / being open, the water of the cylinder d will
flow' out, and the flalk y'and the pifton of the cylinder
will defeend. Thefe alternate motions can be eafily
managed by means of levers, or regulators at fitted
to the ftem of the pifton, and in the fame way as in the
fteam engine. The openings at h and / may be regu¬
lated according to the velocity wrhich is required in the
motion of the pifton, and the diameter of the cylinder
d will be proportioned to the fall of water b, r, and the
Volume of air which is wanted.
U ft
Furnace* ■
Explanation’ of the Figures.
Fig. 16. exhibits a fedlion and elevation of the bloiv-
mg machine.
a, the w'ali of the building, b, the opening in the wall
for the balance beam.
c, one of the two beams which receive the gudgeons
on which the balance beam moves, d, e, the balance
beam : f, the weight which acls as a counterpoife 5 g,
the fpring of wood.
b, a brace or ftrap of leather, which is attached to
the curved head of the beam.
J, £, /, m, the frame w’hich fupports the cylinders.
«, the blowing cylinder of caft iron.
0, 0, 0, tubes for conveying air to the furnace.
/>, ftalk of the pifton.
q, a knee or catch attached to the ftalk.
r, the horizontal axis of the w ater wheel.
s, s, arms attached to the axis, with rollers which
raife the knee or catch q, and the pifton.
t, t, fimilar arms and rollers for moving the pifton of
the fecond cylinder.
Fig. 17. Section of the pifton.
Fig. 18. The pifton feen from above.
Fig. 19. View of the under furface of the pifton.
Fig. 17. 18. and 19.
/>, ftalk of the pifton.
“uq to, lids or valves.
v, v, groove in the circumference of the pifton.
», mortife to receive the flalk />.
x, x, ftraps of iron to fupport the ftalk fi.
y, y, the band of leather furrounding the pifton.
Fig. 20. 0, a refervoir of water > b> ct a column of
water.
* jfour- de
Mina.
295 1 F
d, a cylinder for vmter.
0, the blowing cylinder.
ft the ftalk common to the piftons of the two cylin¬
ders, d and e.
g, the pipe for conducing the air.
b, /, cocks for receiving and letting out the water.
7, z, the regulators, for the purpofe of opening and
flmtting the cocks.
b, a fecond blowing cylinder *.
The following is a defcription by Torelli-Narci, of a Three-
three-blaft furnace, which was conftrufted in the che-blaft fur
mical laboratory of the French fchool of mines. nace-
“ This furnace (fays the author) is deftined for fu-
fing different mineral fubftances, in order to afeertain.
the nature of them ; and the experience of fix years
has fhown that it anfwers the intended purpofe. By its
means a very intenfe heat is obtained, and it was em¬
ployed by C. Clouet for repeating his experiments oa
the converfion of forged iron into caft fteel, which were-
attended with full fuccefs.
“ Chemifts w'ho have feen this furnace feemed defirous
of being better acquainted with the conftruftion of it;
the council even tranfmitted drawings of it to fever al
perfons; and what has hitherto prevented a defcription
of it from being given was a ddire to afeertain its power
by longer ufe.
“ I long ago conceived the idea of a fufing furnace,
in which the wind was diftributed in three tuyeres
placed in its circumference, and at equal diftances from
each other; but I had no opportunity of realizing this
idea till I became attached to the council of mines.
“ Nearly feven years ago a plan was in agitation for
conftrudting in the laboratory of the fchool a . fufing
furnace capable of producing a very great degree of
heat, in order to operate with facility and fpeed on lar¬
ger quantities of mineral, and confequently to obtain
more precifion in the trials which might be made than
had been obtained by the fmall furnaces before employ¬
ed for docimaftic experiments.
“ I propofed my ideas : they were approved by the
council of mines; and I was ordered to caufe the fur¬
nace I am about to deferibe to be conftrudled. The
principal difference between it and thofe before ufed for
the fame purpofe is, that in the prefent one the wind is
introduced through three tuyeres, placed at equal dif¬
tances from each other in its circumference, whereas in
common furnaces it enters only by one. .
“ This furnace is round, both outfide and infrde, and
conftru£ted of very refraflory bricks, fecured by iron
hoops in fuch a manner that they cannot be difplaced.
It refts on a fquare bafe of ftrong mafon work, raifed
to a fufficient height above the ground to render it eafy
to manage.
“ The bellows are four feet in length, and the mean
breadth of them is about 20 or 21 inches : they are of
wood, and the joints are covered with white leather.
The upper part confifts of five folds and two half folds j
the inferior, of twofoldsandtwo half folds. They are pla¬
ced eight or nine feet (k) above a wooden box, the joints
of which are covered with leather, and into which the
wind •
, tajght is arbitrary j it depends in part on the manner in which the bellows aredifpofed, and on the
neight of the chamber in which the furnace is placed,”
psimnce.
FUR [ 296 1 FUR
xvlnd as it comes from the bellows is conveyed by a
copper pipe, three inches in diameter, adjufted to the
upper part of the box. The box itfeli is fupported by
two iron bars built into the wall. From the lower part
of this box defcend, in a vertical direftion, three pipes
of copper, two inches in diameter, bent at right angles
about 45 inches below it, to bring them into a horizon¬
tal polition, and to convey the wind to the furnace,
which is about fix feet difiant. The extremities of
theie pipes are fitted into three tuyeres ol forged iron,
fixed at equal dillances around the circumference of
the furnace : thefe three pipes are more or lefs curved
or bent, to convey the wind into the furnace by the
three apertures made for that purpofe.
“ About fix inches below the box is adjufied, on each
of the three tubes, which defcend in a vertical direc¬
tion, a brafs cock about three inches of interior diame¬
ter : thefe cocks ferve to intercept entirely the commu¬
nication between the bellows and the furnace j and by
opening them all more or lefs, or each ot them fepa-
rately, any required quantity of wind may be obtain¬
ed (l).
“ Thefe cocks are well fixed to the tubes, and kept
in their place by two clips of iron fuited to the diame¬
ters of the tubes, and forming a kind of three collars,
which by means of four fcrews embrace and coniine
them : thefe pieces of iron are themfelves made fail to
two crutches of iron, which fupport the box and are
fixed to it by fcrews. 1 he box is kept on the crutches
by two ftraps, which embrace it at each extremity, and
are fixed by female fcrews, which are fitted to fcrews
on the ends of thefe ftraps after they have palled through
the horizontal part of the two crutches.
“ To give the proper ftrength to this furnace, a folid
fquare was conftrufted of mafon-work, about a foot lar¬
ger on each fide than the exterior diameter of the fides
of the furnace, which were from 21 to 22 inches from
outfide to outfide. Bricks were placed on the ground
in the middle of this ere&ionfor the extent of 18 inches,
in order to form a bottom, and on this bafe were placed
the fides of the furnace conftru&ed in the manner about
to be defcribed.
“ I caufed to be forged two iron hoops fix lines in
thicknefs, from 2 to 24- inches in breadth, and about
22 inches of exterior diameter : thefe two circles were
faftened together by three bars of iron, the diftance of
their exterior edge being kept at about nine inches, the
height of the bricks : thefe bars are pierced with holes
towards the end rivetted on the circles, and placed at
equal diftances on their circumference. One of the
extremes of each of thefe three bars is left of a fufficient
length to pafs beyond the lower circle about an inch, in
order to make them enter into three holes formed in
the brick-work which forms the bottom of the furnace,
and by thefe means to prevent the furnace from becom- Furnace;
ing derang ed. 'T*,y|
L“ Xhis kind of iron frame was filled with bricks fimilar
to thofe employed for the bottom of the furnace : they
were rubbed one on the other to Imooth them, and the
corners were a little rounded •, fo that, being placed
upright with their broad fides applied to the iron hoops,
the narrow fide ftood inwards. By thefe means all thefe
bricks were adjulted in fuch a manner as to touch each
other by their broadtft faces, and to form the fides of
the furnace, the thicknefs of which was equal to the
breadth of the bricks, and its depth to their length.
Three apertures were relerved for the tuyeres which
terminate the three tubes that convey the wind, by cut¬
ting from as many bricks a portion equal to the thick-
neis of a brick.
“ Thefe bricks thus adjufted were taken from the
iron frame, and then replaced, putting between them a
cement to conneft them firmly and to fill up the joints.
The dull produced by cutting the bricks was reierved
for this purpofe j and I defired the workmen to mix
with it a fmall quantity of clay diluted in a great deal
of water, in o;der to make a puddle for daubing over
the bricks, and in particular to put betweeh them no
more than was neceflary tor filling the joints and the
fmall fpace left between their faces in confequence of
any inequality left in drefling them.
“ The furnace thus conftrudled was then placed on
its bafe, a ftratum of the fame mortar employed for
filling up the joinings of the bricks being firit interpof-
ed. The extremities of the three iron bars proje&ing
beyond the lower circle were placed in the holes left in
the bafe to receive them. The body of the furnace en¬
circled with iron, both by its weight and the gentle
blows given to the iron hoops above the bars which
connedled them, expelled the exeefs of the mortar, and
cauied a part of it to enter and unite with that which
filled up the joints of the brick work of the circumfe¬
rence, which rendered it immoveable. 1 K'
“ The bellows is fecured as ufual by crutches of iron
and fuj'porters fixed in the wall and to the fioor : the
handle is difpofed in fuch a manner, that the rope
which makes it aft may be pulled by the fame perfon
who manages the fire of the lurnace, which in certain
cafes is neceffary.
“ The tuyeres of forged iron which receive the ends
of the copper tubes are fecured in their ptoper apertures
in the circumference of the furnace by pieces of brick
and mortar fimilar to that employed for filling up the
joints *, and the ends of the copper pipes introduced in¬
to thefe tuyeres are luted with the lame mortar, a little
thickened with brick dull.
“ The apertures of thefe tuyeres towards the interior
of the furnace is only nine lines in diameter j on which
account,
(i) “ Care muft be taken, when the aftion of the bellows ceafes, to (hut the cocks, efpeeially when coals a «
ufed in the furnace ; for the hydrogen difengaged from that mineral fubtlance afcends mto the box, and w e
bellows are again made to aft, may inflame, and caufe a violent explofion, or even burft thebellous.
dent once took place in the furnace here defcribed : the box burft with a loud nolle on the firli ftrohe of the bd
lows, the gas which filled them having fuddenly inflamed ; but by good fortune no perfon was hurt. 11'
thing happened at the houfe of C. Gorlier, lockfmith of Paris j one of his bellows burft with a homd explofion
at the moment when they were put in motion.”
FUR [ ;
fjuaee. ^ account, as tlie volume of air furniflied by tbe bellows
   cannot pafs fo quick as it is produced, it becomes con-
denfed in the box placed above the cocks. By thefe
means a very uniform blaid is obtained, which can alfo
be regulated by opening more or fewer of the cocks.
During more than fix years, fince this furnace was
conftruited, it has fuffered no derangement: it is not
even cracked. It is however worn in the infide by the
violence of the heat it has experienced, which has in-
creafed its diameter about two inches. The parts round
the three tuyeres have alfo got hollowed, fo that it has
need of being repaired It is intended to make it deeper,
and to have a. kind of moveable muffs or linings made
of fire clay, in order that its diameter may be reduced
at pleafure: it is meant alfo to conftruft it in fuch a
manner, as to depofit the reft or fupport for the cruci¬
ble, not on the bottom of the furnace, but on bars of
forged iron placed at the diftance of fome inches from
that bottom, fo as to leave below them a vacuity in
which the Waft of the bellows may be diffufed, and
from which it may rife, palling between the bars to tra-
verfe the mafs of charcoal which furrounds the crucible.
The Waft will then produce a more uniform fire, and the"
flame can no longer be direfted againft the fides of the
crucibles j fo that the rifk of their breaking by fudden
inequalities in the heat will be much lefs.
. This alteration is going to be immediately carried
into execution, and the method propofed for doing it is
as follows: °
^ round frame will be made of forged iron in
which bricks will be placed in the fame manner as
above defcrtbed. In the lower part of the furnace an
aperture will be referved for raking out the afhes, which
will be clofed by means of a door of baked earth care-
tufty luted with clay. Some inches above the bottom
of the furnace will be placed a grate of forged iron, and
between this grate and the bottom of the furnace the
tuyeres will terminate, and the Waft be introduced.
Mufts or Immgs of very refra&ory earth will then be
introduced, fo as to defcend to this grate. There will
be two of them, one within the other, and both within
the body of t?he furnace. At the lower part thefe muffs
, be Wrnifhed with a rim, proje&ing outward fo as
to leave between the body of the furnace and the mufts
a vacuity, which will be luted at the bottom with clay
and which will be filled with pounded glafs, or any
other fubftance a bad conduftor for heat.
The interior muff, or both of them, maybe removed
at plea fare to obtain a furnace of greater or lefs capacity
accordingtotheoperationstobe performed. Itispropofed
to make tne muffs wider at the top than at the bottom.
Explanation of the Figures*
CXHu a i) F!g- ? V, F*an bellows and of the furnace.
% - ’ if r bell°W$ made of wond> the f(>Ws of which are
alto ot wood covered with leather on the joints. CD
the handle which ferves for moving the bellows. E a
copper tube which conveys the wind of the bellows
into the box FG, in which it is condenfed. EG, a
box ot wood lerving as a refervoir for the wind conden-
Vor ix Rwi HI’ KL’ MN’ “hree
297 ] FUR
ed to the box EG, and which convey the wind into Furnace.
the infide of the furnace by three tuyeres, I, L, N.  v—*°
OP, raafon work to fupport the horizontal pipes. O,
the furnace properly fo called, the former of which is
circular, and which is placed on the fquare mafon work
R, S, T, U.
“ Flg- 22- Elevation of the furnace, the pipes which Fig. a?
convey the blaft, the cocks, the condenfing box, and
the bellows. AB, the bellows mounted in their place
and fupported by the iron-work neceffary for fecuring
it which i$ fixed in the wall and to the floor. CD,
the handle which ferves for moving the bellows. E*
the copper pipe which conveys the blaft of the bellows
to the box FG in which it is condenfed. At G is a
hole fhut by a large cork ftopper, which can be opened
at pleafure. This box is fupported by two crutches of
iron/j g, and /4, 7, built into the wall, and on which it
is fixed by two iron ftirrups /, m.
Ifig. 23. One of the crutches and its ftirrup are feen Fia. 21,
reprefented fidewife atfg, l} the extremities, n, 0, are
built into the wall, and the two ends,/., y, of the iron
piece which keeps the box on the horizontal traverfe of
the crutch, are tapped, and receive fcrews which make
them faft to the crutch^. HI, KL, MN, are three
pipes which convey the wind into the interior of the
furnace. Q, R, S, T, U, mafon work on which is pla-
S5d the furnace Q, and which ferves it as a bottom.
OP, mafonry which ferves to fupport the three pipes
that convey the wind to the furnace. XYZ,fig. 22. are
the three cocks fixed to the three pipes which proceed
from the box to convey the wind to the furnace.
“ In %• 24. the dimenfions of which are double thofe F,V 24
oi fig. 22. may be feen the details of one of thefe cocks. *
At r, r, /, the body of the cock is feen in front: the
ftopper being taken out (hows at r and at t the two holes
which receive the tubes that communicate either with
the box or with the tuyeres, u Exhibits the body of the
cock feen on one fide 5 v the key with its aperture x*
mid its head y. This key, turned round more or lefsfin
its focket, ferves to give more or lefs wind. 1, 2, 3, Iron
clips which fecure the cocks at the diftance they ought
to be from each other, and conneft them at the fame
time to the iron crutches which fupport the air-box.
Eig. 25. a plan of thefe two clips. They are bent Fig 2c
at the places marked 1, 2, 3, to embrace the body of
the three cocks, and fecure them in fuch a manner
that they cannot be deranged when they are opened or
mut. r
“ Fig. 26. and 2?..reprefent the plan and fe&ion of Fig. atf.and
the changes and additions propofed to be made when 27-
the furnace is re-conitrufted. At I, L, and N are
feen the extremities of the three pipes that enter the
forged iron tuyeres, and convey the wind to the interior
of the furnace, d, b, and c, indicate the thicknefs at
the upper part of each of the muffs and of the body of
the furnace, between which there are two vacuities
filled with pounded glafs or fome other bad conduftor
of heat, d, the grate on which are depofited the refls
of baked earth deftined to receive the crucibles, e the
crucible, luted and attached with clay to a reft of
baked earth (m).’’
P P Mr
is ^WvnfbuU d! notfib?lLnviarthLfrUni?"ieS ^ ^ or Mead of one,
, cut A ao not believe that fuch an arrangement was ever adopted m finall furnaces.
At
FUR [298
Furnace. Mr Collier, in a paper communicated to the Man-
» chefter Philofophical Society, has delivered fome im¬
portant obfervations on iron and fteel, with a more cor¬
rect account of the procefs for the manufa&ure of the
latter than has hitherto been given. To this account
he has added the defcription of a furnace for the con-
vertion of iron into fteel. As his obfervations and rea-
fonings are extremely valuable, we (hall lay the whole
before our readers in his own words.
Accounts of <1 After examining (fays Mr Collier) the works of
foTmakhvT different authors who have written on the fubjetl of
iron and 3 making iron and fteel, I am perfuaded that the accounts
Reel, im- given by them of the neceffary proceffes and operations
gerfetft. are extremely imperfeft. Chemifts have examined and
defcribed the various compound minerals containing iron
with great accuracy, but have been lefs attentive to
their reduflion. This obfervation more particularly ap¬
plies to fteel, of the making of which I have not feen
any correct account.
“ It is Angular to obferve, how very imperfe&ly the
cementation of iron has been defcribed by men of great
eminence in the fcience of chemiftry. Citizen Four-
croy ftates the length of time neceffary for the cemen¬
tation of iron to be about twelve hours ; but it is diffi¬
cult to difeover whether he alludes to caft or to bar
fteel : for he fays, that thort bars of iron are to be put
into an earthen box with a cement,, and clofed up. Now
fteel is made from bars of iron of the ufual length and
thicknefs : but caft fteel is made according to the pro¬
cefs defcribed by Citizen Fourcroy, with this eflential
difference j the operation is begun upon bar fteel and
not bar iron.
“ Mr Nicholfon is equally unfortunate in the ac¬
count given in his Chemical Diftionary. He fays,
that the ufual time required for the cementation of
iron is from (lx to ten hours, and cautions us againft
continuing the cementation too long •, whereas the ope¬
ration, from the beginning to the end, requires fixteen
days at leaft. In other parts of the operation he. is
equally defedlive, confounding the making of bar with
that of caft fteel, and not fully defcribing either. In
fpeaking of the ufes of fteel, or rather of what confti-
tutes its fuperiority, Mr Nicholofon is alfo deficient.
He obferves, that ‘ its moft ufeful and advantageous
property is that of becoming extremely hard when
plunged into water.’ He has here forgotten every
thing refpefling the temper and tempering of fteel in-
ftruments, of which, however, he takes fome notice in
the fame page. ‘ Plunging into water’ requires a
little explanation : for if very hot fteel be immeried
in cold water without great caution, it will crack, nay,
fpmetimes break to pieces. It is, however, neceffary
to be done, in order to prevent the fteel from grow¬
ing foft, and' returning to the (late of malleable
iron ; for, were it permitted to cool in the open air,
the carbone which it holds in combination would be
diffipated (n).
] FUR
“ I (hall, at prefent, confine my remarks to the ope- Furnaf..
ration performed on iron in Sheffield and its neigh-u“v-'
bourhood : from whence various communications have^°r^'
been tranfmitted to me by refident friends, and where
I have myfelf feen the operations repeatedly per¬
formed.
“ The iron made in that part of Yorkffiire is prs-
cured from ores found in the neighbourhood, which
are of the argillaceous kind, but intermixed with a
large proportion of foreign matter. ihefe, however,
are frequently combined with richer ores from Cumber¬
land and other places. The ore is firft roafted with
cinders for three days in the open air, in order to expel
the fulphureous or arfenical parts, and afterwards taken
to the furnaces : fome of which are conftru&ed fo that
their internal cavity has the form of two four-fided py¬
ramids joined bafe to bafe j but thofe moft commonly
ufed are of a conical form, from 40 to 50 feet high.
The furnace is charged at the top with equal parts offer the re.
coal cinder and lime-ftone. The lime-(tone afts as
flux, at the fame time that it fupplies a fufficient quan-Ironore’
tity of earthy matter to be converted intofeorise, which ,
are neceflary to defend the reduced metal from calcina¬
tion, when it comes near the lower part of the furnace.
The fire is lighted at the bottom; and the heat is ex¬
cited by means of two pair of large bellows blowing al¬
ternately. The quantity of air generally thrown into
the furnace is from athoufand to twelve hundred fquare
feet in a minute. The air paffes through a pipe, the
diameter of which is from two inches and a quarter, to
two and three quarters, wide. The compreffion of air
which is neceffary is equal to a column of water four
feet and a half high. The ore melts as it paffes through
the fire and is colle&ed at the bottom, where it is
maintained in a liquid ftate. Fhe flag, which falls
down with the fufed metal, is let off, by means-.of an
opening in the fide of the furnace, at the diferetion of
the workmen.
“ When affufficient quantity of regulus, or imper-
feftly reduced metal, is accumulated at the bottom of
the furnace (which ufually happens every eight hours),
it is let off into moulds j to form it for the purpofes in¬
tended, fuch as cannon or pig iron.
ii Crude iron is diftinguiffied into white, black, and
gray. The white is the leaft reduced, and more
brittle than the other two. The black is that with
which a large quantity of fuel has been ufed j and
the gray is that which has been reduced with a fuffi¬
cient quantity of fuel, of which it contains a part in
folution.
The operation of refining crude iron confifts inan(3forre
burning the combuftible matter which it holds in
lution 5 at the fame time that the remaining iron is
more perfectly reduced, and acquires a fibrous tex¬
ture. For this purpofe, the pigs of caft iron are
taken to the forge where they are firft put into what
is called the refinery : which is an open charcoal
fire,
crufe
« At Treibach, in Carinthia, C. Le Febre, and Haffenfratz member of the council and infpeaor of mines, faw,
about twenty years ago, a large furnace with two tuyeres j drawings of which they brought to France, an w ic
they reprefented in the third plate of /'j4rt de fabriquer dcs Canons, by Monge : two pairs of bellows fupp y '
through two oppofite tuyeres, and fince that arrangement the daily produdt of metal has been double. #
(n) “ It is the opinion of fome metallurgifts, that a partial abftra&ion of oxygen takes place, by plunging
metar into cold water,”
FUR
.
1 mace, fire, urged by a pair of bellows, worked by water
"Y”-—' or a fleam engine j but the compreflion of air, in
the refinery, ought to be lefs than that in the blaft
furnace. After the metal is melted, it is let out of
the fire by the workmen, to difcharge the fcoriae j and
then returned and fubjefted to the blaft as before.
This operation is fometimes repeated two or three
times before any appearance of malleability (or what
the workmen call coming into nature) takes place j
this they know by the metal’s firft afl'uming a granular
appearance, the particles appearing to repel each other,
or at leaft to have no figns of attraction. Soon after-
wards they begin to adhere, the attraction increafes
very rapidly, and it is with great difficulty that the
whole is prevented from running into one mafs, which
it is defirable to avoid, it being more convenient to
ftamp fmall pieces into thin cakes : this is done by put¬
ting the iron immediately under the forge hammer and
beating it into pieces about an inch thick, which eafily
break from the reft during the operation. Thefe fmall
pieces are then colleCled and piled upon circular ftones,
which are an inch thick, nine inches in diameter, and
about ten inches high. They are afterwards put into a
furnace, in which the fire is reverberated upon them
until they are in a femi-fluid ftate. The workmen
then take one out of the furnace and draw it into a
bar under the hammer ; which being finiffied, they ap¬
ply the bar to another of the piles of femi-fluid metal,
to which it quickly cements, is taken again to the ham¬
mer, the bar firft drawn ferving as a handle, and drawn
down as before. The imperfections in the bars are re¬
medied by putting them into another fire called the
chafery, and again fubjeCting them to the aCtion of the
forge hammer,
“ The above method is now moft in ufe, and is
called flouriftring ; but the iron made by this procefs is
in no refpeCt fuperior to that which I am going to de-
fcribe. It is, however, not fo expenfive, and requires
lefs labour.
“ The procefs for refining crude iron, which was moft
common previoufly to the introduction of flouriffiing, is
as follows.
“ The pigs of caft iron are put into the refinery, as
above, where they remain until they have acquired a
confiftence refembling pafte, which happens in about
two hours and a half. The iron is then taken out of
the refinery and laid upon a caft iron plate on the floor,
and beaten by the workmen with hand hammers, to
knock off the cinders and other extraneous matters
which adhere to the metal. It is afterwards taken to
the forge hammer and beaten, firft gently, till it has
•obtained a little tenacity j then the middle part of the
piece is drawn into a bar, about half an inch thick,
three inches broad, and four feet long ; leaving at each
end a thick fquare lump of imperfeCl iron. In this
form it is called ancony. It is now taken to the fire
called the chafery, made of common coal ; after which
the tw o ends are drawn out into the form of the middle,
and the operation is finiffied.
FUR
te There is alfo a third method of rendering crude Furnace,
iron malleable, which, I think, promifes to be abun- . v ' *
dantly more advantageous than either of the two for-
mer, as it will difpenfe both with the refinery and procefs.
chafery ; and nothing more will be neceffary than a
reverberating furnace, and a furnace to give the me¬
tal a malleable heat, about the middle of the opera¬
tion. The large forge hammer will alfo fall into dif-
repute, but in its place muft be fubftituted metal rol¬
lers of different capacities, which, like the forge ham¬
mer, nmft be worked either by a water wheel, or a fteam
engine.
“ It is by the operation of the forge hammer or metal
rollers, that the iron is deprived of the remaining por¬
tion of impurity, and acquires a fibrous texture.
“ 1 he iron made by the three foregoing proceffes is
equally valuable, for by any of them the metal is ren¬
dered pure j but after thofe different operations are fi¬
niffied, it is the opinion of many of the moft judicious
workers in iron, that laying it in a damp place, for
fome time, improves its quality 5 and to this alone, fome
attribute the fuperiority of foreign iron, more time elap-
fing between making and ufing the metal. To the lat¬
ter part of this opinion I can by no means accede, as it
is well known that the Swedilh (o) ores contain much
lefs heterogeneous matters than ours, and are generally
much richer, as they ufually yield about 70 per quintal
of pure iron, whereas the average of ours is not more
than 30 or 40 (p) : add to this, that the Swediffi ores
are fmelted in wood fires, which gives the iron an addi¬
tional fuperiority.
“ Iron inftruments are cafe-hardened by heating them
in a cinder or charcoal fire ; but if the firft be ufed, a
quantity of old leather, or bones, muft be burnt in the
fire to fupply the metal with carbone. The fire muft
be urged by a pair of bellows to a fufficient degree of
heat 5 and‘the whole operation is ufually completed in
an hour.
“ The procefs for cafe-hardening iron, is in fa£l the
fame as for converting iron into fteel, but not continued
fo long, as the furface only of the article is to be im¬
pregnated with carbone.
“ Some attempts have been made to give caft iron
by cafe-hardening, the texture and ductility of fteel!
but they have not been very fuccefsful. Table and
penknife blades have been made of it, and, when
ground, have had a pretty good appearance ; but the
edges are not firm, and they foon lofe their poliffi.
Common table knives are frequently made of this me¬
tal.
“ The cementation of iron converts it into fteel
a fubftance intermediate between crude and malleable
iron.
“ The furnaces For making fteel are conical build-Furnace
ings; about the middle of which are two troughs ofmaking
brick or fire ftone, which will hold about four tons 0ffteel*
iron in the bar. At the bottom is a long grate for
fire.
“ A layer of charcoal duft is put upon the bottom of
P P 2 the
(0) “ Steel is commonly made of Swedilh iron.”
(p) “ The 
*f iron.
or
he iron made from the ore found in the neighbourhood of Sheffield, contains a great deal pf phofnhate
fiderite, which renders the metal brittle when cold.” 1 1
t 299 1
FUR [ 3°o ] FUR
Furnace.
Bliftered
Reel.
Tilted fteel
German
fteel.
Call fteel.
the trough j and, upon that, a layer of bar iron, and
fo on alternately until the trough is full. It is then
covered over with clay to keep out the air $ which, if
admitted, would effectually prevent the cementation.
When the fire is put into the grate, the heat paffes
round by means of flues, made at intervals, by the fides
of the trough. The fire is continued until the conver-
iion is complete, which generally happens in about eight
or ten days. There is a hole in the fide by which the
W'orkmen draw out a bar occaiionally, to fee how far
the tranfmutation has proceeded. This they determine
by the blifters upon the furface of the bars. If they be
not fufficiently changed, the hole is again cloied care¬
fully to exclude the air j but if, on the contrary, the
change be complete, the fire is extinguifhed, and the
fteel is left to cool for about eight days more, when the
procefs for making bliftered iteel is finifhed.
“ For fmall wires, the bars are drawn under the tilt
hammer, to about half an inch broad and three-fix-
teenths of an inch thick.
• “ The change wrought on bliftered fteel by the tilt
hammer, is nearly fimilar to that effected on iron from
the refinery by the forge hammer. It is made of a
more firm texture, and drawn into convenient forms for
ufe.
“ German fteel is made by breaking the bars of blif¬
tered fteel into fmall pieces, and then putting a number
of them into a furnace j after w'hieh they are welded
together and drawn to about 18 inches long j then
doubled and welded again, and finally drawn to the
fize and fhape required for ufe. 1 his is alio called
{hear ftecl, and is fuperior in quality to the common
tilted fteel.
“ Caft fteel is alfo made from the common bliftered
fteel. The bars are broken and put into large cruci¬
bles with a flux. The crucible is then clofed up with a
lid of the fame ware, and placed in a wind furnace.
By the introduftion of a greater or hnaller quantity of
flux, the metal is made harder or fofter. When the
fufion is complete, the metal is caft into ingots, and
then called ingot i eel $ and that which afterwards
undergoes the operation of tilting, is called tilted caft
fteel.
“ The caft fteel is the moft valuable, as its texture
is the moft compadft and it admits of the fineft polifh.
“ Sir T. Frankland has communicated a procefs, in
the Tranfabtions of the Royal Society, for welding
caft fteel and malleable iron together ; which, he fays,
is done, by giving the iron a malleable, and the fteel a
•white heat ; but, from the experiments which have
been made at my requeft, it appears, that it is only
foft caft fteel, little better than common fteel, that will
Wt-ld to iron : pure fteel will not j for, at the heat de¬
fended by Sir T. the beft caft fteel either melts or will
not bear the hammer.
“ It may here be obferved, as was mentioned before,
that fteel is an intermediate ftate between crude and
malleable iron, except in the circumftance of its reduc¬
tion being complete ; for, according to the experiments
of Reaumur and Bergman, fteel contains more hydro¬
gen gas than caft iron, but lefs than malleable iron ;—
lefs plumbago than the firft, but more than the latter ;
—an equal portion of manganefe with each j—lefs fili-
ceous earth than either—more iron than the firfl, but
fefs than the fecond. its fufibility is likewife interme¬
diate, between the bar iron and the crude. When fteel Furnace;
Iras been gradually cooled from a ftate of ignition, it is^^r^
malleable and loft, like bar iron j but when ignited and
plunged into cold w ater, it has the hardnefs and brittle-
nets of crude iron.
“ From the foregoing fa<fts, we are juftified in draw¬
ing the fame conclulions with Reaumur and Bergman,
but which have been more perfebUy explained by Van¬
dermonde, Berthollet, and Monge, that crude iron is
a regulus, the reduciion of which is not complete j
and which confequently will differ according as it ap¬
proaches more or lets, to the metallic ftate. Forged iron,
when previoufly well refined, is the pureft metal } for
it is then the moft malleable and the nvoft dmftile, its
power of welding is the greateft, and it acquires the
magnetic quality fooneft. Steel confifts of iron per¬
fectly reduced and combined with charcoal j and the
various difterences in bliftered fteel, made of the fame
metal, conlifts. of the greater or lefs proportion of char¬
coal imbibed.
“ Iron gains by being converted into fteel, about the
hundred and eightieth part of its weight.
“ In order to harden fteel, it muft be put into a clean Hardenin'
charcoal, coal, or cinder fire, blown to a fufficient de-fteel.
gree of heat by bellows. The workmen lay, that nei¬
ther iron nor fteel will harden properly without a blaft.
When the fire is fufficiently hot, the inftrument intend¬
ed to be hardened muft be put in, and a gradual blaft
from the bellows continued until the metal has acquir¬
ed a regular red heat •, it is then to be carefully quench¬
ed in cold water. If the fteel be too hot when immer-
fed in water, the grain will be of a rough and coarfe
texture \ but if of a proper degree of heat, it will be
perfebtly fine. Saws and fome other articles are quench¬
ed in oil.
“ Steel is tempered by again fubjeCting it to the ac-Temper;rj,
tion of the fire. The inftrument to be tempered weit.
will fuppofe to be a razor made of caft fteel. Firft rub
it upon a grit ftone until it is bright j then put the back
upon the fire, and in a ftiort time the edge will become
of a light ftraw colour, whilft the back is blue. The
ftraw colour denotes a proper temper either for a razor,
graver, or penknife. Spring knives require a dark
brown ; feiffars, a light brown, or ftraw colour; forks
or table knives, a blue. The blue colour marks the
proper temper for fwords, watch-fprings, or any thing
requiring elafticity. The fprings for penknives are
covered over with oil before they are expofed to the fire
to temper.
Explanation of the Figures.
“ Fig. 28. is a plan of the furnace, and fig. 29. is
fed ion of it taKen at the line AB. The plan is taken and 29.
at the line CD. The fame parts of the furnace are
marked with the fame letters in the plan and in the
fedion. EE are the pots or troughs into -which the
bars of iron are laid to be converted. F is the fire¬
place j P, the fire bars ; and R, the alhpit. GG, &c.
are the flues. HH is an arch, the infide of the bottom
of which correfponds with the line III1, fig. 28. and
the top of it is made in the form of a dome, having a
hole in the centre at K, fig. 29. LD, &c. are fix chim¬
neys. MM is a dome, fimilar to that of a glafs-houfe,
covering the whole. At N there is an arched opening,
at which the materials are taken in and out of the fur¬
nace,
Fur [ 3°i 1 fur
jmace. nace, and wliicli is clofely built up when the furnace is
charged. At OO there are holes in each pot, through
which the ends of three or four of the bars are made to
project quite out of the furnace. Thefe are for the
purpofe of being drawn out occafionally to fee if the
iron be fufficienlly converted.
“ The pots are made of fire tiles, or fire flone. The
bottoms of them are made of two courfes, each courle
being about the thicknefs of the fingle courfe which
forms the outfides of the pots. The infides of the pots
are of one courfe, about double the thicknefs of the
outfide. The partitions of the flues are made of fire
brick, which are of different thicknelfes, as reprefented
in the plan, and by dotted lines in the bottom of the
pots. Thefe are for fupporting the fides and bottoms
of the pots, and for dire&ing the flame equally round
them. The great objedf is to communicate to the
whole an equal degree of heat in every part. The fuel
is put in at each end ol the fire-place, and the fire is
made the whole length of the pots, and kept up as
equally as poflible.”
] iroved In a memoir publifhed by Du Hamel, the inconve-
F nience and expence which attend the procefs commonly
lu^*e» for refining lead or feparating the filver from
this metal, are pointed out, and a more economical
procefs is propoled. This procefs, which is known by
the name of cuf>ellationy is performed in a veffel called
the cupel, which is made of the afhes of the bones of
animals, or of vegetables, after feparating, by means
of w-ater, the faline parts which adhere to them. But
the difficulty and expence of obtaining a fufficient quan¬
tity of thefe materials, led him to contrive fomething
elfe as a fubftitute, which might be lefs coif ly and more
eafily obtained.
For the purpofe of performing the procefs in the way
here recommended, it is not necefiary to make any al¬
teration in the general conftru&ion of the furnace. All
that is required is, to have a fufficient number of canals
or openings towards its bafe, to allow the efcape of the
moiflure. Thefe canals are covered w ith a bed of fco-
ria, on which is raifed a pavement formed of the moft
porous bricks, and about a brick in thicknefs. On this
floor or area, which fhould be a little concave, in the
fame way as the ordinary cupels are formed when they
are made of afhes, is placed a quantity of calling or
moulding fand, {lightly moiftened j and if the fand has
not a fufficient quantity of earth, fome clay is added,
to give it confiftence, and the whole is carefully mixed
together. This fand is beaten together, and a concave
veffel is made of it, of an equal thicknefs in all its parts.
When the bafon has been uniformly beaten, it will be
proper to fift over its whole furface a fmall quantity of
wood afhes, wrell wafhed with water, and thefe are alfo
beaten down with a peftle.
I he cupel being thus prepared, the head of the fur¬
nace is put on, and a moderate fire is kindled and kept
up for fome hours, to carry off part of the moifture of
the fand. The remainder is diffipated without inconve¬
nience, by means of the canals, during the procefs.
After it has been fufficiently dried, the head of the fur¬
nace is again taken off, and allowed to cool a little.
A quantity of ftraw or hay is put upon the bafon or cu-
pel, to prevent any injury from the weight of the bars
°1 lead on the fand. To avoid this Hill more, it is re¬
commended to have the lead to be purified caft into
the form of hemifpheres, in place of bars.
A fufficient quantity of lead being introduced into
the furnace, the head is luted on with baked clay, and
the fire is applied in the ufual way. As foon as the
lead is completely fufed, the bafon appears covered with
the burnt ftraw : this is removed by means of an iron in-
ftrument, and this operation is repeated fcveral times.
When the lead begins to grow red, the adfion of the.
bellows commences, at firft foftly, and the blaft is fo
directed that it may ftrike the centre of the cupel. To
effed this more completely, a fmall round plate of iron
is attached to the extremity and upper part of the pipe
by means of a hinge, fo that at each Waft it is half
railed, and the current of air is direded to the furface
of the fufed metal.
After the whole of the feum that rifes has been re¬
moved, and the lead is covered with a ftratum of li¬
tharge, a fmall gutter is made by means of a hook for
the purpofe, in the land of the cupel. This is gradual¬
ly and cautioufiy hollowed, till it is on a level with the
furface of the bath, and then the litharge driven by the
Waft towards the anterior part of the furnace, will flow
this way, and fpread itfelf on the floor in the ufual way.
When the operator perceives that the litharge has been
removed, he flops up the gutter with moiftened afhes,
till another quantity of litharge appears on the furface.
He then re-opens the gutter, which is now made deeper
in proportion to the diminution of the fufed metal, but
at the fame time taking care that no part of the lead
efcapes, efpecially towards the end of the procefs, be-
caufe then a confiderable portion of filver would be car¬
ried off.
In this way the procefs is conducted till the fepara-
tion of the filver begins to take place, obferving at the
fame time to increafe the heat as the quantity of fufed
metal diminifhes, becaufe then the filver is colle£led to¬
gether -r and fince it is much more difficult to keep it
in fufion than the fmall portion of lead which remains
combined with it, the reparation would be very imper-
fe£t, without the application of a fufficient temperature.
Inftead of having only one-twentieth of lead, which is
the ufual proportion in the common procefs, the quan¬
tity would be much greater,, and this would render the
fecond operation, the refining of the filver much more
difficult.
Du Hamel obferves, that a cupel of fand, well made,,
will anfwer for the repetition of the procefs feveral
times, without renewing it at the end of each opera¬
tion,^ as is the cafe with thofe of allies. The only pre¬
caution to be obferved is, to remove the kind of varnifh
of oxyde of lead which remains on the fides of the gut¬
ter by which the litharge flowed out, that the new
land with which it is to be filled up may combine eafily
with the old.
The length of time which the reverberatory furnace
may be employed in fmelting the ores of lead, and even
in reducing litharge, is a proof that the oxyde of lead
a£ts only on the furface of the cupel, and penetrates a
very fmall thicknefs. After the procefs has been feve¬
ral times repeated, this cruft is removed, and it is fufed
for the purpofe of obtaining the lead. This procefs will
be as eafy as the reduflion of the metal contained in
the afhes of the ordinary cupels, and in much final ler
quantity.
Furnace.
1 —i*"11*
FUR [ 302
Farnace. quantity* By the new method, therefore, a greater
““—v ''' proportion of litharge is obtained ; and it may be add¬
ed, that the fand abforbing a fmaller quantity of oxyde
of lead, it will contain alfo a fmaller proportion of lil-
ver; for it is well known that the lead which is re¬
duced from the alhes, contains always much more
than that which is produced from the redu&ion of li¬
tharge.
In place of fand, argillaceous earth may be employ¬
ed in the conftru&ion of cupels ; but it is neceffary that
this earth be well beaten together, and that this procefs
fliould be feveral times repeated, for feveral days, with¬
out which the clay would be apt to crack, and the
melted lead would flow into the crevices j an inconve¬
nience which does not arife from the ufe of fand, even
although it fliould be mixed with a little earth. And
befldes, it is to be obferved, that the cupel conftructed
of this fubftanee, becomes too hard to allow a gutter
to be ealily made for the paffage of the litharge. In
this cafe it would be neceifary that the place by
which the oxyde is to fknv out, be made up of fand, or
« of allies.
In the formation of the bafon or cupel, which is here
propofed, it feems to be advantageous to employ two
kinds of fand, the one fine, like that which is ufed by
the founders, the other coarfer, and free from earth.
It is of the latter, the coarfe kind, that the firft ftratum
is formed *, and this, after being made of fufficient
thicknefs, is well beaten with peflles for the purpofe *,
on this the fine fand is to be placed, containing a pro¬
per proportion of earth, and it is to be beaten together
in the fame way. Both the coarfe and the fine fand
are to be moiftened a little, that they may adhere toge¬
ther, and afterwards acquire a fufficient degree of loli-
dity under the peftles. The fand of the inferior layer
being coarfer than the other, will abforb the moifture
from it as it evaporates, and will allow it to pafs off ea-
fily, by means of the canals or openings which are left
for that purpofe. This ftratum, too, is to remain in its
place, when the fine fand of the cupel is removed, and
that the furface of the ftratum of coarfe fand may not
be difturbed when the other is removed, a thin layer
of allies may be thrown upon it, and beaten down, be-
* Mem. de ^ore ot^er ftratum is on*'
The French fchool of mines appointed a commiffion,
compofed of Haflenfratz, Brochant, and Miche, to con-
fider the belt form for the conftrudtion of a furnace for
burning lime-ftone, or plafter of Paris. After confi-
dering different forms of furnaces, and reafoning on
their effects, they propofe in their report to adopt the
following, which is reprefented in fig. 30. and 31.
Fig. 30. is a plan of the furnace propofed.
• D, the fire-place. E, E, openings for taking out
the fubftances which are converted into lime or plaf¬
ter.
P, half of the plan taken at the height of the line
AK of fig. 31.
Q, half of the plan taken at the height of the line,
XY of fig. 31.
Fig. 31. exhibits a feftion of the fame furnace.
B, C, are places which remain empty after the in-
troduftion of the fubftances to be expofed to heat.
B, D, the fires.
E, the opening for the extraction of the fubftances
after they are converted into lime or plafter.
Furnace.'
rinjt.
- iti 306
Fig. 30.
Yig. 31.
] FUR
G, the throat or vent.
a, b, openings for regulating the heat.
We ffiall now conclude this article with a fliort ac¬
count of the conftruCtion and management of furnaces
for chemical purpofes.
The following is a defcription of an effay or cupel- Chemical
ling furnace. 1. A hollow, quadrangular prifm, 11 furnace,
inches broad and nine inches high, is conftrudted with
iron plates, and it ends at top in a hollow quadrangular
pyramid, feven inches high j the latter terminating in
an opening feven inches fquare. The prifm is clofed at
bottom with another iron plate, which ferves as a bot¬
tom.
Near the bottom a door three inches high and
2.
five inches broad, is opened. This leads to the afli
hole.
3. Above this door, and fix inches from the bafis, ano¬
ther door is opened, of the figure of a fegment of a
circle, four inches broad at the bottom, and three inches
and a half high in the middle.
4. Three iron plates are then to be faftened to the
fore-part of the furnace, the firft of them fhould be 11
inches long, half an inch high, and fo faftened with
three or four rivets, that its lower edge may reft againft
the bottom of the furnace. Between this plate and the
fide of the furnace a fpace muft be left, fo wide that the
Aiders of the lower door, which are made of a thicker
iron plate, may move eafily in the groove. The fe-
cond iron plate, which is 11 inches long, and three
inches high, is faftened parallel to the firft, in the fpace
between the two doors. Both the upper and lower
edges of this plate form grooves with the fide of the
furnace, for receiving the Aiders which ffiut the doors.
The tlprd plate of the fame dimenfions with the firft,
is rivetted clofe above the upper door, and forms a
groove for receiving the edge of the Aiders which move
that door.
5. For the purpofe of doling the doors, two Aiders
of iron-plates muft be adapted to each of them. Thefe
Aiders are moved in the grooves. The two Aiders be¬
longing to the upper door have each a hole near the
top ; in the one there is a fmall hole £ of an inch broad,
inch long j and the other a femicircular opening one
inch high and two broad. To each Aider there is a
handle attached, to lay hold of it when it is moved.
6. Five, round holes, an inch diameter, are bored in
the furnace, two in the back part, and twfo in the fore
part, five inches from the bottom *, but 3^ inches from
each fide of the furnace. The fifth hole is at the height
of an inch above the upper edge of the upper door.
7. The infide of the furnace muft be armed with
iron hooks, about three inches from each other, and pro¬
jecting 4- inch. The ufe of thele hooks is to fecure the
lute with which the furnace is to be lined.
8. A moveable, hollow', quadrangular pyramid, alfo
of iron, and 3 inches high, is to be fitted to the upper
opening of the furnace, 7 inches broad, and ending
above in a hollow tube, 3 inches in diameter, about
2 inches high, nearly cylindrical, but converging a
little at the top. This tube ferves to fupport a funnel
for conveying the fmoke into the chimney. This cover
has two handles to lay hold of it. To fecure the cover
on the furnace, an iron plate is rivetted to the right
and left of its upper edge, and turned down towards
the infide, fo that a furrow may be made, open be¬
fore
FUR [ 303 ]
FUR
Furnace.
fore and behind, for receiving the lateral edges of the
cover.
9. A fquare ledge, made of thick iron plate, is fixed
at the top of the upper edge of the lower door, for
fupporting the grate and the lute, and that it may be
eafily introduced into the cavity of the furnace, it Ihould
be of two pieces.
10. Iron bars are then to be fixed in the infide of
the furnace, for fupporting the fuel. Thefe muit be
equal in length with the diameter of the furnace, about
inch thick, and ^ inch diilant from each other.
They are fupported at their extremities by a fquai-e
iron ledge.
11. To prevent the diflipation of the heat, and the
deftru&ion of the iron, by being repeatedly made red
hot, the infide of the furnace muft be lined with
lute, about a finger’s breadth, or rather more, in
thicknefs.
Coating for For luting furnaces, Do&or Black recommended a
furnaces, fimple mixture of fand and clay. The proportions for
refilling the violence of fire are four parts of fand to
one of clay j but when defigned for the lining of fur¬
naces, he ufes fix or feven of fand to one of clay, the
more effe&ually to prevent the contraction of the latter j
for it is known from experiments, that clay, when ex-
pofed to a ftrong heat, contracts the more in proportion
to its purity. The fand fettles into lefs bulk when wet,
and does not contract by heat, which it alfo refiits as
well as the clay itfelf.
Befides this outfide lining next the fire, Dr Black
ufes another to be laid on next the iron of the furnace 5
and this confilts of clay mixed with a large proportion
of charcoal dull. It is more fit for containing the
heat, and is put next to the iron, to the thicknefs of
an inch and a half. That it may be pretty dry when
firft put in, he takes three parts by weight of the
charcoal dull, and one of the common clay, which
mull be mixed together when in dry powder, other-
wife it is very difficult to mix them perfectly. As
much water is added as will form the matter into balls j
and thefe are beaten very firm and compaCt by means of
a hammer upon the infide of the furnace. The other
lute is then fpread over it to the thicknefs of about half
an inch, and this is alfo beaten folid by hammering;
after which it is allowed to dry llowly, that all cracks
and fiflures may be avoided; and after the body of the
furnace is thus lined, the vent is fcrewed on and lined
in the fame manner. It mull then be allowed to dry
for a long time ; after which a fire may be kindled,
and the furnace gradually heated for a day or two.
The fire is then to be raifed to the greateft intenfity;
and thus the luting acquires a hardnefs equal to that
of free-ftone, and is afterwards as lading as any part
of the furnace.
lode of To perform an operation in this furnace, two iron bars
terating an inch thick, and of fufficient length to projeCt a little
•rnace15 ^eyon^ t^le ^°^es t^ie furnace, are paffed through four
lower holes, which are placed before and behind, diredly
oppofite to each other. Thefe bars fupport the muffle,
which is introduced through the upper opening of the
furnace, and placed upon the bars, in fuch a way that
the open fide of it may be near the inner border of the
upper door. The fuel is introduced through the top of
the furnace, and the bed fuel is charcoal made of hard
wood. It fflould be reduced to fmall pieces, that they Furnace,
may readily fall between the muffle end the fides of the
furnace. The muffle is to be covered with fuel, to the
height of feveral inches. The pieces of charcoal diould
not be too fmall, becaufe they may fall immediately
through the interdices of the grate, or be too rapidly
confuraed, and thus increafing the quantity of adies,
obdruft the current of air.
As the management of the fire is of great importance, Manage-
for the fuccefs of operations in the furnace, the follow- of the
ing directions may be attended to. To increafe thefire*
heat to the utmod, the door of the affl-hole may be
left open j the diders of the upper door drawn towards
each other, fo as to touch in the middle, and the cover
and funnel adapted to its tube, placed on the top of
the furnace. The heat is dill farther increafed by
putting red burning coals into the open upper door.
By diutting the upper door with the dider, which has
a narrow oblong hole in it, the heat is diminidied, and
it is dill farther diminiffled by diutting the door with
the other dider, having the femicircular hole. The
heat is alfo diminilhed by removing the funnel at the
top of the cover 5 and the heat is lefs by partially or
totally diutting the door of the adi-hole, becaufe then
the current of air necedary to excite combudion is ob-
druCled.
T. he heat of the furnace is alfo increafed in propor¬
tion to the diminidied fize of the muffle. The heat is
dronger too, according as the muffle has more and larger
fegments cut out of it, as the fides of it are thinner, and
as the number of vedels placed in the hinder part of it
is increafed ; and the contrary. It may be here ob-
ferved, that when many of the conditions necedary to
produce drong heat are wanting, the operator, with all •
his fagacity, will fcarcely be able to excite combudion
in fuch a degree in common afiay furnaces as to fucceCd *
w'ell in his operations ; and even when he employs bel¬
lows, and introduces coals by the' upper door. The
grate, therefore, ought to be placed nearly three inches
below the muffle, that the air rudiirig through the adi-
hole, may not cool its bottom, and that the fmaller
coals, almod already confumed, and the adies, may more
eafily fall through the interdices of the grate 3 larger
coals, fit for keeping up the requifite degree of heat,
mud be ufed. The funnel is added, that the blowing
of the fire being increafed by means of it as much as
poffible, may be brought to the degree that is wanted ;
for the fire may be at any time diminidied, but without
the affidance of proper apparatus, it cannot always be
increafed at pleafure.
Explanation o/Fig. 32, 33, and 34.
Fig. 32, a, a, b, b, body of the affay furnace. Fig. 3?,
b b, £ c, top of the fame.
opening at the top of the furnace.
e, door leading to the afii-hole.
ft upper door.
*7, the iron plates rivetted on the furnace, .
which form the grooves in which the doors Hide.
h k, / /^ the Hiding doors.
/w, the hole in one of the doors 3 the femicircular
hole. .
0 0, the holes for receiving the bars which fupport
the muffle.
4
A
Furnace.
Fig- 33-
Fig- 34*
Portable
furnace.
FUR
/>, a hole above the upper edge of the upper door, for
introducing a rod to Itir the fire.
g7 the pyramidal cover,
r, tube or funnel at the top.
s st its handles.
Fig. 33. reprefents a longitudinal {e&ion of a re¬
verberatory furnace, 18 feeW long, 12 broad, and pr
high.
the building.
by the afii-hole.
Cy channel for the evaporation of the moifture.
</, the grate.
Cy the fire-place.
fy the inner part of the furnace.
gy a bafon formed of fand.
hy the cavity containing the melted metal.
iy a hole through which the fcoria is removed.
ky the paffage for the flame and fmoke, or the lower
part of the chimney, to be carried to the height of 30
feet.
/, a hole in the roof, through which the ore is intro¬
duced into the furnace.
Fig. 34. is a longitudinal fe&ion of a refining fur¬
nace.
a a, the building.
by the channels to carry off the moifture.
Cy other fmall channels, which meet in the middle of
the bafon.
dy the bafon made of bricks.
Cy a layer of alhes.
fy the hollow or bafon containing the melted metal.
gy the hole for the fmoke and flame.
h hy two openings for admitting the pipes of the bel¬
lows.
iy the vault or dome of the furnace.
ky the fire-place.
/, the grate.
niy a hole below for the admiflion of air.
«, a hole in the vault, which ferves to cool the fur¬
nace.
A convenient portable blaft furnace, contrived by
Mr Aikin, and defcribed by him in the 17th vol. of the
Philofophical Magazine, will probably be ufeful to
fome of our chemical readers. “ It is (he fays) parti¬
cularly adapted to thofe who, like myielf, can only de¬
vote a fmall room and a moderate ftiare of time to thefe
purfuits.
“ Dr Lewis, in his Commerce of the Arts (page 27),
defcribes a very powerful baft furnace formed out of a
black lead pot, which has a number of holes bored at
fmall diftances in fpiral lines all over it, from the bot¬
tom up to fuch a height as the fuel is defigned to reach
to. This is let half way into another pot, which laft
receives the nozzle of the bellow's, fo that all the air
fent in is diftributed through the fpiral holes of the up¬
per pot, and concentrates the heat of the fuel upon the
crucible, which is placed in the midft.
“ The furnace which I am going to defcribe re¬
sembles very clofely this of Dr Lewis-, with this dif¬
ference, however, that the air-holes are only bored
through the bottom of the pot, and this merely ftands
upon another piece, iniiead of being let into it. It is
2
F U R
on this account fomewhat more commodious, and I iina- Furnace,
gine not lefs powerful. -y——<
“ Fig. 35. is a view, and fig. 36. a feftion, of the Fig. 35.
furnace. It is compofed of three parts, all made out^-
of the common thin black-lead melting pots fold in Lon¬
don for the ufe of the goldfmiths. The lower piece, A,
is the bottom of one of thefe pots cut off fo low as on¬
ly to leave a cavity of about one inch, and ground
fmooth, above and below'. The outfide diameter over
the top is 5-^ inches. The middle piece or fireplace,
B, is a larger portion of a fimilar pot with a cavity
about fix inches deep, and meafuring 74 inches over
the top, outfide diameter, and perforated with fix blaft
holes at the bottom. Thefe two pots are all that are
effentially neceffary to the furnace for moft operations:
but when it is wilhed to heap up fuel over the top of a
crucible contained within, and efpecially to proteft the
eyes from the intolerable dazzle of the fire when in full
heat, an upper pot, C, is added of the fame dimenfions
as the middle one, and with a large fide opening cut
out to allow an exit to the fmoke and flame. It has
alfo an iron ftem w'ith a wooden handle (an old chifel
will do very well), to lift it off and on.
“ The bellows (which are double) are firmly fixed,
by a little contrivance which will take off and on, to a
heavy ftool, as is reprefented in the plate j and their
handle {hould be lengthened, to make them w oikeafier
to the hand. To increafe their force on particular oc-
cafions, a plate of lead may be tied on the wood of the
upper flap. The nozzle is received intua hole in the
pot A, which conduits the blaft into its cavity. From
hence the air pafles into the fire-place, B, through fix
holes, of the lize of a large gimlet, drilled at equal
diftances through the bottom of the pot, and all con¬
verging in an inward direilion, fo that, if prolonged,
they would meet about the centre of the 'upper part of
the fire. The larger hole through the middle of the
bottom of the fame pot is for another purpofe. Fig. 37. pig,
is a plan of the fame, fhowing the diftribution of thefe
holes.
“ As a ftand or fupport for the crucible, I have
found no method fo good as to fit an earthen ftopper
into the bottom of the pot B, through the large centre
hole which is made for this purpofe. This keeps the
crucible in its proper place, in ftirring down the coals
and managing the fuel. Thefe Hoppers are made with
great eafe and expedition out of the foftened fire-brick
fold in London. A piece of this brick, made to re¬
volve a few times within a portion of iron or earthen¬
ware tube, prefently takes the form of its cavity, and
comes out a very neat portion of a cylinder or cone, ac¬
cording to the ftiape of the tube, from which the
Hoppers may readily be fa (burned. Fig. 38. reprefents Fig-3^*
one of thofe Hoppers, which is alfo feen in its proper
place in fig. 36. fupporting a crucible.
“ As the conftrudlion of this furnace (exclufive of
the bellows and its ftool) is eafy to any one at all ufed
to thefe little manual operations, I truft that the ’working
chemift will allow me to add a few words on the method
which I have found the moft convenient and economi¬
cal. Almoft any broken pot of the proper width will
furnifti the lower piece A and often the middle and
upper pieces may be contrived out of the fame refufe
matter. Dr Lewis advifes a faw to cut thefe pots j
but
[ 3°4 1
FURNACE
PLATE CCXXV
y.
FUR N AC E
PLATE CCIXXVI.
.v ; / '' •’ ;
FURNiVCE.
PLA TE CCXXVTL
j2/.
WArrA ila/s? JeuJjp
FUR [ 3°5 ] F U R
but moft faws are too thick, and when a little ufed,
the teeth get rounded off, which makes them work
intolerably flow. I have found by far the bell tool
to be an old table knife, or rather two of them, worn
thin by ufe, and hacked and jagged as deeply as pof-
fible, by linking the edges itrongly again!! each other,
Thefe work well and expeditioufy, and when they
become dull are again roughened by the fame limple
means. The holes may be drilled with a common
gimlet of the largelt fize, and a little ileadinefs of
hand will eafily enable the operator to give them the
oblique direction with fufficient accuracy j for much is
not required. To make a fmooth furface to the parts
intended to adapt to each other, frit wear them down
a little with the foft fire-brick, and then grind them
with w'ater on a flat free-ftone (a link-Hone for ex¬
ample), and laltly make them entirely fit by rubbing
one furface on the other.
“ No luting of any kind is ever required 5 fo that
the whole may be fet up and taken down immediately.
Nor is it aeceffary to bind the pots with metal hoops j
for they are thick enough to endure conliderable
blows without breaking ; and yet they will bear, with¬
out cracking, to be heated as fuddenly and intenfely as
pofiible. In Ihort, the black-lead crucible feems to be
the bell material that could poflibly be devifed for thefe
purposes.
“ The heat which this little furnace will afford is fo
intenfe, and fo much more than would at firlt light be
expe&ed from fo trifling an apparatus, that it was only
the accidental fulion of a thick piece of call iron in it
that led us to fufpedl its power. The utmoft heat which
we have procured in this furnace has been 167° of a
Wedgwood pyrometer piece, which was withdrawn
from a very fmall Hefiian crucible when actually link¬
ing down in a Hate of porcellanous fulion. A Heady
heat of 150° to 1550 may be ufually depended on, if
the fire be properly managed and the bellows worked
with vigour. This is fuflicient for mod operations in
chemiltry ; and the economy in time and fuel is ex¬
treme, lince a furnace of the given dimeniions will very
wrell raife to the above point of heat in from five to ten
minutes a Heflian crucible of fuch a diameter, that the
average thicknefs of burning fuel around its bottom is
not more than one inch and a half. A fmaller crucible
will take a higher heat, but at the rilk of its foftening
and falling in by the weight of the incumbent fuel.
“ Coak, or common cinders taken from the firej'uH
when the coal ceafes to blaze, and broken into very
fmall pieces, with the dull fifted away, form the beff
fuel for the higheft heat. A light fpongy kind of coak,
formed of a mixture of coal and charcoal, called Davnfs
patent coal, alfo anfwers extremely well Charcoal
alone has not weight enough, when broken fo fmall as
it nmfl be to lie clofe in this little fire-place, to with-
Hand the force of the blaH when very violent A bit
of lighted paper, a handful of the very fmall charcoal,
called in London /mail coal, and ten or a dozen flrokes
or the bellows, will kindle the fire in almoH as many
feconds.
“ Various little alterations and arrangements, which
will readily occur to the praflical chemifl, will fit this
little apparatus for diflillation with an earthen retort,
heating a gun-barrel paifed through the fire, bending
glafs tubes, &c.
• Vol. IX. Part i.
“ I lhall only add, that the dimeniions of this fur- Furnace
nace were determined merely by the circumHance of H
having at hand pieces of black-lead pots of this fize, fo Furr'
that doubtlefs they may be varied without any diminu¬
tion, and probably with fome increafe of the effedl.
Thg fame may be faid of the number of holes j for in
another infiance four appeared to anfwer as well as fix,
with this difference, however, that, by long working,
the melted Hag of the coak will now and then partially
block up one or two of the holes 5 on which account
perhaps the greater number is preferable*,” * Phil.
FURNITURE, a term in dialling, which denotes xvii,
certain additional points and lines drawn on a dial, by l66-
way of ornament, fuch as the fignsof the zodiac, length
of days, parallels of declination, azimuths, points of the
compafs, meridians of chief cities, Babylonic, Jewifli, or
Italian hours, &c.
FUROR uterinus, a diforder peculiar to women.
See Medicine Index.
FURR, or Fuk, in Commerce, fignifies the Ikin of
feveral wild beads, dreffed in alum with the hair on j
and ufed as a part of drefs, by princes, magifirates, and
others. I he kinds moil in uie are thole of the ermine,
fable, cafior, hare, rabbit, &c. See Mustela.
It was not till the later ages that the furs of beafis
became an article of luxury. The more refined nations
of ancient times never made ufe of them thofe alone
whom the former Higmatized as barbarians were clothed
in the ikins of animals. Strabo deferibes the Indians
covered with the Heins of lions, panthers, and bears j
and Seneca, the Scythians clothed with the ikins of
foxes and the leffer quadrupeds. Virgil exhibits a
pi&ure of the favage Hyperboreans, iimilar to that
which our late circumnavigators can witnefs to in the
clothing of the wild Americans, unfieen before by any
polilhed people.
Gtctu effreena virum Riphceo tunditur Euro ;
Et pecudum fulvis velantur corpora fetis.
Moil part of Europe was at this time in fimilar cir-
cumdances. Cajfar might be as much amazed with
the Ikin-drefled heroes of Britain, as our celebrated
Cook was at thofe of his new-difeovered regions.
What time has done to us, time, under humane
conquerois, may effcdl for them. Civilization mav
take place ; and thofe fpoils of animals, which are at
prefent effential for clothing, become the mere objects
of ornament and luxury.
It does not appear that the Greeks or old Romans
ever made ufe of furs. It originated in thofe regions
where they moll abounded, and where the feverity of
the climate required that fpecies of clothing. At firifc
it con filled of the Ikins only, alraoft in the Hate in
which they were torn from the body of the beait j but
as foon as civilization took place, and manufactures
were introduced, furs became the lining of the drefs,
and often the elegant facing of the robes. It is pro¬
bable that the northern conquerors introduced the
falhion into Europe. We find, that about the year
522, when Totila king of the Vifigpths reigned in
Italy, the Suethons (a people of modern Sweden),
found means, by help of the commerce of numberlefs
intervening people, to tranfmit, for the ufe of the Ro¬
mans, faphilinas pcl/es, the precious Ikins of the fables.
As luxury advanced, furs, even of the moil valuable
x Q H' fpecies,
FUR
Furr, fpecies, were ufed by princes as linings for their tents:
thus Marco Polo, in 1252, found thofe of the Cham
of Tartary lined with ermines and fables. He calls
the laft %ibelines and %ambolines. He fays that thofe
and other precious furs were brought from countries
far north •, from the land of Darknefs, and regions
almoft inacceflible by reafon of moralTes and ice. Ihe
Welfh fet a high value on furs as early as the time of
Hovel Dda, who began his reign about 940. In the
next age, furs became the faihionable magnificence of
Europe. When Godfrey of Boulogne and his follow¬
ers appeared before the emperor Alexis Comnenus, on
their way to the Holy Land, he w,as {truck with the
richnefs of their drefles, tam ex ojlro quam aurifn'gio et
niveo opere harmehno et ex mardrino grifioque et vano.
How different was the advance of luxury in France
from the time of their great monarch Charlemagne,
who contented himfelf with the plain fur of the
otter ! Our Henry I. wore furs 5 yet in his diftrefs was
obliged to change them for warm Welfti flannel. But
in the year 1337 the luxury had got to fuch a head,
that Edward III. ena&ed, that all perfons who could
not fpend a hundred a-year (hould abfolutely be pro¬
hibited the ufe of this fpecies of finery. Ihefe, from
their great expence, muft have been foreign furs, ob¬
tained from the Italian commercial Hates, vhofir'traffic
w'as at this period boundlefs. How ftrange is the re¬
volution in the fur-trade ! The north of Afia at that
time fupplied us with every valuable kind •, at prefent
wre fend, by means of the poffeflion of Hudfon’s Bay,
furs, to immenfe amount, even to l urkey and the
dillant China.
Hifory of the Fun TWe.—During Captain Cook’s
]aft voyage to the Pacific ocean, befides the various
feientific advantages which were derived from it, a
new fource of wealth was laid open to future navigators,
by trading for furs of the moft valuable kind on the
north-weft coaft of America. The firft veffel which
engaged in the new branch of trade pointed out by
that great navigator, was equipped by fome gentlemen
in China. She was a brig of 60 tons and 20 men,
commanded by James Hanna. She failed from the
Typa the end of April 1785 ; proceeded to the north¬
ward, along the coaft: of China j paffed through
Diemen’s ftraits, the fouth end of Japan j and arrived
at Nootka in Auguft following. Soon after her ar¬
rival, the natives, whom Captain Cook had left un¬
acquainted with the effeft of fire-arms, tempted pro¬
bably by the diminutive fizeof the veffel (fcarce longer
than fome of their own canoes) and the fmall number
of her people, attempted to board her in open day •,
but were repulfed with confiderable {laughter. This
was the introduflion to a firm and lafting friendftiip,
Captain Hanna cured fuch of the Indians as were
wounded ; an unreferved confidence took place •, they
traded fairly and peaceably ; a valuable cargo of furs
was procured •, and the bad weather fetting in, he left
the coaft in the end of September, touched at the
Sandwich iflands, and arrived at Macao the end of
December of the fame year.
Captain Hanna failed again from Macao in May
178^, in the fnow Sea-Otter of 1 20 tons and 30 men,
and returned to Macao in February I7^7‘
fecond voyage he followed his former track, and ar-
yived at Nootka in Auguft $ traced the coaft from
FUR
thence as far as 53 degrees, and explored the extenfive Furr,
found difeovered a Ihort time before by Mr Strange, '—“-v—
and called by him Queen Charlotte’s found, the la¬
titude of which is 31 degrees north, longitude 128
w^eft.
The fnow Lark, Captain Peters, of 220 tons and
40 men, failed from Macao in July 1786. Her defti-
nation was Kamtfchatka (for which flie was provided
with a fuitable cargo of arrack, tea, &c.), Copper
iilands, and the N. W. coaft. Captain Peters was di-
recled to make his paffage between Japan and Corea,
and examine the iflands to the north of Japan, faid to
be inhabited by hairy people which, if Captain Cook
had lived, would not have been left to the French to
determine. No account having been received of this
veffel fince her departure, there is every reafon to fear
fire has periihed.
In the beginning of 1786, two coppered yeffels
were fitted out at Bombay, under the dire&ion of
James Strange, Efq. who was himfelf a principal owner.
Thefe veffels were, the fnow' Captain Cook of 3®^
tons, and fnow Experiment of 100 tons. They pro¬
ceeded in company from the Malabar coaft to Batavia j
paffed through the firaits of Maeaffar, where the Ex¬
periment was run upon a reef, and was obliged to haul
aihore upon Borneo to repair •, from thence they fleer¬
ed to the eaftward of the Palaos iflands made Sul¬
phur illandj and arrived at Nootka the end of June-
following. From Nootka, where they left their fur-
geon’s mate (Matkay) to learn the language and col-
fe£l Ikins againft their intended return (but who was
brought away in the Imperial Eagle the following
year), they proceeded along the coaft to Queen Char-
lotte’s* found, of which they were the firft difeoverers \
from thence in a direft courfe to Prince William’s
found. After fome flay there, the Experiment pro¬
ceeded to Macao (their vefl'els being provided with
paffes by the governor-general of Goa) : the Captain
Cook endeavoured to get to Copper ifland, but with¬
out fuccefs, being prevented by conftant weft winds.
Two coppered veffels were alfo fitted out by a fo-
ciety of gentlemen in Bengal, viz. the fnow Nootka
of 200 tons, and the fnow Sea Otter of 100 tons,
commanded by John Meares and William Tipping,
lieutenants in the royal navy. The Nootka faded m
March 1786 from Bengal j came through the China
feas; touched at the Balhees, where they were very
civilly treated by the Spaniards, who have taken pol-
feffion of thefe iflands j arrived at Oonalalhka the be¬
ginning of Auguft •, found there a Ruffian galliot and
fome furriers •, difeovered accidentally near Cape Gre-
ville a new ftrait near Cook’s river, 15 leagues wide
and 30 long j faw fome Ruflian hunters in a fmall bay
between Cape Elizabeth and Cape Bear; and arrived
in Prince William’s found the end of September.
They determined wintering in Snug Corner Cove,
lat. 60. 30. in preference to going to the Sandwich
iflands, which feem placed by Providence for the com¬
fort and refrefhment of the adventurers in this trade,
and were frozen up in this gloomy and frightful fpot
from the end of November to the end of May. By
the feverity of the winter they loft their thiitf and
fourth mates, furgeon,boatfwain, carpenter, and cooper,
and twelve of the fore-maft-men ; and the remainder
were fo enfeebled as to be under the neceflity of appjy-
r 306 i
FUR [ 307 ] FUR
xng to the commanders of the King George and Queen
Charlotte, who jult at this time arrived in the found,
for forae hands to affilt in carrying the veffel to the
Sandwich iflands, where, giving over all further
thoughts of trade, they determined (after getting a
fea-itock of fhh off Cape Edgecumbe) immediately to
proceed. The Nootka arrived at Macao the end of
October 17S7.
The Imperial Eagle, Captain Barkley, fitted out by
a fociety of gentlemen at Oftend, failed from Oftend
the latter end of November 1786 ; went into the bay
of All Saints j from thence, without touching any¬
where, to the Sandwich iflands, and arrived at Noot¬
ka the beginning of June ; from thence to the fouth,
as far as 470 30', in which fpace he difcovered fome
good and fpacious harbours. In the lat. of 470 46',
loft his fecond mate, purfer, and two feamen, who
were upon a trading party with the long-boat, and im¬
prudently trufting themfelves alhore unarmed, were
cut off by the natives. This place feems to be the
fame that Don Antonio Mourelle calls the Ilka de los
Dolores, where the Spaniards going afliore to water,
were alfo attacked and cut off.
The King George of 320, and the Queen Char¬
lotte of 200 tons, commanded by Captains Portlock
and Dixon, who ferved under Captain Cook in his laft
voyage, were ntted out by a fociety of gentlemen in
England, who obtained a privilege to trade to the
north-weft coaft of America, from the South Sea and
Eaft India companies.
Thefe veffels failed from England the beginning of
September 1785 j touched at the Falkland iflands,
Sandwich iflands, and arrived at Cook’s river in the
month of Auguft. From thence, after colle£ling a
few furs, they fteered in the end of September for
Prince W illiam’s found, intending, it is faid, to winter
there 5 but were prevented entering by heavy ftorms
and extreme bad weather, which obliged them to bear
away,^ and feek fome other part of the coaft to winter
at. The ftorms and bad weather accompanied them
till they arrived off Nootka found, when they were fo
near the ftiore, that a canoe came off to them : but
though thus near accompliihing their purpofe, a frefti
ftorm came on, and obliged them finally to bear away
ior the Sandwich iflands, where they remained the win¬
ter months 5 and returning again to the coaft, arrived
in_ Prince William’s found the middle of May. The
King George remained in Prince William’s found j
and during her flay, her long-boat difcovered a new
paffage from the found into Cook’s river. The Queen
Charlotte proceeded along the coaft to the fouth j
looked into Behring’s bay, where the Ruffians have
now a iettlement 5 examined that part of the coaft
from 56° to 50°, which was not feen by Captain Cook,
and which confifts of a clufter of iflands, called by Cap¬
tain Dixon ^ueen Charioted Iflands, at a confiderable
■diftanee from the main, which is thus removed farther
to the eaftward than it was fuppofed to be : fome part
of the continent may, however, be feen from the eaft
fide of thefe iflands ; and it is probable the diftance
does not anywhere exceed 50 leagues. On this efti-
mation, Hudfon’s Houfe, lat. 530, long. 1060 27' weft,
Iyiore 800 miles diftant from that part
of this coaft in the fame parallel. It is therefore not
improbable, that -the enterprifing fpirk of our Cana¬
dian furriers may penetrate to this coaft (the com¬
munication with which is probably much facilitated
by lakes or rivers), and add to the comforts and luxu¬
ries of Europe this invaluable fur, which in warmth,
beauty, and magnificence, far exceeds the richeft furs
of Siberia. Queen Charlotte’s iflands are inhabited
by a race of people differing in language, features, and
manners, from all the other tribes of this coaft. Among
other peculiarities, they are diftinguiffied by a large in-
cifion in the under lip, in which is inferted a piece of
poliihed wood, fometimes ornamented with mother of
pearl fliell, in ffiape and fize like a weaver’s ffiuttle,
which undoubtedly is the moft effectual mode of de¬
forming the human face divine that the ingenious de¬
pravity of tafte of any favage nation has yet difcovered.
Thefe ffiips, after difpofing of their furs in China,
were loaded with teas on account of the Englifli com¬
pany, failed from Wampoa, and arrived in England,
after an abience of three years.
The year after the departure of the King George
. and Queen Charlotte, the fame fociety to which they
belonged fitted out two other veffels, viz. the Princefs
Royal of 60 tons, and the Prince of Wales of 200
tons, commanded by Captains Colnet and Duncan,
the former of whom had ferved under Captain Cook.
Thefe veffels left England in Auguft 1786 ; touched
at New Year’s harbour on Staten Land, where they
left an oflicer and 12 men to kill feals againft the ar¬
rival of a veffel which wras to follow them from Eng¬
land ; from thence they proceeded dire&ly to Noot¬
ka, where they arrived the 6th of July, fickly and in
bad condition, and found here the Imperial Eagle,
which had left Europe fome months after them. Leav¬
ing Nootka, they fleered along the ihore to the north¬
ward, and foon after fell in with the Queen Charlotte.
In the beginning of 1788, Captain Mears failed
again with two other veffels, the Felice, which he
commanded himfelf, and the Iphigenia, Captain Doug¬
las, to Nootka found. Here he purchafed of the
chief of the diftridl a fpot, on which he built a houfe
for his refidence and more convenient intercourfe with
the natives, hoiftihg the Britifti colours thereon, fur¬
rounding it with a breaft-work, and mounting a three
pounder on the front. Having fo done, he lent Mr
Douglas in the Iphigenia to trade along the northern
coaft, while he himfelf proceeded to the ibuth j and by
prelents to the chiefs obtained the ports Cox and
Effingham, and the promife of an exclufive trade with
the natives of the diftrift, and alfo fome other places,
■which he took poffeffion of in the name of the king.
Captain Douglas likewife, by prefents to the chiefs of
the countries he vifited, obtained fimilar privileges,
no other European veffel having failed there before
him.
On their return to Nootka, they found a veffel fi-
nilhed which the commander had laid down before his
departure. This, which he named the North Weft
America, he left at Nootka with the Iphigenia,
while he failed with a cargo of furs in the Felice to
China.
A few days after his arrival at China, two veffels,
the Prince of Wales and Princefs Royal, came to Can¬
ton from their trading voyage above mentioned. Cap¬
tain Mears, fearing a competition of interefts might
be injurious to both parties, propofed a copartnerfhip,
Q ft 2 which
FUR [ 5.08 ] FUR
F«-t, which was mutually agreed to *, and another {hip was
"“V ' ' purchafed by the hrin, and called the Argonaut. In
the month of April 17875 Captain Mears gave Mr
Colnet the command of the Princefs Royal and Ar¬
gonaut, which were loaded with ftores and articles eili-
mated fufficient for three years trade, betides feveral
artificers, and near 70 Chinefe, who intended to be¬
come fetilers on the north-weft coaft of America, un¬
der protection of the new company.
In the mean while, the Iphigenia, and North-Weft
America (the veffel built at Nookta) having wintered,
in Sandwich iilands, returned to Nootka in the latter
end of April. Soon after which, two Spanith fftips of
war, under the command of Don Martinez, anchored
in the found. For a few days mutual civilities paffed
betw’een the Spanifh captain and Mr Douglas j but at
the end of about a week, Don Martinez fummoned
the latter on board his own fhip the Princeffa, telling
him he wras his prifoner, and that the king of Spain
had commanded him, Don Martinez, to feize all vei-
fels he ftiould find on that coaft. He therefore in-
ftrudled his officers to take poffeflion of the Iphigenia,
which they accordingly did in the name of his Catho¬
lic majefty } and the officers and crew were conveyed
as prifoners on board the Spanifh ftiips, where they
were put in irons, and otherwife ill treated. Imme¬
diately after this, Don Martinez took poffeflion of the
little fettlement, hoifting the ftandard of Spain, and
modeftly declaring all the lands from Cape Horn to
60 degrees north latitude belonged to his mailer. lo
aggravate the infult, he forcibly employed the crew of
the Iphigenia in building batteries, &c. and offered no
kind of violence to twm American veffels that were at
the fame time in the harbour. At this time the
North-Weft America was fent to explore the Archipe¬
lago of St Lazarus. On her return to Nootka, {he met
with a fimilar treatment, and the {kins (he had colledl-
ed were feized, with the reft of her cargo.
A few days after the Princefs Royal (which we
have mentioned as leaving Canton in company with
the Argonaut) arrived. The Spanifh commander, for
reafons that do not appear, fuffered Her to depart. The
{kins collefted by the North-Weft America were {hip¬
ped on board her for the benefit of her owner, and flie
proceeded to trade in the neighbouring ides. On the
qd of Inly, the Argonaut arrived at the found ; and
Don Martinez, after making every profeflion of civi¬
lity to Mr Colnet the commander, took poffeflion of
the faid ihip in the name of his matter, and made pri¬
foners of the crew7. Soon after, the Princefs Royal
returning to receive inftruftions from Mr Colnet, di-
reftor of the enterprife, was feized by the Spanifti cap-
tain.
The crews of the Britifh veffels were differently dif-
pofed of; fome fent to China by the American veffels,
and others to Spanifh America : but the Chinefe were
all detained, and employed in the mines which w'ere
opened on the lands purchafed by Captain Mears.
What thefe mines confided of, we are now here inform¬
ed. Mr Colnet was fo much affeSled at the failure of
the enterprife, as to be deprived of reafon.
This, as foon as known, occafioned a fpirited re-
prefentation from the Britifh court to that of Spain $
at the fame time that vigorous preparations were made
for war in cafe adequate fatisfa&ion ftiould be refufed.
4
Matters, however, were prevented from coming to ex- Fuff,
tremities, by a compliance on the part of Spain, after '——'V—^
many delays and much artifice of negotiation, with the
requifitions of Britain : in confequence of which, among
other advantages unnectffary to be here recited, the
whole trade from California to China is completely laid
open } and the Britiih allowed the full exercife of na¬
vigation and commerce in thofe parts of the w orld which
were the fubjeft of difeuffion.
In fume accounts of the voyages above mentioned,
the fur trade in thofe parts has been greatly magni¬
fied. In that publifned by Captain Portlock, however,
this officer obferves, that the gains hitherto have cer¬
tainly not been enviably great •, though the merchants
have no doubt found the trade lucrative.
Hi/lory of the Fur Trade from Canada to the North-
wef,—The following account of this trade is extracted
from Mr Mackenzie’s Narrative of his voyages and
Travels from Montreal, through the North-weft Con¬
tinent of America, and to the Pacific ocean.
“ The fur trade, he fays, from the earlieft fettlement
of Canada, was confidered of the firft importance to
that colony. The country was then fo populous, that,
in the vicinity of the eftablifhments, the animals whofe
{kins w’ere precious, in a commercial view, foon be¬
came very fcarce, if not altogether extindl. I hey w7ere,'
it is true, hunted at former periods, but merely for food
and clothing. The Indians, therefore, to procure the
neceffary fupply, were encouraged to penetrate into the
country, and were generally accompanied by fome of
the Canadians, who found means to induce the remoteft
tribes of natives to bring the {kins which w’ere moft in
demand, to their fettlements, in the way of trade.
“ It is not neceffary for me to examine the caufe,
but experience proves that it requires much lefs time
for a civilized people to deviate into the manners and
cuftoms of favage life, than for favages to rife into a
ftate of civilization. Such rvas the event with thofe
who thus accompanied the natives on their hunting and
trading excurfions j for they became fo attached to the
Indian mode of life, that they loft all relifh for their
former habits and native homes. Hence they derived
the title of Coureurs des Bois, became a kind of pedlars,
and were extremely ufeful to the merchants engaged in
the fur trade ; who gave them the neceffary credit to
proceed on their commercial undertakings. Three or
four of thefe people would join their ftock, put their
property into a birch-bark canoe, which they worked
themfelves, and either accompanied the natives in their
excurfions, or went at once to the country where they
knew they were to hunt. At length, thefe voyages ex¬
tended to x 2 or 15 months, when they returned with
rich cargoes of furs, and followed by great numbers
of the natives. During the fhort time requifite to fet¬
tle their accounts with the merchants, and procure
frefti credit, they generally contrived to fquanderaway
all their gains, when they returned to their favourite
mode of life : their views being anfwered, and their
labour fufficiently rewarded, by indulging themfelves
in extravagance and ditlipation during the ftiort fpace
of one month in 12 or 15.
“ The indifi'erence about amaffing property, and the
pleafure of living free from all reftraint, foon brought
on a-licentioufnefs of manners which could not long
efcape the vigilant obfervation of the miffionaries, who
FUR [
Furr, had much reafon to complain of their being a dif-
grace, to the Chriftian religion j by not only fwerving
from its duties themfelves, but by thus bringing it in¬
to difrepute 'with thofe of the natives who had be¬
come converts to it; and, confequently, obftrufling
the great objefl to which thofe pious men had de¬
voted their lives. They, therefore, exerted their in¬
fluence to procure the fuppreflion of thefe people, and
accordingly, no one was allowed to go up the country
to traffic with the Indians, without a licence from the
government.
“ At length, military polls were eftabliihed at the
confluence of the different large lakes of Canada,
which, in a great meafure, checked evil confequences
that followed from the improper conduct of thefe foref-
ters, and, at the fame time, protefted the trade. Be-
fides, a number of able and refpeftable men retired
from the army, profecuted the trade in perfon, under
their refpeftive licences, with great order and regulari¬
ty, and extended it to fuch a diftance, as, in thofe
days, was eonfidered to be an aftoniffiing effort of com¬
mercial enterprize. Thefe perfons and the miffionaries
having combined their views at the fame time, fecured
the refpeft of the natives, and the obedience of the peo¬
ple neceliarily employed in the laborious parts of this
undertaking. Thefe gentlemen denominated them¬
felves commanders, and not traders, though they were
intitled to both thofe charadlers: and, as for the mif¬
fionaries, if fufferings and hardihips in the profecution
of the great work which they had undertaken, deferv-
ed applaufe and admiration, they had an undoubted claim
to be admired and applauded: they fpared no labour and
avoided no danger in the execution of their important of¬
fice; and it is to be ferioully lamented, that their pious en¬
deavours did not meet with the fuccefs which they de-
ferved : for there is hardly a trace to be found, beyond
the cultivated parts, of their meritorious functions.
“ This caufe of the failure muff be attributed to a
want of due confideration in the mode employed by the
miffionaries to propagate the religion of which they
w-ere the zealous minifters. They habituated them¬
felves to the favage life, and naturalifed themfelves to
the favage manners, and, by thus becoming dependant,
as it were, on the natives, they acquired their contempt
rather than their veneration. If they had been as well
acquired with human nature, as they were with the
articles of their faith, they ivould have known, that the
uncultivated mind of an Indian muff be difpofed by
much preparatory method and inftrudion to receive the
revealed truths of Chriftianity, to aft under its fanftions,
and be impelled to good by the hope of its rewards, or
turned from evil by the fear of its puniffiments. They
fhould have begun their work by teaching, fome of thofe
ufeftd arts which are the inlets of knowledge, and lead
the mind by degrees to objefts of higher comprehenfion.
Agriculture fo formed to fix and combine fociety, and
fo preparatory to obje&s of fuperior confideration, ftiould
have been the firft thing introduced among a favage
people : it attaches the wandering tribe to that fpot
where it adds fo much to their comforts ; while it gives
them a fenfe of property, and of lafting poffeffion, in-
ftead of the uncertain hopes of the chafe, and the fugi¬
tive produce of uncultivated wilds. Such were the
means by which theforefts of Paraguay were converted
C9 ] FUR
into a feene of abundant cultivation, and its favage in- Furr,
habitants introduced to all the advantages of a civilized
life.
“ The Canadian miffionaries fliould have been con¬
tented to improve the morals of their own countrymen,
fo that by meliorating their character and conduft,
they would have given a ftriking example of the effect
of religion in promoting the comforts of life to the fur¬
rounding favages; and might by degrees have extend¬
ed its benign influence to the remoteft region of that
country, which was the object, and intended to be the
feene, of their evangelic labours. But by bearing the
light of the gofpel at once to the diftance of 2500 miles
from the civilized part of the colonies, it was foon ob-
feured by the cloud of ignorance that darkened the
human mind in thofe diftant regions.
“ The whole of their long route I have often travel¬
led, and the recollediion of fuch a people as the mif¬
fionaries having been there, was confined to a few fu-
perannuated Canadians, who had not left that country
lince the ceffion to the Englifh, in 1763, and who par¬
ticularly mentioned the death of fome, and the diftref-
fing fituation of them all. But if thefe religious men
did not attain the objefts of their perfevering piety, they
were, during their miffion, of great fervice to the com¬
manders who engaged in thofe diftant expeditions,
and fpread the fur trade as far weft as the bank of
the Salkatchiwine river, in 530 north latitude, and lon¬
gitude IC2° weft.
“ At an early period of their intercourfe with the
favages, a cuftom was introduced of a very excellent
tendency, but is now unfortunately difeontinued, of not
felling any fpirituous liquor to the natives. This ad¬
mirable regulation was for fome time obferved, with all
the refpedft due to the religion by which it was fauftion-
ed, and w hofe fevereft cenfures follow ed the violation-
of it. A painful penance could alone reftore the of¬
fender to the lufpended rites of the facrament. The'
cafuiftry of trade, however, difeovered a way to gratify*
the Indians w ith their favourite cordial, w ithout incur¬
ring the ecclefiaftical penalties, by giving, inftead of'
felling it to them.
“ But notwithftanding all the reftrx£Hons with w hich,
commerce was oppreffed under the French government,
the fur trade was extended to the immenfe diftancu
which has been already ftated ; and furmounted many
moft difeouraging difficulties, which will be hereafter
noticed ; while, at the fame time, no exertions wero
made from Hudfon’s Bay to obtain even a ftiare of the
trade of a country which, according to the charter of
that company, belonged to it, and, from its proximity,
is fo much more acceffible to the mercantile adventurer.
“ Of thefe trading commanders, I underftood, that
two attempted to penetrate to the Pacific ocean, but
the utmoft extent of their journey I could never learn ;
which may be attributed, indeed, to a failure of the un¬
dertaking.
“ For fome time after the conqueft of Canada, this
trade was fufpended, which muft have been very ad¬
vantageous to the Hudfon’s Bay company, as all the
inhabitants to the weftward of Lake Superior were ob¬
liged to go to them for fuch articles as their habitual
ufe had rendered neceffary. Some of the Canadians
who had lived long with them, and were become at¬
tached
FUR f 3'
Turr. taclied to a favage life, accompanied tlicm thither an-
“ 1 J nually, till mercantile adventurers again appeared from
their own country, after an interval of leveral years,
owing, I fuppole, to an ignorance of the country in
the conquerors, and their want of commercial confi¬
dence in the conquered. Ihere were, indeed, other
difcouragements, fuch as the immenfe length of the
•journey neceffary to reach the limits beyond which this
commerce mult begin j the rilk of property j the ex-
pences attending fuch a long tranfport •, and an igno¬
rance of the language of thofe who, from their ex¬
perience, mult be neceffarily employed as the interme¬
diate agents between them and the natives. But, not-
withftanding thefe difficulties, the trade, by degrees, be¬
gan to fpread over different parts to which it had been
carried by the French, though at a great rilk of the
lives, as well as the property, of their new pofleffors,
for the natives had been taught by their former allies
to entertain hoftile difpofitions towards the Engliih, from
their having been in alliance w ith their natural enemies
the Iroquois ; and there were not wanting a fufficient
number of difcontented, difappointed people to keep
alive fuch a notion j fo that for a long time they were
confidered and treated as objedls of hoftility. To prove
this difpofition of the Indians, we have only to refer to
the conduct of Pontiac, at Detroit, and the furprife and
taking of Michilimakinac, about this period.
“ Hence it arofe, that it was fo late as the year
1766, before which the trade I mean to confider
commenced from Michilimakinac. Fhe firft who at¬
tempted it were fatisfied to go the length of the river
Cameniftiquia, about 30 miles to the eaftward of the
Grande Portage, where the .French had a principal
eftabliffiment, and was the line of their communication
with the interior country. It was once deftroyed
•by fire. Here they went, and returned fuccefsful in
the following fpring to Michilimakinac. Iheir fuc-
cefs induced them to renew their journey, and incited
others to follow their example. Some of them remained
at Cameniltiquia, while others proceeded to and beyond
the Grande Portage, which fince that time has become
the principal entrepot of that trade, and is fituated in a
bay, in latitude 48. north, and longitude 90. weft. Af¬
ter paffing the ufual feafon there, they went back to
Michilimakinac as before, and encouraged by the trade,
returned in increafed numbers. One of thefe, Thomas
Curry, with a fpirit of enterprife fuperior to that of his
contemporaries, determined to penetrate to the furtheft
limits of the French difeoveries in that country ; or at
lea ft till the froft fhould ftop him. For this purpose he
procured guides and interpreters, who were acquainted
with the country, and with four canoes arrived at Fort
Bourbon, which was one of their polls, at the weft end
of the Cedar lake, on the waters of the Salkatchiwine.
His rilk and toil were well recompenfed, for he came
back the following fpring with his canoes filled with
fine furs, with which he proceeded to Canada, and
was fatisfied never again to return to the Indian
country.
“ From this period people began to fpread over every
part of the country, particularly where the French had
* Gen'^' eftablilhed fettlements
2,uue, y!l. After continuing the detail of the hiftory of the trade
for which we mull refer to the work itfelf, Mr Mac¬
kenzie proceeds to inform us of the concern which he
o ] FUR
himfelf had in it, when in the year 1785, he was af-
fumed as a partner, on condition ot going into the In-
dian country to take an aftive lhare in the bufinefs.
After fome ftruggles, from jealoufy and rivallhip, with
another company who had been fome time in the trade,
a union between the two companies was formed. This
happened in 1787? and the following is Mr Mac¬
kenzie^ account of its fuccefs, and of the extent and
mode of conducing this trade.
“ This commercial eftablilhment, “ he proceeds,” was
now founded on a more folid balls than any hitherto
known in the country, and it not only continued in full
force, vigour, and prosperity, in Ipite of all interference
from Canada, but maintained at leaft an equal lhare of
advantage with the Hudlon’s Bay Company, notuith-
ftanding the fuperiority of their local lituation. The
following account of this felf-eredted concern will mam-
feft the caufe of its fuccefs.
“ It affumed the title of the North-Weft Company,
and was no more than an affociation of commercial men,
agreeing among themfelves to carry on the fur trade,
unconnefted with any other bufinels, though many of
the parties engaged had extenfive concerns altogether
foreign to it. It may be faid to have been lupported
entirely upon credit; for, whether the capital belonged
to the proprietor, or wras borrow’ed, it equally bore in-
tereft, for which the affociation was annually account¬
able. It confifted of twenty Ihares, unequally divided
among the perfons concerned. Of thele, a certain pro¬
portion was held by the people who managed the bufi¬
nefs in Canada, and were ftyled agents for the Compa¬
ny, Their duty was to import the necellary goods from
England, ftore them at their own expence at Montreal,
get them made up into the articles iuited to the trade,
pack and forward them, and fupply the cafli that might
be wanting for the outfits; for which they received, in¬
dependent of the profit on their ftiares, a commiffion otx
the amount of the accounts, which they were obliged
to make out annually, and keep the adventure of each
year diftinfl:. Two of them went annually to the
Grande Portage, to manage and tranfaft the bufinefs
there, and on the communication at Detroit, IMichili-
makinac, St Mary’s, and Montreal, where they recei¬
ved ftores, packed up, and (hipped the company s furs
for England, on which they had alfo a fmall commiffion.
The remaining ftiares were held by the proprietors, who
were obliged to winter and manage the bullnefs of the
concern with the Indians, and their refpeclive clerks,
&c. They were not fuppofed to be under any obliga¬
tion to furnifti capital, or even credit. If they obtain¬
ed any capital by the trade, it was to remain in the
hands of the agents; for which they were allowed in-
tereft. Some of them, from their long fervices and in¬
fluence, held double (hares, and were allowed to retire
from the bufinefs at any period of the exifting concern,
with one of thofe (hares, naming any young man in the
company’s fervice to fucceed him in the other. Senio¬
rity and merit were, however, confidered as affording a
claim to the fucceflion, which, neverthelefs, could not
be difpofed of without the concurrence of the majority
of the concern ; who, at the fame time relieved the fe-
ceding perfon from any refponfibility relpedling the
(hare that he transferred, and accounted for it accord¬
ing to the annual value or rate of the property ; fo that
the feller could have no advantage but that of getting
the
Furr.
FUR [3
Furr the ftiare of flock which he retained realifed, and re-
-v""* ceiving for the transferred {hare what was fairly deter¬
mined to be the worth of it. The former was alfo dif-
eharged from all duty, and became a dormant partner.
Thus, all the young men w'ho were not provided for at
the beginning of the contraft, fucceeded in fucceflion to
the charafter and advantages of partners. They enter¬
ed into the company’s fervice for five or feven years, un¬
der fuch expectations, and their reafonable profpedts
were feldom difappointed : there were, indeed, inftances
when they fucceeded to {hares, before their apprentice-
ftiip was expired, and it frequently happened that they
were provided for while they were in a ftate of articled
clerkfliip. Shares were transferable only to the con¬
cern at large, as no perfon could be admitted as a part¬
ner who had not ferved his time to the trade. The
dormant partner indeed might difpofe of his intereft to
any one he chofe, but if the tranfa&ion were not ac-
kowledged by his aflfociates, the purchafer could only
be confidered as his agent or attorney. Every {hare
had a vote, and two-thirds formed a majority. This
regular and equitable mode of providing for the clerks
of the company, excited a fpirit of emulation in the dif-
charge of their various duties, and in faft, made every
agent a principal, who perceived his own profperity to
be immediately connefted with that of his employers.
Indeed, without fuch a fpirit, fuch a trade could not
have become fo extended and advantageous, as it has
been and now is.
“ In 1788, the grofs amount of the adventure for
the year did not exceed 40,000!.: but by the exertion,
enterprife, and induftryofthe proprietors, it was brought
in eleven years to triple that amount and upwards ;
yielding proportionate profits, and furpafling, in Ihort,
any thing known in America.
“ Such, therefore, being the profperous ftate of the
company, it, very naturally, tempted others to inter¬
fere with the concern in a manner by no means benefi¬
cial to the company, and commonly ruinous to the un¬
dertakers.
“ In 1798 the concern underwent a new form, the
{hares were increafed to forty-fix, new partners being
admitted, and others retiring. This period w as the ter¬
mination of the company, which was not renewed by
all the parties concerned in it, the majority continuing
to a61 upon the old flock, and under the old firm $ the
others beginning a new one j and it now remains to be
decided, whether two parties, under the fame regula¬
tions and by the fame exertions, though unequal in
number, can continue to carry on the bufinefs to a fuc-
n ] FUR
cefsful ifTue. The contrary opinion has been held, Furr,
which, if verified, will make it the intereft of the par- —v—
ties again to coalefce : for neither is deficient in capital
to fupport their obftinacy in a lofing trade, as it is not
to be fuppofed that either will yield on any other terms
than perpetual participation.
“ It will not be fuperfluous in this place, to explain
the general mode of carrying on the fur trade.
“ I he agents are obliged toorder the neceffary goods
from England in the month of 06tober, eighteen
months before they can leave Montreal j that is, they
are not {hipped from London until the fpring following,
when they arrive in Canada in the femmer. In the
courfe of the following winter they are made up into fuch
articles as are required for the favages j they are then
packed into parcels of ninety pounds weight each, but'
cannot be fent from Montreal until the May following ;
fo that they do not get to market until the enfuing
winter, when they are exchanged for furs, which come
to Montreal the next fall, and from thence are {hipped,
chiefly to London, where they are not fold or paid for
before the fucceeding fpring, or even as late as June ;
which is forty-twro months after the goods were ordered
in Canada 5 thirty-fix after they had been {hipped from
England $ and twenty-four after they had been for¬
warded from Montreal > fo that the merchant, allowing
that he has twelve months credit, does not receive are-
turn to pay for thofe goods, and the necelTary expences
attending them, which is about equal to the value of
the goods themfelves, till two years after they are con¬
fidered as cafh, which makes this a very heavy bufinefs^-
There is even a fmall proportion of it that requires
twelve months longer to bring round the payment,
owing to the immenfe diftance it is carried, and from
the fliortnefs of the feafons, which prevent the furs,
even after they are colle6ted, from coming out of the
country for that period (a).
“ The articles neceflary for this trade, are coarfe
woollen cloths of different kinds ; milled blankets of
different fizes j arms and ammunition j twift and carrot
tobacco j Manchefter goods 5 linens, and coarfe (heel¬
ings *, thread, lines, and twine j common hardware j
cutlery and ironmongery of feveral deferiptions ; ket¬
tles of brafs and copper, and Iheet-iron ; filk and cot¬
ton handkerchiefs; hats, {hoes, and hofe ; calicoes and
printed cottons, &c. &c. &c. Spirituous liquors and
provifions are purchafed in Canada. Thefe, and the
expence of tranfport to and from the Indian country,
including w-ages to clerks, interpreters, guides, and cal
noe-men, with the expence of making up the goods for
the
(a) “Ihis will be better illuftrated by the following ftatement :
We will fuppofe the goods for 1798 ;
The orders for the goods are fent to this country ...
They are (hipped from London - - - . _
They arrive in Montreal -----
1 hey are made up in the courfe of that fummer and winter.
They are fent from Montreal -
S6/"™ m t^le Ind,an country, and are exchanged for furs the following winter
Which furs come to Montreal . _ _ _
And are {hipped for London, where they are fold in March and April, and paid for i
May or June - . _ ^ ^ l
25th 061. 1796.
March 1797.
June 1797.
May 1798.
1798-9.
Sept. 1799.
- 1800.
I'-urr.
FUR [ 31
the market, form about half the annual amount again It
1 the adventure. . ,
“ This expenditure in Canada ultimately tends to the
encouragement of Britirti manufaftory, for thofe who
are employed in the different branches of this bufinefs,
are enabled by their gains to purchafe fueh Bntilh arti¬
cles as they muft otherwife forego.
“ The produce of the year of which I am now ipeak.-
in<r, confifted of the following furs and peltries :
ic6,ooo Beaver (kins,
2100 Bear (kins,
1500 Fox fkins,
4000 Kitt fox fkins,
4600 Otter fkins,
17,000 Mufquafh fkins,
'«j 2,000 Marten fkins,
* , 1800 Mink fkins,
6000 Lynx fkins,
600 Wolverine fkins,
1650 Fiflier fkins,
too Rackoon fkins,
3800 Wolf fkins,
700 Elk fkins,
750 Deer fkins,
1 200 Deer fkins drefied,
500 Buffalo robes, and a quantity of caftoreum
« Qf thefe were diverted from the Britifh market,
‘beino- font through the United States to China, 13,364
fkins, fine beaver, weighing 19,283 pounds-, 1250 fine
otters, and 1724 kitt foxes. They would have found
their way to the China market at any rate, but this de¬
viation from the Britifh channel arofe from the follow¬
ing circumftance : _
“ An adventure of this kind was undertaken by a re-
fpeclable houfe in London, half concerned with the
North-Weft Company in the year I792- ^urs
were of the beft kind, and fuitable to the market ; and
the adventurers continued this connexion for five fuc-
ceflive years, to the annual amount of 40,000!. At
the winding up of the concern of I792> I793i I794»
1791;, in the year 1797, (the adventure of 1796 not
being included, as the furs were not fent to China, but
difpofed of in London), the North-Weft Company ex¬
perienced a lofs of upwards of 40,000k (their half,)
-which was principally owing to the difficulty of getting
home the produce procured in return for the furs from
China, in the Eaft India Company’s fhips, together
with the duty payable, and the various reftri&ions of
that company. Whereas, from America there are no
impediments j they get immediately to market, and the
produce of them is brought back, and perhaps fold in
the courfe of twelve months. From fuch advantages
the furs of Canada will no doubt find their way to Chi¬
na by America, which would not be the cafe if Britifti
fubjeffs had the fame privileges that are allowed to fo¬
reigners, as London would then be found the beft and
fafeft market.
“ But to return to our principal fubjetl.— Vv e lhall
now proceed to confider the number of men employed
in the concern : viz. 50 clerks, 71 interpreters and
clerks, 1120 canoe men, and 35 guides. Of thefe, five
clerks, 18 guides, and 350 canoe men, were employed
for the fummer feafon in going from Montreal to the
Grande Portage, in canoes, part, of whom proceeded
from thence to Rainy Lake, as will be hereafter ex¬
plained, and are called furk-eaters, or goers and comers.
Thefe were hired in Canada or Montreal, and were
abfent from the ift of May till the latter end of Sep¬
tember. For this trip the guides had from 80c to 1000
livres, and a fuitable equipment the foreman and
fteerfman from 400 to 600 livres j the middle men from
2 ] FUR
250 to 350 livres, with an equipment of one blanket,
one ffiirt, and one pair of trowl’ers } and were maintain¬
ed during that period at the expence of their employ¬
ers. Independent of their wages, they were allowed to
traffic, and many of them earned to the amount of their
wages. About one-third of thefe went to winter, and
had more than double the above wages, and equipment.
All the others were hired by the year, and fome times
for three years and of the clerks many were appren¬
tices, who were generally engaged for five or leven
years, for which they had only look provifion and
clothing. Such of them who could not be provided for
as partners, at the expiration of this time, were allowed
from look to 300k per annum, with all necefiaries, till
provifion was made for them. Ihofe who acted in the
twofold capacity of clerk and interpreter, or were fo
denominated, had no other expeftation than the pay¬
ment of wages to the amount from 1000 to 4000 livres
per annum, with clothing and provifions. The guides,
who are a very ufeful fet of men, afted alio in tl.e ad¬
ditional capacity of interpreters, and . had a ftated
quantity of goods, confidered as fufficient for their
wants, their wages being from icco to 3000 livres.
The canoe men are of two deferiptions, foremen and
fteerfmen, and middlemen. The two firft were allow¬
ed annually 1200, and the latter 400, livres eacfn The
firft clafs had what is called an equipment, confiding of
two blankets, two fhirts, two pair of trowfers, two
handkerchiefs, 14 pounds of tobacco, and fome trifling
articles. The latter had 10 pounds of tobacco, and all
the other articles ; thofe are called north men^ or win-
' terers ; and to thelaft clafs of people were attached up¬
wards of 700 Indian women and children, viftualledat
the expence of the company.
“ The firft clafs of people are hired in Montreal five
months before they fet out, and receive their equip¬
ments, and one-third of their wages in advance ; and
an adequate idea of the labour they undergo may be
formed from the following account of the country
through which they pafs, and their manner of proceed¬
ing
“ The neceflary number of canoes being purchafed,
at about 300 livres each, the goods formed into pack¬
ages, and the lakes and rivers free of ice, whith they
ufually are in the bt ginning of May, they are then dit-
patched from La Chine, eight miles above Montreal,
with eight or ten men in each canoe, and theii bag¬
gage j and 6 <; packages of goods, 600 w eight of bil-
cuit, 200 weight of pork, three bulhels of peaie, for
the men’s provifion \ two oil cloths to cover the goods,
a fail, &c. an axe, a towing-line, a kettle, and a
fponge to bail out the water, with a quantity of gum,
bark, and watape, to repair the veffeh An European
on feeing one of thefe flender vtffels thus laden, heaped
up, and funk with her gunwale within fix inches of the
water, would think his fate inevitable in fuch a boat,
when he reflefted on the nature of her voyage •, but
the Canadians are fo expert that few accidents hap-
pen* * Qcti*
FURSTENBURGH, a town and caftle of Gex-of <hefiir
many, the capital of a county of the fame name, 30 Trade,
miles north-weft of Conftance. E. Long. 8. 27. NT
Lat. 47. 57.
FURTHCOMING, in Law, the name of an attion
competent
Furr
II
Fufiliers.
F U S [ 3
competent to any perfon who has ufed arreftment in
the hands of his debtor’s creditor, for having the fub-
_ je6t arrefted declared his property.
FURUNCLE, or Boil, in Surgery, a fmall refitt¬
ing tumour, with inflammation, rednefs, and great pain,
arifing in the adipofe membrane, under the Ikin. See
Surgery Index.
FURZE. See Ulex, Botany Index.
FUSANUS, in Botany, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the polygamia clafs. The hermaphrodite calyx
is quinquefid ; there is no corolla ; there are four fta-
mina j the germen beneath ; there are four ftigmata $
the fruit a plum.
FUSAROLE, in ArchiteEhire, a moulding or or¬
nament placed immediately under the echinus, in the
Doric, Ionic, and Compofite capitals.
FUSE or Fuze, in artillery. See Fusee.
FUSEE, in clock-work, is that conical part drawn
by the fpring, and about which the chain or ftring is
wound •, for the ufe of which, fee Clock and Watch.
Fusee, or Firelock. See Musquet.
Fusee, Fu<ze, or F///e,.of a bomb or grenado, is that
which makes the whole powder or compofition in the
(hell take fire, to do the defigned execution.
Fuzes are chiefly made of very dry beech wood, and
fometimes of hornbeam, taken near the root. They
are turned rough, and bored at firft, and then kept for
feveral years in a dry place ; the diameter of the hole
is about one-fourth of an inch ; the hole does not come
quite through, leaving about one-fourth of an inch at
the bottom ; and the head is made hollow, in the form
of a bowl.
The compofition for fuzes is faltpetre 3, fulphur 1,
and mealed powder 3, 4, and fometimes 3. This com¬
pofition is driven in with an iron driver (whofe ends are
capped with copper to prevent the compofition from
taking fire), and equally hard as poflible $ the laft
fliovelfull being all mealed powder, and two Hands of
quickmatch laid acrofs each other being driven in with
it, the ends of which are folded up into the hollow top,
and a cap of parchment tied over it till ufed.
When thefe fuzes are driven into the loaded fliell,
the lower end is cut off in a flope, io that the compo¬
fition may inflame the powder in the fliell; the fuze
mutt have fuch a length as to continue burning all the
time the fliell is in its range, and to fet fire to the
powder as foon as it touches the ground, which in-
flantly burfts into many pieces. When the diftance of
the battery from the objedf is known, the time of the
Audi’s flight may be computed to a fecond or two ;
which being known, the fuze may be cut accordingly,
by burning two or three, and making ufe of a watch or
a ftring by way of a pendulum to vibrate feconds.
FUSIBILITY, in Is at ur a l Plu/ofophy, that quality
of bodies which renders them fufible. 'Gold is more
fufible than iron or copper ; but lefs fo than filver, tin,
and lead. Borax and other fubftances are frequently
mixed with metals, to render them more fufible.
FUSIL, in Heraldry, a bearing of a rhomboidal fi¬
gure, longer than the lozenge, and having its upper
and lower angles more acute and fliarp than the other
t/.o the middle. It is called in Latin fufus “ a
fpindle,” from its ftiape.
FUSILIERS, Fusileers, or Fuzd/eers, in the mi-
litary art, are foldiers armed as the reft of the infantry,
Vol. IX. Part I. ^
13 ] F U S
but formerly were caps like the grenadiers, though
fomewhat ftiorter. There are three regiments in the
Britilh fervice : the royal regiment of Scotch fuzileers
raifed in 1678 ; the royal regiment of Englith fuzileers
raifed in 1685 5 and the royal regiment of Wellh fuzi¬
leers raifed in 1688-9.
FUSION, the ftate of a body rendered fluid by fire.
See Fluidity, and Chemistry Index.
FUST, or Faust, John, was a goldfmith of Mentz,
and one of the three artifts to whom the valuable in¬
vention of printing has been ufually afcribed The
names of the other two were Guttemberg and Schoeffer.
It feems impoflible, however, to determine with cer¬
tainty, w hether Full had any other merit in the bufinefs
than that of fupplying Guttemberg with money, who
had been making fume attempts with carved blocks at
Stralburgh, before he vifited Mentz. To Schceffer,
the fon-in-law of Full, we are indebted for the inven¬
tion of punches and matrices, by means of which this
noble art was afterwards carried to perfection. That
work which may be regarded as the origin of the true
typographic art, was the “ Durandi Rationale Divim-
rum Ofticiorum,” publifhed in 1459, by Full and
Schoeffer, (which vras foon followed by a copy of the
bible, both executed in a very mafterly manner.
We are informed that Full went to Paris in 1462,
in order to difpofe of a part of the fecond edition of his
bible, which he was enabled to fell confiderably lower
than bibles in manufcript, yet fome reckoned themfelves
overcharged by him, and fome pretend that he was even
accufed of magic, but for the belief of this there ap¬
pears to be no rational foundation. It feems certain
that Full; wTas never in Paris after the year 1466 ; but
that he was in that metropolis then, is proved by a note
at the end of a copy of Cicero’s Offices, intimating that
the firft pofleffor received it from John Fuft at Paris, in
1466. It is extremely probable that he died that year
of the plague, to which 40,000 of the inhabitants fell
a facrifice in the months of Auguft and September.
Ihis opinion is farther corroborated by this circum-
ftance, that the name of Schoeffer alone was prefixed
to the books which were publiflied at Mentz after that
period.
This man has been frequently confounded w ith John
Fauft, better known by the name of Dr Fauftus, a pre¬
tender to the art of magic, who was firft a theologian,
then a ftudent of medicine, and laft of all fold himfelf
to the devil for 24 years, at the expiration of which
period it feems the devil came to carry off his nurchafe,
and dallied out the doctor’s brains againlt the wall
about mid-night. This wretched romance has no doubt
been invented by the monks, to blacken the reputation
of the great Fuft, whofe art deprived them of the emo¬
luments arifing from the copying of manufcripts. See
(Hiftory of) Printing.
Fust, in ArchiteQure, the lhaft of a column, or the
part comprehended between the bafe and the capital,
called alfo the naked*
FUSTIAN, in Commerce, a kind of cotton fluff,
which feems as it were whaled on one fide.
Right fuftians fliould be altogether made of cotton-
yarn, both woof and warp • but a great many are made,
the warp of which is flax, or even hemp.
There are fuftians made of feveral kinds, wide, narl
rowq fine, coarfe 3 with lhag or nap, and without it.
R r Fust tan
Fulilien
II
Futtian.
F U S [ 31
Fustian is alfo ufed for a bombaft idyle, or a high
fwelling kind of writing, made up of heterogeneous
parts.
FUSTICK, or Fustock, a yellow wood, that
grows in all the Caribbee iflands, and is ufed in dyeing
yellow. It is a fpeciesof Morus. See Botany Index.
And for its properties, fee Chemistry and Dyeing
Index.
FUSTIGATIO, in the Roman cuftoms, a punilh-
ment inflidded by beating with a cudgel. This punifh-
ment was peculiar to freemen \ for the {laves were
fcourged or la (bed with whips.
4 1 F U Z
FUTTOCKS, in a {hip, the timbers raifed over the Futtocfc
keel, or the encompafling timbers that make her Fuz|erj
breadth. i—
FUTURE, fomething to come hereafter, _\Ve fay, a
future date, a future contingency ; there is none but
God to whom future things are prefent.
Future, or FUTURE Tenfe, in Grammar, denotes an
inflexion of verbs, whereby they denote, that a thing
will be in fome time yet to come. See Grammar.
FUZES, or Fusees, in artillery. See FUSEE,
FUZILEERS. See Fubileers.
GTHE feventh letter and fifth confonant of our
9 alphabet; though in the alphabets of all the
oriental languages, the Hebrew, Phenician, Chaldee,
Syriac, Samaritan, Arabic, and even Greek, G is the
third letter. The Hebrews call it ghimelox gimel, q. d.
“ camel j” by reafon it refembles the neck of that ani¬
mal j and the fame appellation it bears in the Samari¬
tan, Phenician, and the Chaldee : in the Syiiac it is
called gamel, in Arabic gitm, and in Greek gamma.
The gamma (F) of the Greeks is manifeftly the gi¬
mel (3) of the Hebrews or Samaritans. All the dif¬
ference between the gamma and gimel confifls in this,
that the one is turned to the right, and the other to
the left, according to the different manners of writing
and reading which obtained among thofe different na¬
tions $ fo that all the pains Salmafius has taken on So-
linus, to prove that the G was derived from the Greek
kappa, is loft.
From the Greeks the Latins borrowed their fonn of
this letter •, the Latin G being certainly a corruption
of the Greek gamma T, as might eafily be (hown had
our printers all the characters and forms of this letter
which we meet with in the Greek and Latin MSS.
through which the letter paffed from F to G.
Diomed, lib. ii. cap. De Lttera, calls G a new letter.
His realon is, that the Romans had not introduced it
before the firft Punic war 5 as appears from the roftral
column ereCled by C. Duilius, on which we every¬
where find a C in lieu of G. It was Sp. Carvilius who
firft diftinguifhed between thofe two letters, and invent¬
ed the figure of the G j as we are affured by 1 eren-
tius Scaurus. The C ferved very well for G *, it be¬
ing the third letter of the Latin alphabet, as the F or
y was of the Greek.
The G is found inftead of C on feveral medals :
Vail I ant, Num. Imperat. tom. i. p. 39. . .
M. Beger produces a medal of the Famiha Ogulma,
where Gar is read inftead of Car, which is on thofe
of M. Patin. But the C is more frequently feen on
medals in lieu of G ; as, Aucustalis Callaecia
Cartacinensis, &c. for Augustalis, &c. Not
that the pronunciation of thofe words was altered, but
only that the G was unartfully or negligently cut by
the workmen : as is the cafe in divers inferiptions of the ^ G.
eaftern empire } where AVC, aucc, auccc, are fre- '"“"V
quently found for AUG, &c.
The northern people frequently change the G into
V or W ; as in Callus, Wailus ; Gallia, Wallia, ValHa,
&c. For in this inftance, it muft not be faid that the
French have changed the W into G 5 becaufe they
wrote Callus long before Wailus or Wallia was known,
as appears from all the ancient Roman and Greek
writers. And yet it is equally true, that the French
change the of the northern nations, and "V confo¬
nant, into G ; as, Willielmus, “ William,” into Guil¬
laume ; Wulphilas into Gulphilas ; Vafcon into Gafcon,
See.
The letter G is of the mute kind, and cannot be
any wTay founded without the help of a vowel. It is
formed by the refleftion of the air againft the palate,
made by the tongue as the air paffes out of the throat j
which Martianus Capella expreffes thus, G fpiritus cum
palato ; fo that G is a palatal letter.
The modern G takes its form from that of the La¬
tins. In Englifh it has two founds, one from the
Greek F and the Latin, which is called that of the
hard G, becaufe it is formed by a preffure fomewhat
hard on the fore part of the tongue againft the upper
gum 5 which found it retains before a, 0, u, /, t ; as
gate, go, gtill. At the end of a word it is always hard,
as ring,Jing, &c. Fhe other found, called that of the
foft G,’refembles that of j; and is commonly, though
not always, found before e and 1, as in gefture, giant,
&c. To this rule, however, there are many exceptions
G is often hard before i, as give, &c. and fometimes
before 6^ ss &c# It is silfo hard in derivatives from
words ending in g, as fnging, Jlronger, &c. and gene¬
rally before er, at the ends of words, as finger. G is
mute before n, as gnajh,fign. Gh has the found of the
hard G in the beginning of a word, as ghofily ; m the
middle, and fometimes at the end, it is quite filent, as
right, though. At the end of a word Gh has often the
found of/, as laugh, rough, tough.
As a numeral, G was anciently ufed to denote 400 j
and with a dafli over it thus g, 40,000. _
As an abbreviature, G. ftands for Gains, Genius,
gens,
GAB
D gem, genius, See. G. G. for gemina, giffit, gejjerunt,
II Sec. G. C. for genio civitatis or Cafar is. G. L. for
Gains libertus, or genio loci. G. V. S. for genio urbis
facrurn. G. B. for genio bono. And G. T. for genio
tutelari.
In mufic, G is the charaSler or mark of the treble
cleif; and from its being placed at the head, or mark¬
ing the frit found in Guido’s fcale, the whole leale took
the name of gamut.
GAB ALE, in Mythology, a deity worfhipped at
Heliopolis under the figure of a lion, with a radiant
head ; and it is thus reprefented on many medals of
Caracalla.
GABARDINE, from the Italian gavardina, has
been fometimes ufed to denote a coarle frock, or mean
drefs. In this fenfe it is ufed by Shakefpeare in his
Temped; and Merchant of Venice, and by Butler in his
Hudibras, book i.
GABARA, or Gabbara, in antiquity, the dead
bodies which the Egyptians embalmed, and kept in
their houfes, efpecially thofe of fuch of their friends as
died with the reputation of great piety and holinefs, or
as martyrs. See Embalming, and Mummy.
GABEL, (Gabella, Gab/urn, Gablagium'), in French
Gabelle, i. e. Vctiigal, hath the fame fignification among
the ancient Englilh writers that gabelle hath in France.
It is a tax-; but hath been varioully ufed, as for a rent,
euftom, fervice, &c. And where it was a payment of
rent, thofe who paid it were termed gablatores. When
the word gabel was formerly mentioned without any ad¬
dition to it, it fignified the tax on fait, though after¬
wards it was applied to all other taxes.
In the French cutloms, the gabel, or tax on fait,
computed to make one-fourth of the whole revenue of
the kingdom, is faid to have had its rife in France in
1286, under Philip the Fair. Philip the Long took
a double per livre on fait, by an edict in 1318, which
he promifed to remit when he was delivered from his
enemies; which wras renewed by Philip de Valois in
1345; and the duty was raifed to four deniers per
livre; King John refumed it in 1355, and it was grant¬
ed to the dauphin in 1358, to ranfom King John. It
was continued by Charles V. in 1366 ; after his dc-
ceafe it was fuppi'effed, but revived again by Charles
VI. in 1381. Louis XL raifed it to 12 deniers per
livre ; and Francis I. in 1542 to 24 livres per muid :
and it has been confiderably augmented fince that time;
to that a minot of fait latterly paid a duty of 52 livres
8 fuls and 6 deniers. Philip de Valois firft eilablifhed
granaries and officers of the gabelles, and prohibited
any other perfons from felling fait: from which time
the whole commerce of fait for the inland eonfumption
continued wholly in the king’s hands, every grain
thereof being fold and distributed by his farmers and
officers created for the purpofe.—This oppreflive tax
was abolifhed by the National Aflembly.
GABII, in Ancient Geography, a town of Latium,
midway almoft between Rome and Prenefte to the eaft,
often mentioned in the hiflory of Tarquin the Proud.
CinBus Gabinus denoted a particular way of tucking
the gown, by drawing it forwards on the breaft, and
tying it into a knot; as the people of Gabii did at a
folemn fitcrifice, on the hidden attack of an enemy, in
order to be fitter for action. In this manner theconful
ufed to declare war, to facrifice, and burn the fpoils of
GAB
the enemy ; and then he w as faid to be prcecuiRus, Gahii
The place now extinft. [j
GABINIAN laws, in Roman antiquities; law^s X
inllituted upon leveral occafions by perfons of the name
of Gabimus. The firit was the Gabinia lex de Comiliis,
by A. Gabinius the tribune, in the year of Rome 614.
It required, that in the public alfemblies for electing
magiilrates, the votes thould be given by tablets, and
not viva voce.—Another de Comitiis, which made it a
capital punifiiment to convene any elandeitine aflembly,
agreeable to the old law of the 12 tables. Another^?
Militia, by A. Gabinius the tribune, year of Rome
685. It granted Pompey the power of carrying on
the war againil the pirates, during three years, and of
obliging all kings, governors, and Rates, to fupply him
with all the neceflaries he wanted, over all the Medi¬
terranean fea, and in the maritime provinces as far as
400 Jladia from the fea.—Another de U/ura by Aul.
Gabinius the tribune, year of Rome 685. It ordain¬
ed that no aflion Ihould be granted for the recovery of
any money borrowed upon fmall intereft to be lent upon
larger. This was an ufual practice at Rome, which
obtained the name of verfaramfacere.—Another againft
fornication.
GABIONS, in Fortijication, balkets made of ozier
twigs, of a cylindrical form, fix feet high and four
wide; which, being filled with earth, ferve as a flicker
from the enemy’s fire.
GABLE or GABEL End, of a houfe (from gaval,
WelftiJ, is the upright triangular end from the cornice
or eaves to the top of the houfe.
GABRES, or Gavres, a religious fe<R in Perfia
and India; called alio Gebres, Guebres, Gevres, Gaurs,
See. See Magi.
The Turks call the Chriftians Gabres, q. d. Infidels*
or people of a falfe religion ; or rather, as Leunclavius
obferves, Heathens or Gentiles : the word Gabre, among
the Turks, having the fame fignifieation as Pagan or
Infidel among the Chriflians, and denoting any thing
not Mahometan.
In Perfia the word has a more peculiar fignification ;
wherein it is applied to a fe<R difperfed through the
country, and faid to be the remains of the ancient Per-
fians or followers of Zoroafter, being worftiippers of
fire. They have a fuburb at Ifpahan, which is called
Gaurabad, or “ the town of the Gaursf where they
are employed in the meaneft and vileft drudgery; fome
of them are difperfed through other parts of Perfia ;
but they principally abound in Kerman, the mofl: bar¬
ren province in the whole country, where the Maho¬
metans allow them liberty and the exercife of their re¬
ligion. Several of them fled many ages ago into India,
and fettled about Surat, where their pofterity remain
to this day. There is alfo a colony of them at Bom¬
bay. They are a poor, ignorant, inoffenfive people,
extremely fuperftitious, and zealous for their rights, ri¬
gorous in their morals, and honeft in their dealings.
They profefs to believe a refurre&ion and a future
judgment, and to worfliip only one God. And though
they perform their worfliip before fire, and direct their
devotion towards the rifing fun, for which they have
an extraordinary veneration, yet they ftrenuoufly main¬
tain that they worfliip neither; but that thefe are the
mofl; expreflive fymbols of the Deity, and that for this
reafon they turn towards them in their devotional fer-
R r 2 vices.
[ 3>5 1
I
Gabres
!!
Gad.
GAD [31
vices.—However, fome have fuppofed, that thefe are
Perfians converted to Chriftianity, who, being after-
, wards left to themfelves, mingled their ancient fuper-
ftitions with the truths and practices of Chrilfiamty,
and fo formed for themfelves a religion apart : and they
allege, that throughout the whole of their fyftem of
doftrine and praftice, we may difcern the marks and
traces of Chriftianity, though grievoufly defaced ; the
annunciation, the magi, the maffacre of the infants,
our Saviour’s miracles, his perfecutions, afcenfion,
See.
GABRIEL, the name of one of the principal an¬
gels in heaven. It fignifies thejlrength of God. There
are a few events, in which this exalted being was con¬
cerned, recorded in Scripture. He was fent to the pro¬
phet Daniel, to explain to him the vifion of the ram and
goat, and the myftery of the feventy weeks, which had
been revealed to him. He was fent to Zecharias, to
declare to him the future birth of John the Baptilf. Six
months after, he was fent to Nazareth to the Virgin
Mary, to warn her of the birth of Jefus Chrift.
The Orientalifts add feveral particulars to what the
Scriptures inform us concerning the angel Gabriel.
The Mahometans call him \\~ie, faithftlffnnt ; and the
Perfians, by way of metaphor, the peacock of heaven.
We read, in the fecond chapter of the Koran, that
vohofoever is an enemy to Gabriel fhallbe confounded. It
was Gabriel, they believe, who brought to Mahomet
their falfe prophet the revelations which he publilhed j
and it was he who condu&ed him to heaven mounted
upon the animal Borak.
Gabriel, St, an ifland lying in the great river La
Plata, South America, which was difcoyered by the
celebrated navigator Sebaftian Cabot, in the year
1526.
GABRIELITES, in ecclefiaftieal hiftory, a feft of
Anabaptifts that appeared in Pomerania in 1530.
They derive their name from Gabriel Scherling *, who,
after having been for fome time tolerated in that coun¬
try, was obliged to remove, and died in Poland,
GAD, a Jewifh prophet, the feer, or domeftic prophet
of King David, and his advifer in all matters of im¬
portance. When the difpleafure of the Almighty was
roufed againft David and the children of Itlael for
numbering the people, Gad received a commiflion to
wait upon the king, and make him an offer of three
evils as a punifhment for his offence. Thefe were fa¬
mine, war, or peftilence, the laft of which was chofen
by David, the ravages of which were terrible beyond
defcription, and produced genuine repentance in the
hearts of furvivors. To perpetuate the memory of this
event, Gad ordered an altar to be creeled in the threfti-
ing-floor of Oman the Jebufite, around which place, it
is faid, the temple was afterwards built. We learn
from the Old Teftament that Gad was an author, who
wrote a hiftory of his own times, of which much ufe
appears to have been made by the compilers of the
books of Samuel and Chronicles. Gad was alfo the
the name of one of the twelve patriarchs, or fons of
Jacob.
Gad, in Ancient Geography, a diftrift of the Tranf-
jordan Paleftine, fituated between Gilead and the king
dom of Balkan to the north, andth.' k ngdomof the Amo-
rites, to the fouth having the Jordan to the weft, and
6 ] G A F
bounded by various peoples on the eaft j fo called from
a tribe of that name.
Gad, among miners, a fmall punch of iron, with a _
long wooden handle, ufed to break up the ore.
o ne of the miners holds this in his hand, direfling
the point to a proper place, while the other drives it
into the vein, by linking it w ith a fledge hammer.
GAD-Bee, or Gad-F/y. See Oestrus, Entomolo¬
gy Index,
GADARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Peraea, or Transjordan, in the Decapolis, a very ftrong
place. Reftored by Pompey after its demolition by the
Jews (Jofephus). After Herod’s death it was joined to
the province of Syria by Auguflus.
GADARENORUM Acer, in Ancient Geography,
the country of the Gadarenes, called by Matthew the
country of the Gergefenes, becaufe it was a diftrifl that
lay between Gadara and Gergefa, otherwife called Ge-
rafa, both which lay within the Decapolis on the other
fide Jordan.
GADES, or Gadira, in Ancient Geography, a
fmall ifland in the Atlantic, on the Spanifh coaft, 25
miles from the Columns of Hercules. It was Sometimes
called Tarteffus and Erythia according to Pliny. Ge-
ryon, whom Hercules killed, fixed his refidence there.
Hercules, furnamed Gaditanus, had there a celebrated
temple in which all his labours were engraved with ex¬
cellent workmanfhip. The inhabitants are called Ga-
ditani.
GADUS, a genus of fifties belonging to the order of
jugulares. This genus includes the cod, the whiting,
the torfk, &c. See Ichthyology Index
GAELIC LANGUAGE. See HIGHLANDS.
GiETULIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Africa, lying to the fouth of Mauritania, called Gcetu-
lia Propria, and Vetus. Gceluh, the people, were dif-
tinguifhed by different epithets; as Nign, Autoio/es,
Darce and Baniurce, (Pliny). The Gertuh were among
the firft inhabitants of Africa ; a rough, unpoliflied peo¬
ple, living on venifon and the fpontaneous produflions
of the earth ; a roving, wandering people, who took
up with the firft place in which night furprifed them,
(Salluft).
GAFF, a fort of boom or pole, frequently ufed in
fmall fhips, to extend the upper edge of the mizen ;
and always employed for the fame purpofe on thofe fails
whofe foremoft edges are joined to the mail by hoops or
lacings, and which are ufually extended by a boom be¬
low. Such are the main fails of all Hoops, brigs, and
fchooners.
GAFFAREL, James, a French divine, and very
learned writer, born about 1601. He acquired great
fliill in the oriental and fcveral other languages; and
was particularly verfant in the cabbalillic and occult
fciences, which he learned, expofed, and refuted. Car¬
dinal Richelieu made choice of him for his library
keeper, and lent him into Italy to colledl the bell ma-
nufcnpts and books. He publilhed a book entitled 6?/-
riojitt'% Innouies, i. e. Unheard-of Curiofities. It is laid
the cardinal defigned to employ him in his grand pro-
je6l for the reunion of religions. He died in lOdr,
aged 80. He had been labouring for many years, and
had almoft finiftied a hiftory of the fubterranean world ;
containing an account of the caves, grottoes, vaults,
Gad
II
Gaffarel.
GAG [3
Gaffarel catacombs, and mines, he had met with in 30 years tra¬
il vels.
Gag6- | GAGATES, or Jet. See Jet, Mineralogy
Index.
GAGE, in our ancient cuftoms, fignifies a pledge
or pawn, given by way of fecurity. The word is only
properly ufed in fpeaking of moveables \ for immove¬
ables, hifbotheca is ufed.
If the gage perifh, the perfon who received it is
not to anlwer for it, but only for extreme negli¬
gence, &c.
Gage is alfo ufed for a challenge to combat : (See
Cartel). In which fenfe, it was a pledge, which the
accufer or challenger ealt on the ground, and the other
took up as accepting the challenge ; it w as ufually a
glove, gauntlet, chaperoon, or the like. See Combat,
and Duel.
Gage, is only now retained as a fubftantive. As a
verb, the G is changed into IV, and of gnge is form¬
ed wage: as to wage law, to w'age deliverance,
q. d. to give fecurity a thing lhall be delivered. See
Wage.
If a perfon who has diftrained be fued for not having
delivered what he had taken by diltrefs, he ihould wage,
or gage, or gager, deliverance j that is, put in furety
that he will deliver them. ,
Mort-GAGE, is that which is left in the hands of the
proprietor, fo that he reaps the fruits thereof.
In oppofition to vif-gage, where the fruits or reve¬
nues are reaped by the creditor, and reckoned on the
foot of the debt, which diminilhes in proportion there¬
to. The fecond acquits or difcharges itfelf; the firft
does not.
Gage, in the fea language. When one (hip is to
windward of another, fhe is faid to have the weather-
gage of her. They likewife call the number of feet
that a veffel finks in the water, the ftiip’s this
they find by driving a nail into a pike near the end, and
putting it down befide the rudder till the nail catch
hold under it; then as many feet as the pike is under
water is the (hip’s gage.
Gage, among letter founders, a piece of box, or
other hard wood, varioufly notched •, the ufe of which
is to adjult the dimenfions, (lopes &.c. of the different
forts of letters. See Foundery.
Gage, in joinery, is an inftrument made to (trike a
line truly parallel to the (traight fide of any board or
piece of (tuff. Its chief ufe is for gaging of tenons
true, to fit into mortifes; and for gaging (tuff of an
equal thicknefs. It is made of an oval piece of wood,
fitted upon a fquare (tick, to Aide up and down (tiffly
thereon, and with a tooth at the end of a (taff, to fcore,
to (trike a line upon the (taff at any diftance, according
to the diftance of the oval from it.
Sliding Gage, a tool ufed by the mathematical in¬
ftrument makers for meafuring and letting off the dif-
tances.
Sea GAGg, an inftrument invented by Dr Hales and
Plate Defaguliers for finding the depth of the fea j the
I CXXVIII ^e^cr*P^on whereof is this. AB (fig. 1.) is the gage
fig. j buttle, in which is cemented the gage tube Ff in the
brafs cape at G. The upper end of tube F is hermeti¬
cally fealed, and the open lower end /"is immerfed in
mercury, marked C, on which fwims a fmall thicknefs
or furface of treacle. On the top of the bottle is fcrew -
7 ] GAG
ed a tube of brafs HG, pierced with feveral holes to ad- Gage,
mit the water into the bottle AB. The body K is a v"”*
weight hanging by its (hank L, in a focket N, with a
notch on one fide at /», in which is fixed the catch / of
the fpring S, and pa (Ting through the holex L, in the
(hank of the weight K, prevents its falling out when
once hung on. On the top, in the upper part of the
brafs tube at H, is fixed a large empty ball, or full
blown bladder I, which muft not be fo large, but
that the weight K may be able to (ink the whole under
water.
The inftrument thus conftru&ed is ufed in the fol¬
lowing manner. The weight K being hung on, the
gage is let fall into deep water, and finks to the bot¬
tom : the focket N is fomewhat longer than the (hank
L ; and therefore, after the weight K comes to the
bottom, the gage will continue to defcend till the
lower part of the focket ftrikes againft the weight j
this gives liberty to the catch to fiy out of the hole L,
and let go the weight K : when this is done, the ball
or bladder I inftantly buoys up the gage to the top
of the water. While the gage is under water, the wa¬
ter having free accefs to the treacle and mercury in the
bottle, will by its prelfure force it up into the tube
F/, and the height to which it has been forced by the
greateft preflure, viz. that at the bottom, will be (hown
by the mark in the tube which the treacle leaves behind
it, and which is the only ufe of the treacle. This
(hows into what fpace the whole air in the tube Ff is
compreffed ; and confequently the height or depth of
the water which by its weight produced that compref-
fion, which is the thing required.
If the gage tube F/ be of glafs, a fcale might be
drawn on it with the point of a diamond, (bowing, by
infpedtion, what height the water (lands above the bot¬
tom. But the length of 10 inches is not fufticient for
fathoming depths at fea, fince that,when all the air in
fuch a length of tube is compreffed into half an inch,
the depth of water is more than 634 feet, which is
not half a quarter of a mile.
If, to remedy this, we make ufe of a tube 50 inches
long, which for ftrength may be a mulket barrel, and
fuppofe the air compreffed into an hundredth part of
half an inch; then by faying, as I : 99 :: 400 : 39600
inches, or 3300 feet ; even this is but little more than
half a mile, or 2640 feet. But fince it is reafonable
to fuppofe the cavities of the fea bear fome proportion
to the mountainous parts of the land, fome of which
are more than three miles above the earth’s furface j
therefore, to explore fuch great depths, the Dodtor
contrived a new form for his fea gage, or rather for
the gage tube in it, as follows. BCDF (fig. 2.)Fii!T.2.
is a hollow metalline globe communicating on the top
with a long tube AB, whofe capacity is a ninth part
of that globe. On the lower part at D, it has alfo a
(hort tube DE, to (land in the mercury and treacle.
The air contained in the compound gage tube is com-
preffed by the water as before ; but the degree of com-
preihon, or height to which the treacle lias been for¬
ced, cannot there be feen through the tube : there¬
fore, to anfwer that end, a (lender rod of metal or
wood, with a knob on the top of the tube AB, will
receive the mark of the treacle, and (how it when
taken out.
If the tube AB be 50 inches long, and *>f fuch a
bore
t
GAG [ 31
fiage. bore that every inch in length fliould be a cubic inch
—^ ' of air, and the contents of the globe and tube toge¬
ther 500 cubic inches •, then when the air is com-
preffed within an hundredth part of the whole, it is
evident the treacle will not approach nearer than five
inches of the top of the tube, which will agree to the
depth of 3300 feet of water as above, iwice this
depth will comprefs the air into half that fpace nearly,
viz. 2 J inches, which correfpond to 6600, which is a
mile and a quarter. Again, half that fpaee, or ly inch,
will {how double the former depth, v.z. 13200 feet, or
21 miles ; which is probably very nearly the greateft
depth of the fea.
Bucket Sea Gage, an inftrument contrived by Dr
Hales to find the different degrees of coolnefs and falt-
ncfs of the fea, at different depths : it conlifts of a
common houfehold pail or bucket, with two heads :
Thefe heads have each a round hole in the middle,
about four inches in diameter, covered with fquare
valves opening upward and that they may both open
and (hut together, there is a mull iron rod fued to
the upper part of the lower valve, and the other end to
the lower fide of the upper valve. So that as the buc¬
ket defcends with its finking weight into the lea, both
the valves may open by the force of the w ater, which
by that means has a free paffage through the bucket.
But when the bucket is drawn up, then both the valves
(hut by the force of the water at the upper part of tire
bucket ; fo that the bucket is drawn up fuff of the
loweft fea water to which it has defcended. When the
bucket is drawn up, the mercurial thermometer fixed
in it is examined j but great care muff be taken to ob-
ferve the degree at which the mercury {lands, before
the lower part of the thermometer is taken out of the
water in the bucket, left it be affefted by the different
temperature of the air. In order to keep the bucket
in a right pofition, there are four cords fixed to it,
reaching about three feet below it to which the fink¬
ing weight is fixed. The refult of feveral trials with
this gage was, that when it was let down to different
depths, from 360 feet to 534^ feetj i11 25* 13•
and long. 25. 12. W. it was difcovered by the ther¬
mometer, that the cold increafed gradually in propor¬
tion to the depths, till it defcended to 39°p Iee*j v^z*
near |ths of a mile, whence the mercury in the ther¬
mometer came up at 53°*, and though it was afterwards
funk to 534b feet, i. e. a mile and 66 feet, it came up
no lower : the warmth of the water upon the furface,
and that of the air, was all that time 84°. When the
water in the bucket was become of the fame tempera¬
ture with that on the furface of the fea, equal quanti¬
ties of both were weighed and tried by the hydrometer ;
that from below was found to be the heavielt, and con-
fequently the falteft.
Dr Hales was probably led to the conftruChon of
this fea gage from an inftrument invented by Dr Hook,
and defigned for the fame purpofe. T his confifts of a
Mg. 3. fquare wooden bucket C,_(fig. 3.) whofe bottoms are fo
contrived, that as the weight of A finks the iron B, to
which the bucket C is faftened by two handles D, D,
on the end of which are the moveable bottoms or valves
EE, and thereby draws down the bucket, the refift-
ance of the water keeps up the bucket in the pofture
C, whereby the water, whilft the bucket was defcending,
ha’th a free paffage through it *, whereas, as foon as the
3
8 ] GAG
bucket is pulled upwards by the line F, the refiftance Gagr,
of the water to that motion beats the bucket down-~v—
wards, and keeps in the pofture G, whereby the in¬
cluded water is kept from getting out, and the ambient
rvater kept from getting in. Phil. Tranf. N° ix. p. 149.
and N° xxiv. p. 447. or Abr. vol. ii. p. 260.
Aqueo mercurial GAGE, is the name of an apparatus
contrived by Dr Hales, and applied in various forms
to the branches of trees, in order to determine the
force with which they imbibe moifture. Let e r, (fig. Fig. 4.
4.) be a cylindric glafs, e. gr. of an inch diameter
within, and eight inches long. Into this glafs is in¬
troduced the branch of a young thriving apple tree
b, about three feet long, with lateral branches ; the
diameter of the traniverfe cut 1 being |ths of an
inch. Having fitted the joint r to the tube at r, by-
folding a piece of fheep’s fkin round the ftem, it is ce¬
mented with a mixture of bees wax and turpentine
melted together, in fuch proportion as to make a
very ftiff clammy pafte when cold, and over the cement
folds of wet bladders are bound firmly with pack
thread. To the lower end e of the large tube, a imal-
ler tube s <? is cemented, being about 4 of an inch dia¬
meter, and 18 inches long, and in fubftante full \ of
an inch thick. Thefe tubes are cemented together at
e rvith common hard brick dull or powdered chalk ce¬
ment, and the joint is farther fecured with the cement
of bees wax and turpentine, over which a wet bladder
is bound. The apparatus being thus prepared, the
branch is turned downwards, and the glafs tube up¬
wards, and then both tubes are filled with water } with
the finger applied to the open end of the fmall tube,
it is inverted and immerfed in the glafs ciftern „r, lull
of mercury and water. In this fituation the lower end
of the branch was immerfed fix inches in water, viz.
from r to i; the water was imbibed by the branch at
its tranfverfe cut 1; and during its alcent into the lap
veffels of the branch, the mercury rofe in the tube f %
from the ciftern x, fo that in half an hour it was rilen
5! inches high, as far as The height of the mer¬
cury indicated, in fome meafure, the force with which
the fap was imbibed, though not the whole force; be-
caufe while the water was imbibed by the branch, its
tranfverfe cut was covered with innumerable little he-
mifpheres of air, and many air bubbles iflued out of the
fap veffels, which partly filled the tube f r, as the water
was drawn out of it: and therefore the height of the
mercury could only be proportionable to the excefs of
the quantity of water drawn oft above the quantity of
the air which iffued out of the wood. If the quantity
of air iffuing from the wmod had been equal to the
quantity of water imbibed, it is plain that the meicu-
ry could not rile at all, becaufe there would be no
room for it in the tube : but if nine parts in twelve of
the water be imbibed by the branch, and only three
fuch parts of air iffue into the tube in the fame time
the mercury muff rife near fix inches, and fo propor-
tionably in other cafes. Dr Hales obferved, tnat the
mercury rofe higheft, in moft cafes, when the fun was
clear and warm, and that it fublided three or four
inches towards evening, but rofe again the next day
as it grew warm, though feldom fo high as at firit.
Dr Hales adapted the fize and ftiape of the glafs appa¬
ratus to a great variety of branches of ieveral iizes and
of different kinds of trees, and repeated the experiment
abov*
GAG [ 319 ] GAG
Gage. above defcribed, mutatis mutandus, in a variety of in-
ftarices. See his Vegetable Statics, vol. i. chap. ii. p.
84, &c.
Tide Gage, the name of an inftrument ufed for
determining the height of the tides by Mr Bayly, in
the courfe of a voyage towards the fouth pole, See. in
the Refolution and Adventure, in 1772, 1773, I774»
and 1775* This inftrument confifts of a glafs tube,
whofe internal diameter was feven-tenths of an inch,
laftied fall to a ten feet fir rod, di vided into feet, inches,
and quarters : this rod was faftened to a ftrong poft
fixed upright and firm in the water. At the lower end
of the tube was an exceeding fmall aperture, through
which the water was admitted. In confequence of
this conftruftion, the lurface of the water in the tube
was fo little affe£led by the agitation of the fea, that
its height was not altered one tenth of an inch, when
the fwell of the fea was two feet j and Mr Bayly
was certain, that with this inftrument he could difeern
a difference of one-tenth of an inch in the height of
the tide.
Wind GAGE, an inftrument for meafuring the force
of the wind upon any given furface. It was invented
by Dr Lind, who gives the following defeription of it,
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixv.
This inftrument confifts of two glafs tubes AB, CD,
Pig. 5. (fig- 5.) of five or fix inches in length. Their bores,
which are fo much the better for being equal, are about
four-tenths of an inch in diameter. They are connefted
together like a fiphon, by a fmall bent glafs tube a b,
the bore of which is about one-tenth of an inch in di¬
ameter. On the upper part of the leg AB there is
a tube of latten brafs, which is kneed, or bent per¬
pendicularly outwards, and has its mouth open to¬
wards F. On the other leg CD, is a cover with a
round hole G in the upper part of it two-tenths of an
inch in diameter. This cover and the kneed tube are
connefted together by a flip of brafs e d, which not
only gives ftrength to the whole inftrument, but alfo
ferves to hold the fcale HI. The kneed tube and co¬
ver are fixed on with hard cement or fealing wax.
To the fame tube is foldered a piece of brafs e, with
a round hole in it to receive the fteel fpindle KL j and
aty there is juft fuch another piece of brafs foldered to
the brafs hoop % h, which furrounds both legs of the
inftrument. There is a fmall flioulder on the fpindle
at/, upon which the inftrument refts, and a fmall nut
at z, to prevent it from being blown off the fpindle by
the wind. The whole inftrument is eafily turned
round upon the fpindle by the wind, fo as always to
prefent the mouth of the kneed tube towards it. The
end of the fpindle has a ferew on it j by which it may
be ferewed into the top of a poft or a ftand made on
purpofe. It has alfo a hole at L, to admit a fmall le¬
ver for ferewing it into wood with more readinefs and
facility. A thin plate of brafs h is foldered to the
kneed tube about half an inch above the round hole G
fo as to prevent rain from falling into it. There is
g. 6. likewife a crooked tube AB (fig. 6.) to be put occa-
fionally upon the mouth of the kneed tube F, in order
to. prevent rain from being blown into the mouth of the
wind gage when it is left out all night, or expofed in
the time of rain.
The force or momentum of the wind may be afeer-
tained by the afliftance of this inftrument, by filling
the tubes half full of water, and pufhing the fcale a Gage,
little up or down, till the o of the fcale, when the in- ‘’-"'■‘’V4*
ftrument is held up perpendicularly, be on the line with
the furface of the water in both legs of the wind-
gage. The inftrument being thus adjufted, hold it up
perpendicularly, and turning the mouth of the kneed
tube towards the wind, oblerve how much the water
is depreffed by it in the one leg, and raifed in the
other. The fum of the two is the height of a column
of water which the wind is capable of fuftaining at
that time ; and every body that is oppofed to that
wind will be preffed upon by a force equal to the
weight of a column of water, having its bafe equal to
the altitude of the column of water fuftained by the
wind in the wind gage. Hence the force of the wind
upon any body where the furface oppofed to it is known
may be eafily found j and a ready comparifon may be
made betuuxt the ftrength of one gale of wind and that
of another.
The force of the wind may be likewife meafured
with this inftrument by filling it until the water runs
out of the hole G. For if we then hold it up to the
wind as before, a quantity of water will be blown out j
and if both legs of the inftrument are of the fame bore,
the height of the column fuftained will be equal to
double the column of water in either leg, or the fum
of what is wanting in both legs. But if the legs are
of unequal bores, neither of thefe will give the true
height of the column of water which the wind fuftain¬
ed. But the true height may be obtained by the fol¬
lowing formulae.
Suppofe that after a gale of wind which had blown
the water from A to B (fig. 7.) forcing it at the fame Fig. 7,
time through the other tube out at E, the furface of
the water fhould be found ftanding at feme level DG,
and it wrere required to know what was the height of
the column EF or AB, which the wind fuftained.
In order to obtain this, it is only neceffary to find the
height of the columns DB or GF, which are con-
ftantly equal to one another j for either of thefe added
to one of the equal columns AD, EG, will give the
true height of the column of water which the wind fuf.
tained.
1. Let the diameters AC, EH, of the tubes, be
refpeftively reprefented by c d; and let zz=AD, or
EG, and xrrDB, or EG : Then it is evident, that
the column DB is to the column EG as c*x to d^a.
But thefe columns are equal. Therefore c1x~d*a {
and confequently x^z—-.
2. But if at any inftant of time whilft the wind was
blowing, it was obferved, that, when the water flood
at E, the top of the tube out of which it is forced,
it was depreffed in the other to fome given level BF,
the altitude at which it would have flood in each, had
it immediately fubfided, may be found in the follow^
ing manner : Let b=AB or EF.;—Then it is evident
that the column DB is equal to the difference of co¬
lumns EF, GF. But the difference of thefe columns
. d*b
is as d1b~—d'x', and confequently x——z 
For the cafes when the wind blow-s in at the narrow
leg of the inftrument: Let ABz=EF=^, EG, or
AD=:z7, GF=DB=iAr, and the diameters EH, GA, ,
refpeftively
G A
refpe&ively =</,£•, as before
the column AD is to the column GF as a c1 to d*x.
But thefe columns are equals therefore (1*X—a c* ; and
confequently x~——. It is aid) evident that the column
AD is equal to the difference of the columns AB, DB;
but the difference of thefe columns is as £ c1—c* x.
b
Therefore dx x—b c'—c* x. Whence we get
The ufe of the fmall tube of communication a b
(fig. 5.) is to check the undulation of the water, fo that
the height of it may be read off from the fcale with eafe
and certainty. But it is particularly defigned to prevent
the water from being thrown up to a much greater or
lefs altitude than the true height of the column which
the wind is able at that time to fuftain, from its re¬
ceiving a fudden impulfe whilft it is vibrating either
in its afcent or defcent. As in fome cafes the water
in this inflrument might be liable to freeze, and thus
break the tube's, Dr Lind recommends a faturated fo-
lution of fea fait to be ufed inffead of it, which does
not freeze till Fahrenheit’s thermometer falls to o.
GAHNIA, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria clafs. See BdTANY Index.
G AIETA, an ancient, handfome, and flrong town of
Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra di La-
voro, with a fort, citadel, harbour, and bifhop’s fee. It
was taken by the Auftrians in 1707, and by the Spa¬
niards in 1734. It is feated at the foot of a mountain
near the fea, in E. Long. 13. 37- N. Lat. 41. 30.
GAIN, the profit or lucre a perfon reaps from his
trade, employment, or indufiry. Some derive the word
from the German : whereof the Italians had made
guadagno ; the French and Englifh gain.
There are legal and reputable gains, as well as fordid
and infamous ones. What is gained by gaming is
of the latter defcription. Such gains are not acknow¬
ledged by law, fo that the payment is not legally bind¬
ing on the lofer.
Gain, in Archilefiure, is the workman’s term for the
bevelling {boulder of a joift or other timber. It is ufed
alfo for the lapping of the end of the joift, &c. upon a
trimmer or girder \ and then the thicknefs of the
{boulder is cut into the trimmer ; alfo bevelling up¬
wards, that it may juft receive the gain ; and fo the
joift and trimmer lie even and level with the furface.
This way of working is ufed in floors and hearths.
To GAIN the Wind, in fea language, is to arrive on
the weather fide or to windward of fome other veffel in
fight, when both are plying to windward, or failing as
near the wind as poffible.
GAIN AGE, GainagiuM, in our ancient writers,
fignifies the draught oxen, horfes, wain, plough, and
furniture, for carrying on the work of tillage by the
bafer fort of fokemen and villains.
Gainage is the fame with what is otherwife called
woinnge. Braclon, lib. i. cap. 9. fpeaking of lords and
fervants, fays, U' fi eos deflruavt, quod fafonm non pojjh
eis eff’ wninng um fuum. And again, lib. iii. tradl. 2.
cap. 1. ViHaniis non amerciabitur, niF fafao wainagio
fuo : For anciently, as it appears both by Magna
Chart a, and other books, the villain, when amerced, had
his gui ’age or wain age free, to the end his plough might
not Hand Itill} and the law, for the fame reafon, does ftill
2
I f 320 ] GAL
Then it is evident, that allow a like privilege to the hulbandmen ; that is, his Gaitiage
draught horfes are not in many cafes diftrainable. .» .
Gainage is alfo ufed for the land itfelf, or the profit.
raifed by cultivating it.
GAINSBOROUGH, a town of Lincolnflvire in
England, 148 miles from London, feated on the eaft:
bank of the Trent, which brings tolerably fized veflels
with the tide up to the town, about 40 miles from the
Humber. It is a large well built town, with a pretty
good trade, is noted for its ale, and has the title of an
earldom. W. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 53. 26. The
north marfti in its neighbourhood is noted for horfe
races. The Danes who invaded the kingdom brought
their lhips up to this place 5 and it was here that
Sweno the Dane was murdered by one of the Englifh,
while revelling with his companions. In the year
1643 a battle was fought here between the royalifts
and the parliament forces under Cromwell. The num¬
ber of inhabitants in 1801 amounted to 45°^> "’horn
nearly 600 w'ere employed in trade and manufadftures.
GALACTOPHAGI, and Galactopot.®, in an¬
tiquity, perfons who lived wholly on milk, without
corn or the ufe of any other food. The words are
compounded of y«sA«, yaXotitlo?, milk^ q>ct,\iw, to eat $ and
status of I drink.
Certain nations in Scythia Afiatica, as the Getae,
Nomades, &c. are famous, in ancient hiftory, in quality
of galaBophagi, or milk-eaters. Homer makes their
eloge, Iliad, lib. iii.
Ptolemy, in his geography, places the Galaftophagi
between the Riphaean mountains on one fide, and the
Hyrcanian fea on the other.
GALANGALS, in the Materia Medico. See
KacMPITERIA.
GAL AN THUS, the Snow Drop, a genus of plants
belonging to the hexandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the ninth order, Spathaceee, See
Botany Index
GALASHIELS, a fmall town in Selkirkftiire in
Scotland, fituated on the ftream called Gala Water,
at the place w here it joins the L weed. Galafhiels and
its neighbourhood have been long famous for the ma-
nufadture of coarfe woollen cloth, known by the name
of Galafhiels grey, and of which 50,000 yards are fold
annually. The improved ftate of the agriculture of
this vicinity is much commended. Galafttiels is 30
miles S. E. from Edinburgh.
GALATA, a great fuburb belonging to Conftan-
tinople, oppofite to the feraglio, on the other fide of the
harbour. It is here the Greeks, Armenians, Franks,
Chriftians, and Jews inhabit, and are allowed the exer-
cife of their refpe&ive worflaips.
GALATAiA or GaLatHJEa, in fabulous hiftory,
a fea nymph, daughter of Nereus and Doris. She was
paflionately loved by the Cyclops Polyphemus, whom
fhe treated wdth coldnefs and dildain \ while Acis, a
fhepherd of Sicily, enjoyed her unbounded affection.
The happinefs of thefe two lovers was difturbed by the
jealoufy of the Cyclops, who erufhed his rival to pieces
with a piece of a broken rock while he repofed on the
bofom of Galataea The nymph was inconlolable for
the lofs of Acis ; and as fhe could not reftore him to
life, the changed him into a fountain.
GALATIA, the ancient name of a province of
Afia Minor, now called Amafa. It was bounded on
the
GAGES
ccxxmr.
Fig. 3.
BUCKET SEA. GA.GE .
Fig.J.
SEA GAGE .
Fig. 2.
A
FOUR FOOT GAUGING KOD .
-A? 7k   63 JTq jg .VQ 41J .<■! ^lo 2i3
BTC, UO 105 100 J.T joP Jo 73 7of! <io 4} 5.1 tj MS
  --- m&gmeftdl. jiilgaJgjgTmgo 4gAa__ . gg gio «g ao
-J°!°, 9|°, »ii^. 7A f o ^.0
■■ 1^ o'o ~y|o yjo- flip jjo 4I0
Fyi. 5.
WIND GAGE .
Fig.7.
E H C A
d
G
Eng ?by .!■/>. /.nt/r.i- f-.'dm r
: ■
i
;
GAL t 321 ] CAL
iSalatia tlie eaifl by Cappadocia, on the weft by Bithynia, on
li the fouth by Pamphylia, and on the north by the Euxine
f'a‘ba' , fea. It was the north part of Phrygia Magna ; but
upon being occupied by the Gauls was called Galatia;
and becauie fituated amidft Greek colonies, and itfelf
mixed with Greeks, Gallogrecia. Strabo calls it Ga¬
latia and Gallogrceciai hence a twofold name of the
people3 Galatea and Galiograci. The Greeks called it
Gallia Parva j to diftinguilh it from the Tranfjlpina,
both which they called Galatia. It was reduced under
the fubjeftion of the Romans in the time of Auguftus,
and is now in the hands of the Turks. Here St Paul
founded a church, to which he dire<fted that epiftle
which is ftill known by the name of the Epijl/e to the
Galatians, and was written to reclaim them from the
obfervation of Jewiih ordinances, into which they had
been feduced by fome falfe teachers.
GALAX, a genus of plants belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany.
GALAXY, in AJlronotmj, that long, white, lumi¬
nous track, which feems to encompafs the heavens like a
fwath, fcarf, or girdle : and which is eafzly perceivable
in a clear night, efpecially when the moon does not ap¬
pear. The Greeks call it Galaxy, of
yxXxxlof, Milk; on account of its colour and appearance:
the Latins, for the fame reafon, call it via laftea ; or
milky way. It paffes between Sagittarius and Gemini,
and divides the fphere into two parts 3 it is unequally
Lroad ; and in fome parts is fingle, in others double.
The ancient poets, and even philofophers, fpeak of
the Galaxy as the road or way by which the heroes
went to heaven.
Ariftotle makes it a kind of meteor, formed of a
crowd of vapours, drawn into that part by certain
large ftars difpofed in the regions of the heavens an-
fwering hereto.
Others, finding that the Galaxy was feen all over
the globe, that it always correfponded to the fame
fixed ftars, and that it tranfeended the height of the
higeft planets, fet afide Ariftotle’s opinion, and placed
the Galaxy in the firmament, or region of the fixed
ftars, and concluded it to be nothing but an affemblage
of an infinite number of minute ftars.
Since the invention of the telefcope, this opinion
has been abundantly confirmed. By dire&ing a good
telefcope to any part of the milky way 3 where before
we only faw a confufed whitenefs, we now defery an
innumerable multitude of little ftars, fo remote, that
a naked eye confounds them. See Astronomy.
N°2II. ’
GALBA, Sergius Sulpicius, a Roman emperor,
born the 24th of December, five years before the
Chriftian era. He was gradually raifed to the greateft
offices of the ftate, and exercifed his power in the pro¬
vinces with the greateft equity and unremitted dili¬
gence. He dedicated the greateft part of his time to
folitary purfuits, chiefly to avoid the fufpicions of Nero.
His difapprobation of the en^peror’s oppreflive command
in the provinces was the caufe of new difturbances.
Nero ordered him to be put to death 3 but he efcaped
from the hands of the executioner, and was publicly
faluted emperor. When he was feated on the throne,
he fuffered himfelf to be governed by favourites, who
expofed the goods of the citizens to fale to gratify their
Vol. IX. Part I.
avarice. Exemptions were fold at a high price ; and
the crime of murder was blotted out, and impunity
purchafed, with a large fum of money. Such irregu¬
larities in the emperor’s minifters greatly difpleafed the
people 3 and when Galba refufed to pay the foldiers the
money which he had promifed them when he was raif¬
ed to the throne, they aflaflinated him in the 73d year
of his age, and the eighth month of his reign. The
virtues which had (hone fo bright in Galba when a pri¬
vate man, totally difappeared when he afeended the
throne 3 and he who fhowed himfelf the molt impartial
judge, forgot the duties of an emperor and of a father
of his people.
GALBANUM, in Pharmacy, a gum iffuing from
the Item of an umbelliferous plant growing in Periia and
many parts of Africa. See Bubon, Botany Index.
The juice, as brought to us, is femipellucid, foft,
tenacious 3 of a ftrong, and to fome unpleafant, fmell ;
and a bitterifti warm tafte : the better fort is in pale
coloured mattes, which, on being opened, appear com-
pofed of clear white tears. Geoffrey relates, that a
dark greeniih oil is to be obtained from this fimple by
diftillation, which, upon repeated rectifications, becomes
of an elegant Iky blue colour. The purer forts of gal-
banum are faid by fome to diffidve entirely in wine,
vinegar, or water 3 but thefe liquors are only partial
menftrua with regard to this drug 5 nor do fpirit of
wine or oils prove more effectual in this refpect: the
beft diffolvent is a mixture of twm parts fpirit of wine
and one of water. Galbanum agrees in virtue with
gum ammoniaeum 5 but is generally accounted lefs effi¬
cacious in afthmas, and more fo in hyfterical complaints.
It is an ingredient in various officinal compofitions. See
Materia Medica Index.
GALE, in the fea language, a term of various im¬
port. When the wind blows not fo hard but that a ftu'p
may carry her top fails a trip (that is hoifted up to the
higheft), then they fay it is a loom gale. When it
blows very ftrong, they fay it is a ftiff, ftrong, or freffi
gale. When two ffiips are near one another at fea, and,
there being but little wind blowing, one of them finds
more of it than the other, they fay that the one ftiip
gales away from the other.
Gale, D John, an eminent and learned minifter
among the Baptifts, was born at London in 1680. He
ftudied at Leyden, where he dillinguilhed himfelf very
early, and afterwards at Amfterdam, under Dr Lim-
borch. He was chofen minifter of the Baptift congre¬
gation at Barbican; where his preaching, being chiefly
prattical, was greatly reforted to by people of all per-
fuafions. Four volumes of his fermons were publiftied
after his death, which happened in 1721. His Re¬
flexions on Dr Wall’s Hiftory of Infant Baptifm is the
beft defence of the Baptifts ever publifhed, and the
reading of that performance induced the learned Mr
William Whjfton and Dr Fofter to become Baptifts.
Gale, Thcophilus, an eminent nonconformift mi¬
nifter, born in 1628. He was invited to Winchefter
in 1657 > and continued a ftated preacher there until
the re-eftabliftiment of the church by Charles II. when
he rather chofe to fuffer the penalties of the aX of
conformity, than to fubmit to it contrary to his con-
fcience. He was afterwards engaged by Philip Lord
Wharton as tutor to his fons, whom he attended to an
academy at Caen in Normandy 3 and when this duty
$ f was
Crli-e
II
Galen.
G A L [ 322
was fulfilled, he became pallor over a congregation of
private conventiclers in Holborn. He died in 167^5
, and is principally known by an elaborate work, in-
' titled, the Court of the Gentiles, calculated to (how,
that the Pagan philofophers derived their moft fublime
i'entiments from the Scriptures.
Gale, Dr Thomas, a learned divine, born at
Scruton in Yorklhire, in the year 1636, was educated
at Cambridge, and at length became profeffor of the
Greek language in that univerlity. He was after¬
wards chofen head mailer of St Paul’s fchool, London j
and was employed by the city in writing thofe elegant
infcriptions on the monument erefted in memory of
the conflagration in 1666. In 1676 he was collated
to a prebend in the cathedral of St Paul’s *, and was
likewife elefted a fellow of the Royal Society, to
which he prefented a Roman urn with its allies.. About
the year 1697, ^ie gave the new library of Trinity col¬
lege, in Cambridge, a great number of Arabic manu-
fcripts } and in the fame year he was admitted dean of
York. He died in that city in 1702-, and was interred in
the cathedral, where a monument, with a Latin infcrip-
tion, was eredled to his memory. He was a learned
divine, a great hiilorian,one of the bell Greek fcholars of
his age, and maintained a correfpondence with the moll
learned men abroad as well as at home. He publilhed,
I, Hi/lorice Poe tic tz Antiqm bcriy/ore.r,. octavo. 2. OpuJ-
cula Mi/thologica, Ethica, et Phjfica, in Greek and
Latin, oflavo. 3. Herocloti Hiflona, folio. 4. Hflo-
rice Anglic a rice Scriptores quinque, in folio. 5. Ui/lorue
Britanniccv, Saxonicce, Anglo-Damcie, Scriptores quinde-
citn, in folio. 6. Khetores SeleEli, &c.
GALEA, in antiquity, a light cafque, head piece,
or morrion, coming down to the Ihoulders, and com¬
monly of brafs } though Camillus, according to Plutarch,
ordered thofe of his army to be of iron, as being the
ilronger metal. The lower part of it was called buccula,
and on the top was a creft. The velites wore a light
galea, made of the Ikin of fome wild beaft to make it
more terrible.
GALE ASSE, a large low-built-veffel, in which both
fails and oars are ufed, and the largelt of all the veffels
that make ufe of the latter. It may carry twenty guns,
and has a Hern capable of lodging a great number of
marines. It has three malls, which are never to be
lowered or taken down. It has alfo thirty-two benches
of rowers; and to each bench fix, or feven Haves, who
fit under cover. This veffel is at prefent ufed only by
the Venetians.
GALEG A, a genus of plants belonging to the dia-
delphia clafs j and in the natural method ranking
under the 32d order, Papilionacece. See Botany
Index.
GALEN, Claudius, in Latin Galenas, prince of
the Greek phyficians after Hippocrates, was born at
Pergamus in the lefler Alia, about the year 131* His
father was pofleffed of a confiderable fortune ; was well
verfed in polite literature, philofophy, aftronomy, and
geometry ; and was alfo well Ikilled in architefture.
He himfelf inltruiled his fon in the firll rudiments of
learning, and afterwards procured him the greateft
mailers of the age in philofophy and eloquence. Galen
having finilhed his lludies under their care, chofe phyfic
lor his profeflion, and chiefly lludied the works of
Hippocrates. Having at length exhaufted all the
> . 4 v
]
GAL
Galenic.
fources of literature that were to be found at home, Galen
he refolved to travel, in order to converfe with the moll
able phyficians in all parts, intending at the lame time
to take every opportunity of infpecling on the fpot
the plants and drugs of the countries through which
he palled. With this view he went to Alexandria,
and llaid fome years in that metropolis of Egypt ^
from thence he travelled through Cilicia j paffed
through Palelline ; vifited the ifles of Crete and Cy¬
prus 5 and made two voyages to Lemnos, in order to
examine the Lemnian earth, which was then elleemed
an admirable medicine. With the fame view he went
into the Lower Syria, in order to obtain a thorough
infight into the nature of the opobalfamum, or balm
of Gilead *, and having completed his defign, returned
home by the way of Alexandria.
Galen had been four years at Pergamus, where his
pra&ice rvas attended with extraordinary applaufe,
when fome feditious commotions induced him to go to
Rome, where he refolved to fettle: but the proofs he
gave of his fuperior Ikill, added to the refpe£l Ihown
him by feveral perfons of very high rank, created him
fo many enemies among his brethren of the faculty,
that he was obliged to quit the city, after having
refided there four or five years.. But he had not long
returned to Pergamus, when he was recalled by the
emperors Aurelius and Verus. After their death, he
retired to his native country where he died about the
year 200. He wrote in Greek j and is faid to have
compofed two hundred volumes, which were unhappily
burnt in the temple of Peace. The bell editions of
thofe that remain, are, that printed at Bafil in 1538,
in five volumes, and that of Aenice in 1625, iu feven
volumes. Galen was of a weak and delicate conllitu-
tion, as he himfelf afierts j but he neverthelefs, by his
temperance and Ikill in phyfic, arrived at a great age;
for it was his maxim, always to rife from table with
fome degree of appetite. He is juftly confidered as
the greatelt phylician of antiquity, next to Hippo¬
crates ; and he performed fuch furprifing cures, that he
was accufed of magic.
Galen, a military tow'nlhip in the Hate of New-
York, fituated on the creek of Cauadaque, about J 2
miles north-weft of Cayuga lake, and 13 fouth by eaft
of Great Sodus.
GALENA, a name given by mineralogifts to a fpe-
cies of lead ore. See TE.AD-M.we, and MINERALOGY
Index. It was alfo the original name given by Andro-
machus to the theriaca, from its effedl in bringing on a
pleafing calm over the blood and fpirits on taking it.
GALENIA, a genus of plants belonging to the oc-
tandria clafs } and in the natural method ranking under
the 13th order, Succulentce. See Botany Index.
GALENIC, or Galenical, in Medicine, is that
manner of confidering and treating difeafes, founded
on the principles of Galen, or introduced by Galen.
This author, collecting and digefting what the phyfi¬
cians before him had done, and explaining every thing
according to the ftriCteft doftrine of the Peripatetics,
fet phyfic on- a new footing : he introduced the doc¬
trine of the four elements 5 the cardinal qualities and
their degrees} and the four humours or temperaments.
Galenic is more frequently ufed as contradiftin.-
guilhed from chemical.
The dUUn&ion of galenical and chemical was occa-
fioned
GAL' [ 323 ] GAL
Galenic fioned by a divifion of the practitioners of medicine
tl into two feCts, which happened on the introduction of
^alllee' , chemiftry into medicine. Then the chemifts, arrogat-
' ing to themfelves every kind of merit and ability, flir-
red up an oppofition to their pretenlions, founded on
the invariable adherence of the other party to the an¬
cient praCtice. And though this divilion into the two
feCts of galenilts and chemilts has long fince ceafed, yet
the diftinCtion of medicines which refulted from it is
ftill fometimes obferved.
Galenical medicines are thofe which are formed by
the eafier preparations of herbs, roots, &c. by infulion,
decoCtion, &c. and by combining and multiplying in¬
gredients } while thofe of chemiltry draw their more
intimate and remote virtues by means of fire and ela¬
borate preparations, as calcination, digeltion, fermen¬
tation, &c.
GALENISTS, a denomination given to fuch phy-
ficians as praftife, prefcribe, or write, on the galeni¬
cal principles •, and Hand oppofed to the chemi/is. See
Galenical. At prefent the galenilfs and chemifts
are pretty well accommodated 5 and moft of our phy-
ficians ufe the preparations and remedies of both.
Galenists, or Galenites, in church hiftory, a branch
of Mennonites or Anabaptifts, who take in feveral of
the opinions of the Socinians, or rather Arians, touch¬
ing the divinity of our Saviour. In 1664 ^ Water-
landians were divided into two parties, of which the
one were called Ga/eni/Is, and the other Slpojlolians.
They are thus called from their leader Abr. Galenus,
a learned and eloquent phyfician of Amfterdam, who
confidered the Chriftian religion as a fyftem that laid
much lefs ftrefs on faith than praCtice 5 and who was
for taking into the communion of the Mennonites all
thofe who acknowledged the divine origin of the books
of the Old and New Teftament, and led holy and vir¬
tuous lives.
GALEON. See Galleon.
GALEOPSIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs j and in the natural method ranking
under the 42ft order, Verticillatcc. See Botany
Index*
GALERICULUM, wras a cap worn both by men
and women amongft the ancient Romans. It confift-
ed of Ikin, which was fo neatly dreffed with human
hair, that the artificial covering could fcarcely be dif-
tinguilhed from the natural. It was ufed by thofe
whofe hair was thin ; and by wreftlers, to keep their
own hair from receiving any injury from the nafty oils
with which they were rubbed all over before they ex-
ercifed. It feems to have refembled our wigs.
GAL1C, or Gaelic Language. See Highlands.
GALICIA, a province of Spain, bounded on the
north and weft by the ocean, on the fouth by Portugal,
and on the eart by Afturias and the kingdom of Leon.
The air is temperate along the coaft 3 but, in other
places, it is cold and moift. It is but thin of people :
and the produce is wine, flax, and citrons : the foil is
-unequal, but affords good pafture 3 the mountains yield
iron, copper, and lead 3 and the forefts produce wood
for . building Ihips. St Jago di Compoftella is the
capital town.
GALILEE, once a province of Judea, now of
Turkey in Afia, was bounded by Mount Lebanon on
the north, by the river Jordan and the fea of Galilee
on the eaft, by the Chifon on the fouth, and by the Galilee
Mediterranean on the weft. It was the feene of many Qajpeo;
of our Saviour’s miracles ; but the bounds of the coun-1 .
try are not now well known, nor yet the places where
many of the towns flood.
GALILEANS, a feCt of the Jews. Their foun¬
der was one Judas a native of Galilee, from which
place they derived their name. Their chief, efteeming
it an indignity for the Jews to pay tribute to ftrangers,
raifed up his countrymen again!! the edidl of the em¬
peror Auguftus, which had ordered a taxation or en¬
rolment of all the fubjedls of the Roman empire.
They pretended that God alone ftiould be owned as
Mafter and Lord, and in other refpedts were of the
opinion of the Pharifees 3 but, as they judged it un¬
lawful to pray for infidel princes, they feparated them¬
felves from the reft of the Jews, and performed their
facrifices apart.
As our Saviour and his apoftles were of Galilee,
they were fufpedled to be of the fed! of Galileans}
and it was on this principle, as St Jerome obferves, that
the Pharifees laid a fnare for him 3 afking, Whether it
was lawful to give tribute to Ccefar 3 that in cafe he
denied it, they might have an occafion of accufing him.
GALILEO, Galilei, the famous mathematician
and aftronomer, wfas the fon of a Florentine nobleman,
and born in the year 1564. He had from his infancy
a ftrong inclination to philofophy and the mathema¬
tics 3 and made prodigious progrefs in thefe fciences.
In 1592, he was chofen profeffor of mathematics at
Padua 3 and during his abode there he invented, it is
faid, the telefcope 3 or, according to others, improved
that inftrument, fo as to make it fit for aftronomical ob-
fervations: (SeeAstronomy,N°27.). Ini6ii,Cof«
mo II. grand duke of Tufcany fent for him to Pifa,
where he made him profeffor of mathematics with a
handfomefalary,and foon after inviting him to Florence,
gave him the office and title of principal philofopher and
mathematician to hie highnefs.
He had been but a few years at Florence, before he
was convinced by fad experience, that Aritlotle’s doc¬
trine, however ill grounded, was held too facred to be
called in queftion. Having obferved fome folar fpots
in 1612, he printed that difeovery the follow ing year
at Rome ; in which, and in fome other pieces, he ven¬
tured to affert the truth of the Copernican fyftem, and
brought feveral new' arguments to confirm it. For thefe
he wras cited before the inquifition 3 and after fome
months imprifonment, was releafed upon a Ample pro-
mife, that he would renounce his heretical opinions,
and not defend them by word or w’riting. But having
afterwards, in 1632, publiftied at Florence his “Dia¬
logues of the tw'o greateft fyftems of the world, the
Ptolemaic and Copernican,” he was again cited before
the inquifition, and committed to the prifon of that
ecclefiaftical court at Rome. In June 22d N. S. that
yrear, the congregation convened : and in his prefence
pronounced fentence again!! him and his books, ob-
liging him to abjure his errors in the moft folemn man¬
ner ; committed him to the prifon of their office dur¬
ing pleafure 3 and enjoined him, as a faving penance,
for three years to come, to repeat once a-week the
feven penitential pfalms : referving to themfelves, how¬
ever, the power of moderating, changing, or taking
away altogether or in part, the above-mentioned punifli-
Gall
G A L t 32
Galileo rnent ami penance. On this fenlence, be was detained
a priloner till 1634 j and his “ Dialogues of the iydein
of the World” were burnt at Home.
He lived ten years after this, feven of which were
employed in making Hill further difcoveries with his te-
lefeope. But by the continual application to that in-
ftrument, added to the damage he received in his fight
from the nodturnal air, his eyes grew gradually weak¬
er, till he became totally blind in 1639. He bore
this calamity with patience and refignation, worthy of
a great philofopher. 1 he lofs neither broke his ipirit,
nor hindered the courfe of his ftudies. He fupplied
the defeat by conftant meditation: whereby he prepared
a large quantity of materials, and began to dictate his
own conceptions •, when, by a diitemper of three months
continuance, waiting away by degrees, he expired at
Arcetti near Florence, in January 1642, N. S. in the
78th year of his age.
Among various ufeful inventions of which Galileo was
the author, is that of the fimple pendulum, which he
had made ufe of in his aftronomical experiments. He
had thoughts of applying it to clocks 5 but did not exe¬
cute it : the glory of that invention was referved for
Vicenzio his ton, who made the experiment at Venice
in 1649 ; and M. Huygens afterwards carried this in¬
vention to perfedlion. He wrote a great number of
treatifes, feveral of which were publilhed in a collec¬
tion by Signior Mendeffi, under the title of Uopera di
Galileo Galilei Lynceo. Some of thefe, with others of
his pieces, were tranfiated into Englilh and publilhed
by Thomas Salilbury, Efq. in his mathematical collec¬
tions, &c. in two volumes folio. A volume alfo of his
letters to feveral learned men, and folutions of feveral
problems, were printed at Bologna in quarto. Befides
thefe, he wrote many others, which were unfortunately
loft through his wife’s devotion j who, folicited by her
confeffor, gave him leave to penile her hufband’s manu-
fcripts ; of which he tore and took away as many as he
faid were not fit to be publilhed.
GALINACEUS lapis. See Gallinaceus.
GALIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandria clafs j and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 47th order, Ste/latcr. See Botany Index.
GALL, in the animal economy. See BlLE.
Gall was generally given amongft the Jews to per-
fons fuffering death under the execution of the law, to
make them lefs fenfible of their pain 5 but gall and
myrrh are fuppofed to have been the fame thing j be-
caufe at our Saviour’s crucifixion, St Matthew lays,
they gave him vinegar to drink mingled with gall j
whereas St Mark calls it wine mingled with myrrh :
The truth of the matter perhaps is, that they diftin-
guilhed every thing bitter by the name of gall. The
Greeks and Romans alfo gave fuch a mixture to perfons
luffering a death of torture.
A great number of experiments have been made
upon the gall of different animals, but few conclufions
can be drawn from them with any certainty. Dr Per-
cival, however, hath Ihown, that putrid bile may be
perfectly eorre&ed and fweetened by an admixture of
the vegetable acids, vinegar, and juiceof lemons. Thefe,
he obferves, have this eft'eft much more completely than
the mineral ones: and hence, bethinks, arifes the great
ufefulnefs of the vegetable acids in autumnal difeafes j
which are always attended with a putrefcent difpofition
I ] GAL
of the bile, owing to the heat of the preceding fummer.
On this occafion he takes notice of a common miftake
among phy ficians, who frequently prefcribe elixir of vi¬
triol in thofe difeafes where vinegar or lemon juice
would be much more effcftual.
From this effect of acids on the gall, he alfo thinks,
we may fee why the immoderate ufe of acids is fo per¬
nicious to digetlion. It is neccffary to health that the
gall ftiould be in fome degree acrid and alkalefcent:
but as acids have the property of rendering it perfedlly
mild and fweet, they mult be proportionably pernici¬
ous to the due concoction and aflimilation of the food j
which without an acrid bile cannot be accomplifhed.
Hence the body is deprived of its proper nourilhment
and fupport, the blood becomes vapid and watery,
and a fatal cachexy unavoidably enfues. This hath
been the cafe with many unfortunate perfons, who, in
order to reduce their exceflive corpulency, have indul¬
ged themfelves in the too free ufe of vinegar. From
the mild ftate of the gall in young children, Dr Per-
cival alfo thinks it is, that they are fo much troubled
with acidities.
GALL-Bladder. See Anatomy, N° 97.
Gall, in Natural Hijlory, denotes any protuberance
or tumour produced by the pundture of inledtson plants
and trees of different kinds.
Thefe galls are of various forms and fizes, and no-
lefs different with regard to their internal ftrufture.
Some have only one cavity, and others a number of
fmall cells communicating with each other. Some of
them are as hard as the wood of the tree they grow
on, whilit others are foft and fpongy ; the firit being
termed gall nuts, and the latter berry galls, or apple
galls.
The general hiftory of the gall is this. An in fed! of
the* fly kind (the cynips) is inftrudted by nature to take
care for the fafety of her young, by lodging her eggs
in a woody fubftanee, where they will be defended
from all injuries: flie for this purpofe wounds the leaves
or tender branches of a tree j and the lacerated veffel's,
difeharging their contents, foon form tumours about the
holes thus made, f he external coat of this excrcfcencc
is dried by the air; and grows into a figure which bears
fome refemblance to the bow of an arch, or the round-
nefs of a kernel. This little ball receives its nutriment,
growth, and vegetation, as the other parts of the tree,
by flow degrees, and is what we call the gall nut. I he
worm that is hatched under this Ipacious vault, finds in
the fubftance of the ball, which is as yet very tender, a
fubfiftence fuitable to its nature; gnaws and digefts it
till the time comes for its transformation to a nymph,
and from that ftate of exiftence changes into a fly. Af¬
ter this, tfle infeft, perceiving itfelf duly provided with
all things requifite, difengages itfelf foon from its con¬
finement, and takes its flight into the open air. The
cafe, however, is not fimilar with refpeft to the gall
nut that grows in autumn. The cold weather frequent¬
ly comes on before the worm is transformed into a fly,
or before the fly can pierce through its enclofure. The
nut falls with the leaves ; and although you may ima¬
gine that the fly which lies within isToft, yet in reality
it is not fo; on the contrary, its being covered up fc
clofe, is the means of its prefervation. Ihus it fpends
the winter in a warm houfe, where every crack and
cranny of the nut is well flopped’up; and lies buried as
G;iir.
GAL [, 325 ] GAL
CaU,
Gal la-
h
it were under a heap of leaves, which prefervcs it from
the injuries of the weather. This apartment, however,
though fo commodious a retreat in the winter, is a per¬
fect prifon in the fpring. The fly, roufed from its le¬
thargy by the firlt heats, breaks its way through, and
ranges where it pleafes. A very fmall aperture is fufE-
cient, fince at this time the fly is but a diminutive crea¬
ture. Befides, the ringlets whereof its body is compo-
fed dilate and become pliant in the paffage.
Oak galls put, in a very fmall quantity, into a folu-
tion of vitriol in water, though but a very weak one,
give it a purple or violet colour : which, as it grows
ftronger, becomes black-, and on this property depends
the art of making our writing ink, as alfo the arts of
dyeing and drefling leather, and other manufablures.
See Ink, Chemistry Index.
The belt galls come from Aleppo: thefe are not
quite round and fmooth like the other forts, but have
leveral tubercles on the furface. Galls have a very
auftere ftyptic tafte, without any fmell : they are very
ftrong aftringents, and as fuch have been fometimes
made ufe of both internally and externally, but are not
much taken notice of by the prefent practice. Some
recommend an ointment of powdered galls and hogs
lard as very efife&ual in certain painful Hates of hcemor-
rhois} and it is alleged, that the internal ufe of galls
has cured intermittents after the Peruvian bark has fail¬
ed. A mixture of galls with a bitter and aromatic has
been propofed as a fubftitute for the bark.
Gale, St, a conflderable town in Swiflerland, and
in the Upper Thurgow, w ith a rich and celebrated ab¬
bey, whole abbot is a prince of the empire. This place
has for fome time been a republic, in alliance with the
cantons. It is not very large5 but is well built, neat,
populous. It contains about 10,000 inhabitants, who
are chiefly employed in the linen manufafture j and
make annually, it is laid, 40,000 pieces of linen, of 200
ells each ", which renders it one of the richeft towns in
SwilTerland. The inhabitants are Proteftants j for
w hich reafon there are often great contefts between them
and the abbey about religious affairs. It is feated in a
narrow barren valley, between two mountains, and up¬
on two fmall ffreams. E. Long. 2. 59. N. Lat. 47.
38-
GALL-F/y. See CYXIPS, ENTOMOLOGY Index.
GALL A, an Abyflinian nation, originally dwelling,
as Mr Bruce fuppofes, under the line, and exercifing
the profeflion of Ihepherds, which they Hill continue
to do. For a number of years, our author tells us,
they have been conftantly migrating northwards, though
the caufe of this migration is not known. At firff they
had no horfes; the reafon of which w as, that the coun¬
try they came from did not allow thefe animals to breed :
but as they proceeded northward and conquered fome
of the Abyflinian provinces, they foon furnilhed them-
felves with fuch numbers, that they are now almoft en¬
tirely cavalry, making little account of infantry in their,
armies. On advancing to the frontiers of Abyflinia,
the multitude divided, and part directed their courfe to¬
wards the Indian ocean after which, having made a
fettlement in the eaftern part of the continent, they
turned fouthward into ti e countries of Bali and Dawawr,
vdiich they entirely conquered, and fettled there in the
year 1537. Another divifion having taken a wefterly
.courfe, fpread themfelves in a femicircle along the banks
of the Nile*, furrounding the country of Gojam, and
palling ealtward behind the country of the Agows, ex- v
tended their poffeflions as far as the territories of the
Gongas and Gafats. Since that time the Nile has been
the boundary of their poffeflions ; though they have ve¬
ry frequently plundered, and fometimes conquered, the
Abyflinian provinces on the other fide of the river, but
have never made any permanent fettlement in thefe
parts. A third divifion has fettled to the fouthward of
the low country of Shoa, which the governor of that
’province has permitted, in order to form a barrier be¬
twixt him and the territories of the emperor, on whom
he fcarcely acknowledges any dependence.
The Galla are of a brown complexion, and have
long black hair j but fome of them who live in the val¬
leys are entirely black. At firft their common food was
milk and butter 5 but fince their intereourfe with the
Abyflinians, they have E arned to plough and fow their
land, and to make bread. They feem to have predi-
le&ion for the number feven, and each of the three di-
vifions already mentioned are fubdivided into feven
tribes. In behaviour they are extremely barbarous j and
live in continual war with the Abyflinians, whom they
murder without mercy as often as they fall into their
hands. They cut off the privities of the men, and hang
them up in their houfes by w ay of trophies j and are id
cruel as to rip up women with child, in hopes of thus
deftroying a male. Yet notwithftanding their exceflive
cruelty abroad, they live under the ftri&eft difcipline
at home; and every broil or quarrel is inlfantly punifli-
ed according to the nature of the offence. Each of the
three divifions of the Galla above mentioned has a king
of its own; and they alfo have a kind of nobility, from
among whom the fovereign can only be chofen : how¬
ever, the commonalty are not excluded from rifing to
the rank of nobles if they diflinguilh themfelves very
much in battle. None of the nobility can be ele&ed
till upw ards of 40 years of age,, unleis he has with his
own hand killed a number of enemies which added to
his own age makes up 40. There is a council of each
of the feven tribes, which meets feparately in its own di-
ftribl, to fettle how many are to be left behind for the
governing and cultivating of the territory, and other
matters of importance. Thefe nations have all a great
veneration fur a tree which grows plentifully in their
country, called wan%ey, and which thefe fuperftitious
people are even faid to adore as a god. Their affem-
blies for the choice of a king are all held under one of
thefe trees y and when the fovereign is chofen, they put
a bludgeon of this wood in his hand by way of fceptre,.
and a garland of the flowers upon his head.
The Galla are reported to be very good foldiers,
efpecially in cafes of furprife 5 but, like moil other bar¬
barians, have no conflancy nor perfeverance after the
firft attack. They will, however, perform extraordi¬
nary marches, fwimming rivers holding by the horfe’s
tail, and thus being enabled to do very great mifehief
by reafon of the rapidity of the movements. They
are excellent light horfe for a regular army in a hoftile
country ; but are very indifferently armed on account
of the fcarcity of iron among them. Their principal
arms are lances made of W'ood (harpened at the end
and hardened in the fire; and their Ihields are com.
pofed only of one fingle fold of bull’s hide; fo that
they are extremely apt to warp by heat, or become, too
fcfV
Galla.
\
GAL
t 326 ]
GAL
•Galla
II
Galle.
foft in wet weather. They are exceedingly cruel j
and make a (hrill horrid noife at the beginning of
every engagement, which greatly terrifies the horfes, and
very often the barbarous riders which oppofe them.
The Galla, according to Mr Bruce’s account, are
fomewhat below the middle fize, but extremely light
and nimble. The women are fruitful ; and fuffex fo
little in childbearing, that they do not even confine
themfelves for a fingle day after delivery. They
plough, fow, and reap the corn, which is trodden out
by the cattle j but the men have all the charge of the
cattle in the fields. In their cuftoms they are filthy
to the laft degree ; plaiting their hair with the guts of
oxen, which they likewife twill round their middle, and
which by the quick putrefa&ion occafion an abominable
ftench. They anoint their heads and whole bodies xvith
butter or greafe; in which, as well as in other refpefts,
they greatly referable the Hottentots. It has been fup-
pofed that they have no religion whatever *, but Mr
Bruce is of opinion that this is a miftake. The w anzey,
he fays, is undoubtedly worlhipped by all the nations as
a god •, and they have likewife certain ftones which are
worlhipped as gods : befides thefe, they worlhip the
, moon, and feme ftars, when in certain pofitions, and at
feme particular feafons of the year. They all believe in
a refurreftion ; and have fome faint notions of a ftate of
happinefs, but no idea of future punilhment. Some of
them to the fouthward profefs the Mahometan religion,
but thofe to the call and weft are generally Pagans.
All of them intermarry with each other j but will not
allow ftrangers to live among them, though the Moors
have at laft found out a method of trading fafely with
them. The commodities they deal in are blue Surat
cloths, myrrh, and fait j the laft being the molt valua¬
ble article.
The marriages among the Galla are celebrated with
fome of the difgufting cuftoms of the Hottentots •, and
after thefe ceremonies the bridegroom promifes to give
the bride meat and drink while file lives, and to bury
her when dead. Polygamy is allowed among them 5
but it is fingular, that among thefe people the women
folicit their hulbands to take others to their embraces.
The reafon of this cuftom is, that the men may have
numerous families of children, who may be capable of
defending them againft their enemies 5 as the Galla, ac¬
cording to our author, always fight in families, whether
againft foreign enemies or with one another.
^ GALLAND, Anthony, a learned antiquarian,
member of the Academy of Infcriptions, and profeffor
of Arabic in the Royal College of Paris, was born of
pool parents at Rollo, a village in Picardy. Having
ftudied at the Sorbonne and other univerfities, he tra¬
velled into the eaft •, where he acquired great ikill in the
Arabic tongue, and in the manners of the Mahome¬
tans. He wrote feveral works ; the principal of which
are, 1. An account of the Death of the Sultan Ofman,
and the Coronation of the Sultan Muftapha. 2. A
Colleftion of Maxims, drawn from the works of the
Orientals. 3. A Treatife on the Origin of Coffee.
4. The Arabian Nights Entertainments, &c.
GALLANT, or Galant, a French term adopted
into our language, and fignifying polite, civil, and well
bred, with a difpofition to pleafe, particularly the ladies.
It alfo fignifies brave or courageous.
GALLE, the name of feveral engravers, of whom
the principal was Cornelius, who flourilhed about the
1600. He learned the art of engraving from his fa¬
ther, and imitated his ftiff idle, till he w ent to Rome,
where he refided a confiderable time, and there acquir¬
ed that freedom, tafte, and correftnefs of drawing,
which are found in his beft works. He fettled at
Antwerp upon his return from Italy, where he carried
on a confiderable commerce in prints. His beft prints
are thofe done after Rubens.
GALLEON, in naval affairs, a fort of fhips em¬
ployed in the commerce of the Weft Indies. The Spa¬
niards fend annually two fleets j the one for Mexico,
which they call the fata; and the ether for Peru,
which they call the galleons. See Flota.
By a general regulation made in Spain, it has been
eftablifhed, that there fhould be twelve men of w ar and
five tenders annually fitted out for the armada or gal¬
leons } eight fhips of 600 tons burden each, and three
tenders, one of 100 tons, for the ifland Margarita,
and two of 80 each, to follow the armada j for the
New Spain fleet, two fliips of 600 tons each, and two
tenders of 80 each •, and for the Honduras fleet, two
{hips of 500 tons each : and in cafe no fleet happened
to fail any years, three galleons and a tender ftiould be
fent to New Spain for the plate.
They are appointed to fail from Cadiz in January,
that they may arrive at Porto Bello about the middle
of April ; where, the fair being over, they may take
aboard the plate, and be at Havannah w ith it about
the middle of June 5 where they are joined by the flota
that they may return to Spain with the greater fafety.
G ALLEOT, a fmall galley defigned only for chafe,
carrying but one mail; and twro pattereroes j it can
both fail and row, and has 16 or 20 oars. All the
feamen on board are foldiers, and each has a mulket by
him on quitting his oar.
GALLERIES, in Gardening, are certain orna¬
ments made with trees of different kinds •, which are
very common in all the French gardens, but are feldom
introduced into the Britifh ones, efpecially fince the
tafte for clipped trees has been exploded. For thofe,
however, w ho may ftill choofe to have them, Mr Mil¬
ler gives the following diredlions.
In order to make a gallery in a garden with porticoes
and arches, a line muft firft be drawn of the length you
defign the gallery to be j which being done, it is to be
planted with hornbeam, as the foundation of the galle¬
ry. The management of galleries is not difficult. They
require only to be digged round aboutand Iheered a
little when there is occafion. The chief curiofity re¬
quired is in the ordering the fore part of the gallery,
and in forming the arches. Each pillar of the porticoes or
arches ought to be four feet diftant from another, and the
gallery I 2 feet high and 10 feet w ide, that there may be
room for two or three perfons to w;alk abreaft. When the
hornbeams are grown to the height of three feet, the
diftance of the pillars well regulated, and the ground
work of the gallery finilhed, the next thing to be done
is to form the frontilpiece 5 to perform which, you muft
flop the hornbeam between two pillars for that purpofe,
which forms the arch. As it grows, you muft with
your fheers cut off thofe boughs which outftioot the o-
thers. In time they will grow' flrong, and may be kept
in form by the flreers. Portico galleries may be cover-
ed ,ith lime trees. GALLERY,
GAL [ 327 ] GAL
Gallery, GALLERY, in Archite&ure, a covered place in a
Galley, hoafe, much longer than broad, and ufually in the wings
-'"-•T""' 0f a building, its ufe being chiefly to walk in.
Gallery, in Fortification, a covered walk acrofs the
ditch of a town, made of Ifrong beams covered over
with planks, and loaded with earth : fometimes it is
covered with raw hides, to defend it from the artificial
fires of the befieged.
GALLERT of a Mine, is a narrow paffage or branch
of a mine carried on under ground to a work defigned
to be blown up. See Mine.
Gallery, in a fhip, that beautiful frame, which is
made in the form of a balcony, at the ftern of a {hip
without board ; into which there is a paffage out of the
admiral’s or captain’s cabin, and is for the ornament of
the {hip.
GALLEY, a kind of low flat built veffel, furnilhed
wdth one deck, and navigated with fails and oars, par¬
ticularly in the Mediterranean. By the Greek authors
under the eattern empire, this kind of veffel was called
yxhMct and yetteix j and by the Latin authors of the fame
time, ga/ea ; whence, according to fome, the modern
denomination. Some fay it was called galea, on ac¬
count of a cafque or helmet which is carried on its prow,
as Ovid attefts, de Trfiibus. The French call itga/ere;
by reafon, they fay, that the top of the mail is ufually
cut in the form of a hat, which the Italians call galero.
Others derive both galea, and ga/ere, from a fiflv by
the Greeks called yxXiur^g or and by us the
fwordjijh, which this veffel refembles. Laftly, Others
derive the galley, galea, galere, galeajfe, &c. from the
Syriac and Chaldee gaul, and galin, a man expofed on
the water in a veffel of wood.
The largeft fort of thefe veffels is employed only by
the Venetians. They are commonly 162 feet long
above, and 133 feet by the keel j 32 feet wide, with
23 feet length of ftern port. They are furnithed with
three mails, and 32 banks of oars j every bank con¬
taining two oars, and every oar being managed by fix
or feven flaves, w'ho are ufually chained thereto. In
the fore part they have three little batteries of cannon,
of which the loweft is of two 36 pounders, the fecond
of two 24 pounders, and the uppermolt of two 2 poun¬
ders : three 18 pounders are alfo planted on each quar¬
ter. The complement of men for one of thefe galleys
is 1000 or 1200. They are efteemed extremely con¬
venient for bombarding or making a defcent upon
an enemy’s coaft, as drawing but little water ; and
having by their oars frequently the advantage of a fhip
of war, in light winds or calms, by cannonading the lat¬
ter near the furface of the water j by fcouring her
whole length with their {hot, and at the fame time
keeping on her quarter or bow, fo as to be out of the
direftion of her cannon.
The galleys next in fize to thefe, which are alfo
called half galleys, are from 120 to 130 feet long, 18
feet broad, and nine or ten feet deep. They have two
mails which may be ftruck at pleafure 5 and are fur¬
nilhed with two large lateen fails, and five pieces of
cannon. They have commonly 25 banks of oars, as
deicribed above. A fize Hill lels than thefe are called
quarter galleys, carrying from 12 to 16 banks of oars,
i here are very few galleys now befides thofe in the
Mediterranean, which are found by experience to be of
-tie utility except in fine weather) a circumftance
which renders their fervice extremely precarious. They Galley,
generally keep clofe under the Ihore, but fometimes Gal11,
venture out to fea to perform a fummer cruife. v
GALLET-Worm, in 'Zoology. See Iulus, Entomo¬
logy Index.
GALLI, in antiquity, a name given to the priefts
of Cybele, from the river Gallus in Phrygia ; but of
the etymology of the name we have no certain account.
All that we learn with certainty about them is, that
they were eunuchs and Phrygians, and that in their
folemn proceflxons they danced, bawled, drummed,
cut and flaflied themfelves, played upon timbrels,
pipes, cymbals, &.c. and driving about an afs loaded
with the facred rites and trumpery of their goddefs.
When a young man was to be initiated, he was to
throw off his clothes, run crying aloud into the midfl:
of their troop, and there draw a fword and caftrate
himfelf j after this he was to run into the ftreet with
the parts cut off, in his hand, throw them into fome
houfe, and in the fame houfe put on a woman’s
drefs.
Thefe priells had the names alio of Curetes Cory-
bantes, and Dally It. The chief prieft was called Archi-
Gallus. This order of priefthood is found both amongft
the Greeks and Romans. See an account of them in
Lucret. lib. ii. and Juv. Sat. vi.
Galli, the Gauls. See Gallia and Gauls.
Galli, five fmall defolate illands on the coaft of the
Principato Citra of Naples, ihey are fuppofed to be
the Syrenufae, or iflands once inhabited by the Sirens,
which Ulyffes paffed with fo much caution and hazard.
Great revolutions, however, have been occafioned in
their Ihape, fize, and number, by the effefts of
fubterranean fire ; and fome learned perfons go fo
far as to affert, that thefe rocks have rifen from the
bottom of the fea fince Homer fang his rhapfodies j
confequently, that thofe monfters dwelt on fome other
fpot, probably Sicily or Capri. The tradition of Si¬
rens refiding hereabouts is very ancient and univerfally
admitted j but ivhat they really were, divelled of their
fabulous and poetical difguife, it is not eafy to difco-
yer. See Siren.
The Sirenufte were only three in number ) and there¬
fore if thefe and the Galli be the fame, two more mull
have lince rifen, or the three have been fplit into five by
a fubterraneous convulfion. On the largeft is a watch-
tower, and the next has a deferted hermitage. The
principal ifland is only a narrow femicircular ridge
covered with a lhallow coat of foil 5 two other little
illands and fome jagged rocks juft peeping above the
waves, correfpond rvith this one fo as to trace the out¬
line of a volcanical crater. The compofition of them
ail is at top a calcareous rock extremely lhaken, tum¬
bled, and confufed, mixed with maffes of breccia, dif-
pofed in a moil irregular manner 5 below thefe is lava,
and the deeper the eye follows it the ftronger are the
marks of fire : below the furface of the Avater, and in
fome places above it, the layers are complete blocks of
bafaltes. Hence it is prefumed by fome that central fires
have heaved up to light the torrefied fubftances that
originally lay near their focus, with all the intermediate
ftrata that covered them from the fea. The layers in¬
cline downwards from call to iveft 5 the air feems to
have forced its way into part of the mafs while in fu-
fion, and by checking its workings caufed many large
1 caverns
I
GAL [ 32B ] C A L
GalU caverns to be left in it. Thefe iflands are uncultivated
I! and uninhabited fince the old hermit of St Antonio
GaHiard. Myrtle covers moft of the furface.
~ T GALLIA, a large country of Europe, called GWh-
tia by the Greeks. The inhabitants were called Galli,
£ehte, Celtiben, and Cellofcijihx. Ancient Gaul was di¬
vided into four different parts by the Romans, call¬
ed Gallia Be/gica, Narbontnjts, Aquitania, and Celtica.
Gallia Belgica was the largeft province, bounded by
Germany, Gallia Narbonenfis, and the German ocean j
and contained the modern county of Alface, Lorraine,
Picardy, with part of the Low Countries, and of Cham¬
pagne, and of the Ille of France. Gallia Narbonenfis,
which contained the provinces now called Languedoc,
Provence, Daophind, Savoy, was bounded by the Alps
and Pyrenean mountains, by Aquitania, Belgium, and
the Mediterranean. Aquitania Gallia, now called the
provinces of Po tou, Santonge, Guienne, Berry, Limojin,
Gafcogny, Auvergne, &c. was fituated between the Ga-
rumna, the Pyrenean mountains, and the ocean. Gal¬
lia Celtica, or Lugdunenfis, was bounded by Belgium,
Gallia Narbonenlis, the Alps, and the ocean. It con¬
tained the country at prefent known by the name of
Lyonnais, Tourainc, Franche Comfite, Senenois, Switzer¬
land, and part of Normandy. Belides thefe grand di-
vifions, there is often mention made of Gallia Cifalpi-
na or Citerior, Tranfalpina or Ulterior, which refers
to that part of Italy which was conquered by fome of
the Gauls who crofled the Alps. By Gallia Cilalpina,
the Romans underilood that part of Gaul which lies in
Italy, and by Tranfalpina, that which lies beyond the
Alps, in regard only to the inhabitants of Rome. Gal¬
lia Cifpadana, and Tranfpadana, is applied to a part of
-Italy conquered by fome of the Gauls ; and then it
means the country on this fide of the Po, or beyond
the Po, with refpedl to Rome. By Gallia I ogata, the
Romans underftood Cifalpine Gaul, where the Roman
gowns, togce, were ufually worn. Gallia Narbonenfis
was called Braccata, on account of the peculiar covering
of the inhabitants for their thighs. The epithet of
Comata is applied to Gallia Celtica, becaufe the people
fuffered their hair to grow to an uncommon length.
The inhabitants were great warriors, and their valour
overcame the Roman armies, took the city of Rome
and invaded Greece in different ages. They fpread
themfelves over the greateft part of the world. They
were very fuperftitious in their, religious ceremo¬
nies, and revered the facerdotal order as if they had
been gods. They long maintained a bloody war
again!! the Romans, and Ctefar refided ten years in
their country before he could totally fubdue them. See
Gaul.
GALLIARD, or Gagliarda, a fort of dance
anciently in great requeft •, confiding of very differ¬
ent motions and adlions, fometimes proceeding terra
d terra or fmoothly along •, fometimes capering •, lome-
times along the room, and fometimes acrofs. The
word is French, gailiarde, or rather Italian •, and li¬
terally fignifies “ gay, merry, fprightly.” This dance
•was alfo called Romancfque, becaufe brought from
Rome.
Thuinot Arbeau, in his Orchefography, defcribes it
as confiding pf five deps, and five pofitions of the feet,
which the dancers performed before each other, and
l
whereof he gives ns the fcore or tablature, which is of GalliarJ
fix minims, and two triple times. II
GALLIARD A, in the Italian mufic, the name of Call'Po1^
a tune that belongs to a dance called a Galliard. The 'r~m
air of it is lively in triple time.
GALLIC acid. See Chemistry Index.
GALLIC AN, any thing belonging to France j thus
the term Galilean church denotes the church of France,
or the affembly of the clergy of that kingdom.
GALLICISM, a mode of fpeech peculiar to the
French language, and contrary to the rules of gram¬
mar in other languages. With us it is ufed to denote
fuch phrafes or modes of fpeech in Englifli as are form¬
ed after the French idiom.
GALLINACEUS lapis, a gloffy mineral fubdance
fuppofed by fome to be produced by the operation of vol¬
canic fires and is thought to be the lapis o/f dianus of
the ancients. See Obsidian, Mineralogy Index.
GALLINiE, an order of birds. See Ornitho¬
logy Index.
GALLINACIOUS, an appellation given to the
birds of the order of the gallinae.
GALLING, or Excoriation, in Medicine. See
Excoriation.
GALLING of a Horfe's Bach, a diforder occafioned
by heat, and the chafing or pinching of the faddle.
In order to prevent it, fome take a hind’s Ikin well
garniftied with hair, and fit it neatly under the pannel
of the faddle, fo that the hairy fide may be next the
horfe.
When a horfe’s back is galled upon a journey, take
out a little of the fluffing of the pannel over the fwell-
ing, and few' a piece of foft white leather on the infide
of the pannel : anoint the part with fait butter, and
every evening wipe it clean, rubbing it till it grow' foft,
anointing it again with butter, or, for want of that,
with greafe : waffi the fwelling, or hurt, every even¬
ing with cold water and foap *, and ftrew it with fait,
which ihould be left on till the horfe be faddled in the
morning.
GALLINULE. SeeFuLicA, Ornithology In.
dex.
GALLIPOLI, a fea-port town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra-di-Otranto, with
a bifliop’s fee. It Hands on a rocky ifland, joined to
the continent by a bridge. From the remote!! anti¬
quity this was a ftation fo favourable to commerce,
that every maritime power wiffied to fecure it; and it
is a reproach to government, that nothing has been
done to improve its natural advantages: at prefent,
Mr Swinburne informs us, it has neither harbour nor
{belter for fliipping. Charles II. demolllhed Galli¬
poli for its adherence to Frederick of Arragon. The
Venetians treated it with great cruelty in the 15th
century : and in 1481 it was pillaged by the Turks.
To preferve it from future calamities, Charles V. re¬
paired and flrengthened its fortifications *, and, fince
that period, it has enjoyed the benefits peace and
trade, which have rendered it the moft opulent and
gayeft town upon the coaft, though its inhabitants do
not exceed 6coo in number. Confumptions and fpit-
ting of blood are rather frequent here, occafioned by
the great fubtility of the air, which is ventilated from
every quarter. The buildings are tolerable, and fome
GAL [ 329 ] GAL
j IGailipoll of the churches have good paintings. The cotton
II . trade brings in about 30,000 ducats a-year. Good
Gal UIS', muilins, cotton {lockings, and other parts of apparel,
are manufactured here, and purchafed by the Proven¬
cals y for Gallipoli has no direct trade with the metro¬
polis. Silk and faffron were formerly objefts of
traffic ; but heavy duties and oppreflion have caufed
them to be abandoned. The wine of this territory is
good ; but from drynefs of climate, and fhallownets of
mil, the vintage frequently fails in quantity; and
then the Gallipolitans have recourfe to Sicily for a
fupply. Oil is the great fupport of the place : two
thirds of the produce of its olive plantations are ex¬
ported to France, and the north of Italy 5 the re¬
mainder is fent to Naples, and other ports of the king¬
dom. Neapolitan merchants, by means of agents fet¬
tled at Gallipoli, buy up the oils, from year to year,
long before an olive appears upon the tree 5 and the
price is afterwards fettled by public authority. The
Neapolitans fell their oil to the merchants of Leghorn ;
and, if faithfully ferved by their faclors in Terra di
Otranto, ought to double their capital in two years.
But, to balance this advantage, they run great rilks,
pay exorbitant intereft, and have frequent bankrupt¬
cies to guard againft. E. Long. 15. 28. N. Lat. 40.
29.
Gallipoli, a fea-port town of Turkey in Europe,
in the province of Romania, feated at the mouth of
the fea of Marmora, with a good harbour, and a biihop’s
fee. It contains about 10,000 Turks, 3500 Greeks,
befides a great number of Jews. The bazar or be-
zeftein, the place where merchandifes are fold, is a
handfome llruclure, with domes covered with lead. It
is an open place, and has no other defence than a paltry
fquare caftle. The houfes of the Greeks and Jews have
doors not above three feet and a half high, to prevent
the Turks riding into their houfes. E. Loner. 26. 44.
N. Lat. 40. 24.
GALLIUM. See Galium, Botany Index.
GALLO, an illand of the South fea, near the fea-
coaft of Peru, in South America, which was the firft
place polfefled by the Spaniards when they attempted
the eonqueft of Peru ; it is alfo the place where the
bucaniers ufed to come for wood and water, and to refit
their velfels when they w'ere in thefe parts. W. Loner.
n n -r -r J *- o
88. o. N. Lat. 2. 30.
GALLO-Grcecla, a country of Afia Minor, near Bi-
thynia and Cappadocia. It was inhabited by a colony
of Gauls, who affumed the name of Gallogrccci becaufe
a number of Greeks had accompanied them in their
emigration. See Galatia.
GALLOIS, John, born at Paris in 1633, was
an univerfal fcholar, but chiefly noted for having been,
in conjunction with M. de Sallo who formed the plan,
the fir It publiffier of the Journal des Spavans. The
firft journal was publiffied January 5. 1665 j but thefe
gentlemen criticifed newr w'orks fo rigoroufly, that the
wdiole tribe of authors united and cried it down. De
Sallo declined entirely after the publication of the
third number: but Gallois ventured to fend out a
fourth, on January 4. 1666; though not without a
moil humble advertifement at the beginning, wherein
it was declared, that the author “ would not prefume
to criticife, but Amply give an account of the books.”
This, with the protection of M. Colbert, who was
Vol. IX. Part I.
greatly taken with the work, gradually reconciled the Gallois
public to it : and thus began literary journals, which II
have been continued from that time to this, under.
various titles, and by various writers. Gallois con-
tinued his journal to the year 1674, when more im¬
portant occupations obliged him to turn it over to o-
ther hands. M. Colbert had taken him into his houfe
to teach him Latin; and when he loft his patron in
1683, he was firll made librarian to the king, and
then Greek profeflbr in the royal college. He died in
I7°7-
GALLON, a meafure of capacity both for dry and
liquid things, containing four quarts. But thefe quarts,
and confequently the gallon itfelf, are different, ac¬
cording to the quality of the things meafured : For in-
ftance, the w ine gallon contains 231 cubic inches, and
holds eight pounds avoirdupois of pure water $ the
beer and ale gallon contains 282 folid inches, and
holds ten pounds three ounces and a quarter avoirdu¬
pois of water \ and the gallon for corn, meal, &c. 272^-
cubic inches, and holds nine pounds thirteen ounces of
pure water.
Gx^LLOP, in the manege, is the fwifteft natural
pace of a horfe, performed by reaches or leaps j the
two fore feet being railed almoft at the fame time $
and when thefe are in the air, and juft ready to touch
the ground again, the two hind feet are lifted almoft
at once. The word is borrowed from the barbarous
Latin calupare, or calpare, “ to run.” Some derive it
from cabal Hear e; others from the Greek kxXttx^uv, (9
/pur a horfe.
GALLOPER, in artillery, is the name of a car¬
riage which ferves for a pound and a half gun. This car¬
riage has (hafts fo as to be drawn without a limber, and
is thought by fome to be more convenient and prefer¬
able to other field carriages; and it may likewife ferve
for our light three and fix pounders,
GALLOWAY, a county of Scotland, which gives
the title of Earl to a branch of the noble family of
Stuart. It is divided into two diftridls; the wreftern,
called Upper Gallowayy being the fame with Wigton-
fliire 5 and the eaftern, or ftewartry of Kirkcudbright,
called Lower Galloxvay. See Kirkcudbright and
WlGTONSHIRE.
Mull of Galloway, the moft foutherly cape or pro¬
montory of Scotland, in the county of Galloway, and
on the Iriffi fea.
Galloways is the name of a peculiar fort of hor-
fes, fo called from the county of Galloway in Scot¬
land, where they are bred. Tradition reports that
th is kind of horfes fprang from fome Spanifti rtallions,
which fwam on (bore from fome of the (hips of the fa¬
mous Spaniffi armada, wrecked on the coaft $ and
coupling with the mares of the country, furniflied the
kingdom with their pofterity. They w^ere much efteem-
ed, and of a middling fize, ftrong, adlive, nervous, and
hardy.
GALLOWS, an inftrument of punifhment, where¬
on perfons convi6led capitally of felony, &c. are exe¬
cuted by hanging.
Among our anceftors it was called furca, “ fork j”
a name by which it is ftill denominated abroad, parti¬
cularly in France and Italy. In this latter country,
the reafon of the name ftill fubfifts; the gallows being
a real fork driven into the ground, acrofs the legs
T t whereof
GAL
[ 33° 1
GAL
Gallows
!l .
Galvani.
whereof laid a beam, to which the rope is tied. See
Furca.
, GALLUS, Cornelius, an ancient Roman poet,
born at Fortnn Julium, now called Frejus in tiance.
He was a. particular favourite with Auguftus Caeiar,
who made him governor of Egypt: but his mal-
adminiftration there occalioned his bamfhment, and
the lofs of his eitate 5 for grief of which he put an
end to his own life. He wrote four books of love
elegies \ and Virgil has complimented him in many
places.
Gallus, or Cock. See Phasianus, Ornithology
Index.
GALLY, in printing, a frame into which the
compofitor empties the lines out of his cornpofing-
ftick, and in which he ties up,the page when it is com¬
pleted.
The gaily is formed of an oblong fquare board, with
a ledge on three tides, and a groove to admit a falfe
bottom called a gof/y Jlice.
GALVANI, Lewis, was born at Bologna m Italy,
in the year I737• I here many of his relations had
arrived at diftinguidied eminence in jurifprudence and
divinity, and he himfelf had the honour of giving his
name to a fuppofed new principle in nature, which of
confequence is called Gaivanijm, although this great
man gave it the name of anitnal eledieicity. irom a
boy he became enamoured o£the greateft aufterities of
the Catholic religion, and joined himfelf to a convent,
the monks of which were celebrated for their attach¬
ment to the folemn duty of vifiting the dying. He
wilhed much to become a member of this order, but
was prevailed on to relmquilh the idea by one of the
brotherhood, after which he turneddris whole attention
to the iludy of medicine in its various branches. He
ftudied under Beccari, Tacconi, Galli, and in a parti¬
cular manner Galleazzi, who took him into his own
houfe ; and he afterwards became his fon-in-law. He
-acquired great reputation by his inaugural theljs, De
Oflibus, in 1762, and was foon after chofen public lec¬
turer in the univerlity of Bologna, and reader in ana¬
tomy to the inftitute of that city. So much admired
was his talent for kauring, that vail numbers conllant-
ly attended him ; and he employed his few leifure hours
in making experiments,, and in the ateful ftudy of com¬
parative anatomy. We find m the Memoirs of the In-
llitute of Bologna, a number of curious obfervations on
the urinary organs, and on the organs of hearing in
birds.
Soon after his anatomical and phyfiological know¬
ledge wasfully elf ablilhed throughout the kalian fchools,
a- mere accident led him to that inteiellingt difcovery
which will* tranfmit his name with honour to the late.l
pofterity. His amiable wife, for whom he cherilhed
the moll ardent love, and with \yhom he had been
united for a number of years, was in a declining Hate
of health, and was ufmg a foup of frogs by way of re-
ilorative. Some of thefe animals being fkmned for this
purpofe, were lying on a table in Galvini’s laboratory,
where alfo Hood an eleftrical machine. One of thofe
who afftlled him in conduaing his experiments, unin¬
tentionally brought the point of a fcalpel near the crural
nerves of a frog which lay near the condudor, when
the mufcles of the limb were very ftrongly convulfed.
Madame Galvani, who was a woman of a penetrating
underftanding, and a lover of fcience, happened to Galvani.
witnefs the phenomena, of which (he inftantly informed 'rmm‘
her hufband. On his arrival he repeated the experi¬
ment, and difcovered that the convulfions only hap¬
pened when the fcalpel was in contact with the nerve,
and a fpark was drawn from the condudor at the lame
time. After an almofi, endlefs variety of experiments,
conduded with great ingenuity, which it would be
foreign to the deiign of this article to enumerate here,
he concluded that all animals have within them an
eledricity of a peculiar nature j that this fluid is con¬
tained in moft parts, but is moft apparent in the nerves
and mufcles •, that it is fecreted by the brain, and
diffufed by the nerves through various parts of the
body.
He compared each mufcular fibre to a fmall Leyden
phial, and attempted to explain the phenomena of muf¬
cular motion by analogies taken from that inftrument.
He firft thought of its pathological influence in regard to
rheumatic, convulfive, paralytic, and other nervous affec¬
tions. His firit publication on this grand difcovery was
entitled Aloysii Galvani de viribus EleBricitatis in Motu.
Mufculari Cornmentarius, which made its appearance in
qto, in the year 179L und was printed for the Inftitut-.
of Bologna. By this work the attention of philofophers
both in Italy and other countries was inftantly routed,
and it was foon followed by numerous publications, in
fume of which the fentiments of Galvani were defended,
and in others they were oppofed. I. he celebrated vklta
turned his attention to the fubjeft, and adduced a
number of arguments to prove that Galvani’s opinion
refpefting animal electricity was erroneous, deriving the
phenomena from the cleftric matter of the atmoiphere,
and allowing the nerves and mufcles no higher place
than that of the moft fenfible lefts hitherto difcovered.
The doctrine of Volta received many admirers and ad¬
vocates *, yet there are ftill numbers to be met with in
the learned world who fupport the fentiments of Galva?
ni, who ftill adhere to his original theoiy, in the de¬
fence of which he difplayed much candour and modefty,
as well as ingenuity, by which he may be juftly confix
dered as deferving that diftinguiflied place among tho
experimental philofophers, which the union of his name
with the moft interefting natural phenomena will pro¬
bably fecure to him for ever. See Galvanism.
Thefe important inquiries, joined to the duties of his
office as a profeffor, and his extenfive praftice m the
capacity of furgeon and man-midwife (accoucheurJ, m
both which he eminently excelled, afforded abundant
fcope for his indefatigable induftry. He compofed a
variety of memoirs on topics connefted with his profef-
fion but thefe, as. far as we know, have never been
publiffied. He delighted to converge with men of fci¬
ence, in whofe company new publications were read,
and their merits inveftigated, which was certainly a va¬
luable fource of intelleftual improvement. _
The charafter of Galvani in private life is allowed to
have been moft amiable-, and his fenfibility, which was
naturally ftrong, received a violent {Lock in the death
of his amiable wife, in theryear 1790. This event
brought upon him the moft alarming melancholy, .which
he even delighted to encourage, by vifiting her tomb
in the nunnery of St Catharine, and pouring forth, his
unavailing lamentations over her grave. He was ever
punftual in the difeharge of the duties of his religion,
r even
G A I
iCtalvani. even to the minuted rite, as he never loft the pious im-
■ v "3 * * * * * * * 11""' preflions which were made upon his mind at an early-
period «f life. To this caufe we may probably trace
back his determination never to take what was called
th e civic oath of allegiance to the Citalpine republic,
for which he was barbaroufly deprived of all his offices
and dignities. Devoured by melancholy,, and nearly
reduced to a date of indigence, he took up his relidence
in the houfe of his brother James, a man of refpedtabi-
lity, where he fell into a ftate of extenuation and debi-
C A L
lity. At this time even republican governors appear Oaivam.
to have been aftiamed of their brutal condu£l towards y
fuch an extraordinary man ; in confequence of which a
decree was pafled for reftoring him to his chair in the
univeriity, together with its emolumentsj but this fit of
generofity was too long in feizing them. He departed
this life on the 5th of November, 1798, in the 61 ft
year of his age, amidft the tears of his friends, and the
regret of the public, in whofe death the learned world
has been deprived of one of its brighteft ornaments.
[ 331 1
GALVANISM.
Expen- yj? p5eces 0f metal, the one of zinc, and the
lowing '*■ other of filver, or the one of zinc and the other of
copper, or, what anfwers the purpofe equally well, a
penny piece and a half crown piece, be lb placed that
the one thall touch the upper furface of the tongue,
and the other ftiall touch its under furface, while the
edges project over the point 5 as often as the edges of
the metals in this fituation are brought into contaft, a
peculiar fenfation is produced in the tongue ; there is
fomething like a flight fhock of eleftricity, and there is
tperceived at tire fame time an auftere, aftringent, or
metallic tafte.
If a bit of tin-foil be placed on one of the eyes, and
a bit of copper held between the teeth or touching
the tongue, and a communication be formed by means of
a wire between the piece of metal on the eye and that
on the tongue, a flafli of light is feen, and this is
produced as often as the communication is completed.
But, in the above experiments, if metals of the fame
kind be employed, no perceptible effebt whatever is
produced.
If a pile compofed of 50 or 60 pairs of plates of zinc
and filver, or zinc and copper, be arranged in a regular
feries, with pieces of cloth moiftened in a folution of
common fait placed between each pair; and if one hand
previoufly moift-ened with water touch the lower pair,
and the other hand, alfo raoiftened, touch the upper pair
of plates, the moment the communication between the
bottom and top of the pile is completed, a fmart ihock
, ■ is felt; and if 50 or 6o pairs of plates of copper
and zinc be arranged in a trough as will be afterwards
defenbed, and the fpaces between the pairs be filled
with water, to which about rr^th of pretty ftrong nitric
acid has been added, a fimilar fliock is perceived, when
the hands wetted with water touch the plates at the ex¬
tremities of the trough. If a communication by means
of wires and two pieces of well-prepared charcoal be
made between the extremities of the trough, a very
brilliant combuftion is excited every time the two pieces
of charcoal are brought into contafl. By placing tin-
foil, gold leaf, white or yellow Dutch metal or brafs
leaf, on a wire conne»fted with one end of the trough,
and touching the metallic leaves with a plate of copper
or zinc connected with a wire from the other-end of
the trough, a rapid and brilliant deflagration is exhibited
every time that the communication is efiedled. 2
I he phenomena which are thus produced have re- what is un-
ceived the name oi Galvanifm, from the name of Gal- defftcod by
vani, who firft obferved and publiffied an account 0fSa^an^m*
feme of them, and the power by which thefe effefts are
produced has been denominated the galvanic power or
fluid. hrom its effects on animals being fimilar to
thofe of the elc&rical fluid, it was at firft called animal
eleRricitif ; but then the knowledge of galvanifm was
limited to its effedls on animals, and it was fuppofed to
depend on fomething peculiar to animal life.
In the following treatife we propofe to give a view
of the progrefs and prefent ftate of galvanifm ; and for
this purpofe we Ihall arrange the whole under two great
divilions. Under the firft, we fliall confider the phe¬
nomena of galvanifm, or detail the fads which have
been afeertained with regard to this power. The fecond
part will be occupied in the hiftory, progrefs, and
theories, which have been held with regard to the na¬
ture of galvanifm.
PART I. OF THE PHENOMENA OF GALVANISM.
3
I mange. IN treating of the phenomena of galvanifm, its pro-
greffive hiftory fuggefts an arrangement fufficiently con¬
venient for taking a view of the effeds of the galvanic
fluid. Thofe effeds which are to be regarded as ftridly
chemical, were altogether unknown, till after its appli¬
cation to animals, and a great mafs of fads relative to
its effeds on animal life had been accumulated. We
may therefore firft confider the effeds produced on
animals by the operation of the galvanic fluid, and in
the next place thofe effeds which are ftridly chemical.
But before we proceed to this, it is neceftary that the
nature and conftrudion of the apparatus, by which thefe
effeds were produced., flumld be underftood. Thefe
topics, therefore, fliall be the fubjeds of the three fol¬
lowing chapters. In the firft we fliall treat of the con¬
ftrudion of the apparatus by which the phenomena of
galvanifm are produced ; the fecond will be employed
in confidering the effeds of the galvanic fluid on ani¬
mals; and the third will comprehend a view' of its che¬
mical effeds.
Tt 2
Chap,
33 2
Condiuc-
tion of
Apparatus.
4
Apparatus
at tirf^
ftmple,.
Plate
CCXXIX.
fig. I.
Methods of
preparing
frogs for
experi¬
ments.
GALVANISM.
Part I.
Chap. I. Of the Conjlruelion of the Apparatus for
exhibiting the Phenomena of Galvamfm.
On the firft difcovery of galvanifm, the apparatus for
exhibiting its eflfe&s was extremely Ample. It con¬
fined merely of two pieces of different metals, fuch as
has been defcribed above, by which a peculiar fenfatmn
is produced on the tongue. This, it has been ftated, is
effected by means of a piece of zinc and a piece of cop¬
per, the one placed on the upper furface, and the other
on the under furface of the tongue, while the projedling
edges are brought into conta£t. In the fame way, and
with fuch an apparatus, a great variety of experiments,
efpecially in cold blooded animals, were exhibited,
when the knowledge of this remarkable power was firft
announced and inveftigated.
For the purpofe of exhibiting fome of the Ampler
effefts of galvanifm, we fliall defcribe the following
apparatus, which is of very eafy conftruttion. AB,
fig. i. is zinc wire, fliarp at the point A, and fixed
in the wooden ftand C. If the frog prepared in the way
which we fhall immediately defcribe, be fixed on the
point of the wire at A, and a gold or a filver wire (a
filver tea fpoon will anfwer the purpofe) be brought
into contaft with the fide of the wire as at the point
D ) and while in contaft with the wire at D, it is
brought into contatt with the feet of tha frog at E or
F, the effeft of the galvanic power will be immediate¬
ly perceived. The limbs of the animal will be ftrong-
ly convulfed, and will exhibit as much motion by the
contradlion of the mufcles as if it were alive, and in
full vigour. But if a zinc wire, fimilar to AB, were
fubftituted for the gold or filver wire, no fuch effett
would be produced.
Frogs, as they are moft eafily found, and as they
are, perhaps, more convenient in other refpefts, have
been oftener the fubjedl of galvanic experiments than
any other animal. To prepare them for thefe experi¬
ments, various methods have been followed. Some
phyfiologifts propofe to remove only the integuments,
and lay bare the mufcles, while others open the cavi¬
ties of the thorax and abdomen, remove the vifcera
which are contained in thefe cavities, and bring into
view the nerves and mufcles which are there diftribut-
ed. Some again, after the above previous preparation,
feparate all the parts between the origin of the nerve
and its infertion in the mufcle, fo that the latter may
be attached by means of the nerves only, to the trunk
of the body } while others, after a fimilar preparation,
cut off the animal’s head, that the effects produced by
galvanifm may not be confounded with the voluntary
movements of the living animal. By another mode
of preparation, each of the parts is feparated from the
body by diffeftion, after laying bare the mufcles and
nerves.
But in general a frog is underftood to be prepared
when it is divided with a pair of fciffars into two por¬
tions, through the middle of the body and fpine. The
vifcera are then removed, as well as the integuments of
the inferior extremities. As the fciatic nerves of this
animal rife very high upon the fpine, they are diftimftly
feen after this treatment. When it is intended, as in
fome experiments, to arm the nerves, as it is called, a
pair of ftiarp-pointed fciflars is introduced beneath
3
them, and the fpine is cut through, but without divid- Conftruc-
ing the nerves. A portion of the inferior part of the Atlc|n.of
fpine is afterwards to be feparated, that room may be ,
left for covering the nerves with a bit of tin-foil. This
is what is ufually underftood by arming or coating the
nerves. In fome experiments it will be found more
convenient to feparate the lower extremities from the
trunk, and to employ the crural nerve.
Phenomena fimilar to the above may be produced by
placing a frog A prepared in the way defcribed above,
on a plate of zinc B, fig. 2. and on a plate of filver or Fig. z.
copper C. If the communication between the plates A
and B be completed by means of the conduftor D, the
mufcles of the frog are immediately thrown into ftrong
convulfions, and thefe motions are renewed as often as
the contafl is made by the conducing wire and the
two metals. . ^
The apparatus we have now defcribed affords an single ga!<
example of the fimpleft galvanic combination, or whatvanic com.
is ufually denominated a Angle galvanic combination, binations.
Here it may be obferved,that this combination muft con-
fift of three different conduftors. The condu£tors of elec¬
tricity have been arranged into two principal claffes :
to the firft belong the metallic fubftances and charcoal,
which have been otherwife called dry and perfeft con-
dudlors ; the fecond clafs confifts of the imperfett con-
du&ors, which are water sftid other oxidating fluids,
and the fubftarfces which contain thefe fluids. But al¬
though the condu&ors of electricity, for the fake of
conveniency, are thus arranged, they differ from each-
other in their conducting power, and this difference is
greateft among the fubftances comprehended under the
fecond clafs. Now, if the three conductors of the gal¬
vanic fluid be all of the firft clafs, or all of the fecond,
the effeCt is fcarcely perceptible. An aCtive, fimple
galvanic combination, then, muft confift of three dif¬
ferent bodies, one conductor muft belong to one clafs,
and two different conductors muft be taken from the
other clafs. In fig. 3. and 4. are exhibited examples^ ^
of aCtive fimple galvanic combinations. In fig. 3. theaixi4,
letters AB mark the bodies belonging to the firft clafs
or perfeCt conductors ; and a marks the body belong¬
ing to the fecond clafs, or imperfeCt conductors 5 and
in fig. 4. A marks one body belonging to the firft
clafs, and a h trvo bodies belonging to the fecond
clafs, or the imperfeCt conductors. Of the three
bodies forming a galvanic combination, if two of them
belong to the firft clafs, and one to the fecond, this
combination is faid to be of the firft order \ but if one
of the three bodies only belong to the firft clals, and
two to the fecond, the combination is faid to be of the
fecond order. Fig. 3. is a galvanic combination of the
firft order, and fig. 4. is one of the fecond. 1 his may
be further illuftrated by examining fig. 5, 6, 7, which Figi
confift of two bodies only, and therefore are not aCtive gi p,
combinations j and alfo by examining fig. 8 and 9.
■which confift of three bodies, but two of them are of
the fame kind, and therefore aCt as a Angle body. In
the laft five figures, the capital letters denote the bodies
belonging to the firft clafs, and the fmall letters thole
belonging to the fecond.
In the fingle aCtive galvanic combination, or the fim¬
ple galvanic circle, the two bodies of one clafs muft be
in contaCt with each other in one or more points, while,
at the fame time, they are connected together at other
points
jpart I.
j Jonftruc.
tion of
ipparatus.
GALVANISM.
.7 .
ifhon ot
ilvanifm
:compa-
ed by
lemical
lion.
Ivanic
:ies of
firft
i er.
points with the body belonging to the other clafs. Thus,
if a prepared frog is convulfed by the contaft of the fame
t piece of m€tal in two different places, the fluids of thofe
parts which muft be fomewhat different from each other,
are the two conduftors of the fecond clafs, and the me¬
tal conflitutes the third body for the condudtor of
the firft clafs. But if two metals be employed, the
fluids of the prepared animal differing little from each
other, are to be conftdered as one body of the fecond
clafs.
Here it may be neceffary to anticipate a little, by ob-
ferving, that in a Ample galvanic circle, the conduilor
or conduftors of one clafs muft have fome chemical ac¬
tion upon the other conduftor or conduftors, other-
wife no galvanic aftion would be produced, or at leaft
a very feeble one, from the combination of three bodies,
'ihis galvanic aftion, too, feems to be in proportion to
the degree of chemical aftion, from which fome have
fuppofed, that this chemical agency is the primary caufe
of the phenomena.
It is found that the moft aftive galvanic combinations,
or galvanic circles belonging to the flrft order, are
thofe in which two folids poffeffing different degrees of
oxidability, are combined with a fluid which is capable
of oxidating at leaft one of the folids. Gold, filver,
and water, do not form an aftive galvanic combination,
becaufe water is incapable of oxidating either of thefe
metals; but if a fmall quantity of nitric acid, or any
other fluid which may be decompofed by the Alver, be
mixed with water, an aftive galvanic circle may thus
be formed.
If zinc, Alver, and water, or zinc, copper, and wa¬
ter, be combined together, an aftive galvanic circle is
formed, and the water will be found to oxidate the
zinc, if it hold any portion of atmofpherical air in folu-
tion, and ftiil more fo, if it contain oxygen. But the
combination of the fame fubftances forms a much more
powerful galvanic circle, if a little nitric acid be add¬
ed to the water, becaufe then the fluid has a ftrong ac¬
tion on the zinc, and oxidates it.
Galvanic combinations belonging to the fecond or¬
der are found to be moft powerful, when two conduc¬
tors of the fecond clafs have different chemical aflions
on the conduftors of the flrft clafs, while at the fame
time they have an aftion upon each other. As an ex¬
ample of this, copper, Alver, or lead, combined with a
folution of an alkaline fulphuret, and diluted nitric acid,
conftitute a very aftive galvanic circle.
The following is a lift of galvanic circles of the flrft
order, compofed of two condudorsof the flrft clafs, and
one of the fecond.
. Zinc \vith gold, or charcoal, or filver, or copper, or
tin, or iron, or mercury j and water containing a fmall
quantity of any of the mineral acids.
Iron, with gold, or charcoal, or filver, or copper,
or tin, and a w eak folution of any of the mineral acids
as above. ’
Tin, with gold, or filver, or charcoal, and a weak fo¬
lution of any of the mineral acids, as above.
Lead, with gold, or filver, and a weak acid folution,
as above. ’
Any of the above metallic combinations, and com¬
mon water, viz. water containing atmofpherical air, or
eipecially water containing oxygen air.
Copper, with gold, or filver, and a folution of nitrate
333
of filver and mercury ; or the nitric acid : or the acetous Conftruc-
acid. t,onof
Silver, with gold, and the nitric acid. ■ ^ ¥ '
1 he following is a lift of galvanic circles of the fe- 9
cond order, confifting of one conduftor of the firft clafs,of the fe~
and two of the fecond. coml order*-
Charcoal, or
Copper, or
Silver, or
Lead, or
Tin, or
Iron, or
Zinc,
with water, or wdth
a folution of any hy¬
drogenated alkaline
fulphurets, capable
of adting on the
firft three metals on-
and a folution of
nitrous acid, or
oxygenated mu¬
riatic acid, &c.
capable of adting
upon all the me¬
tals.
But the effefls of the galvanic fluid are extremely
feeble, when they are limited to the operation of even
the moft powerful Ample combinations. In the pro-
grefs of the knowledge of galvanifm it was foon found,
that thefe effects might be combined and increafed to
almoft any degree. This is done by connecting toge¬
ther a number of aftive Ample combinations, which,
it is to be obferved, muft be fo difpofed that they may io.
not counteraft each other. A number of Ample com-Batteries,,
binations thus connefted together have received the
name of batteries; and thefe batteries are faid to be¬
long to the firft or fecond order, according as the Am¬
ple combinations of which they are formed, are com¬
pofed of fubftances of the firft or fecond order of con-
dufting powers. Thus, for example, if a plate of zinfc
be laid upon a plate of copper, and a piece of moiften-
ed card or leather be laid upon the zinc, and a fimilar
arrangement of three other pieces be laid upon the firft,
and any number of combinations of the fame kind be
continued, taking care that they are always arranged
in the fame order, the whole will form a battery of the
firft order. But if a plate of copper be connefted with
a piece of cloth moiftened with water, and the latter
with another piece of cloth, moiftened with a folution
of fulphuret of potafh, and this be connefted with ano¬
ther piece of copper, repeating the fame feries to any
convenient number, a battery of the fecond order will
be formed of the whole.
Batteries of the fecond order have been arranged by
Mr Davy into the three following claffes. 1. The moil
feeble battery is compofed, when Angle metallic plates -
are fo arranged that two of their furfaces or oppofite
extremities are in contaft with different fluids, the one
of which is capable, and the other is incapable, of oxi¬
dating the metal, a regular feries of fuch combinations
are formed. 2. When Angle combinations or elements
of the feries are each compofed of a Angle plate of a
metallic fubffance, capable of afting upon fulphurated
hydrogen, or upon fulphurets difiblved in water, ac¬
companied with portions of a folution of fulphuret of
potafti on one fide, and water on the other. 3. The
third clafs is the moft powerful, being formed when
metallic fubftances oxidable in acids, and capable of
afting on folutions of fulphurets, are connefted as plates
with oxidating fluids, and folutions of fulphuret of
potalh, and fo arranged that the oppofite fides of every
plate may undergo different chemical changes, the mode
of alternation being regular. ^
The firft attempt to increafe the effefts of the gal- Couronne
vanic fluid, by combining a feries of Ample circles, was de tafles.
made by Volta ; to this he gave the name couronne de
334-
ConitrUC-
tion of
Appai. tu
GALVANISM
Pile of
Volta.
tojffes. The following is the conftruftion and mode of
applying this apparatus. ■or'1
Take any number of cups or gl’afs tumblers A, B, C,
D, E, fig. i o. Fill them about three-fourths full with
any o’f the faline folutions, which'will be afterwards de-
fcribed, as that of common fait or fal ammoniac in wa¬
ter. To one extremity of a bent brafs wire folder a
plate of zinc of about two inches in.diameter, and to
the other extremity of the fame wire, folder in the fame
manner a plate of copper of the fame diameter. Thefe
connedting wires are reprefented in the figure by the
letters a, a, o } and the plates of the different metals
are marked with the letters Z and C, viz. zinc and cop¬
per. In arranging the plates in the veffeb, it ought to
be obferved, that a plate of zinc and a plate of copper
belonging to different wires, muff be.in the fame veffel,
and never two plates of the fame kind. . Ihus in the
firft veffel A, there is a plate of copper j in the fecond
B, conne&ed by the fame wire, there is a plate of zinc ;
in the fame veffel B, there is alfo a plate of copper,
which is connedied by means of another wire to a plate
of zinc in the third veffel C. The fame order and ar¬
rangement are to be obferved to whatever number of
plates and veffels the feries may extend.
Suppofe now that the apparatus has been arranged in
-the way defcribed above, and the veffels have been fil¬
led with a folution of common lalt in water j if the num¬
ber of veffels be not lefs than ten or twelve, a flight
fliock will be felt by immerfing one hand in the veffel,
at one extremity of the feries, and the other hand in
the veffel at the other extremity 5 as for inftance, by
.putting the fingers of one hand in the vellel A, fig. 10.
and fuddenly plunging the fingers of the other hand in
the veffel E. The fliock will perhaps be more fenfibly
Telt by previoufly wetting the palms of both hands, and
taking a filver or pewter fpoon in each hand, immerfe
the handle of the one into the velfel A, and the handle
.of the other into the veffel E.
The ixrength of this apparatus depends on the num-
’■ber of feries of plates and veffels employed. But it is
obvious that this feries, from the nature of the apparatus,
could not be greatly extended, fo as to afford any great
-snereafe of power. This occurred ver,y early to the in¬
genious difeoverer, as an infurmountable objeftion to
the ufe of this apparatus. The view s of this philofopher
in inveftigating the nature of galvanifm, feem at this
time to have been chiefly direfled to the difeovery of
inftruments or apparatus, by means of which he might
be enabled to augment its power. In the profecution
of his inquiries, therefore, he contrived another appa¬
ratus, which was afterwards known by the name of the
galvanic pile, and fometimes, but more rarely by that
of the voltaic pile or pile of Volta, from the name of
the difeoverer. This apparatus is cenftru&ed in the
following manner.
A pile of moderate ftrength may be conftru&ed of
60 pairs of plates of-,zinc and copper,-each plate being
about two inches diameter ; it may be contlrufted alfo
with fimilar plates of zinc and fil-ver, or of almofl: any
two other diflimilar metals. Such piles have been very
conveniently conftru&ed, with half crown pieces and
plates of zinc of the fame fize, or more conveniently
with penny pieces and plates of zinc of the fame dia¬
meter. But of whatever different metals this kind of
•apparatus is to be conitru&ed, the fame order of ar-
Part I,
rang-etnent is to be obferved throughout the whole Conftruc.
. lion of
lenes. # Apparatu-
Suppofe the metals to be employed in the conftruc-
tion of the pile are zinc and copper, (and thefe from
views of economy have been moft frequently employed),
an equal number of pieces of cloth, pafteboard, or
leather, of the fame diameter with the metallic plates,
is to be prepared. The ufe of thefe pieces of cloth is
to retain the moifture, by means of which the com¬
munication between the plates is formed,. and the gal¬
vanic combinations are completed ; and in proportion
to the length of time during which the pieces of cloth
or other fubftances retain the fluid which they have ab-
forbed, the operation of the pile continues. 'Ihe pile
is formed by placing a pair of plates, one of zinc, and
one of copper, upon a ftand, the one immediately above
the other. Upon this pair of plates is then placed a
piece of cloth which has been foaked in fome faline fo-
lution, as that of common fait, or fal ammoniac. Up¬
on this piece of cloth is placed another pair of plates,
arranged in the fame order as the firft pair. It makes
no ditierenee which of the metals is placed firft in the
feries, only it is neceffary to take care that the fame
order be preferved throughout the whole pile. If
the feries, for inftance, begins with copper, it runs in
the following order : copper, zinc, cloth •, copper, zinc,
cloth, &:c to whatever number of pairs of plates and
pieces of cloth the feries may extend.
But if the number of feries amount to 60 pairs, it
will be neceffary to have rods to confine the pairs of
plates, and to retain them ima perpendicular column ;
for without this the weight at top would be fo confi-
derable that the leaft inclination to one fide (and this
could not well be avoided) would derange the whole
apparatus. The rods which have been employed for this
purpofe have been fometimes made of glais, and fome¬
times of wood. When wood is uled, it (hould be
pretty dry, or baked, by which means its conducting
power is either greatly diminilhed or entirely de-
ftroyed. .
The pile being conftru&ed in this manner, its effects
may be obferved, by applying the fingers of one hand
moiftened with water to the loweft pair of plates, and
then touching with the fingers of the other hand, moif¬
tened in the fame manner, the_ upper pair of plates,
thus completing the communication between the extre¬
mities of the pile. Every time that this communica¬
tion is made, a fenfation is experienced, fimilar to a
flight (hock of elearicity. The intenfity of this fliock
rs in proportion to the number of the paiis of plates,
the nature of the fluid employed, and tbe care^ with
which the pile has been ereaed, or the time that it has
continued in aaion. With a pile of 60 pairs of plates,
the (hock will be perceptible through the fingers,
or the whole of the hand, and in fome perfons, when
it is in full aaivity, it will extend as high as the
elbows. .
In making experiments with this kind of apparatus,
it will be found that 50 or 60 pairs of plates will be a
Sufficient number to be ereaed in one pile ; but to in-
creafe the power of the galvanic fluid, a number of
piles may be conneaed together. Ibis may be done
in two ways} either by combining the feparate aaion
of the different piles employed 5 as, for inftance, if tlnee
iiiles are conftruaed, let the pairs of plates be arranged
1 m
’art I. G A L V
bomtruc. in each exa&ly in the Tame way, and let the conduc¬
tion of jng Jubilances, as wires, pafs from the top and bottom
Apparatus. o£ to one COmmon conduflor. In this cafe we
have the aCion of three different currents of the gal¬
vanic fluid ; but whatever number of piles may be em¬
ployed, their mutual aCion may be fo combined, that
the whole efteft may be produced by one Angle cur¬
rent. Suppofe the metallic plates of one pile are ar¬
ranged in the fallowing order •, copper, zinc, cloth j
copper, zinc, cloth, &c. : then the plates of the fecond
mult be arranged in a different order, namely zinc,
copper, cloth *, zinc, copper, cloth, &c. and the plates
of the third in the fame way as the firll, viz. copper,
zinc, cloth j copper, zinc, cloth, &c. The three piles
being thus arranged, let a metallic conductor, as a flip
of copper^ or zinc, be placed between the tops of the
firft and fecond pile, and a fimilar conduftor be placed
between the bottom of the fecond and third piles j and
when they are thus connected together, let the fingers
of one hand, moillened, be placed at the lowett pair of
plates of the firft pile, and the fingers of the other hand,
alfo mbiftened, be brought in contaft with the upper
pair of plates of the third, a violent Ihock will be felt.
-I he fhock. will be the fame as if the whole number of
pairs of plates of which the three piles are compofed
wrere formed into a fingle pile } for the fame order of
arrangement being obferved from the bottom of the firft
pile to the top, and from the top of the fecond pile to
the bottom, and again from the bottom of the third
pile to the top, the current paffes uninterruptedly
through the whole feries, as if it were uniformly ar¬
ranged in one pile.
'Ihe effefts of this apparatus may be farther obferv¬
ed in its chemical aClion. If the circle is completed,
or the communication between the extremities of the
apparatus by means of charcoal be formed, a fpark is
produced. This is done by attaching a piece of well pre¬
pared charcoal to a wire which communicates with one
extremity of the apparatus, and another fimilar piece
of charcoal to another wire communicating with the
other extremity ; if the two pieces of charcoal be
brought into conta£l, thus completing the circle, a
fpark will be obferved, and this may be repeated as
long as the adlivity of the pile continues. The chemi¬
cal effedls of fuch an apparatus are alfo exhibited in the
deeompofition of -water. The apparatus for effedling
this decompofition, and the method of ufing it, will be
afterwards defcribed.
But it was foon found that the effedls of this pile,
although when it is firft eroded it poffeffes confidera-
ble energy, in a very fhort time it becomes extremely
feeble, and at laft altogether imperceptible. This is
owing to the pieces of cloth or other fubftance which
is mterpofed between the pairs of plates being deprived
of their moifture, either by evaporation, or by being
queezed out, from the weight of the plates. The lat¬
ter effedl, it is obvious, mull be in proportion to the
height, and confequently the incumbent preffure of the
upper on the lower part of the pile j and befides. this,
the liquid as it oozes out, trickles down the fides of the
pile, fo that the different pairs of plates are lefs perfed-
ly mfulated than they otherwife oueht to be, to produce
he full effed. ^
Various contrivances were thought of to obviate
taele inconveniences, and the firft which was propofed
A N I S M.. 33'
was announced by the ingenious inventor of the pile Conftruc-
himfelf. Volta inclofed his piles, after they were ereded, tl0n °*
with wax or pitch. By this contrivance which he put
in pradice on two columns or piles, each confiding of.
20 plates, he fucceeded fo far in preventing the incon¬
veniences alluded to above, that their effeds continued,
nearly undiminiftied for feveral weeks. By other con¬
trivances the plates and pieces of cloth or paileboard-
were, arranged horizontally, by which means Ibnie of
the inconveniences of the upright column were avoid¬
ed } among thefe the unequal preffure was removed,
but ftill it was found that the evaporation continued, fo
that it was not long before its operation began to di
minilh, and at laft to be entirely interrupted.
As it was found that the chemical efftds of the pile
were greatly increafed by employing plates of a larger
furface, even when the number was greatly diminifli-
ed, piles were ereded both on the continent and in
Britain, with plates from 10 to 14 inches fquare.
Twelve or. fourteen pairs of plates of the above fize,
arranged in the fame way as thofe which have been
already defcribed, produced very confiderable chemical
effeds, fuch as burning phofphorus, fetting fire to
gunpowder,, and deflagrating gold and filver leaf. The
pieces of thick cloth or pafteboard moiftened with wa¬
ter, to which a certain proportion of nitric acid was
added, were ufually employed in the conllrudion of
this pile j but it is unneceffary to mention that it was
attended with fimilar inconveniences to thofe which
accompanied the fmaller pile. I hefe inconveniences
probably led to another and more effedual contrivance
for exhibiting the effeds of galvanifm. But before we
give an account of thefe, we thall farther illuilrate the
nature and conftrudion of the pile with an explana¬
tion of fig. 11. and 12.
Big. 11. is a reprefentation of a pile compofed of fig- 11.
copper, zinc, and pieces of .pafteboard, foaked in fome
fahne folution. The pile is ereded on the ftand A,
and. the different parts of which it is compofed are
retained in their perpendicular pofition by means of the
three rods made of glafs or baked wood, b, b, b. The
pieces of metal are marked c, s, and the pafteboard
/>, in the order in which they are placed. The pile
being ereded from bottom to top in the fame order,
let a piece of wire e be inferted under the lower pair
of plates, and let another wire / be kept in contad
with the upper furface of the upper pair of plates ;
the different parts being thus difpofed, if the fingers of
one hand moiftened be brought in contad with the
wire <?, and the fingers of the other hand, alfo moiften¬
ed, be brought in contad with the wire f a ftiock
will be felt, and thus it will be found that the energy
of the pile will continue till the moifture of the pieces
of .pafteboard has evaporated, or the peculiar change
which takes place on one of the metals during its ac¬
tion, and which will be taken notice of afterwards has
been effeded. ’
Fig. 12. exhibits a view of a combination of three FlV 12.
piles, A, B, G* In the column A the arrangement is
copper, zinc, pafteboard ; copper, zinc, pafteboard, &c.:
in the column A, this arrangement is rtverfed, from
the bottom of the column, which is zinc, copper, pafte¬
board ; zinc, copper, pafteboard, &c.; becaufe it muft
be the fame as if the column B were placed upon the
top of the column A, the points A and B being brought
into
Cxfnftruc-
tion of
Apparatus.
13.
'-Galvanic
trough.
•Fig. 13.
G ALVA
into eonta&, only having a piece of pafteboard inter-
pofed. The third column C is arranged in the fame
manner as the column A, viz. copper, zinc, pafteboard;
copper, zinc, pafteboard, &c. Thus, then, the three
columns are fo arranged, that the different feries luc-
ceed each other from the bottom of column A. to
the top, from the top of column B to the bottom, and
from the bottom of column C to the top, as if the
whole had been difpofed in one column A. A com¬
munication is then formed between the top of the column
A and the top of column B, by a metallic condu&or
D, and between the bottom of column B, and the bot¬
tom of column C, by means of the metallic conduaor
E. If then the fingers of one hand moiftened are
brought into contatb with the wire F, which communi¬
cates with the bottom of column A, and the fingers
of the other hand alfo moiftened are brought into con-
ta& with the wire G, a fmart (hock, will be felt, hom _
the combined aftion of the three columns or piles.
The inconveniences of the pile, as we have already
hinted, were foon felt by thofe who were eager in the
inveffigation of galvanifm, and who wiflied their ex¬
periments to continue with undiminiftied energy, that
they might be enabled to afeertain with precifion the
new and curious facts which prefented themfelves.
Thefe inconveniences, it is very probable, luggefted
the improvements in galvanic apparatus which we are
now to defer ibe.
By the invention of the trough, for which we are
indebted to the ingenuity of Mr Cruiklhank of Wool¬
wich, the progrefs of galvanifm became rapid and bril¬
liant •, for by this means phHofophers were enabled not
only to give a longer duration to their experiments,
but to command a degree of energy in the galvanic
fluid which, before the difeovery of this apparatus,
was not even fufpefted. This apparatus, we believe,
is now almoft univerfally employed for galvanic expe¬
riments. We (hall therefore give a more detailed ac¬
count of the method of conftruefing and ufing it.
Troughs with plates of various (izes have been con-
ftructed, from 2 to 6, 8, and even 14 inches fquare j
but as an example, we (hall fuppofe the following
trough to be conftructed with plates of about four
inches fquare. A wooden trough AB, fig. 13 • is to be
made of baked mahogany •, the length may be about
40 inches, and, as we (hall fuppofe the number of
pairs of plates to be 50, an equal number of grooves
J . 1 .... ti,^ onrl 1-u.tinm of the iniicle or
N I S M.
\s to be cut on the fides and bottom of the inlide of
the trough. Thefe grooves are to be cut at equal dif-
tances from each other, and the width of each groove
Part I.
which it is faid has fucceeded beft in forming plates of Conftmc.
any confiderable fize is the following. The zinc °f
which the plates are to be compofed is to be melted
in a narrow-mouthed veffel, fo that a fmall furface of
fufed metal may be expofed. The reafon of this is, that
the metal when it reaches a certain temperature is very
rapidly oxidated in confequence of the ftrong affinity
between this metal and oxygen. The metal in this date
is converted into a fine flocculent fubftance, known by
the name of flowers of zinc. This change therefore,
as it is attended with a lofs of the metal, is to be as
much as poffible avoided. A mould of (tone of the di-
menfions of the propoled plates (in this cafe four in¬
ches), and about one-eighth of an inch in thicknefs, is
to be prepared 5 but one formed of brafs is found to
anfwer the purpofe (till better. Wffien the metal is in
perfect fufion, the plates flmuld be caff as quickly as
poffible, becaufe, as the metal cools rapidly, cavities and
Amperfe&ions would appear on the furface from its flow¬
ing unequally.
‘The plates of zinc being prepared, plates of copper
which need not exceed one-tenth of the thicknefs of the
zinc plates are to be cut out of a (beet of copper to the
requifite dimenfions, viz. cbrrefponding to the fize of the
zinc plates. The copper plates mult be reduced by
hammering to a fmooth and plane furface that they may
apply exactly to the furface of the zinc plates, and be
in contact in as many points as poflible. I5
The plates being thus prepared are to be foldered to-Solderb?
gether •, but it mult be obferved that it is not to be the plaits,
through the whole extent of the plate. It is found
quite lufficient to folder them about one-fourth of an
inch from the edges. The folder employed for this
purpoie is foft folder } and great precaution mult be
obferved that the union at the edges be fo dole as to?
prevent any of the liquid with which the cells in the
trough are to be filled from entering between the plates j
for otherwife the power of its aftion would be greatly
interrupted or perhaps entirely deltroyed.
The operation of (oldering was performed with con-
fiderable difficulty by many workmen j at lead, it w as
found that in many cafes the plates were either not ia
contact when the dimenfions were large, or the joints
were not perfectly fecure. We are not certain in what
way this, operation is generally performed, but we know
that this difficulty has been obviated by the following
contrivance. The infide angles on the edges of the
plates, that is, on the fides of the plates which are to
be united together, are filed away, fo that, when the
plates are brought into clofe contaft, a triangular groove
si i .1. _ j ..r remains. hlS
tances from each other, and the w-iatn 01 e&d„e of the pair of plates remains. This
is to be/uch, as to ^rofpond ‘htoknefe rf *1 o»nd ^ of ft. p ^ ^ ;s con.
.14 ,
Cafting of
the zinc
plates.
each pair of plates, fo that the latter may (lip eafily into
the grooves. . , , i j
The plates are like thofe which have been already
deferibed in the conftruction of the pile made of zinc
and copper. No difficulty has ever occurred in pro¬
curing plates of copper for this purpofe •, became all
that is neceffary is to cut them out of (beets of cop¬
per of the requifite thicknefs to any fize that is want¬
ed. But the cafe has been very different with regard
to plates of zinc, efpecially where large plates w-ere re¬
quired Attempts have been made to caff them in
moulds of fand, fuch as are ufed for cafting different
utenfils of other metals j but tbefe attempts it would
appear, have been generally unfuccefsful. The method
groove is filled with folder, and the operation is con-
dufted in the ufual way. Plates foldered according to
this contrivance have been found to anfwer the purpoie
extremely well. But this inconvenience is now rendered
lefs embarraffing fince the difeovery of rendering zinc
malleable and flexible was made, for plates of zinc ot
this defeription are of a much more equal thickrteis,
are thinner and fmoother, fo that the copper can be
brought into a clofer contaft. The plates which have
been prepared of malleable zinc have the copper folded
over the edge of the zinc plates, and in. this way they
are fecured without difficulty, by foldering.
In whatever way the pairs of plates are to be fecured,
fo that they may remain in clofe contaa, they are atter-
J wards
I fart I. G A L V
,, i ionftruc- wards to be Exed in the grooves of the box prepared
uonot for their reception j and here it is to be obferved that
^paTatus., eac|1 individual pa;r 0f plates is to be completely iniu-
lated. This is done by means of a particular kind of
cement, the ufe of which is not only to retain the pairs
of plates in their places, and to render their iniulation
complete, but alfo to defend the wood of the box againlt
the aftion of the fluid which is employed to fill the cells
of the trough.
16
ment for cement which is employed for this purpofe is
curing the compofed of rofin, bees-wax, and fine brick dull, or
Uid t
£- ;;he
fc;gh.
powdered red ochre. Different proportions of theie
fubftances, it would appear, have been recommended in
the conftru&ion of galvanic troughs. According to
fome, five parts of rofin, four of bees-wax, and two of
powdered red ochre, are found to anfwer this purpofe
extremely well. The rofin and bees-wax are melted
together, that they may be completely incorporated,
and the red ochre is afterwards added. According to
others, four ounces of bees-wax, eight ounces of rofin,
and about an ounce of fine brick dud, melted together
in the fame way, are alfo found to anfwer the fame
purpofe equally well. With this cement the pairs of
plates are fecured in the grooves, and the intervening
fpaces on the infide of the bottom and fides of the
trough are alfo covered with it, to defend the wood
from the aflion of the fluid. It is fcarcely neceffary
to obferve, that the plates are to be arranged in the
fame way throughout the trough as the firft pair} that
is, if the copper fide of the firft pair of plates be
towards the end of the trough at B, all the other
pairs are to be fo arranged as to have their copper
fides towards the fame point B, and the zinc fides
towards the other end of the trough A. The plates
being arranged in this way, the end of the trough B
is called the copper end of the trough or battery, and
the end A is called the zinc end.
Superior advantages are derived from arranging the
plates in this way, to that of conftruftihg them in the
method defcribed for the pile ; for in this way the
fluid can be applied more equally and with greater
facility j the apparatus is more convenient for per¬
forming experiments 5 its aftion continues for a con-
fiderably longer time, and there is little or no trouble
in cleaning the plates after the operation. It is other-
wife with the pile, for, after it has been once ufed,
the furface of the zinc plates is fo much oxidated,
that before they can be employed again, they muft
be fcoured or filled, which, it is obvious, muft be a
troublefome and tedious procefs ; but in the trough
the oxidated furface of the plates is cleaned in every
mcceffive operation, the fluid which is employed dif-
folving the oxide which has collected on the furface of
the zinc plates.
In treating of the conftruflion and a ft ion of the pile,
we have already obferved that different laline folutions
were employed, to moiften the pieces of cloth or pafte-
board interpofed between the pairs of plates. Thefe fo-
lutions were muriate of foda or common fait, muriate of
ammonia or fal ammoniac, and fometimes fulphate of
potalfi. Similar folutions will anfwer the purpofe of
filling the cells of the trough, but thefe are found to be
weaker than folutions of the acids 5 and, befides, as
they are apt to cryftalbze on the plates, it becomes ex¬
tremely troublefome to clean the trough. Acid folutions.
Vol. IX. Part I.
A N I S M, 337
therefore, which are more powerful* have been proper- Conftmc-
’ ^ ’ ’ *    " • - tion of
ly preferred •, and the acid which teems to anfwer beft, t101
on different accounts, is the nitric 5 the proportion to be
employed, it is obvious, muft vary according to the
Itrength of the acid. Of the common acid ol the Ihops,
one part with 16 of water will form a pretty affive
mixture ; but when the acid is ftronger* it may be ne-
ceflary to add 20 parts of water. But this mixture is
attended with the inconvenience of the evolution of ni¬
trous gas, which, it is w’ell known, is extremely difa-
greeable, and is injurious to refpiration ; and, on ac¬
count ol the high price of nitric acid, when a large
quantity of this mixture is required, it becomes very
expenlive. Sulphuric acid mixed with water has alio
been employed lor the fame purpofe, and it is found to
anfwer very well. The ufe of this acid, however, is
liable to many ftrious obje&ions. Its aftion is too
rapid 5 and, by its operation on the zinc, hydrogen gas
is difengaged in fuch quantity as to be inconvenient
to the operator. So much heat is evolved during its
aflion, that the cement which is ufed for fecuring the
plates in the trough, is apt to be rendered loft and
loolened. Muriatic acid alfo has been employed, and
this is recommended by fome as in different refpefts the
moft convenient. One part of muriatic acid and 16 of
water form a mixture which anfwers the purpofe ex¬
tremely well. The aftion of this mixture is flow and
uniform, and the quantity of hydrogen gas which is
evolved is lo fmall as to produce little inconvenience.
The ufe of this acid is attended with another advantage,
that the plates are kept uniformly clean.
Whatever mixture has been employed, unlefs the
operation has been continued for a very long time,
when it is emptied from the trough, it may be bottled
up, and referved for future ufe 5 and if the moft power¬
ful ailion of the trough is not requiied, the fame mix¬
ture may be employed feveral times. Here it may be
worth while to notice, that the precaution of emptying
the trough Ihould be invariably obferved, as foon as the
experiments lor which it was filled and prepared are
finilhed } by this management there will be a confider-
able faving, both of the fluid and of the furface of the
plates, which undergo oxidation. In filling the trough
with the fluid, it Ihould be obferved that it does ifot
rife higher than about -J- of an inch from the upper edge
of the plates j and after the filling of the trough is
completed, the upper edges of the plates, as well as the
edges of the trough, fliould be carefully wiped dry, that
there may be no communication between the fluid in
the cells, but through the metallic fubftances.
Atrough compofed of 50 platesof three inches fquarC,
will be found fuitable for a great variety of ufeful and
entertaining experiments j but when it is found neceffary
to produce a more powerful aflion of the galvanic fluid
a greater number of pairs of plates, or the fame num¬
ber with a larger furface, according to the nature of the
aftion required, muft be employed. We have already
obferved, that feveral columns or piles may be fo ton-
ftrufled as to have the full effeff of their combined
aflion, in the fame way as if they formed a Angle pile.
By fimilar management, different troughs or batteries
may be fo arranged as to combine together the effefls
of each, as if they confti.uted a Angle trough or battery.
And all that is neceflary to obferve is, that to whatever
extent the feries may be carried, the furface of each of
U u the
atus.
338
.Conftrr.c-
tion of
G A L V
the plates mu ft be oppofed to the furface of-a different
plate j as, for inftance, the zinc furface of one of the
■Apparatus. ^lates muft cynftantly oppofxte to the copper furface
of the next plate in the feries. The different troughs
thus uniformly arranged, are to be conne&ed together
.by means of metallic conductors. A flip of copper, for
inftance, about half the width of the trough, is inierted
by its oppoflte extremities in the cells of the ends of
two of the troughs.
When the plates are of very large fize, their weight,
with that of the quantity of fluid required to fill the
cells, renders the trough very unmanageable. It is then
neceffary to fix it in a frame of fufficient flrength, to
fupport its weight by means of axles of brafs or iron,
fixed to the outfide of the box. By this contrivance
the fluid can be eafily poured out into a proper veffel
placed under the trough.
We (hall afterwards fpeak more particularly of the
effetfts of plates of different extent of furface5 here,
however, it may be neceffary to obferve, that in com¬
bining top-ether two or more troughs or batteries, to
have the full effedft of fuch a number of plates as may
be employed, in proportion to the extent of their fur-
faces, the furface of the plates in each trough ftiould be
the fame, otherwife, if troughs of different extent of
furfaces be employed, the aftion of that trough which
has the largeft furface is diminilhed, and reduced to that
of the aclion of the trough whofe plates have the fmalleft
extent of furface. This circumitance is neceffary to be
attended to, for, if it be overlooked in the eonftruftion
or combination of different batteries, the effecls will be
fo feeble as to produce difappointment without the caufe
being known.
In m king experiments with the trough, the com¬
munication is to be formed between the two extremities,
or the circle is to be completed in the lame way as has
been already dire£led in the management of the pile.
For this purpofe there is a projecting piece of wood
fixed to the upper edge of each of the ends of the trough ;
this is perforated fo as to admit a piece of wire which
paffes through to the fluid in the two laft cells at the
extremity of the trough. If then the wires are placed
in this fituation, and the moiftened fingers of one hand
touch the wire at one extremity, while the moiftened
fingers of the other hand are brought into contaCl with
the wire at the other extremity of the trough, a (hock
will be felt •, and in this way the circle is completed.
The other parts of the apparatus which are neceffary
to conduCl experiments with a trough of this defeription,
are fo Ample as fcarcely to require any particular de¬
feription. All that is wanted for deflagrating metals is
to have a bent wire fixed at one extremity of the
trough, and to have a polithed plate of copper or zinc
communicating with the other extremity of the trough
by means of a flexible wire. The metal to be defla¬
grated is placed upon the bent wire, and the metallic
plate is brought into contaft with it.
The apparatus for the decompofition of water is the
following. A glafs tube, G, H. fig. 11. about three
inches long, and 4 inch in diameter, is furnilhed with a
tight cork at the upper end G, through which cork the
wire i communicating with the upper part of the pile,
paffes. It may be alfo furnilhed with a cork at the
other extremity H, but this mull have grooves cut on
Apparatus
rS
Apparatus
for decoiu-
pofing
water.
A N I S M. Parti
its fides, to allow the water to efcape from the tube. Conftru^.J
The wire K communicating with the bottom of the Uonof
pile, pafles through this cork ; or without the cork at
this extremity, if the tube is retained in its perpendi¬
cular pofition by any other contrivance, the wire K may
be pa fled within the tube. When this operation is to
commence, the tube is to be filled with water, the cork
at the upper extremity G being made air-tight, and
then it is to be inverted, and the extremity H to be
placed in a fmall cup or bafon of water ; after which the
wire K being introduced, the circle is completed be¬
tween the wires through the medium of the water in
the tube, the decompofition of which will go on as long
as the communication and the aftion of the pile are
continued. This procefs will be obferved by bubbles
of air efcaping from one of the wires, and rifing to the
lop of the tube; or if the wires are of gold or of platina,
bubbles of air will be feen pafling from the extremity
of both w ires, and this air colle&ing at the top of the
tube, forces out a quantity of water equal to the fpace
which it occupies. The fame experiment may be made
by means of a ftill Ampler apparatus. If the wires com¬
municating with the extremities of the pile are intro¬
duced into a fmall glafs phial filled with water, and in¬
verted in a bafon of water, the fame procefs of decom¬
pofition will go on.
But an apparatus which is rather more complicated,
but at the fame time fufficiently convenient, is ufually
employed for this purpofe. A Imall brafs cup I£, fig.
13. is fupported by the wire F, which is fixed in the
hole of the projecting piece of wood D, at one end of
the trough ; from the centre of the cup there arifes a
pair of brafs pincers, which hold a piece of wire of gold
or platina G. Over the pincers is placed a glals tube
HI, which has at the upper extremity, I, a brais cap,
to the infide of which is fixed another piece of wire of
gold or platina. The two wires fhould be at a little
diftance from each other, as they appear in the figure.
The tube is then filled with water, and is inverted over
the pincers in the brafs cup, which is alfo filled with
water $ and thus, by means of the water in the tube, a
communication is formed between the two wires. A
wire proceeding from the other extremity of the trough
C, is conneCIed with the top of the tube I, and, as foon
as this communication is formed, the proceft of the de¬
compofition of the water in the tube commences; for
the galvanic circle, or the communication between the
extremities of the trough or battery is completed. The
gafes, as they are difengaged from the wires in the
tube, rife to the top, and the water which occupied the
fpace now filled with air, is forced out into the cup.
This procefs goes on as long as the communication con¬
tinues, or till the furface of the water is lower than the
extremity of the upper wire, when the communication
is interrupted, and then the operation ceafes.
With thefe obfervations we conclude what was intend¬
ed to be faid concerning the conftru&ion of galvanic ap¬
paratus. We (hall notice what may be farther necef¬
fary to be explained, in the courfe of the detail which
is to be given of the experiments in galvanifm, or of
the influence of the galvanic fluid on animals, as well
as its chemical effects. We, therefore, now proceed,
in the following chapter, to the conflderation of fome of
thefe phenomena.
Chap,
Part T.
Effedls of
OalvanH'm
In Anima's.
GALVANISM,
339
\nimal
dedlricity.
upen-
jients of
/alii and
pe French
ihilofo-
hers.
Chap. II. Of the EjfefiPi' of the Galvanic Fluid cn
Animals.
It has been already obferved, that the firft effefls of
galvanifm were exhibited on animals j and indeed it was
fuppofed that thefe effefts could only be exhibited by
means of animals •, and hence, from the coincidence
which was obferved with the properties of eleftricity
already known, it was denominated animalelt&ricity.
The firft experiments which were made in invefti-
gating the nature and properties of the galvanic fluid,
were chiefly performed on cold-blooded animals. It
wras indeed from obferving its effects on them, as we
fhall find afterwards in tracing its hilfory, that the
difeovery was firft made. This difeovery was made on
the frog, and fince that time the frog has been oftener
the fubjeft of galvanic experiments than any other
animal. From being found in great numbers, from
being conveniently got, as well as from the irritability
of the mufcular fibre, as it is denominated by phyfiolo-
gifts, continuing for a long time, it has perhaps be¬
come the devoted viftim of thefe investigations.
We have already mentioned a fimple experiment
with a prepared frog, in which it forms the communi¬
cation between tw^o diflimilar metals. When the frog,
as in fig. i. is prepared, that is, fleinned, and the lower
extremities feparated from the fpine, and fufpended on
the zinc wire AB, if the extremities of the frog be
touched with a different metallic fubftance, fuch as gold
or filver, rvhile this metallic fubftance is in contaft
with the zinc wire at the point D, the limbs of the frog
are thrown into convulfions, and this takes place as often
as the communication is formed.
Soon after the difeovery of Galvani, and after the
refult of his experiments and opinions on the fubjeft of
this difeovery vras announced to the world, the attention
of philofophers became much occupied in repeating and
extending thefe experiments. Among others, Valli, an
Italian phyfieian, inftituted a feries of experiments, an
account of which was communicated to the French
philofophers, who foon after repeated them. As thefe
experiments afford us not only a pretty full view of
the effects of the galvanic fluid on animals, but alfo
the ftate of galvanifm at the time, we lhall here detail
them.
Experiment I.—When two metallic coatings or flips
of metal, the one of lead, and the other of filver,
were placed on a frog, faftened to a table, the coating
of lead being placed on the belly of the animal, and that
of filver on the pelvis, and a communication being formed
by means of a flip or wire of copper, ftrong convulfive
motions were produced in the animal.
Exper. 2.—The coating or flip of lead which was
employed in the preceding experiment, was removed,
and the abdomen was left bare. The copper wire was
then applied to the abdomen the fame way as before,
while its other extremity w'as in contaft with the
coating of filver on the pelvis; convulfive motions were
ftill produced, but they were lefs fenfible than in the
former experiment, and fometimes did not fucceed at
all.
Exper. 3.—When two coatings of the fame metal
were employed, as, for inftance, filver or gold, the
effefts produced by means of copper forming the com¬
munication, were found to be much fuller; and when Ffhctsof
the coatings were of fimflar metals, fuch as copper, lead,
or tin, and the metal forming the communication was ‘‘
the fame, no effeft whatever was produced.
Exper. 4.—By placing the coating on the abdomen
in a horizontal diredlion, fo that the points of contact
became lefs numerous, the effedls were found to be pro¬
portionally diminiftied ; but when the coating was
brought into full contact with the furface of the ab¬
domen, it was obferved that they became equally
pow'erful as before.
Exper. 5.—A frog was fkinned and cut tranfverfely
through the middle; the nerves of the thighs were laid
bare, joined together, and placed bn a flip of gold,
Avhile the thighs themfelves were in contadl with a
piece of filver. When the metallic conductor of copper
was applied, flight contractions were produced. It vas
found alfo that contractions took place w'hen both the
coatings were of filver ; but when coatings of tin,
copper, or lead, were fubftituted for the filver coating
which furrounded the nerves, powerful contractions
took place. The gradation obferved in the aCtion of
the metals, is the following. Lead produced the
ftrongeft contractions, next the tin, and laftly the
copper ; but in proportion as the vitality of the animal
diminiihed, the metals were found alfo to lofe their
power of producing motion. The metals which re¬
tained this property longeft were lead, tin, and zinc.
Exper. 6.—When plumbers lead was employed on
each fide as a coating, and when The metal forming the
communication was the fame, no effeCt was produced ;
but when lead of different qualities, as, for iniiance, lead
of the affayer and plumbers lead, was ufed, and the
metal forming the communication being either the one
or the other, very fingular effeCls took place.
While it was found that thefe two kinds of lead, by
changing the different metals, were no longer fufeep-
tible of producing any effeCt in one of the coatings,
filver, gold, bifmuth, antimony, or zinc, fubftituted for
the lead, produced very powerful contractions ; and,
what feemed ftill more fingular, when the pieces of lead
in the firft part of this experiment were re-applied,
flight convulfions took place.
Exper. 7.—After a thort interruption of the experi¬
ments on the fame animal, it appeared that it became
fufceptible of pretty ftrong convulfive motions, when
the lame experiments were repeated.
Exper. 8.—When the galvanic power feemed to be
nearly exhaufted in the frog, it was found that the
different metals, when they produced, by their contaft,
newr convulfions, did not, when this effeCl could be no
longer produced, leave to the animal the power of ex¬
hibiting anew any contraClions w ith coatings of the dif¬
ferent kinds of lead, as in experiment 6.
Exper. 9.—The following is the gradation of the
diminution of effeCt, till it entirely ceafed, w'hen the
plumbers lead always formed one of the coatings.
With the affayers lead forming the other coating,
the aCtion became feeble, and it at laft ceafed. The
next in order was tin, the next antimony, and fo on
in the order in which they are named as follows :
zinc, copper, gold, filver. Iron, it was obferved, had
loft its power of producing any effeCt before the anti¬
mony ; but rvhether it was deprived of this property'
before lead and tin, was not afeertained.
U u 2 Exper. 10,
34* p ..
Effea? of Exper. ic.—Zinc, «n lofing the property of exciting
Galvanifm conVulfions in a frog, on which experiments had been
on Animals made £or an hour^ was not £oun(i fufeeptible of any
l" v farther a6Hon, when the communication was formed
by means of lead \ but it was obferved as a very
lingular circumftance, that contraftions were ftill pro-
duced by this metal the moment that the perl'on en¬
gaged in the experiment removed the conduftor, and
interrupted the circle. This experiment was frequent¬
ly repeated.
Exper. ii.—The upper part of a frog which was
Ikinned, and divided tranlverfely, had the crural nerves,
as in the former experiments, armed with a piece of
lead, and placed in a glafs filled with water, while the
lower part was placed in another glafs, alfo filled with
water. Strong contraftions were produced when the
communication was formed by means of different per-
fons holding each other by the hand, while two of them
touched the water in the glaffes. One of them held in
his hand a piece of metal, which was brought into con-
taft with the coating of lead.
Exper. 12.—When any one individual of the perfons
who thus formed the chain of communication between
the two glaffes withdrew himfelf, fo that the communi¬
cation was interrupted, no efteft was perceptible.
Exper. 13.—When the frog was arranged in the
fame way as in experiment II. having its parts placed
in two glaffes, no motion was excited when a communi¬
cation was eftablifhed with two fingers} nor was any
motion produced, when a perfon with one hand armed
with a piece of metal, touched the body of the frog,
while he brought a finger of the other hand in contact
with the metallic coating of the crural nerves. But by
placing one finger on the inferior part of the frog, he
touched with a piece of metal the coatings of the nerves,
powerful contractions were produced.
Exper. 14.—When the animal w'as touched with a
metallic fubllance in an infulated ftate, no perceptible
effeft was obferved ; but when the metals ceafed to be
infulated, very conliderable motions were invariably pro¬
duced.
Exper. 15.—The fore leg of a rabbit was feparated
from the body the brachial nerves were laid bare,
and armed wfith a bit of Iheet lead. 1 he communi¬
cation between the lead on the nerve and one of the
contiguous mufcles w'as made with a piece of iilver, and
ftrong convulfive contractions took place in the limb ;
but when this experiment was varied, by fubftituting
for the metallic conductors, plumbers and affayers
lead, no farther motion was produced. When one of
the coatings employed was lead, and the other iron,
no perceptible motion was obferved. But when lead as
one of the coatings, was employed with filver, gold,
copper, zinc, or antimony, as the other coating, the
motions and contractions of the limb were renewed.
The motions were very flight, which were produced
by means of a coating of bifmuth, along with a coating
of lead.
Exper. 16.—This experiment was inftituted to afeer-
tain the ftate of the eleCtricity in the animal which was
the fubjeCt of it. With this view, the animal w as pla¬
ced in a veffel containing one or two of Coulomb’s elec¬
trometers, and it was then fucceffively eleCtrified, both
pofitively and negatively •, and in both of thefe cafes
the balls of the electrometer were fo much influenced
Part I,
by the animal, as to fhewq not only that its eleCfricity Effetfsof
was in a ftate of perfeCt reft, both before and during Galvanifai
the time of the experiment, but alfo to exhibit in theon An'^aU
fyltem of the body on which the experiment was made, ’ !
in a very diftinft and ftriking manner, phenomena quite
analogous to thofe of the Leyden phial.
Exper. 17.—The left crural nerve of a living frog
being tied with a ligature fo ftrongly, that the animal
was deprived of the power of motion in that part of the
limb below the point where the ligature was fixed; but
when the nerve was armed with a metallic coating, in
the way deferibed in the former experiments, and a
communication was formed between the part of the
nerve above the ligature and the mufcle, the motion
and contraction of the limb w ere excited.
Exper. 18.—The ligature was afterwards placed on
the left crural nerve, and brought in contaCt with the
mufcle. It w’as alfo fixed in fuch a way on the right
crural nerve, fo that part of it projected: the left part
of the animal was then quite paralytic, and w ithout mo¬
tion, and the convulfive contractions which were pro¬
duced when the communication was formed, were en¬
tirely limited to the right fide ; but when the fame
left crural nerve wras more completely laid bare, and fe¬
parated from the mufcular fubftance which furrounded
it, its conducting power w as reftored, and the commu¬
nication being eftablilhed, the convulfive motions be¬
came pretty ftrong. When, however, the ligature was
again brought into contaCt wfith the mufcle, the limb
was again deprived of its power of motion.
Exper. 19.—One of the crural nerves of a frog be¬
ing laid bare, was armed with a piece of Iheet lead ; and
a communication having been formed between this
nerve and the other crural nerve, which was unarmed,
very ftrong convulfive motions were produced.
Exper. 20.—When one of the crural nerves w as arm¬
ed with two pieces of lead at different places in its
courfe, and a communication formed between the two
parts by a metallic conduClor, violent agitations follow'-
ed. It ivas obferved, too, that the fame effeCts took
place, when the whole of the nerve was laid bare, and
completely feparated from the furrounding mufcle.
Exper. 21.—A fimilar experiment was made on a
hot-blooded living animal. The animal feleCted for
this purpofe was a guinea pig ; but when the communi¬
cation was eftablilhed in the ufual way, no effeCt follow¬
ed, from which any thing precife or fatisfaftory could
be deduced. _ 21
With a view to difeover during^ what length of Length of
time frogs, which were made the fubjefts of theie ex-
periments, could refill their eftefts, and retain the^jjnv
power of having motion excited in them, Valli made^ycedon
a number of experiments. At 10 o’clock at night he frogs,
prepared two frogs, which on the following morning
at feven o’clock he found had become extremely feeble,
but not entirely deprived of the power of motion.
Slight convullions were excited in both by means of the
galvanic apparatus; but an hour having elapled they
ceafed to afford any farther fymptoras of vitality. No
effort that could be made, fucceeded in producing mo¬
tion. In other cafes he prepared frogs, which by the
following morning were found to be quite dry, and
then no fymptoms of motion could be exhioited. He
feparated feveral of the mufcles from the body of a
frog, and after having torn them, he found it impoflible
GALVANISM.
Part I.
GALVANISM.
34i
Effeds of
IDaivanifm
jn Animais.
22
Effects of
narcotics
on animals
mbjefted
►0 galva-
nifm.
23
Of hydro¬
gen gas,
kc.
,• J4
cfterence
effedl in
)plying
ie con-
•idtor.
to excite the irritability by any mechanical ftimulus
whatever ; but, after previous preparation, and by
means of a metallic condu&or, motion was produced.
The fame naturaliit made a variety of experiments,
to afcertain the effects of galvanifm on animals which
were deftroyed with opium, and other narcotic fubitan-
ces •, but the refults of his experiments on animals to
which opium had been exhibited internally, as well as
applied externally, were found to be very different from
each other. Four frogs were deilroyed by means of
powdered tobacco, were rendered completely infenfible
to any mechanical ftimulus, and feemed to be in a ftate
of total ftupefaftion j but by the application of the gal¬
vanic apparatus, fymptoms of vitality appeared, and
flight motions were produced. A number of lizards
being poifoned with tobacco, exhibited, at the time of
their death, convulfive motions j but they ftill conti¬
nued to afford fymptoms of vitality and motion on the
application of galvanifm.
Animals were deftroyed in a variety of ways, with a
view of afcertaining what were the effects of galvanifm,
after the principle of life feemed to be extinguilhed. A
fmall bird, which wras for fome time immerfed in hy¬
drogen gas, or inflammable air, {hewed no fymptoms of
vitality or motion j but, on the application of galva¬
nifm, convullive contraftions of its limbs were produ¬
ced. Two kittens were killed in azotic gas, and the
fore legs were feparated and prepared in the ufual way.
The fame effects were produced as in the experiment
with the bird.
Some animals were deftroyed with the extraft of
hemlock 5 but it did not appear that the effects on the
application of the galvanic apparatus were at all dimi-
nithed by means of this poifon. In frogs which were
expofed to the exhalation of corrupted animal matters,
perceptible motions were obferved by means of galva¬
nifm •, but thefe w'ere very feeble.
Mofcati deprived feveral frogs of life, by placing
them in the vacuum of an air pump j and when thefe
were fubje£ted to experiment with the galvanic appara¬
tus, flight motions were produced j but it was obferved
that thefe, although they followed each other in rapid
fucceflion, were excited with fome difficulty. Here it
W'as found that the blood was extravafated in the cellu¬
lar membrane of the mufcles, by which the flefli was
tinged with a deep red colour. To this cireumftance
was afcribed the feeble effe£fs produced in the above
experiment, as it was fuppofed that the blood carried
off part of the galvanic fluid, and thus prevented its
action on the mufcular fibres, through the medium of
the nerves. This opinion was fupported by another ex¬
periment, which was made on prepared frogs, in w hich
there was no extravafation of blood 3 and in this cafe
the galvanic effedts did not feem to be in any degree
diminifhed.
Before proceeding farther with an account of the ex¬
periments of the particular effects of galvanifm on ani¬
mals, we (hall here relate two of a more general nature,
the one with regard to the effedts produced by the pe¬
culiar application of the metallic condudtor, and the
other with refpect to the velocity of the galvanic fluid
being increafcd, without increafing its intenlity.
A difference, which appeared to be a very Angular
fadt, was obferved in the mode of applying the metallic
conductor, to excite motion in animals by means of
galvanifm. It was found, that the motions produced Effects of
in the animal by this means were generally more power- Galvs!niflJt
ful, when the condudlor was applied, firit to the.on An‘ma ,
mufcles, and then to the coating, than if the reverfe
had taken place ; that is, by applying firft to the coat¬
ing, and afterwards to the mufcles} and indeed when
the galvanic power began to be nearly exhaufted, no
motion whatever could be excited when the application
was made, firft to the coating and then to the mufcles,
while at the fame time, by the contrary mode of appli¬
cation, motion could be eafily produced.
The other faff alluded to is, that the velocity of the Velodty of
galvanic fluid may be increafed without increafing the the f;aiva-
degree of its intenfity. This was proved by M. Valli™0 flu!d
in the following experiment. By means of a chain,1"
which was in contadt with the nerves of a prepared frog, incre°afe of
he completed the galvanic circle. The animal at firft intenfity.
exhibited convulfive contradlions, but afterwards re¬
mained for fome time without motion. When the con¬
ductor was removed to a very fmall diftance, motion
was again excited in the animal 3 foon after, however,
this ceafed. But when an infulated conductor was
brought to the mufcles of the frog, the motions were
immediately renewed 3 and when they again ceafed, a
communication being formed between the operator him-
felf and the conductor, the contractions were again ex¬
cited. The conclufion which he deduced from the
above experiment was, that the galvanic influence is
conftantly the fame, however various the modes of its
application. J.he lame refult, however, he obferves,
would not be obtained, if the experiment were made
on an animal in which the principle of life was in full
vigour.
From a number of experiments which were made by
the fame phyfiologift, it appeared that certain intervals
were neceffary, in order to obtain the fame intenfity of
action in animals fubje&ed to the influence of the gal¬
vanic fluid. Frogs, mice, rats, and tortoifes, were the
lubje&s of thefe experiments 3 they were deftroyed by
means of different poifons, or by refpiring fome of the
noxious gafes. In applying the galvanic apparatus to
thefe animals, an interval of feveral minutes was requir¬
ed, when the motions excited became feeble, or had
nearly ceafed 3 and then, after this interval had elapfed,
the fame effects, and almoft equally powerful, as before,
were produced.
With regard to the condu&ing power of the blood-Cond2u^;n(r
veffels, two queftions were propofed to Valli, by Vicq power of °
D’Azyr. 1. Whether the blood-veffels are to be con-blood vef-
fidered as conductors of the galvanic fluid. And 2.fels inveft*"
Whether, by coating the blood-veffels inftead of’thesated'
nerves, any motion through their medium could be ex¬
cited ? In the folution of thefe queftions Valli obferved,
that the blood-veffels are undoubtedly to be confidered
as conductors of the galvanic fluid 5 but in whatever
way this is effeCted, it feems to be through the
nerves alone, in confequence of the way in which they
are difpofed, that mufcular motion can be excited.
The arteries and veins, he farther obferves, are to be
confidered as lefs powerful conductors than the nerves 3
for no motion is obtained, if the veffels, without hav¬
ing any communication with the nerves be diftributed
direCtly to the mufcles. The tendons alfo, when the
fame communication is eftablifhed, are alfo conductors
as well as the bones, if they have not been deprived of
the
3|2
EiTecfts of
Calvanifm
Oii Animals
27
Efi'jdls on
drowned
animals,
&c.
G A L V A N I S M.. Part I.
the perioileum. The membranes alfo poflefs this con- fedts on frogs fomewhat fimilar. The heart was indeed Effcftsof
dufting power; but exhibit no motions when the com- obferved to palpitate after the death of the animal >0^a*vanirra :
munication with the nerves is interrupted. but, in general, the eontraaions which were induced'1''
It had been obferved, that the nerves, when dry, by galvanifm were extremely feeble,
exhibited, by means of friaion, fome fymptoms of elec- It would lead us too much into detail to mention all
tricity. With a view to afcertain whether, in this dry the experiments which were made by this naturalift.
Hate, the nerves were condudprs of the galvanic fluid’, We {hall therefore only add a flrort account of the ge-
and whether motions could be excited through this me- neral refults.
dium, Valli made feveral experiments ; but in all thefe 1. In frogs newly killed, he found, that a Angle me-Refults of
he was unfuccefsful, for no motion was produced. In tallic conduaor was fufficient to excite conyulfive con-VaJli’s ex.
a feries of experiments which were made on fowls, he traaions ; and that in producing thefe motions, it wasPtriments*
found that ligatures applied to the nerves, did not pre- not found effentially neceffary to apply a coating either
vent the contradions of the mufcles, provided thefe li- to the mufcle or nerve. Sciflars, in which the fled ap-
gatures were not applied to the nerves in immediate peared to be of a bad quality, might be luccefsfully
contad with the mufeles. -employed as a condudor ; but gold, filver, copper, lead,
In order to afcertain what would be the effeds of the and tin, in general, produced no efted.
galvanic fluid on animals which were drowned or fuffo- 2. The galvanic fluid was found to pafs through glafs
cated, Valli made a number of experiments. Several and lealmg wax ; but it was neceflary that thefe lub-
pullets were drowned, and kept fo long under water, fiances fliould have their temperature confiderably in-
that no fymptoms of life appeared. By the application creafed.
of the galvanic apparatus, mufcular contradions were 3. Water in which the temperature was pretty high,
produced in fome, while others, by the fame applica- or when raifed to the boiling point, feemed to prevent
tion, exhibited no motion whatever. The fame experi- the effeds of galvanifm from taking place, or at leaft
ment was repeated on fix pullets, which were alfo diminifh them greatly.
drowned ; and on the application of the apparatus, 4. Water, the temperature of which was very much
ftrong convulfive motions were produced. Ihefe con- reduced, feemed alio to be deprived of the property oi
tinued for nearly the fpace of an hour. In others which conduding the galvanic fluid.
were alfo drowned, the brain and wings were laid bare; 5. It was found, that when an individual formed
and after this previous preparation, when the galvanic part of the chain in cafes where the galvanic apparatus
apparatus was applied, ftrong mufcular contradions were was applied to the prepared feet of rabbits, cats, and
excited : none of the animals, however, as was expeded, dogs, the latter were unfufceptible of motion,
were reftored to life. Similar experiments, followed 6. The diaphragm of a dog was immerfed in a veffel
by the fame refult, were made on rabbits. of water, and fo placed in the veffel, that the phrenic
Several pullets were expofed to the adion of different nerve, previoufiy armed, projeded from it; and cm
gafes, as hydrogen, nitrous, and azotic gafes, and did touching the coating with a piece of gold or filver coin,
not afterwards, by any mechanical ftimulus whatever while one of the fingers of the other hand was put into
that could be applied, exhibit fymptoms of life. The the water, feeble contradions were excited in the
galvanic apparatus being applied, very feeble contrac- mufcle. In fome other experiments on the fame mufcle
lions were produced ; and thefe fucceeded each other of horfes, it was found that no motion could be induced
after long intervals. Similar experiments were made by means of galvanifm, while the fame power, with the
with the fame view, on frogs, and it appeared that thefe fame intenfity, conftantly excited contradions in that
animals could refill the effeds of thole gafes better than of dogs. ■
the others. Nitrous gas, he found, was more injurious 7. A metallic wire, which was entirely covered
than hydrogen gas. In fome of the frogs on which the with fealing wax, produced no motion in frogs,
experiments were made, the application of the galvanic which began to be exhaufted when it was employed as
apparatus produced violent agitations; but having re- a condudor. This was Hated by Valli, as a proof that
peated threa or four Ihocks, no farther motion could be the galvanic fluid palfes along the furface of con-
excited, not even after fome interval had elapfed. dudors.
To afcertain what were the effeds of different kinds 8. A ligature on the nerve, when placed near to the
of air on animals fubjeded to the galvanic apparatus, mufcle, or in contad with it, interrupted or diminilhed,
lie feparated the hinder extremities of a frog, expofed the effeds of galvanifm : it was found alfo, that aliga-
the one to the adion of nitrous gas, and the other to ture, applied in the fame way, prevented the efteds of
that of atmofpherical air. - After being fubjeded for a artificial eledrieity.
fhort time to the adion of thefe airs, the galvanic appa- 9. A ligature was applied, at a fmall diltance from
ratus was applied. Contradions were produced in the mufcle, to the crural nerve of a frog, and another
both ; but thofe which were induced in the limb ex- was prepared in the fame way, but without any liga-
pofed to the nitrous air, were feebler than the other ; ture ; thefe being fubjeded to experiment, it appeared
and when the adion of the nitrous air was continued be- that galvanifm produced a more perceptible adion in
yond a very limited time, no motion whatever could be the latter than in the former.
excited. The fame experiment was made on limbs ex- 10. Weak fhocks of artificial eledricity produce mo-
pofed to the adion of hydrogen gas; and it appeared tion in the mufeles of that leg only where no ligature
that its effeds in deftroying the irritability of the muf- has been applied to the nerve ; but in the other, nudeu-
cular fibre, pr in diminifliing its fufeeptibility of being lar contradions can be excited by means of the galva-
aded upon by galvanifm, were lefs powerful than the nic apparatus. From this experiment, it was attempted
jiitrous gas. Azotic gas was alfo found to produce ef- to deduce a method of lubjeding the intenfity of galva-
29
Experi¬
ments by
i Fontana,
Part T. G A L V
Effsdts of nifm to calculation. If, for example, it is found that
Gaivanifm the effects of artificial electricity are confidered as
@n Anima-fi-amounting to five, fix, or feven degrees, and this power
is infufficient to excite contractions, while they are pro¬
duced by means of gaivanifm, it may be faid that the
latter is five, fix, or feven degrees itronger than the
former.
11. Valli did not fucceed in effeCling the mufcular
contraction of the heart by means of gaivanifm j nor
did he fucceed in fimilar experiments made on the fto-
mach, inteftines, or bladder, although he armed or ap¬
plied metallic coatings to the nerves of all thefe or¬
gans.
12. To produce contractions in the wing of a fowl,
the nerves of which were coated and previoufiy fteeped
in oil, very powerful fhocks of artificial eleCtricity were
found requifite } but the effeCts of the galvanic fluid
did not, by this procefs, feem to be at all diminifhed :
it retained its whole energy.
Fontana, in his experiments and inveftigations on
this fubjeCt, found, that he could accelerate the mo¬
tions of the heart, when thefe motions were going on 5
and when the motions had ceafed, could bring it to
produce contractions. By placing the heart between
two pieces of metal, zinc and antimony, fo that it fhall
be in contaCt with both, and then forming a communi¬
cation by means of a metallic conductor between the
two metals, its motions are excited, even after it is fe-
parated from the body and cut in pieces. According
to the experiments of Marfigli, part of the heart of a
fowl, placed on a piece of charcoal, and another por¬
tion put on a piece of pafteboard, covered with tinfoil,
gave repeated contractions, and was itrongly con-
vulfed.
y Dflame- M. Delametherie made a variety of experiments, at
a very early period, on this fubjeCt. The following are
fome of the general refults of thefe experiments.
1. He found that the effeCts of gaivanifm in a pre¬
pared frog were feeble.
2. That it pofleffes the greateft intenfity at the time
when the animal has been juft deprived of life ; from
this he infers, that the intenfity of the eflfeCt mult be
greater in the living animal j from which he thinks it
follows, that it is only by means of good conductors
that the galvanic fluid can be conveyed from the nerves
to the mufcles of a frog ; and it is by means of the me¬
tals, which may vary in the degree of their conducting
power, that this communication is eftablilhed.
3. Plumbago and charcoal were found to be inferior
in their conducting power to metallic fubftances ; but
by their means the galvanic fluid could be conveyed
from the nerves to the mufcles of a frog.
4. He did not find from his experiments that this ef-
feCt could be produced Dy forming the communications
by means of animal fubftances j for when a perfon
touched at the fame time the nerves and mufcles of a
frog which had been laid bare, the fame elfeCt did not
follow.
Volta, whofe name has been already mentioned as
the inventor and improver of the apparatus by means of
which the galvanic power could be greatly increafed,
was, at the fame time one of the moft zealous and the
moft indefatigable inquirers into its nature and proper¬
ties. The views which this philofopher entertained
with regard to the nature of this fluid, were different
30
31
' Volta.
A N I S M. 343
from thofe of Galvani. They are diftinguilhed for their Effedts of
originality, exhibit a train of careful inveftigation, and Gaivanifm^
have ferved as an excellent foundation on which the fu-°a n m“* *
perftruCture of gaivanifm was quickly railed. We fhall
therefore give a pretty full detail of the experiments
and reafonings of this philofopher j and from the im¬
portance of his viewrs, which we have ftated above, it
will not be lefs acceptable to the reader, if this detail
be given, as we propofe to do, in his own wmrds. In
this, indeed, fomething of w'hat belongs to the fecond
part of this treatife, will be unavoidably anticipated j
but the facrifice of ftri£l method to perfpicuity, will,
we are perfuaded, be readily admitted as a fufficient
apology for this deviation.
To underftand clearly the peculiar views which Vol¬
ta has embraced in the obfervations which we have now
referred to, it will be neceffary to anticipate a little
farther, by dating, that, according to Galvani, the
fluid which bears his name is a peculiar kind of ele£lri-
city, which refides in the organs of the animal, and is
effentially and infeparably connefled with them. But,
according to the theory of Volta, the whole phenomena
of the galvanic fluid depend entirely on artificial elec¬
tricity, which is excited into action, or put in motion,
when conductors of a different nature are brought into'
contadt 5 and thefe, he thinks, are to be confidered as
the primary exciters. The motion of this fluid is indu¬
ced in three different ways, that is, by means of three
conductors at leaft, which are of a different nature, be¬
ing fo arranged as to form the communication or circle.
In the firft way, two metals or conductors of the firft
clafs, of a diflimilar nature, are employed. Thefe are*
brought direCtly into contaCt by one of their extremi¬
ties j but the communication between the other extre¬
mities is eftablilhed by means of moift conductors, or"
conductors belonging to the fecond clafs. ' This fluid is
put in motion another way, by a Angle metallic con¬
ductor of the firft clafs, placed between two moift con¬
ductors of a diflimilar nature, between the latter of
which a communication is eftablilhed. In the third
way of exciting the aCtion of this fluid, or putting it in"
motion, a communication is formed among three con¬
ductors, each of which is of a different nature. To il-'
luftrate the variety of aCtion obferved in thefe conduct¬
ing fubftances, the following account of the experiments
of this naturalilt, with his views and reafonings, was
communicated by him in letters to Gren.
“ If a tin bafon, fays he, be filled with foap-fuds,
lime-water, or a ftrong ley, which is ftill better, and
if you then lay hold of the bafon with both your hands,
having firft moiftened them with pure water, and apply
the tip of your tongue to the fluid in the bafon, you
will immediately be fenfible of an acid tafte upon your
tongue, which is in contaCt with the alkaline liquor.
This tafte is very perceptible, and, for the moment,
pretty ftrong j but it is changed afterwards into a dif¬
ferent one, lefs acid, but more faline and pungent, un¬
til it at laft becomes alkaline and lharp in proportion as
the fluid aCts more upon the tongue, and as the aCtivity
of its peculiar tafte and its chemical powrer, more called
forth, produce a greater effeCt in regard to the fenfation
of acidity occafioned by the ftream of the eleCtric fluid,
which, by a continued circulation, paffes from the tin
to the alkaline liquor, thence to the tongue, then
through the perfon to the water, and thence to the
tin
344
Efiefls of tin again. I explain the phenomenon In this manner
Galvanifm according to my principles j and Indeed it cannot be
on Ai^irnaiS' explained in any other, as every thing tends to confirm
my affertion, and to prove it In various ways. The
contaft of diiTerent conduftors, particularly the metallic,
including pyrites and other minerals as well as charcoal,
which I call dry condudlors, or of the firft clafs, with
moitt conduttors, or conduftors of the fecond clafs,
agitates or ditturbs the electric fluid, or gives it a cer¬
tain impulfe. Do not afk in what manner } it is enough
that it is a principle, and a general principle. This
impulfe, whether produced by attra&ion or any other
force, is different or unlike, both in regard to the dif¬
ferent metals and to the different moift condu&ors, fo
that the direction, or at leaft the power with which the
eleftric fluid is impelled or excited, is different when
the conduftor A is applied to the eonduflor B, and to
another, C. In a perfect circle of condu&ors, where
either one of the fecond clafs is placed between two
different from each other of the firit clafs, or, contrari-
wife, one of the firft clafs is placed between two of the
fecond clafs different from each other, an ele&ric ftream
is occafioned by the predominating force either to the
right or to the left •, a circulation of this fluid, which
ceafes only when the circle is broken, and which is re¬
newed when the circle is again rendered complete.
This method of conne&ing the different conductors
will be more readily comprehended by turning to the
figures, where the capital letters denote the different
conductors or exciters (moteurs') of the firft clafs, and
the fmall letters thofe of the fecond clafs. Fig. 3. and
4. exprefs the two cafes above mentioned.
“ I confider it as almoft fuperfluous to obferve, that
when the circle confifts merely of two kinds of con¬
ductors, however different or howrever numerous the
pieces may be of which each confifts, two equal powers
are oppofed to each other ; that is, the eleCtrie fluid
is impelled with equal force in two different directions,
and confequently no ftream can be formed from right
to left, or, contrariwife, capable of exciting convuliive
movements.
“ There are other cafes, however, and other modes
of combination, where the powers are equally in equi¬
librium, and where no current of the eleCtric fluid can
take place •, or, at leaft, none of fuch a force as to make
an impreflion on the tendered nerves, or to excite any
convulfive movement in the belt prepared frog that
may be placed in the circle, notwithftand ng the inter¬
vention of two or more different kinds of metals. This
is the cafe when each of thefe metals is placed between
two moift conductors, or of the fecond clafs, and which
are very nearly of the fame kind •, or when, in a circle
of three pieces, two of them of the fame metal, and one
of a different metal, are fo conneCted, that the latter is
immediately between the other two.
“ When one of the ends of a piece of metal, which
is a conductor of the firft clafs, is immediately applied
to another of the fame clafs, but, inltead of immediately
touching with the other end. the other piece touches an
intermediate conductor of the fecond clafs, either great
or fmall, either a drop of water, a piece of raw or boiled
flefli, or of fponge not moift, pafte of meal, jelly, foap,
eheefe, or the white of an egg boiled to hardnefs ; in
this new combination, where a conductor of the fecond
clafs is between two of the firft clafs, the powers are no
Part L
longer oppofed to each other 5 and this is fufficient to Effects nf
determine an eleCtric ftream. When, therefore, a pre- f^b'anifo,
pared frog is placed as the conductor of the fecondou An'm*k
clafs, it will always be violently agitated as often as
this circle is made complete.
“ It may be readily perceived that the two laft ex¬
periments coincide with thofe announced by M. Hum-
bo;dt, where a drop of water, a fmall bit of frefh meat,
or a very thin ftratum of any fluid, performs the whole
wonder. When another drop of water, or any other
aqueous conductor, is applied between the other end of
the firft conductor and the other correfponding piece,
each piece of metal is infulated, as I fliall exprefs it,
between two aqueous conductors but then the powers
from right to left, and from left to right, are again
completely oppofed to each other ; conlequently the
eleCtric ftream is impeded, and the frog remains without
any movement. It is, therefore, abfolutely neceffary
that two different metals or conductors of the firft clafs,
fliould be in immediate contaCt with each other, on the
one fide, while with their oppofite ends they touch con¬
ductors of the fecond clafs.
“We might confider this mutual contaCt of two
different metals as the immediate caufe w'hich puts the
eleCtric fluid in motion, inftead of afcribing that power
to the eontaft of the two metals with the moift con*
duCtors. Thus, for example, in fig. 3. inftead of ad¬
mitting two different aCtions, at leaft, in regard to the
magnitude of the power, one where B comes in contaCt
with /z, and another where A comes in contaCt ivith a
alfo, by which an eleCtric current arifes in the direction
from A to B, we might fuppofe only one aCtion at the
point where B comes in contaCt with A, which impels
the fluid in that direction. In both fuppofitions the
refult, as may eafily be feen, is the fame. But though
I have reafons for adopting the firft as true rather than
the fecond, yet the latter reprefents the propofition with
more fimplicity, and it may be convenient to adhere to
it in the explanation, as it affords a readier view of it.
We may then fay, that in the cafes above ftated, no
effeCl will be produced, becaufe here there is no mutual
contaCt of different metals; the effeCl alfo will be null,
when a conductor of the firft clafs, on two oppofite
fides, is in contaCt with tw o others of the fame clafs j
for the aCtions therefore are in equilibrium ; and, laftly,
that an eleCtric current w ill beoccafioned by the aCtion
which ariles from the contaCt of conductors of the firft
clafs, and which is counteracted by no other contaCt of
the like kind.
“ Having feen the refult of employing three pieces
of metal, or conductors of the firft clafs, viz. two of
one kind and one of a different, when combined
fometimes in one way and fometimes in another, with
conductors of the fecond clafs, we ihall now try what
will be the rtfult, according to my principles, with
four pieces of metal, two of which are of one kind,
for example, zinc, when conneCted with moift con¬
ductors of different kinds.
“ I (hall firft obferve, that when they are conneCted
in a circle, the powers whkh endeavour to put the
eleCtric fluid in a ftreaming movement, will be op¬
pofed to each other, and in perfeCt equilibrium, and
that confequently no movement can take place in the
frog, here fuppofed to be the moift conduClor a, or a
part of it, however irritable and well prepared it may
be }
GALVANISM,
r?g. 14.
Part I. G A L V
Effects of be; and if the experiment be made with accuracy and the
IGalvanifm neceffary precaution, fo that the metals, in particular, be
an Animals. very cjeaD an(j at p0;nts of contact, it will per-
-v confirm what I have above faid ; the frog will
experience no agitation, no convulfive movement.
“ Thefe movements, on the other hand, took place,
as might be forefeen from my principles, as often as
I omitted one of the middle pieces, or changed the
order.
“ The conductors of the- fecond clafs, which, in all
the figures, are denoted by fmall letters, may be cups
with water, in which the ends of the pieces of metal
denoted by the large letters are immerfed ; orfponges
or other bodies which have imbibed aqueous moiiture.
They may be either large or fmall, and may confiit of
one or more pieces, provided they be in proper contaft ;
they may alfo be perfons, if their fkin be moiftened at
the places of contact, &c. By the laft method the ex¬
periments will be very beautiful and incefiant, when the
circle confifts of three or more perfons (I have formed
it frequently of ten, and even more), of two or more
frogs properly prepared, and of four pieces of metal, two
of filver and two of iron, tin, and particularly zinc.
The change of effeft, when you change the connexion,
is linking.
“ Let the pofition be as reprefented in fig. 14. where
g is the prepared frog, which the two perfonshold
in their hands, one on the one fide by the feet, and the
other on the opposite by the rump. Z, Z, are two plates
of zinc, which are held alfo by thefe perfons, and A, A
two pieces of filver, which are held by a third perfon, de¬
noted alfo by/>. It muft not be forgotten that the hands
Ihould be very moift, as the dry fkin is not a conductor
fufficiently ftrong. As in this chain the actions of the
eledtric exciters are oppofed to each other, and in exadt
equilibrium, as may be readily perceived, noconvulfion
or agitation in the frog will take place.
“ Now, let one of the metallic pieces A, Z, which
Hand between the two perfons, />, />, or between any
other moift conductors, be left iu combination as it is;
and let the pofition of the two other metallic pieces
A, Z, be reverfed, by converting fig. 14. into fig. 15.
(fo that the actions, inftead of being contrary, will a£t
together to impel the eleCtric fluid to one fide or to
produce the fame current) ; or introduce between A
and Z another perfon, or any other conductor of the
fecond clafs, fo that the chain be formed as in fig. 16. ;
or take away one of the pieces A, Z, in fig. 14. and
'ig, 17, make the chain like thole of fig. 17. and 19. ; or, in
the laft place, remove the whole twro pieces A, Z, either
in the one or the other fide, as reprefented. fig. 19. (by
which means it will correfpond with fig. 17. as the
whole chain />, g, />, />, may be conlidered as a fingle
moift conduftor of the fecond clafs). In all thefe
combinations, which are reprefented by fig. 15. 16. 17.
%• 18. &: 18. and 19. the aCtions arifing from the metallic con-
taCts are no longer contrary to each other, or in equi¬
librium, as they were in fig. 14.; confequently an
eleCtric ftream is produced, and the frog g, which I
fuppofe to be properly prepared, and which forms a part
of the chain, will be violently agitated as often as the
circle, when broken at anyone place, particularly be¬
tween metal and metal, is again reftored.
“ In regard to the experiment where a moift con-
duftor, or one of the fecond clafs, is to be introduced
Vol. IX. Part I.
T5-
16.
A N I S M. 345
between the two pieces A, Z (fig. 15.), that is, between EffeCb of
two different metals, a drop of water, or a fmall bit of Galvanifrn
moiftened fponge, or a thin ftratum of any fluid, foapT?n A“in;a'8,
or any other vifcous matter, will be quite fufficient, as
has been already obferved. This furprifing experi¬
ment I generally make in fuch a manner, that, inftead
of the piece of the metal, I employ a cup or fpoon
filled with water, and then caufe the perfon who holds
the perfeCUy dry and pure flick of tin, to touch with
that Hick fometimes the perfectly dry fides of the fpoon
or cup, and fometimes the water contained in them.
It is wonderful to fee, that, as by the latter method,
the violent agitation of the frog never ceafes, the firft
method, which correfponds with fig. 14. does not pro¬
duce the leaft irritation ; unlefs by accident there be a
fmall drop of water, or a thin ftratum of moifture, at
the place of contaft, by which the cafe reprefented fig.
16. would be reftored. This may ferve. to fhew with
what care and attention the experiment muff; be made,
in order to guard againft error or deception, which
might fo eafily arife ; and every where exhibit ano¬
malies.
“ When I introduce water or any other moift body,
great or fmall, not merely between one pair of metallic
pieces, A, Z, as fig. 16. but between two pairs, as re- Fig.
prefented fig. 20. each piece of metal is between like
moift conductors, and by thefe means all the aCtions
are again rendered contrary, or brought into equili¬
brium ; or, according to the other mode of viewing
the matter, there is no longer any aCtion, for want of
the mutual contaCl of two different metals, which, as
\ve have feen, is certainly neceffary to excite an eleCtric
current : and it is always found that the frog experi¬
ences no agitation.
“ I ftiall not enlarge farther on thefe combinations,
which may be varied ad infinitum with a greater number
of metallic pieces, and by which one may be enabled
to foretel the phenomena which, according to my prin¬
ciples, will always be found to take place. It will be
fufficient, for the prefect, to draw this conclufion, that
in a circle confiding merely of two condudors, how¬
ever different they may be, their mutual contaCl can
produce no eleClric ftream fufficient to excite fenfibility,
or mufcular movement; and that, on the contrary,
this effeCt infallibly follows as often as the chain is
formed of three conductors, one of one clafs, and two
different from each other of another clafs, which come
into mutual contaCt with each other, and that this effeCt:
will be ftronger, the greater the difference is between
the latter; that in other cafes, where there are more
than three different conductors, the effeCt either is not
produced, or will be produced in different degrees, ac¬
cording as the forces called forth by the different com¬
binations, which will be expanded at each heterogeneous
contaCt, and which are often in oppofition, and endea¬
vour to impel the eleCtric fluid in oppofite directions,
are perfectly in equilibrium with each other (which
muft be a very rare cafe), or when the fum of thofe
which exert themfelves in one direction is more or lefs
exceeded by the fum of thofe which aCt in another di¬
rection.
u I (hall here, however, leave the two complex
combinations, and return to the fimple cafes, thofe with
three different conductors, reprefented by fig. 3. which
are more demonftrative ; or, in other words, thofe with
X x two
34-6
Effe£ls of two difFerent metals or condu£lors of the firft clafs,
Gatvamfm whlch are in contact with each other, and are applied
’on Animals. Qn tlie other flde t0 conduaovs, or condudors of
the fecond clafs. i his method has been common.y
employed fince Galvani’s dilcovery, and is in exaft
proportion with the diverfity of metals, on which Icon-
hder the whole phenomena to depend.
“ The other method of combination, which is ex-
preffed by ■4* ^ tnat of a metal placed between two
different moiit conduftors, for example, between water
on the one fide, and an aqueous, faponaceous, or ialine
fluid on the other, 1 difcovered in the autumn of 1794 i
and though fince that period I have repeated the much
varied experiments of different perfons, both foreigners
and others, among which was that of Humboldt, and
though I wrote to feveral eorrefpondents refpefting it,
that light has not yet been thrown on this new pheno¬
menon which it feems to deferve.
“ The fingular cireumftance before mentioned, in
regard to the°acid tafte when the tongue is brought
into contact with an alkaline liquid, belongs, as you
may perceive, to this fecond method of exciting the
eleftric fluid, and putting it in circulation (if the tin
veffel be touched on the outfide by the hand moiftened
■ with water, and on the infide by the alkaline liquor),
and (hews that this current is no lefs ftrong and aftive
than that excited by the firft method, viz. by employ¬
ing two fufficiently well-chofen metals, fuch as lead
and copper, iron and filver, zinc and tin. I muft here
obferve, that though with tin alone, placed between
water and an alkaline liquor, you obtain nearly the
effect which is produced by two of the moft different
metals, as filver and zinc, combined with any conduc¬
tor whatever of the fecond clafs j you can obtain the
fame, and even in a higher degree, with iron alone
or filver alone, when the iron is introduced between
water on the one fide and nitrous acid on the other, or
when the filver is applied between water and a folution
of fulphur or pot-afh.
« If you take a frog, the head of which has been
cut off, and which has been deprived of all life by
thrufting a needle into the fpinal marrow, and immerle
it, without fkinning it, taking out the bowels, or any
other preparation, into two glaffes of water, the rump
into one, and the leg into the other as uiual, it will be
ftrongly agitated and violently convulfed when you
conn eft the water in both glaffes by a bow formed of
tw’o very different metals, fuch as filver and tin or lead,
or, what is better, filver and zinc *, but this will by no
means be the cafe when the two metals are lefs different
in regard to their powers, fuch as gold and filver, fil¬
ver and copper, copper and iron, tin and lead. But
what is more, the efft ft wTill be fully produced on this
To little prepared frog when you immerfe in one of the
two glaffes the end of a bow merely of tin or zinc, and
into the other glafs the other end of this bow, which
has been rubbed over with a little alkali. You may
perform the experiment ftill better with an iron bovr,
one end of which has been covered with a drop or thin
coating of nitrous acid and beyond all expectation,
when you take a filver bow having a little iulphur of
potaftv adherng to the end of it.
Tig. ax. “ Fig. 21. reprefents the form of this experiment,
where g is the frog } 0, the two glafles w ith water j
A, the bow formed of one fingie metal, and m the drop
Parti.
or a thin ftratum of a mucous, faline, &c. fluid, with £ffe&sof
which the bow has been rubbed over, and which on Galvanifm
this fide is between the metal and the water. on Ar»maj.
“ The very confiderable difference in regard to the
quntity of effeft in the before-mentioned experiments
already fhews, that if the eleftric ftream excited by
contaft is ftrongeft towards a certain metal, when that
metal is placed between a certain fluid on the one fide,
and another fluid on the other, there are other fluids
which produce a greater effefl with another kind of
metal; fo that it will be neceffary to difcoverby expe¬
riment the particular arrangement of condudfors fuited
to each metal, in w hich the fluids or condu&ors of the
fecond clafs muft be difpofed according to their aftivity,
I have paid great attention to this circumftance, and
have formed feveral tables, which I lhall publifh as
foon as I have brought them to perfection.
“ I lhall here, however, only obierve, that in order
to clafs, in fome manner, the innumerable different
moift conductors of this kind, I diftinguilh them into
Aqueous, fpirituous, mucous, and gelatinous, faccharine,
faponaceous, faline, acid, alkaline, and liftphurous (livers
ef fulphur) liquids; that I make fubdivilions in the acids
down to the belt known Ample mineral acids, (as I find
in this refpeCt great difference between the nitrous and
the muriatic acids), comprehending the principal vege¬
table acids and the acids of galls; and do the fame in
regard to the faline fluids, according as they are folu-
tions of neutral falts, earthy falts, and particularly me¬
tallic falls.
“ When it can be determined in what order all thefe
kinds of fluids follow each other, in regard to the
power in queftion, for the metal A, and another for
the metal B, &c. we fliall then be in a condition to
determine what place muft be afligned to a great num¬
ber of other heterogeneous fluids, whether mineral, ve¬
getable, or animal, which belong to feveral of the
above claffes. In general, the order for the greater
part of the metals hitherto obferved is as follows : ift,
pure water; 2d, water mixed with clay or chalk (which
fhews a pretty different effeCt when the before-mention¬
ed experiment is made with two glaffes, a bow of tin
oi zinc, and a properly prepared frog, which has a
fufheient degree of vitality) ; 3d, a folution of fugar ;
4th, alcohol; 5th, milk ; 6th, mucilaginous fluids 4
7th, animal gelatinous fluids ; 8th, wine ; 9th, vinegar,
and other vegetable juices and acids; 10th, faliva ;
ixth, mucus of the nofe ; I2th, blood; 13th, brains;
14th, folution of fait; 13th, foap-fuds; 16th, ehalk-
water ; 17th, concentrated mineral acids ; 18th, ftrong
alkaline leys ; 19th, alkaline fluids ; 20th, livers of ful¬
phur. With fome metals there is, however, a confi¬
derable deviation from this order, in regard to livers
of fulphur, alkaline fluids, and the nitrous and faline
acids.
“ As to the metals, which in their pofition between
thefe different fluids are more or lefs proper for the
eleftric effect in queftion, I have found in general,
that tin exceeds all others, and that filver is the worft ;
except when one of the fluids betwixt which the filver
is placed is water, or any other aqueous condudtor,
and the other liver ot iulphur: in this cale filver far
exceeds zinc, and even tin. Iron alio produces a much
greater effect than any other metal, when it is in con¬
tact, on the one fide, with mere water or an aqueous
conductor.
GALVANISM.
,art i. GALVANISM. 3*47
i-ffeds of eondu&or, and on the other with the nitrous acid,
ialv.intl'm were it even only a drop. The excitement occafioned
»AmmaU. jn capes js wonderful*, fince it exceeds, as I have
"already remarked, that produced, according to the
ufual method, by means of a double metallic bow, even
of different metals, as zinc and filver, applied to con¬
ductors of the fecond clafs of the fame kind. It is fuf-
ficiently ttrong and powerful to produce convulfive
movements in a half-prepared frog, the bowels of which
have not been taken out, when one of the two moift
conductors is a concentrated alkaline folution, and the
metal placed between them is zinc, or rather tin.
With other metals and other fluids you can feldom pro¬
duce convulfions in a frog, if it be not perfectly prepa¬
red, or at lead embowelled.
“ The reader will readily perceive, that when a bow
of one and the fame metal touches with both its ends
the fame kind of faline water, the fame acid, the fame
alkaline fluid, &c. an eledtric llream will not take
place, as happens alfo when it touches on each fide
merely water : in that cafe two oppoflte aftions are op-
pofed to each other, and keep each other in equili¬
brium. That thefe contrary powers, however, may be
in perfect equilibrium, it is neceflary that the fluids ap¬
plied to both ends of the homogeneous metalline bow
be exactly of the fame kind and of the fame ilrength.
For this reafon the moft careful attention and a certain
dexterity are required, in order to enfure fuccefs to the
experiment, which I have often performed to the great
aflonifhrnent of the fpeftators, and which any one may
repeat as was done by my friend Humboldt. That
philofopher has already publifhed fome of the mod
driking and decifive of thefe experiments in his fecond
letter ; and I dull here give a more particular account
of them.
“ Having placed a completely or only half-prepared
frog as ufual in two glafles of water, take a very clean
bow of filver (it will be bed when it has been wadied
with water from the glaiTes), and immerfe both ends of
it at once, or the one after the other, in the glades j no
agitation of the frog will be' occafioned. Repeat the
experiment, after you have daubed over one end of the
bow with the white of an egg, liquid glue, faliva, mu¬
cus, blood, a folution of tartar, or any other fiuid or
conducing fubdance fufficiently diderent from pure
water. Fird, immerfe the pure end, or that moidened
merely with water, in the water of one of the glades;
and afterwards the other end, daubed over with the
above fubdances, in the water of the other glafs; you
will then infallibly produce a convulfive movement in
the frog, and feveral times in fuccedion, if you draw
out the bow and again immerfe it until nothing more
of the above fubdances is left adhering to the metal,
or until the metal, with its ends in both the glades,
touches only pure, or nearly pure, water. Daub both
the above fubdances uniformly over both ends of the
bow, and immerfe them at the fame time in both the
glafles of water, and no convulfions will arife. They
will often be produced in newly prepared and highly
irritable frogs, when the fali.'e fluid, or in general, the
fubftance with which the two ends of the bow are
daubed over, is not perfectly the fame, or when the
fubdanee at the one end is more diluted than at the
other, &c. Waih and clean carefully the one end of
the bow, daub over the other more or lefs, and convul-
dons will be again produced as foon as the circle is made Ed of
complete by the double immerfion ot the bow. Clean Galv‘ullU,!l
both ends completely, auc no agnation will anie, asm  ,
the fird experiment.
“ For comparative experiments of this kind, 1 would
recommend vifcous fluids or fubdances rather than faline^
becaufe the latter are too loon difiolved in the water.
It oft-times happens that the convulfions of the frog,
when it is completely prepared and highly irritable*
take place, though both ends of the metallic bow are
daubed over with the fame kind of faline fluid. The
caufe of this is, that when one end is immerled in the
water after the other (and it may be eafily feen that it
is impoflible to do fo in a moment with iuflicient ac¬
curacy), the one end of the bow loi'es a portion of its
faline fubdance fooner than the other, or at lead the
adhering part is more diluted by the water, fo that the
fluid with which both ends have been daubed over is
no longer the fame.
“ For thefe experiments I would alfo recommend fil¬
ver, as a metal that is leis liable than others to be at¬
tacked and changed by faline and other liquids. Tin,
lead, copper, and in particular iron, are more fufeepti-
ble of lading variations j fo that bows of thtfe metals*
and of iron above all, retain for a long time the pov\er
of producing convulfions in a newly prepared and high¬
ly irritable frog, even when both the ends of the bow
are immerfed in two glafles of water, although the
places of the metal, attacked by any of the faline fluids,
have been carefully wafhed and cleaned. A fuperfi-
eial alteration in the metal is fufficient to produce this
change, as may be eafily leen. Thefe variations often
fiiew themfelves to the eye by a yellow blackifh fpot,
&c. which it is difficult to remove. I do not here
fpeak of lading variations, that proceed to a greater
depth, which can be produced in the end of the metal¬
lic bow, and particularly in iron, when its hardnefs is
changed j a procefs by which fuch a bow can be ren¬
dered capable of producing not only convulfions in
frogs, but alfo a particular fenfationon the tongue, and
light before the eyes, if both its ends, made perfectly
clean, are only brought into contaft with pure water,
Thefe, and many other experiments of the like kind,
form the chief fubjeft of my fird letter to the abbe
VafTali, profeffor of natural philolophy at Turin, writ¬
ten in the beginning of the year 1794, and afterwards
publidred with the other in Brugnatelli’s Journal.
“ If diver be lefs expofed to be attacked by faline'
and other fluids (except by liver of fulphur, which in-
dantaneoufly renders it black) ; if it be lefs fufceptible
of confiderable and lading variations, and has therefore
this advantage over other metals, that it is liable to
fewer irregularities ; tin, on account of its greater ac¬
tivity, that is, the drength of the effedfls uhich it pro¬
duces by being brought into contaft with almod all
mold conductors, as I have already obferved, is to be
preferred to filver, and in a certain degree to all other
metals. The experiment I have already defer (bed with
a tin bafon filled with an alkaline fluid, and held in the
hands moiflened with water, by which an acid fenfa-
tion is excited on the tongue when brought into con¬
tact with the above fluid, is a proof of it; for it would
be vain to expeCt a like effeCt ftom a bafon of lead*
iron, or copper, and much more fo from one of filver.
With the latter it would be obtained only when it con-
X x 2 tained
34s
Effe<fts of tamed liquid liver of fulphurj and in that cafe the acid
Galvanifm would be pretty ftrong.
»n nun a (( <pjie eie(c^ric fluid is excited alfo with the greatefl
ftrength and aftivity, when the metal is tin, between
water and a faline fluid : but it will be excited with
ftilb greater energy to produce an acid fenfation on the
tongue when the tin is between water and an infipid
mucilaginous fluid j or when the experiment is made w ith
a tin bafon filled with a folution of gum, liquid glue,
Avhite of an egg, &c. The other metals, in like cir-
cumftances, produce fome effect, but much weaker :
filver produces the vreakeft, except with liver of iul-
phur, as I have already obferved.
“ A like experiment, which 1 made three years ago,
and exhibited to various perfons, not writh two different
fluids and one metal, as in that above defcribed, but
contrariwife, with two metals of a different kind and a
fluid, is already known. I took a bafon of tin (one of
zinc is better), placed it on a filver ftand, and filled it
with water. When any of the perfons in company ap¬
plied the tip of his tongue to the water, he found it
perfe£tly taffelefs as long as he did not touch the filver
Hand ; but as foon as he laid hold of the ftand, and
grafped it in his hands well moiftened, he experienced
on the tongue a very perceptible and pretty ftrong acid
tafte. This experiment will fucceed, though theeffeft
is proportionably weaker, wdth a chain of feveral per¬
fons who hold each other’s hands, after they have been
moiftened with water, while the firft applies the tip of
his tongue to the water in the bafon, and the laft lays
hold with his hands of the filver ftand.
“ If thefe experiments, in regard to the tafte excited
on the tongue by the aftion of two different metals, are
ftriking, the others, in regard to the tafte excited, mo¬
dified and changed by one metal between two different
fluids, are no lefs fo, and they are alfo newer. 'I hey
are ftill interefting on this account, that they difcover
to us the caufe of that tafte often perceived in water
and other liquids, which is more or lefs confiderable or
various when drunk from veffels of metal, and particu¬
larly of tin. When the outer extremity of the veffel
is applied to the under lip, rendered moift by the fali-
va, and the tongue is extended fo as to be in contact
with the wrater, beer, wine, &c. in the veffel, or when
the tongue is bent as is done in drinking, is there not
then a complete circle, and is not the metal between
two more or lefs different liquids, that is, between the
faliva of the under lip and the liquor in the cup or vef¬
fel ? A ftronger or weaker eleftric ftream muft thereby
be occafioned, according as the fluids are different—a
ftream which will not fail in its \ray to affedf the fenfi-
ble organs of the tongue in the faid circle.
“ Befides the two methods already confidered, of
producing an eleftric current, that is, by means of one
or more moift conduffors, or condu&ors of the fecund
clafs, placed between two different metals or condudfors
of the firft clafs ; or contrariwife by means of a con-
duftor of the firft clafs placed between two of the fe¬
cund clafs, alfo different j there is ftill a third method
of exciting the eleftric fluid, though in a degree fo
much weaker, that it is fcarcely capable of caufing con-
vulfions in a perfedtly prepared frog, in which there is
ftill a ftrong degree of vitality. This new method
confifts in forming the circle of three different conduc¬
tors, all of the fecond clafs, without the intervention
Part I.
of one of the firft or a metal one. Some think they Effects of
find in this method a ftrong obiedlion againft my prin- Galvanifm
ciple.
Fig. 22. reprefents this third method compared withTig. 2*.
the other two. In the experiments of Profeffor Valli,
refpedfing which fo much noife has been made without
any reafon, / reprefents the leg of the frog, and parti-
cularly the hard tendinous part of the mt/Jculusgqjlroc-
nemius ; m the rump, or the mufcles of the back, or the
ifchiatic nerves, to which the faid tendinous parts are
applied j and a the blood, or the vifeous faponaceous
or faline fluid, applied to the point of conta6f.
“ I have fully defcribed this new method, where no
metal is ufed, in my third and fourth letter to Profeffor
Vaffali, written in the autumn and winter of the year
1795. I have there {hewn, that thefe new faffs, far
from altering my ideas and principles, ferve rather to
eftablifh them 5 and that they render more general the
principle that the conduffors, by heterogeneous contaff,
that is, of two different from each other, become ex¬
citers of eleffricity, and confirm the beautiful law ari-
fing from it, that to produce an eleftric ftream, the
circle muft neceffarily be formed of three different con-
duftors. You now fee in what the whole fecret, the
whole magic confifts) and that it depends not merely
on metals, as might have been believed, but on all the
different conduftors. As long as we adhere to thefe
principles, it will be eafy to explain all the before-men¬
tioned experiments without being reduced to the necef-
fity of having recourfe to any imaginary principle, or
any peculiar and aftive eleftricity of the organs. By
their afliftance you will be enabled to invent new ex¬
periments, and to foretel the refult of them, as I have
feveral times done, and ftill do daily. If you, however,
abandon thefe principles, you will find nothing but un¬
certainty and contradiftion, and the whole will be an
inexplicable problem.
“ Some new fafts, he obferves in a farther communica¬
tion, lately difeovered, feem to fliew that the immediate
caufe which excites the eleftric fluid, and puts it in mo¬
tion, whether it be an attraftive or a repulfive power,
is to be aferibed much rather to the mutual contaft of
two different metals, than to their contaft with moift
conduftors. But, though it cannot be denied, that in
the latter cafe there exifts an aftion, it is proved that
it exerts itfelf in a far more confiderable degree when
the two metals mutually touch each other. There
arifes by the mutual contaft, for example, of filver and
tin, an aftion or power by which the former communi¬
cates the eleftric fluid, and the latter receives it j of
the filver fuffers it to efcape, and the tin attrafts it.
This produces, when the circle is rendered complete
by moift conduftors, a ftream, or continual circulation
of the fluid. When the circle is complete, there is an
accumulation in the tin at the expence of the filver;
which indeed is very fmall, and far under the point
neceffary to enable it to announce itfelf by the molt
delicate eleftrometer. I have however been able, by
the afliftance of my condenfer, conftrufted on a new
plan, and ftill better by Nicholson’s doubler, to
render it very perceptible : I fhall here communicate
the refult obtained by my experiments, which I made
fome time ago with great fatisfaftion.
“ Experiment I. The three plates of the doubler are
of brafs. I took two ftrong wires, one of filver and
tha
GALVANISM.
Fart I. • G A L V
lEffettsof tlie otlier of tin, and brought the former into contact
Salvamtm w^|a moveable plates, and the other with one of
n Animals* the gxe(^ piates 5 while they both relied on the table,
~ ¥ or, what is better, on moift palleboard, or any other
moift eonduftor, fo as to be in communication by the
intervention of one or more condu£tors of the fecond
clafs. I fuffered the apparatus to remain feme hours in
this ftate, then removed the two wires, and put the ma¬
chine in motion. After 20, 30, or 40 revolutions (or
more when the atmpofphere was not dry, or the infula-
tion imperfedl), I brought one of my itraw ele&rome-
ters into contaft with the moveable plate, and obferved
indications of pofitive ele&ricity (-{- E), which arofe to
4, 6, 10 degrees, and more. If I fuffered it to touch
the fixed plates, I had the correfponding indications of
the oppofite kind of eledlricity (—E).
“ The filver, therefore, poured the elallic fluid into
the brafs plate, when it had been fome time in contact
with it } and the tin attracted it from the other plate,
which was alfo of brafs, while in contafl with it. This
was confirmed by the following experiment, which is a
real experimentum crucis.
“ II. I reverfed the experiment, fo that the filver was
in contafl with one of the fixed plates, and the tin with
the moveable one. The ele6lricity which I obtained
from the latter, after the apparatus had remained a fuf-
ficient time in that pofition, was negative (—E) j while
that of the fixed plate was pofitive (+E).
“ III. I applied only the tin wire to the moveable
plate, and infulated the two fixed ones, or brought
them into communication with the table or any other
moift condudlors with which the tin wire was in contaft.
This Ample contaft of the tin with the brafs of which
the moveable plate confifts, isfufficient to excite in it a
very fmall degree of negative ele&ricity ; only a longer
time is required.
“ Thofe acquainted with the a<5lion of eleflric at-
mofpheres, and the conftruflion of the doubler, will
need no farther explanation, to enable them to com¬
prehend the mode of aftion of this very ingenious in-
ftrument; how the ele&rieity; once obtained from the
moveable plate, muft occafion an oppofite kind in the fix¬
ed plate, and vice verfa; how the oppofite kinds of
ele&ricity are increafed by each revolution of the ma¬
chine, &c. In the prefent experiment, therefore, w7hen
the moveable plate is — E, the fixed plate muft be
+ E.
“ IV. This is the reverfe of the former. The piece
of tin was applied to one of the fixed plates, and the
metallic one was infulated from all metallic esntaft.
The refult was now reverfed ; that is, the fixed plates
were eleflrified negatively, and the moveable one had
pofitive electricity.
“ All thefe experiments fucceed much better, and
in a fliorter time, if, during the mutual contadl of the
different metals, the moveable plate be oppofite to ei¬
ther of the other two that are fixed ; but ftill better
when a piece of thick paper, fuch as a card, not moift,
and or a thicknefs equal to the intermediate fpace, is
placed between the two plates that ftand oppofite to
each other. It is of advantage to leave, the card fome
time in its place, and not to remove it till the- moment
when the metals in contaCl are removed and the ma**
chine put in motion. To render the infulation com*
A N I S M , 3 49
plete, and make the contad of the metals immedi- EfYefh of
ate, without the leaft moifture, which would be high- Galvamloi
ly prejudicial, it will be proper to place the appara-?n
tus in the fun. Half an hour,, and often lefs, will
then be fufficient to obtain the required eleClrici*
ty, &c. j whereas, in other cafes, feveral hours are
necelTary before the defired refult can be obtained.
This experiment is reprefented in fig. 23. 24. 25. and
26. L LL (fig. 22. and 23.) are the three brafs plates
of the doubler j A the piece of filver which is in
contaft with one of thefe plates; E the piece of tin
applied to the other plate, which is oppofite to the for¬
mer 5 a a, the moift conduftor, or chain of moift con-
duCtors which form a communication with the pieces
of metal. When the filver, as in fig. 23. is in contaClfig/^.
with the anterior moveable plate, it gives up to it la
little of the eledric fluid, and the latter accumulates
as much of it as poflible; confequently the eleflricity
of the plate becomes pofitive, as the fign -j- of the
plate (hews : whereas the tin attradls the elettric fluid
from the correfponding fixed plate, which by thefe
means has negative eleilricity, as the fign (—) of the
plate indicates; and it even communicates this elec¬
tricity to the other fixed plate, which therefore has
the fign (—) alfo.
“ In fig. 24. every thing is reverfed : the moveable Fig. 24,
plate is negatively eleflrified (—E), while the two fixed
plates become pofitive (-pE).
“ Laftly, in the 25th and 26th figure, it is feen that Fig. 25. Sc
the tin abftradls the eleflric fluid from the brafs plate 26.
with which it is in contact. This plate is therefore ne¬
gatively ele&rified, or has — E j and by the aflion of
its atmofphere occafions pofitive eleftricity (-j-E) in
the other plate (landing oppofite, which is in communi¬
cation, either w’ith the third plate, as fig. 25, or, what
is (till better, with other conductors, as fig. 26. Thefe
oppolite electricities increafe afterwards with each re¬
volution of the machine ; the aCtion of which, accord¬
ing to the theory of eleClric atmofpheres, produces this
effeCt to the degree mentioned, and juftifies the appella¬
tion of doubler of eleClricity, which has been given to
this inttrument.
“ I now come to the experiments, which (hew7 that
we are to feek for the caufe which calls forth the aClion
of the eleClric fluid j which excites it, of whatever kind
it be j determines its tranfition, &c. much rather in the
mutual contaCl of the metals, than in the contaCl of the
moift conduClors with thefe metals. Though, according
to every circumftance, we muft admit fome aClion of
this kind in the latter contaCl, it cannot be denied that
the former is certainly the mod effeClual. At prefent
I (hall only mention the two following experiments,
which I contrived in fuch a manner that they may
ferve to explain a queftion of this kind.
“ V. I left the two fixed plates of brafs without
making any alteration 5 took off the third moveable
plate, and fupplied its place by one of tin j and arran¬
ged the machine in fuch a manner, that the latter Hood
oppofite to one of the other two plates. I then ap¬
plied to this tin plate a bit of brafs, and to the oppofite
fixed plate of brafs a piece of tin. After a convenient
time, (for example an hour, when the-weather wasper-
feClly dry), I took away the two pieces of metal, or
only that of brafs, and made the moveable plate of tin,
which
350
Eff cfb of
Galvanifm
on Animals
Tig. 27.
Fig. 28.
* Phil.
Mag- vi.
5*. i63,
306.
32
Experi-
inon's of
Fowler.
• G A L V A N I S M.
Part I,
which was in contact with the piece of brafs, to revolve
about 30 times. It then gave me very perceptible
' marks of pofitive eleftricity.
“ VI. I reverfed the former experiment, and made
the piece of brafs touch the brafs plate, and the piece
of tin the plate of the fame metal. I, however, obtain¬
ed nothing, or almoft nothing } even when the appara¬
tus was left a much longer time in that lituation, and
when the machine had made twice or three times as
many revolutions.
“ Thefe two experiments are reprefented by fig. 27.
and 28.} where L is the piece of brafs, E that of tin,
and a a the moift condu&ors which connect the two dif-
ferent pieces of metal.
“ In the arrangement of fig. 28. the fame contaft of
different metals, viz. brafs on the one fide, and tin on
the other, with the fame kind of moift conduttor, takes
place, as well as in the preceding experiment of fig. 27.
The addition of the ele&ric fluid in the one, and the
abftra&ion of it in the other, ought therefore equally
to take place, though in an inverted order, when the
aft ion on the fluid calls forth the moving power, by this
contaft of the two metals L, E, with the moift conduc¬
tor between them ^ and yet this is not the cafe, as no
figns of eleftricity are obtained even after a long time,
and when the machine has been caufed to make twice
or three times as many revolutions. 1 he condition ef-
ientially neceffary to obtain eleflricity is, that the dif¬
ferent metals muft be in contaff with each other, which
is the cafe in fig. 27. but not in fig. 28.
“ When the machine has been repeatedly turned,
fomething may be obtained. T-his arifes either from
{mall remains of old eleftricity, which could not be
deftroyed or diffipated in the time during which the ar¬
rangement of fig. 26. was continued ^ or even from frefh
ele&ricity, which the moveable plate may have obtain¬
ed from the atmofphere or vapours during the pretty
confiderable time of the machine being in a ftate of re-
volution j or fome accidental difference, either between
the two tin or the two brafs pieces, may be the caufe of
fome aflion on tire eleflric fluid, or of fome derange¬
ment in regard to the equilibrium. In the laft place,
the eontafl of the moift conductor with the tin on the
one fide, or with the brafs on the other, may have a
different adlion, which, in my opinion, muft be very
fmall, but yet is not entirely without effeft.
“ As it is now proved that, according to the arrange¬
ment of the fixth experiment, nothing, or almoft no¬
thing, is obtained by 40, 60, and even 80 revolutions
of the doubler, while a great deal is obtained by that
of the fifth with 20 or 30, w^e muft therefore conclude
that the contadl of two metals of a different kind with
moift condudlors, without the mutual contact of theie
metals thenifelves (which is wanting in the fixth experi¬
ment, where brafs is in contadt with brafs, and tin wdlh
tin), produces nothing, or almoft nothing •, and that,
on the contrary, the mutual contaft of the two metals
of a different kind, which takes place in the fifth ex¬
periment, produces the whole, or almoft the whole
effedt * ” _
Dr Fowler inftituted an elaborate reriesof experiments
on this fubjedt, in whieh he confirmed and extended
many of the refulis which had been already obtai ed in
the experiments and inveftigations o! other naturalifts.
He found that metallic fuoitances were the beft agents
or condudlovs, and he concluded that the contadl of EffeaSof
two diflimilar metals is an effential condition in the pro- Galvanifm
dudtion of the phenomena of galvanifm. It did not ^ Ar“m^
indeed efcape his obfervation, that in fome cafes a ’r~'-
Angle metal produced mufcular contradlion, but this he
aferibed to mechanical ftimulus, which excited a painful
fenfation in the animal, not quite dead, or to the im¬
purity of the metal, containing lome portion of alloy,
or folder. Future obfervation, however, proved that
thefe motions could be produced without any metal
whatever. He found that the moft powerful, effefts
were produced by employing zinc, in combination with
gold or filver. By means of thefe metals he produced
contractions twenty-four hours after they had ceafed.
In the experiment by which this was eftablifhed, the
nerve was coated with tin, and a different metal wras
employed to complete the circle between the coating
and the mufcle. The fame philofopher alfo found that
the effefts were increafed in proportion to the bulk of
the metals employed, and the extent of furface brought
into contaCt j that a communication might be formed
between the metals in contaCt, and the nerves of the
animal which were expofed, by means of water j and
that the temperature of the feafon and the nature of the
animal’s death feemed to have confiderable influence on
the duration of the phenomena. In many cafes he was
able to produce contractions in a frog, after three days
had elapfed from the time that the head had been fe-
parated from the body. He feems to have direCted his
attention particularly to the condu&ing power of the
fubitances employed in galvanic apparatus, and in
tracing the analogy between this property and elec¬
tricity. Although metals were found to be good con-
duftors, this was not the cafe with the metallic
oxides, or with the falls which have thefe oxides for
their balls. _ ....
An earth-worm placed on a circular piece of zinc,
exhibited contractions fimilar to thofe produced in living
frogs, when a piece of filver was brought in contaCt to
complete the circle. Worms of the fame kind, fufpended
acrofs a filver rod, and the head and tail being at the fame
time brought in contaCt with a piece of zinc, fuftained a
fhock which feemed to pafs through the whole body.
A fimilar experiment, followed by the fame refult, was
made on leeches. If an earth-wrorm or leech be placed
on a piece of filver, refting on a plate of zinc, the ani¬
mal experiences a painful fenfation, when any part of
its body comes in contaCt with the zinc. It feems to
have the fame difagreeable fenfation when it is placed
on the zinc, and any part of the body is brought into
contaCt with the filver.
The inquiries of the fame philofopher were alfo di¬
rected to afeertain whether the.nerves in general are all
equally fubjeCt to the galvanic influence, or whether
its effeas are limited to thofe which are fubjed to the
power of the will. With this view the heart of a cow
was feparated from the body, foon after the animal was
killed, and prepared in the way which has been already
deferibed, in the preparation of frogs; and.while the
contradions of the auricles ftill continued, the intercoftai
nerve being coated, and the apparatus arranged, the
metals were brought into contad, but feevned to have
no efled whatever on the contradiom while they con¬
tinued, and after they had ceafed, had not the power of
renewing them. He failed in many fimilar attempts on
Part I.
lEffe&sof hot-blooded anImalf, but fucceeded in producing muf-
Balvanirm cular contractions in part of a frog, after an hour had
a\nimals. d^ed from time that the natural motions had
~’ v ceafed. He made a limilar experiment on the heart of
a cat which had been drowned in warm water, and he
found that in this cafe the motion of the heart could
be excited by means of galvanifm j but when the ani¬
mal was drowned in cold water, no effeCt could be
produced.
•KeRsm I*- was an°tber objeCt of his inveftigations, to afcertain
he organs the effeCts of galvanifm on the organs of the fenfes. The
f the ten- difagreeable tafte which remains on the tongue, when
:5* two diflimilar metals, the one placed on the upper iur-
face, and the other touching the under furface, are
brought into contaCl, has been already taken notice of,
and the method of applying the metals particularly de-
fcribed. The ftrongeil impreffion, it was obferved, w as
produced, when gold and zinc were employed. He
introduced a metallic fubftance of a different kind into
each ear, and having formed a communication between
them, he experienced a fhock in the head when thefe
two metals were brought into contaCl. A bit of tin-
foil was placed on the point of the tongue ; the rounded
end of a filver pencil cafe was applied to the internal
angle of the eye 5 and when the other extremity of the
pencil cafe and the tin-foil on the tongue w’ere brought
into contaff, he perceived a flafli of pale light, as well
as the metallic taile in the tongue which is produced in
a preceding experiment. The flalh feemed moft vivid
when gold and zinc were employed. A limilar eflfeft
is produced by introducing one of the metals between
the upper lip and the gum, and the other between
the under lip and the gum, and retaining them in this
pofition to bring the edges in contadt : or, by in-
ferting one of the metals into the nofe, and placing
the other on the tongue, to form the communication
34. between them.
xperi- Similar experiments were made by the late Pro¬
ems by feffor Robifon of Edinburgh. He particularly ob-
oLtfon. ferved, that the effects of the galvanic fluid were
more fenfibly felt when one of the conducting metals
was placed on a wound, or on the nerve of a carious
tooth. From the peculiar impreflion on the tongue
on the application of gold or fiiver trinkets, he could
afcertain whether any folder was employed about
them.
In another experiment the fame philofopher feemed
to think that he had proved that the effedt was pro¬
duced even before the metallic conductors were brought
into diredt contadt. A piece of zinc was introduced
between the gums and cheek on one fide of the head,
and a piece of filver was placed in the fame way on the
other fide of the head. A rod of zinc was then applied
to the zinc piece, and a rod of filver to the filver piece
on the different fides of' the head j the extremities of
thefe rods which projedted from the mouth were then
cautioufly brought into contadt $ and, as foon as this
was completed, a ftrong fenfation was produced in the
gums. Rut before the direct contadt was made be¬
tween the extremities of the rods, he perceived a flaflr
of light which was repeated when the rods were again
feparated to a fmall diftance from each other. It is
fcareely neceffary to add, that when the arrangement
©f the rods was reverfed, the effedts ceafed j that is,
351
when the zinc rod was fubftituted for tHe filver rod, Effedt-, of
and the filver one for that of zinc. Galvanifm
To the account of the experiments on animals now on ”ima s*
given, which were chiefly made on cold blooded ani¬
mals, we fhall now add thofe of Aldini, the nephew of
(jalvam, which were made on the body of a man exe- experiments
cuted in London for murder. This man who was exe- on the body
cuted on the 17th January 1803, "as years of age,°^a nia-e'
and feemed to have been of a ftrong, vigorous conftitu-
tion. The body was expofed for an hour to a tempe¬
rature two degrees below the freezing point Fahrenheit,
at the end of which it was conveyed to a houfe not far
diftant, where the apparatus for the experiments had
been arranged. The following is the account of thefe
experiments in the author’s own words.
“ Experiment 1.—One arc being applied to the
mouth, and another to the ear, wetted with a folution
of muriate of foda (common fait), galvanifm was com¬
municated by means of three troughs combined together,.
each of which contained 40 plates of zinc, and as many
of copper. On the firft application of the arcs the jaw
began to quiver, the adjoining mufcles were horribly
contorted, and the left eye a£tually opened.
“ Exper. 2.—On applying the arc to both ears, a
motion of the head was manifelted, and a convulfive
adlion of all the mufcles of the face ; the lips and
eyelids were alfo evidently affe&ed, but the aftion
feemed much increafed by making one extremity of
the arc to communicate with the nollrils, the other
continuing in one ear.
“ Exper. 3.—The conduftors being applied to the
ear and to the reftum, excited in the mufcles con-
tradfions much flronger than in the preceding experi¬
ments. The adlion even of thofe mufcles furtheft
diflant from the points of contadl with the arc was fo
much increafed as almolt to give an appearance of re¬
animation.
“ Exper. 4.—In this ftate, wiftiing to try the power
of ordinary ftimulants, I applied volatile alkali to the
noftrils and to the mouth, but without the leal! fenfible
adlion j on applying galvanifm great adlion was con-
ftantly produced. I then adminiftered the galvanic fti-
mulus and volatile alkali together j the convulfions ap¬
peared to be much increafed by this combination, and
extended from the mufcles of the head, face, and neck,
as far as the deltoid. The effedl in this cafe furpafl’ed
our moft fanguine expedlations, and vitality might, per¬
haps, have been reftored, if many circumftances had not
rendered it impoflible.
Exper. 3.—I next extended the arc from one ear
to the biceps flexor cubiti, the fibres of which had been
laid bare by diffeftion. This produced violent convul¬
fions of all the mufcles of the arm, and efpecially in the
biceps and the coraco-brachialis, even without the in¬
tervention of fait-water.
“ Exper. 6.—An incifion having been made in the
wrift, among the fmall filaments of the nerves and cel¬
lular membrane, on bringing the arc into contact with
this part, a very ftrong aftion of the mufcles of the
fore-arm and hand was immediately perceived. In
this, as in the laft experiment, the animal moifture was
fufticient to condud: the galvanic ftimulus without the
intervention of falt-water
“ Exper. 7.—-The Ihort nmfcles of the thumb were
difieded,
GALVANISM.
.3‘52
GALVANISM.
EfVea? of differed, and fubmitted to tbe aftion of the galvanic
Galvanifm apparatus, which induced a forcible effort to clench the
rAnimaHand. .
u J?xper, g.—The effects of galvanifm in this expe¬
riment were compared with thole of other ftimulants*
For this purpofe, the point of the foalpel was applied to
the fibres, and even-introduced into the fob 11 a nee of the
biceps flexor cubiti, without producing the ilighteft mo¬
tion. The fame refolt was obtained from the ufe of
cauftic volatile alkali and concentrated folphuric acid.
The latter even corroded the mufcle, without inducing
it to a61ion.
“ Exper.f).—Having opened the thorax and the pe¬
ricardium, expofing the heart in Jitu, 1 endeavoured
to excite a&ion in the ventricles, but without fuccefs.
The arc was firft applied upon the forface, then in the
fubftance of the fibres, to the carnece columned, to the
fleptnm ventriculorum, and laftly, in the courfe of the
nerves by the coronary arteries, even with fait water
interpofed, but without the Ilighteft vifible aftion being
induced.
“ Exper. 10.—In this experiment the arc was con¬
veyed to the right auricle, and produced a confiderable
-contra&ion, without the intervention of lalt water, but
efpecially in that part called the appendix auricu/aris;
in the left auricle fcarcely any aftion was exhibited.
11 Exper. II.—Conductors being applied from the
fpinal marrow to the fibres of the biceps flexor cubiti^
the gluteus maximus, and the gaflrocnemius, feparately,
no confiderable aCtion in the mufcles of the aim and leg
was produced.
“Exper. 12.—Thefciaticnervebeing expofed between
the great trochanter of the femur and the tuberofity of
the ifchium, and the arc being eftablifoed from the fpi-
nal marrow to the nerve divefted of its theca, we ob-
■ferved to our aftonilhment, that no contraction what¬
ever enfued in the mufcles, although fait water was uled
:at both extremities of the arc. But the conduftor be¬
ing made to communicate with the fibres of the mufcles
and the cellular membrane, as ftrong an adion as be¬
fore was manifefted.
“ Exper. 13.—By making the arc to communicate
with the fciatic nerve and the gaftrocnemius mufcle, a
very feeble aCtion was produced in the latter.
“ Exper. 14.—ConduCIors being applied from the
fciatic to the peronseal nerve, fcarcely any motion was
excited in the mufcles.
“ Exper. 15.—The fciatic nerve being divided about
the middle of the thigh, on applying the conductors
from the biceps flexor cruris-to the gaftrocnemius, there
enfued a powerful contraction of both. I muft here
-obferve that the mufcles continued excitable for feven
hours and a half after the execution. The troughs were
•frequently renewed, yet towards the clofe they were
very much exhaufted. No doubt, with a ftronger appa¬
ratus we might have obferved mufcular aCtion much
longer} for, after the experiments had been continued
for three or four hours, the power of a fingle trough
was not fufficient to excite the aCtion of the mufcles:
the afliftance of a more powerful apparatus was requir¬
ed. This ihows that fuch a long feries of experiments
could not have been performed by the fimple applica¬
tion of metallic coatings. I ,ant of opinion that, in
general, thefe coatings, invented in the firft inftance
by Galvani, are paffive. They ferve merely to -con-
Part I,
duCt the fluid pre-exiftent in the animal fyftem $ where- Effeds cf
as, with the galvanic batteries of Volta, the mufcles are^^^1™
excited to action by the influence of the apparatus it- ■ ■ - ^
felf.
“ From the above experiments there is reafon to con¬
clude : 35
“ l. That galvanifm, confidered by itfelf, exerts a con- Cone]uficm
fiderable power over the nervous and mufcular fyftems,andfrom
operates univerfally on the wholeof the animal economy.
“ 2. That the power of galvanifm, as a ftimulant, is
ftronger than any mechanical aCtion whatever.
“ 3. That the effeCts of galvanifm on the human
frame differ from thofe produced by eleCtricity com¬
municated with common eleCtrical machines.
“ 4. That galvanifm, whether adminiftered by means
of troughs or piles, differs in its effeCts from thofe
produced by the fimple metallic coatings employed by
Galvani.
That when the furfaces of the nerves and mufcles
are armed with metallic coatings, the influence of the
galvanic batteries is conveyed to a greater number of
points, and afts with confiderably more force in pro¬
ducing contractions of the mufcular fibre.
“ 6. That the aftion of galvanifm on the heart is dif¬
ferent from that on other mufcles. For, when the
heart is no longer fufceptible of the galvanic influence,
the other mufcles remain ftill excitable for a certain
time. It is alfo remarkable that the aCtion produced
by galvanifm on the auricles is different from that pro¬
duced on the ventricles of the heart, as is demonftrated
in experiment the tenth.
“ 7. That galvanifm affords very powerful means of
refufeitation in cafes of fufpended animation under com¬
mon circumftances. The remedies already adopted.in
afphyxia, drowning, &.c. when combined with the in¬
fluence of galvanifm, w ill produce much greater effeCt *
than either of them feparately*.” ... P‘
Excepting the experiments of Aldini which we have
juft detailed, the greater number of thofe of which an
account has been given, it has been already obferved,
were made on cold-blooded animals, and befides, the
apparatus ufoally employed, was a fingle galvanic com¬
bination. After the conftruCtion of the pile was known,
and ftill more fo after batteries in the form of troughs
were invented and employed, very different effeCts were
exhibited on the animal body, both in the dead and
living ftate.
With batteries compofed of 200, 300, or 400 pairs
of plates arranged in troughs, very powerful ftiocks
will be felt when the circle is completed between the
extremities of the battery by means of the two hands
of any perfon, fo that the fluid lhall pafs through the
body. This experiment may be performed by touch¬
ing with one hand wetted, a wire conneCled with one
extremity of the battery, and with the other hand alfo
moiftened a wire proceeding from the other end of the
battery. Every time that the contaft is made a (hock
is felt. The effeCl will be more powerful if round
balls of brafs having brafs rods attached to them after
being well wetted, be placed in the palms of the hands
alfo well wetted, and a communication be eftabhlhed
between the ends of the battery. I he fame effeCl is
produced when the circle is completed by means of a
number of perfons joining hands together ; but it muft
be obferved. that each perfon muft take care to have
GALVANISM,
1 Part I.
Effe&s of the hands well moiftened, otherwife the intenfity of the
jalvamfm nill be greatly diminilhed, or its effedl entirely
^ A”‘ma S' obftrudted. No experiments have been made, fo far as
we recolledl, to afcertain with any degree of precifion,
how far the intenfity of the (hock is diminiihed by in-
creafing the number of perfons compofing the circle of
communication, or whether indeed, when the experi¬
ment is made with the requifite degree of caution and
^ attention, it fuffers any diminution,
lalvanic It has been obferved by fome, (and fo far as rve can
rock com- judge from our own feelings in numerous experiments
ared. made with a pile cnmpofed of 6c pairs of plates, or with
a trough of 50 pairs, and fometimes with two and four
troughs of 50 pairs each combined, the obfervation
which we have made coincides with that of others), that
the (hock from the galvanic battery poffeffed fome pe¬
culiarity, by which the fenfation it excited was much
more difagreeable than a (hock of artificial electricity
which feemed to be of no greater intenfity. But it
muft be allowed, that in the comparifon of experiments
of fuch delicacy, the refult of which depends on the
feelings, great ambiguity muft prevail ; and therefore,
when the comparifon is unavoidably fo inaccurate, it
38 can afford no precife conclufion.
!ed on The fenfation is extremely unpleafant when the fhock
ounds. 0f galvanifm, even when it is very flight, paffes through
the fingers, if they have been feratched or wounded,
traded flight fliock directed through the head between
ough the temples, produces the fenfation of a Hath of light
2 head, before the eyes, and an irrefiftible contraClion of the
mufcles of the upper eyelids, fo that the perfon who is
the lubjeCf of the experiment involuntarily winks every
time that the circle is completed. This experiment,
which ftiould be repeated with caution, is performed in
the following manner : Place a bit of tin-foil which will
adhere by wetting with water to the part to which it
is applied, on eacktemple. Then having formed the
communication between one end of the trough and one
temple by means of a metallic conduftor, flat like a
fmall button, in that part which touches the tin-foil ;
this is retained in contact with the tin-foil by an affift-
ant j and by means of another afliftant, another fimi-
lar conductor is applied to the tin-foil on the other
temple. Things being thus arranged, the wire connec¬
ted with the latter, is by the operator brought in con¬
tact with the other extremity of the battery, or with
that part of it to which the extent or intenfity of the
fhock is to be limited. Every time that this contaft is
repeated, the fenfation of the Hath of light, and the
other effeCls, are produced. It has been hinted above,
40 this experiment fhould be performed with caution,
dtions. Not more than from 12 to 20 pairs of plates fliould be
employed, at leaft on thofe on whom the effefts of a
imall number have not been previoufly tried 5 aud per¬
haps with that number, at leaft in the experiments of
this kind which we have feen made, there are not many
perfons who would choofe to have them repeated on
themfelves. But thefeeffeCls, it may be added, w ill be
more or lefs powerful in proportion to the period that
the battery has continued in aCh'on with the lame
t1 fluid.
on A battery compofed of 200 pairs of plates will pro-
k; ani‘ ckce ftynng contractions in the limbs of a fowl or rab¬
bit, which has been recently killed. Thefe effeCis may
be conveniently exhibited by introducing one of the con-
V-OL, IX. Part I.
duCting w ires, by means of a hook, into the mouth, or
fixing it about the back part of the head of the animal,
and fixing a fimilar hook from another wire connected
with the other end of the battery near the rump, fo
that the current of galvanic fluid lhall pafs through the
body. When the communication between the extre¬
mities of the battery is formed, the eonvulfive motions
of the limbs of the animal take place, and are repeated
as often as the circle is completed. Similar effeCts are
produced on a dog or Iheep j but to induce ftrong con*-
vulfions in the larger animals, a more powerful ap¬
paratus muft be employed. It will be neceffary to put
in aClion a battery confifting of at lead 300 or 400
pairs of plates arranged in troughs.
With a battery of fuch extent and power, the con-
vulfive motions produced on the limbs of horfes that
were fubjeCtcd to its aCtion, were fo ftrong that they
could fcarcely be refitted by the ftrength of two per¬
fons.
1 he head of an ox, foon after it was feparated from
the body, and while it was yet warm, was aCted on by
fix batteries, amounting to about 300 pairs of plates.
Strong convulfive motions were produced j the eyes
opened, and the pupils were greatly dilated ; the ears
were alfo put in motion j and the tongue drawn out
and fixed to the table with an iron fkewer which enter¬
ed the wood above half an inch, was retrafted w ith fuch
force as to detach itfelf from the Ikewer which was
thrown to fome height into the air.
It has been faid that the motions thus induced on the
limbs of animals by means of galvanifm, refemble the
convulfive motions of epilepfy. Perhaps the motions
of animals during the ftruggles of death may be con-
fidered as nearly fimilar. Whether this be fo or not,
we have obferved that the convulfive contractions of
animals fubjeCIed to galvanifm, greatly refemble the
peculiar motions of each animal in the ftruggles of
death. This obfervation however only extends to what
has. happened to fowls, rabbits, and theep ; but fo far
as it goes, it has been allowed by thofe to whom w'e
have remarked the circumftance to be pretty cor¬
rect.
With thefe obferva'uons we conclude this long detail
of the effeCfs of galvanifm on animals. This feemed
to be neceffary in order to give the reader a diftinfl
view of what may be confidered as the dawn of this
department of fcience ; for as we have already hinted,
the experiments and inveftigations of naturalifts were at
firft limited to its effeCts on animals ; and from their la¬
bours an immenfe body of faCT were accumulated before
its chemical effeCts were much known or diftinCtly af-
certained. We now therefore proceed to the confidera-
tion of the chemical effeCts of galvanifm. Thefe lhall
be the fubjeCt of the next chapter.
Chap. III. 0/ the Chemical EffeBs of Galvanifm.
In the account we propofe to lay before our readers,
of thofe effeCts of the galvanic fluid wh-ch are to be
confidered as more ftriCtly chemical, we lhall firft ftate
nv re generally fome of the experiments by means of
w hich thefe effects are illuftrated, and defcribe the me¬
thod of performing them, and then enter into a more
particular detail of the experiments of different philofo.
* y phers
353
Chemical
Effefts.
 v 1
254
Chemical
iiS’edb.
G A L V A N I S M.
42
Combuftion
phets wliich tended to improve and enlarge the know¬
ledge of galvaniftn.
We lhall limit the account of the experiments firft
alluded to above to the combuftion of charcoal, the de¬
flagration and combuftion of metallic fubftances, the
decompofition of water and fome other fluids, and the
precipitation of metals from their folution in acids.
Exper. j.—With a battery compofed of 50 pairs of
of charcoal! plates of three or four inches fquare, with proper ma¬
nagement, a brilliant light may be produced from the
combuftion of charcoal. The charcoal for this experi¬
ment fhould be well prepared, from fome of the harder
woods, fuch as beech or boxwood. It has been faid
that it could only be properly prepared by expofing it
to a degree of heat equal to that of a glafshoufe fur¬
nace ; but vre know from experience that fo high a
temperature is by no means abfolutely neceiTary. We
have prepared charcoal which was found to anfwer the
purpofe of the prefent experiment, with fuch a heat as
can be eafily commanded in a fmall chemical furnace.
The wood which is to be converted into charcoal is di¬
vided into flips of about one-fourth of an inch fquare j
it is then put into a crucible, which is filled up with
fand, and may be covered with another crucible invert¬
ed, fo as ftill more effeftually to prevent the accefs of
air. The crucible is then placed in the middle of the
furnace, which is to be filled up with charcoal, and a
itrong heat maintained for eight or ten hours. After
this the charcoal will be found fufficiently prepared,
and this is of fome confequence to be attended to, be-
caufe on the complete converfion of the wood into this
ftate much of the fuccefs of the experiment depends.
Slips of charcoal reduced to a fine point are attached
to wires, which communicate with the extremities of
the battery. The charcoal may be fixed to the con¬
ducing wires by means of a bit of thread, or fine iron
or brafs wire, or they may be fixed in pincers, or an in-
ftrument fimilar to that which is ufed for holding crayons
or blacklead pencils’, but in whatever way this part of
the apparatus is contrived, when the two pieces of char¬
coal conneCed by means of metallic conduCors with the
extremities of the battery are brought into contaft,
combuftion immediately takes place. The rapidity or
brilliancy of this combuftion is proportioned to the
ftrength and aCivity of the battery. The light produ¬
ced by fuch a battery as that we have deferibed above,
will be at times pretty vivid 5 but with two fuch batte¬
ries whofe aftion is combined, it is ftill more brilliant.
When four batteries, confifting each of 50 pairs of
plates of eight inches fquare, are employed for this ex¬
periment, nothing perhaps can exceed the brilliancy of
the light which is given out during the combuftion of
the charcoal. With the fmaller battery, the procefsis
occafionally interrupted 5 but with the larger apparatus
the combuftion goes on for a ftiort time, giving out a
continued and uniform brilliant light. When this is
the cafe, the rays feem to proceed from the point where
the combuftion is going on, and exhibit all the variety
of the prifmatic colours. When the pieces of charcoal
are immerfed in water, and brought into contact under
its furface, the combuftion alfo goes on with confider-
able rapidity.
Exper. 2.—The deflagration and combuftion of many
metallic fubftances may be alfo effedted with a battery
compofed of 50 pairs of three inch plates, and this may
„ 43
Of metals.
Pan I,
be done with a very Ample apparatus. A bent wire, Chemical
fuch as we have already deferibed, is inferted into the Effetts.
perforated projedting piece of wood, at the extremity of •
the battery. The wire is to be bent at a right angle
to that part of it which is fixed perpendicularly into
the extremity of the trough, and on the horizontal part
of it is placed the metallic fubftance to be deflagrated.
A plate of copper, which muft be perfedtly clean and
free from oxide, is to be connedted with the other end
of the battery by means of a condudling wire. When
the apparatus is thus arranged, if the copper plate be
brought into contadt with gold or filver leaf, for inftance,
the combuftion of thefe fubftances will take place, and
this combuftion, it is fcarcely neceffary to add, will be
in proportion to the power of the battery and its energy.
In the fame way tin-foil, white and yellow Dutch me¬
tal, as it is called, may be fubjedted to experiment, and
with a battery of moderate power, a brilliant combuf¬
tion may be produced.
When a battery of greater power is employed, a very
brilliant and rapid combuftion of fteel wire can be ef-
fedled. This experiment is made by ftretching a piece
of wire, fuch as that which is ufed for the fmaller firings
of mufical inftruments, between the twm metallic con-
dudtors connedted with the oppofite extremities of the
battery ; and thus completing the circle, the combuftion
takes place. When the experiment fucceeds, feveral
inches of the wire are almoft inllantaneoufly reduced to
the ftate of oxide. In this way the energy of the bat¬
tery may be in fome meafure afeertained, as it muft be
in proportion to the length of the wire which is burnt.
When a very powerful battery is in adtion, 10 or 12
inches of fuch wire may be completely burnt, that is,
not merely made red hot, but having undergone the
procefs of combuftion, and having palled from the me¬
tallic ftate to that of oxide. ^
Exper. 3.—We have already deferred the apparatus j)econ,p0ii.
for the decompofition of water. To exhibit this expe-tion of di¬
riment, it is only neceflary to fill fome of the tubestcr-
which have been mentioned for this purpofe with water,
and to complete the circle of communication between
the extremities of the battery, the water in the tube to
be decompofed forming part of this circle. If the con¬
dudling w'ires terminating in the tube confift of metals
which do not readily undergo oxidation, fuch as gold
or platina, the gafes which are the conftituent parts of
water are feparated from the wires, the oxygen gas from
the one, and the hydrogen gas from the other, and are
feen rifing in bubbles to the top of the tube, difplacing
a quantity of water equal to the fpace occupied by
the gafes evolved. This procefs goes on till the furface
of the water falls below the condudling wire palling
through the top of the tube} and the circle being then
interrupted, the procefs Hops. When this is the cafe,
if the two condudling w ires within the tube can by
any contrivance be brought into contadt, a fpark is pro¬
duced, by which the gafes are fet fire to, and are again
converted into the ftate of water. This combuftion is
attended w ith an explofion. Or if the tube be careful¬
ly taken from the apparatus under water, while the fin¬
ger is placed upon the open end, and then inverted,
the gas colledted will rife through the water } it may
then be fet fire to by means of a burning body, a fimi¬
lar combuftion will take place, attended with an ex¬
plofion.
But
! ^art T.
I; Chemical
EfFeds.
)ther li-
uids de-
ompofed.
45
’recipita-
ion of ma¬
ils.
47
aperi¬
ents of
mirk-
auk.
G A L V
But if the wires terminating in the tube be of brafs
or iron, or any metal which is eafily oxidated, only one
of the gafes is collected in the tube j the other (the
oxygen) combines with the metal, forming an oxide,
which colledls on the point of the wire.
By a very fimple contrivance the gafes may be col-
lefted feparately. With this view two tubes in which
the conducing wires terminate, are employed. Thefe
tubes being filled with water, muft be inverted in the
fame bafon of water, the latter of which forms the com¬
munication between the extremities of the battery.
Other fluids, as oil, alcohol, ether, and ammonia in
folution, may be alfo decompofed by a fimilar procefs.
For the decompofition of oil, alcohol, and ether, the
pieces of charcoal may be immerfed in veflels contain¬
ing thefe liquids; and, when they are brought into con-
taft, the decompofition is effected, with the formation
and evolution of carbonic acid gas, which is feen rifing
in bubbles to the furface.
Exper. 4.—By means of galvanifm, and with a bat¬
tery of moderate power, metals may be precipitated
from their folutions in acids. The apparatus to be em¬
ployed for this purpofe is fimilar to that for the decom¬
pofition of water, and the tube is filled with a folution
of the metallic fait. The communication being then efta-
blifhed, the metal is precipitated, and appears in an ar-
borefcent form on the point of the wire. In this way
the acetate of lead, or fugar of lead, the nitrate of fil-
Ver, and many other metallic falls, may be revived.
Many other curious and amufing experiments might
have been related, but what we have now given will
enable the reader to have a diftindl notion of the che¬
mical effedls of galvanifm. Many other of the chemi¬
cal effedfs of the galvanic fluid are fo clofely connedled
with the peculiar view's and theories of thofe who have
difcovered and obferved them, that we fhall not en¬
ter into any detail of them till we come to confider
that part of the fubjedf. In the mean time we fliall oc¬
cupy the remaining part of the prefent chapter with an
account of fome of th experiments on the chemical ef-
fedls of galvanifm which were obferved by philofophers
in the earlier part of its progrefs.
Mr Cruicklhank, the inventor of the galvanic trough,
very early diredled l\is attention to this inquiry, and pro-
fecuted it with great ardour and fuccefs. In one of his
early communications on this fubjedl we have a compre-
henfive view of fome of the chemical phenomena of gal¬
vanifm. We {hall, therefore, give it in his own words.
“ I (hall not, fays he, give any particular account of
the apparatus employed, being a pile, and not differing
materially from that in ufe. I fliall only juft obferve,
that it confifted of plates of zinc and filver, of about
-1.6 inches fquare, and that the number of each employ¬
ed in the following experiments varied from 40 to 100,
according to the power required.
“ I found that a folution of the muriate of ammonia
anfwered better for moiftening the interpofed papers than
common water.
“ When the machine wras in full adlion, fparks which
were perfedtly vifible in the day time, could be taken
at pleafure, by making a communication in the ufual
way between the extremitiesof the pile, and a fmall re¬
port or fnap could be heard j the Ihock given at that
time was very ftrong, and a gold-leaf eledfrometer, pla¬
ced in the circle of communication, was very fenfibly
A N I s M.
affedled : thefe circumftances, fome of which, I believe,
have been already afcertained by Mefirs Nicholfon and
Carlifle, ftiew' the ftrong refemblance of this influence to
eledlricity. Thefe gentlemen have likewife difcovered
that galvanifm decompofes water with much greater
facility than eledlricity, but writh phenomena fome-
what different.
“ Exper. 1.—A quantity of common water was intro¬
duced into a glafs tube, being confined at each end by
corks, but perfedtly at one by a cement of rofin and
bees-wax : pieces of filver wire were paffed through the
corks, and brought within an inch of each other in the
fluid, their other extremities being at the fame time con-
nedled with thofe of the machine or pile, one with the
lower zinc plate, and the other with the upper filver
plate. In future, to avoid circumlocution, I ihall call
the wire attached to the filver plate, the filver wire, and
the other the zinc wire. The tube w as then placed
upright in a cup containing water, with the uncemented
end downwards. As loon as the communication was
made between the extremities of the pile by the wires,
a quantity of fmall air bubbles began to afeend from
the end of the wire connedted with the filver, as ob¬
ferved by Meffrs Nicholfon and Carlifle j but a w hite
cloud at the fame time made its appearance at the one
proceeding from the zinc, or the zinc w ire. This cloud
gradually increafed, and aflumed a darker colour, and
at laft it became purple, or even black. A very few
air bubbles were likewife colledled upon and afcended
from this wire, but when the machine w as in full force,
a confiderable ftream could be obferved.
1 lie gas was colledled, and found to be a mixture
of hydrogen and oxygen, in the proportion of three
parts of the former to one of the latter. No great de¬
pendence, however, was placed upon this in point of
accuracy. The zinc wire was found to be much cor¬
roded, and looked as if a confiderable portion of it had
been diffolved. As the cloud which was formed around
this wire became purple on expofure to the light, I
fufpedled it might be luna cornea, or muriate of filver
proceeding from the filver, which had been fomehow
diffoived, and afterwards precipitated in this {late, by
the muriatic falts in the common water. This led to
the following experiments:
“ Exper. 2.—The glafs tube was now filled with dif-
tilled water, to which a little tinfture of litmus was ad¬
ded ; when the communication was made by the wires
as in the former experiment, a quantity of gas arofe
from both w ires, but in the greateft quantity from that
conne£led with the filver, In a few minutes a fine red
line, extending fome way upwards, was perceived at
the extremity of the zinc wire; this increafed, and in
a Ihort time the whole fluid below the point of this wire
became red, the fluid, however, above the filver wire,
looked of a deeper blue than before, the flight tinge of
purple being deftroyed.
“ Exper. 3.—I next filled the tube with diftilled wa¬
ter, tinged with the tinclure of Brazil wood ; it w as no
fooner placed in the circle of communication, than the
fluid furrounding the filver wire, particularly towards
its extremity, became purple, and this tinge increafed
fo fall, that the whole fluid furrounding this wire, and
occupying the upper part of the tube, foon affumed as
deep a colour, as could be produced by ammonia.
“ The portion of the fluid in contaft with the zinc
Y y 2 wire
355
Chemical
Effe&s.
 v /
356 G A L V
Chemical wire became very pale, and aim oft colourlefs, nor could
liffedb. pUrpie tinge extend below its upper extremity.
v From thefe experiments it would appear, that an acid,
probably the nitrous, is produced at the wire proceed¬
ing from the zinc, and an alkali, probably ammonia,
at that in contact with the filver. Thefe fadts futh-
ciently explain the adlion upon the filver wire, and the
nature of the ivhitifh cloud proceeding from it, and af¬
terwards becoming purple. When lime water was em¬
ployed inftead of common or ditiilled water, the wire
was likewife added upon, but in a lefs degree, and the
cloud had at firtt an olive colour, exadtly refembling
the precipitate of filver by lime-water.
“ The quantity of filver difiblved or corroded, if I
may ufe the expreflion, in thefe experiments, was very
confiderable, and where common or diltilled water had
been employed, a fmall portion of it remained in lolu-
tion, which was difcovered by the addition of the mu¬
riatic acid. Indeed a much larger quantity would pro¬
bably have been fufpended, bad it not been for the al¬
kali generated at the fame time, and which manifeftly
produced a precipitate at, or near, the upper extremi¬
ty of the zinc wire, where, after a certain time, a dark
zone or ftratum was always formed.
“ Exper. 4.—It is a well known faft, that hydro¬
gen gas when heated, or in its nafcent Hate, reduces
the calces of the metals ; I expected, therefore, that
by filling the glafs tube with a metallic folution, I
might be enabled to feparate the hydrogen from the
oxygen gas, and thus procure the latter in its fimple or
pure ftate. With this view the tube was filled with a
folution of the acetite of lead, to which an excefs of
acid was added, to counteract the effects of the alkali.
When the communication was made in the ufual way,
no gas could be perceived, but after a minute or two,
lome fine metallic needles were perceived at the extre¬
mity of the wire connected with the filver. Thefe
foon increafed, and aflumed the form of a feather, or
rather that of the cryftals of the muriate of ammonia.
The lead thus precipitated was perfectly in its metallic
Hate, and very brilliant 5 a little gas efcaped from the
wire conneCted with the zinc, and it was confiderably
corroded as ufual.
“ A folution of the fulphate of copper was next em¬
ployed, and with the fame refult, the copper being pre¬
cipitated in its metallic form by the wire conneCted
with the filver. In this inftance the metal did not cry-
ftallize, but formed a kind of button at the end of the
wire, which adhered fo completely to the filver, that it
was found impoflible to feparate it.
“ The moil beautiful precipitate, however, was
that of lilver from its folution in the nitrous acid. In
this cafe, the metal (hot into fine needle-like cryftals,
articulated, or joined to each other, as in the Arbor
Dianae.
“ What became of the oxygen gas ufually produced
in thefe experiments ?
“ Exper. 5.—A quantity of pure water mixed with
diftilled vinegar was introduced into the tube, and
placed in the circle of communication; fome gas was
difengaged from the filver wire, but no cloud appeared
at the extremity of the zinc. After fome time, how¬
ever, a quantity of metallic filver was precipitated by
the filver wire, and this precipitate atlaft became very
copious} a perfectly fimilar effeCt was produced, when
A N 1 S M. Part I,
the tube was filled with very dilute fulphuric acid ; in Chemical
thefe cafes the precipitated lilver had the appearance of Effects.
Ihining fcales, like that thrown down by copper in the y Lj
ufual way. It may be proper to obferve, that in all
thefe precipitations and reductions, nothing but wires of
pure lilver were employed. The refults in this laft ex¬
periment were exactly what was expeCted 5 the vinegar
prevented the alkali from precipitating the lilver, dif-
folved by the generated acid *, in conltquence of w'hich,
when a fufficient quantity of the metal was taken up, it
was again thrown down by the filver wire in its metal¬
lic form.
“ E.xper. 6.—A folution of the muriate of ammo¬
nia being introduced into the tube, and expofed to
this influence, a little gas was difengaged from the fil¬
ver wire, while the zinc one was incrufted with a fub-
- ftance which foon became black, and was found to be
luna cornea. The liquor which remained in the tube
after the operation had been finilhed, was highly alka¬
line, and fmelled ftrongly of ammonia; common fait
was decompofed in a fimilar manner. This experiment
accounts for the decompofition of the muriate of foda
and ammonia, which always takes place when the pa¬
pers in the pile are moiftened with a folution of thefe
falts.
‘‘ A folution of the nitrate of magnefia appeared ter
be likewife decompofed by this procefs ; for after fome
time, a white powder refembling magnefia, was preci¬
pitated on the furface of the filver wire, very little gas
was difengaged.
“ Expev. 7.—In order to afeertain how far this in¬
fluence might be carried, provided the circle of com¬
munication was complete, two tubes were employed,
and conne&ed by a filver wire palling through corks ;
the tubes were filled with water and ieeured by corks;
two other wires being then paffed through thefe corks,
the arc was connected with the filver, and the other
with the zinc, at the extremity of the pile. A quan¬
tity of gas as ulual was difengaged at the extremity of
the filver wire, and the portion of the conneding wire
in the fame tube was partly diflolved, and as mention¬
ed in experiment ift ; but the other portion of the fame
wire in the other tube gave out gas, while the commu¬
nicating zinc wire was corroded. And I make no
doubt that a fimilar effed would be produced, if any
number of tubes were conneded in a fimilar manner,
by w hich means a large quantity of gas might be pro¬
cured in a (hort time.
“ Befides filver wires, I likewife employed thofe of
copper or iron, and it did not appear that thefe were
more corroded or aded upon than the filver ; indeed, in
fome of the above experiments, not lefts than half, or
three-quarters of an inch of the w ire w as entirely con-
fumed. The copper wire conneded with the zinc
gives out a greenifh blue fubftance refembling the ni¬
trate of copper with excefs of the metal, or when part
of the acid has been expelled by heat, &c. In exa¬
mining the gas which was procured at different times,,
1 always found it mixed with a little oxygen gas, but
fometimft this did not exceed one-eighth of the whole
in bulk ; however, I paid but little attention to this
part of the procefs, for as my wires were alw ays cor¬
roded, no conclufion with regard to the compofition oi
water could be drawn from it*.” * Nicholf-
We might have here detailed a great variety of ex- Jour- 41^
G A L V A N I S M.
.'art II.
Hiftory peiiments, which have been made to afcertain the
—r—' chemical effefts of galvanifm, and to elucidate the na¬
ture and properties of the fluid which is fuppofed to be
concerned in thefe changes. In particular we might
give an account of the. later experiments and refearches
of philofophers, in inveftigating the formation of mu¬
riatic acid, and an alkali which is fuppofed to be foda,
by means of this power. This forms one of the moft
curious fubjedts of inquiry which has yet occurred with
regard to galvanifm j but as fome part of the invefHga-
tions of thole who have occupied their attention with
this inquiry, is connected with theoretical views, we
fhall referve the confideration of the whole to the fe-
cond part of this treatife, the object of which is, to give
a hiftorieal detail of the prdgrefs of galvanifm, with
the opinions of philofophers concerning the nature of
the galvanic fluid. To this therefore we now proceed.
357
Hiftory.
PART II. OF THE HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF GALVANISM.
4*
| ft hint
<|)-alva-
m-
IN the full part of this treatife we have given a
pretty full view of the method of conftrufting appara¬
tus for the purpofe of exhibiting the phenomena of gal¬
vanifm, and we have entered at conliderable length in¬
to a detail of the experiments which have been made,
to afcertain the effefts of the galvanic fluid on animals,
as well as thofe experiments by which its chemical ef¬
fects are illuftrated, with fame of the theoretical views
and opinions of thofe who have been engaged in re¬
fearches concerning the properties of this fluid. It is
now propofed, in the fecond part, firft, to confider the
progreflive hi dory of galvanifm, with the theories by
which philofophers have attempted to account for its
effefts ; fecondly, we fliall endeavour to trace the ana¬
logy between artificial eleftricity and galvanifm 5 and
lafily, give an account of the experiments and inquiries
which have been made concerning the formation of
muriatic acid and foda by means of this power. Thefe
will form the fubjedls of the three following chapters.
Chap. I. Hiftory of the Difcovery and Progrefs of
Galvanifm.
The firfl: hint which is ufually quoted as corme<5ted
with the phenomena of galvanifm, is extrafted from a
book entitled the General Theory of Pleafures, by Sult-
zer, which was publiihed in the year 1767. In this
work the author particularly deferibes the experiment
with two diflimilar pieces of metal which we have re¬
lated at the beginning of this treatife, and by which
we have endeavoured to illuftrate what is underftood by
galvanifm, in its effedfs on the living body. The ex¬
periment alluded to is that in which a piece of zinc and
a piece of filver being placed, the one in contadl with
the upper, and the other with the under furface of the
tongue, and their projedling edges being brought into
contadf, a tafte is produced, which, the author obferves,
refembles vitriol of iron. This fenfation is aferibed to
a vibration of the particles of the metals affefHng the
nerves of the tongue.
Other hints and experiments have been quoted,
which feem to be connedled with the phenomena of
galvanifm 5 but as they were not profecuted, and as no
conclufion, with the view of eftablifliing any particular
point, was deduced from them, it would be unnecef-
lary to give an account of them, excepting thofe of
Vaflalli, member of the royal academy of Turin, who
publiihed in 1789, a theory on this fubjeft, fupported
by a feries of experiments which he had inftituted.
Here he throws out a conjedlure, that a prnvifion has
been made by nature in the fyftem of a living animal^
by which the eledlricity accumulated in any particular
part of the body is preferved and retained for fome ne-
ceffary purpofe of its exiftence. It had indeed been
fuppofed by fome, that the animation of the blood de¬
pended on the eleftric fluid, but according to others,
this fluid and the nervous fluid were to- be cenfidered
as one and the fame.
This fubjeft was particularly inveftigated and illuftra- Galvani’s
ted, when in the year 1791 a remarkable difcovery difcovery.
which was made by Dr Galvani, profelfor of anatomy
in the univerfity of Bologna in Italy, was announced to
the world. This difcovery, like molt others, was ac¬
cidental. Some frogs deprived of the fkin were placed
upon a table near which the profeflbr happened to be
engaged in experiments with an electrifying machine.
The crural nerve of one of the frogs was touched by a
perfon prefent, with the point of a fcalpel during the
time that the machine was working. The whole ani¬
mal was thrown into convulfions. The fame experi¬
ments were afterwards repeated with the fame fuccefs.
Every time that the fcalpel was applied to the nerve,
while the machine was in motion, violent convulfions
were produced. But when the machine ceafed to
move, on the application of the fcalpel to the nerve no
efifedt followed. To this accidental difcovery this
branch of fcience owed its origin, and from the name
of the difeoverer was called Galvanifm.
Since the period of this difcovery, a great many ex¬
periments have been made, and many curious pheno¬
mena have been obferved, which have excited much in-
terelt and attention among philofophers. We fliall now
prefent our readers with a hiftorical Iketch of the pro¬
grefs of thefe difeoveries.
The experiment which has been mentioned w'as re¬
peated by Galvani in every poflible way he could think
of. He varied it both by means of artificial and at-
mofpherical eledlricity, and the refult of all thefe ex¬
periments he found to be uniform and confiftent.
When Galvani firfl; began his refearches, he fuppofed
that the phenomena depended on common eleftricity,
palling through the animals on w’hich the experiments
were made. He had obferved that the fame effefls
were produced, but in a fmaller degree, in living frogs
and in other animals, as in thofe w’hich had been newlv
deprived of life. In the courfe of fome experiments
which he made on atmofpherical electricity, he fufpend-
ed fome frogs, by means of metallic hooks fixed in the
fpine, from iron palifades j and he obferved that the
mufcles of thefe animals were frequently and involun¬
tarily contra&ed, as if they had received a fhock of
eleClricity. At firlt he aferibed thefe convulfions to
the
55 s
Hiftory.
G A L V A N I S M.
tlis changes In the ftate or the eleftricity in the atmo-
   fphere ; but after a repetition of the experiments he
found that he was miftaken. He difcovered, however,
at laft, after many ingenious experiments, that he could
at pleafure produce the convullions, by touching two
different parts of the animal, each with a piece of me¬
tal, and then bringing thefe pieces of metal into con tad.
The experiment may be made in the following manner.
Let the crural nerve of a frog be laid bare to about an
inch in extent} let a piece of zinc be placed in contaft
with the nerve, and let a piece of filver be placed on
the mufcles with which the nerve communicates. Then
bring the zinc and filver into contaft, and the whole
limb will be inftantly thrown into convulfions.
•After Galvani had publilhed his experiments, the
convulfions thus excited were afcribed to the aftion of
fome unknown .fluid to which the name Galvamfm was
50 given, or Animal E/eBricity. According to Galvani,
Bis theory. a fluid is fecreted in the brain, the fame with the ner¬
vous fluid ; but being analogous to common ele&riei-
ty, might with more propriety be termed animal elec¬
tricity. The conduftors of this fluid are the nerves.
It is carried off by them as it is fecreted, and depofited
on the interior furface of the mufcular fibres, which be¬
ing non-condu&ors of the fluid, do not permit it to pafs
through them. The ftate of the mufcular fibres exaft-
ly refembled that of a charged Leyden jar. Their in¬
ner furface is electrified pofitively, and the outer fur-
face is eleCtrified negatively. The communication be¬
tween the exterior and interior furfaces of the mufcular
fibres is formed by the nerves. They convey the re¬
dundant eleCtricity from the internal to the external
furface, and, like the effeCt of the eleCtrical ftimulus,
every difcharge is attended with a mufcular contrac¬
tion.
On the other hand Volta, another philofopher who
carried his refearches far into this fubjeCt, and of whofe
experiments and views we have given a long detail,
adopted a different opinion. He thought that the con¬
vulfions occafioned by the galvanic apparatus were en¬
tirely independent of the aClion of the nervous fluid, and
were to be afcribed to common eleftricity excited by
the metallic conduClors which are employed. Thefe
different opinions were fupported with much ingenuity
in a controverfy which commenced between Galvani
and Volta. The writers on galvanifm divided them-
felves into two parties. While one party maintained
with Volta, that the phenomena w'ere owfing to the
jaftion of common eleftricity on the mufcular fibres,
another party thought that they were entirely depend¬
ent upon fomething peculiar to animal matter. By
many this feemed to have been confidered as the nervous
fluid, which was fuppofed to be the fame with, or ana¬
logous to, common eleClricity.
It had been long afferted, that porter, and fome other
liquors, drank out of a pewter pot, had a different tafte
from what it has when drank out of glafs or earthen
ware. Pure mercury, it has been obferved, retains its
metallic fplendour for a long time •, but when amalga¬
mated with any other metal, it is foon tarniihed or oxi¬
dated. The Etrufcan infcriptions on pure lead are in
.good prefervation to this day •, whereas fome medals of
lead and tin, of no great antiquity, are much corroded,
and works of metal, whofe parts are foldered together
By the interpofition of other metals, foon tarnifh about
4
51
rolta’s.
Part II.
the places w here the different metals are joined. When Hiftcry.
the copper flieeting of (hips is fattened on by means of ^
iron nails, the nails, but particularly the copper, are
readily corroded about the place of contact. A piece
of zinc placed in water for a confiderable time fcarcely
undergoes any change 5 but if a piece of filver happen
to touch the zinc whilft it is in the water, it is Icon
corroded or oxidated.
In the courfe of a very fewr years after the publica¬
tion of Galvani’s difcovery, a great number of writers
appeared, and prefented to the world a great body of
fafts which they had afcertained by experiments and
obfervations. The following are among the molt im- ^
portant : t. When a piece of metal is placed on theRecapitu.
muicle of an animal jult dead, and ffill moift, and ano-iat;onof
ther piece of a different metal is placed on the nerve
which leads to the mufcle, or on another part of the
mufcle, and if the two pieces of metal be brought into
contadl, a contraftion or convulfion of the mufcle takes
place. 2. A fingle piece of metal, or two pieces of
the fame metal, have no effedt in exciting contradlion
of the mufcle. It is neceffary to have two perfeft con-
du&ors of eleftricity in contaft, before any convulfion
can be produced. 3. The mufcle muff be moift. The
effeft is not prevented by a ligature on a nerve j but
the fufceptibility of a mufcle to be throw n into convul¬
fions is diminiflied, and at laft deftroyed by the applica¬
tion of opium, which deftroys its irritability. The fame
change takes place if the mufcle be allowed to remain
for fome time after death. 4. The different mufcles of
the body are differently affefted by the galvanic in¬
fluence. They are not equally fufceptible of the fame
degree of convulfive effeft. 5. If a plate of zinc be
placed on the upper furface of the tongue, and a plate
of filver or copper be applied to its under furface j and
if the tw’o pieces of metal thus placed be brought into
contaft, a ftrong metallic tafte is immediately per¬
ceived. An acid tafte is perceived, when the tongue
is dipt into an alkaline folution contained in a tin or
zinc cup held in the moift hand. 6. If a piece of me¬
tal, as a filver fpoon, be placed on the ball of the eye,
and another piece of a different metal, as a piece of
zinc, be placed on the tongue, and if the two pieces
of metal be brought into contaft, a flafh of fire is in¬
ftantly perceived j and it is perceived, both when the
metals are brought into contaft, and when they are fe-
parated. 7. Another faft, which was afcertained by
Aldini, who performed a great many experiments in
galvanifm during his vifit to this country, is, that con¬
vulfions may be excited merely by forming a proper
chain of mufcles and nerves. This is proved by the
following experiment. He took a prepared frog, and
held it fufpended in one hand by the foot. The fciatic
nerves were brought into contaft with the tongue of an
ox, the head of which had been recently leparated from
the body. He then introduced the other hand moift-
ened with a folution of common fait in water into the
ear of the animal, thus completing the circle. Every
time that the communication was formed, the mufcles
of the frog were thrown into convulfions.
Moft of the fafts which we have now related, were af¬
certained by the different philofophers, w hofe refearches
were direfted to the fubjeft of galvanifm, between the
years 1791 and 1794. Hitherto the conneftion be¬
tween galvanifm and animal bodies was confidered by
moft
art II. G A L V
jllliftory. nioft writers, fo clofe and intimate, that they fuppofed
the one could not exift independent of the other. Some
fa6ts, however, which were eftabliihed by Fabroni and
others, feemed to favour the opinion of thofe who con-
fidered galvanifm as the action of a peculiar fluid on
the animal fibre. This fluid is developed by the mutual
action of the metals employed as exciting caufes, and it
exifls in other bodies as well as in thofe which are en¬
dowed with life. We have already mentioned that two
pieces of different metals put into water produce changes
on the water which neither of them feparately could
effect. This was obferved by Fabroni, from which he
concluded that a chemical change was effected by the
metals on each other. To this change he fuppofed part
53 at lead, of the phenomena of galvanifm was owing,
icnomena Thus he explained the neceflity of two different metals
I and of moiiture in the production of thefe phenomena,
d to che- Thofe metals, he alfo obferved, which occafioned the
ieal ac- moft rapid changes on each other in water, were moft
m. powerful in exciting galvanic convulfions.
Metals and charcoal, it was afcertained by Volta,
being good conductors of eleCtricity, attraCt and repel
that fluid with different forces. When two different
metals in their natural ftate of eleCtricity are brought
into contaCt, eleCtric matter paffes from the one to the
other j the one becomes eleCtrified pofitively, and the
other negatively. From this he concluded, that the
eleCtricity which occafioned the galvanic phenomena
did not refide in the animal fibres, but in the metals
employed as exciters, and that the convulfions w-ere
produced by the eleCtric matter pafling through thefe
fibres.
The feeming inconfiftency which appeared in the
opinions of Volta and Fabroni was removed by fuc-
ceeding difcoveries, which demonftrated that both elec¬
tricity and chemiftry were concerned in the galvanic
phenomena. Galvanifm was now no longer confidered
as fomething connected with living matter, which was
totally inexplicable, but as fomething developed by the
mutual aCtion of inorganized fubllances on each other,
the effeCt or energy of which might be eftimated and
meafured by its aCtion on the mufcular fibres. The
difeovery of the galvanic pile by Volta put it in the
power of philofophers to increafe the power or energy
of the galvanic influence at pleafure. This pile, and
the method of conftruCting it, have been already de-
feribed.
A defeription has alfo been given of a different ap¬
paratus, the invention of Mr Cruickfhank of Woolwich,
which has been employed in place of Volta’s pile,
ihis is called the galvanic trough, and it confifts of a
number of fquare plates of different metals as in the
other, which are foldered together in pairs, and fixed
by means of cement in a box of baked wood, at a fmall
54 diftance from each other.
^y'ogous A ftriking analogy was at once obferved between
el j.',0^ this apparatus and charged eleCtrics. A great deal of
difeuflion took place on the fubjeCt •, much inveftigation
followed : and philofophers held different opinions con¬
cerning the phenomena of galvanifm, whether it was to
be confidered as the fame with common eleCtricity, or
as fomething fpecifically different.
It was at laft afcertained by Nicholfon and Carlifle
that the zinc end of the pile was in the ftate of pofitive
eleCtricity, and the filver or copper end in the negative
A N I S M.
359
ftate. The zinc end of the pile, then, according to the Hiftory.
commonly received theory of eleCtricity, gives out the
cleCtric fluid, which enters at the filver or copper end.
And if the circle be completed by means of metallic
wires or charcoal, when the pile is fufficiently powerful,
fparks fimilar to what take place by the dilcharge of
common eleCtricity may be perceived. EleCtric batte¬
ries have been charged by means of the pile j metallic
wires, tin-foil, gold leaf are burnt j and mixtures of hy¬
drogen and oxygen gas are exploded in the fame way
as happens when eleCtric difeharges are made to pafs
through them. From the whole of the phenomena,
there feems now to be little doubt of the identity of the
two fluids.
Chemiftry, however, has a very confiderable ftiare in
the phenomena of galvanifm. The aCtion of the pile is *
moft powerful in oxygen gas: it ceafes entirely in the
vacuum of an air-pump, or in azotic gas. The eleCtrical
machine alfo, it has been afcertained, cannot be excited
in any gas uulefs it contain oxygen ; and it feems pro¬
bable, that the effeCt of the amalgam, which is em¬
ployed in exciting the eleCtrical machine, bears a pro¬
portion to the facility or rapidity of its oxidation. But
we (hall difeufs this point more fully in the fecond*-
chapter.
When the aCtion of the pile has continued for fome*
time, it gradually becomes weaker, till at laft its energy
is entirely loft. This power can only be renewed by
cleaning the plates, the furfaces of which have been very
much changed. It was obferved that the time in which
the aCtion of the pile ceafed, was in proportion to the
energy which it originally poffeffed. When it was
ftrongeft, the duration of its aCtion wras fhorteft. It
was obferved alfo, that one of each pair of plates was
covered with a coat of oxide j and when this procefs of (
oxidation w as finifhed, and the furface of the plate was
entirely covered, the aCtion ceafed. Of the two metals
employed in the conftruCtion of the pile, that which is
moft eafily oxidated, always undergoes this procefs.
When zinc and filver, or zinc and copper, are ufed,
the zinc is always oxidated j and unlefs this oxidation
take place, there is no aCtion of the pile. Its aCtion
or energy is proportional to the oxidation of the metal $
and thus it appears that this oxidation is effentially ne-
ceffary to the aCtion of the pile. For, unlefs the liquid
which is employed to moiften the pieces of card or cloth
between the pairs of plates, or that which fills the cells
in the trough, be capable of oxidating the zinc, no
aCtion follow’s. There is no aCtion at all with filver
and zinc, and perfectly pure water. In vacuo the aCtion
of the pile foon ceafes, even with common water j for
the oxygen which is held in folution by the water foon
combines with the zinc, and then the procefs flops.
The aCtion is increafed by oxygen gas, becaufe the
oxidation of the zinc is facilitated. Its aCtion is alfo
increafed, and goes on even in vacuo, when nitric acid,
which fupplies oxygen for the procefs of oxidation, is
fubftituted for the water. Thus, by eftimating the pro¬
portion betw’een the oxidation of the metals and the
aCtion of the pile, it may be determined what metals
are proper for forming piles, and w ith w hat liquids they
may be employed. In the choice of the different metals,
it muft be obferved, that one of them muft always be
more eafily oxidated than the other. Two perfeCl
conductors which are unequally oxidable, with an im-
perfeCt
5?
■Recapitu¬
lation ot' the
chemical
effects.
GALVANISM,
perfeft condu&or which is capable of oxidating the
moll oxidable of the perfect conductors, conllitute the
elements of the galvanic battery.
But fome of the moll important phenomena of galva-
nifm are exhibited in its chemical effeCls. Moil of
thefe were firlt obferved by the chemical philofophers of
this country. We have already detailed many of the
experiments by which thefe effeCls are illullrated ; and
we lhall here only, for the fake of giving a connefted
view of the iubjeCt, merely recapitulate fome of
them.
When water forms part of the circle between the
extremities of the battery, and the conducting wires are
brought within a fmall diilance of each other, being
immerfed in a glafs of water, the water is decompofed,
and it will be recollected that the phenomena are dif¬
ferent according to the nature of the wires employed.
When the wires are of gold or platina, they undergo
no change •, oxygen gas^is evolved in fmall bubbles
from the pofitive wire, and hydrogen gas from the ne¬
gative wire •, and if the gafes be collefted feparately by
the apparatus formerly deferibed, they are found to be
in the proportions of the component parts of water. If
one of the wires be immerfed into one glafs, and ano¬
ther into a feparate glafs, by completing the circle with
a finger plunged into each glafs, the procefs goes on,
and the hydrogen gas is extricated in the one veffel,
while the oxygen is given out from the wire in the
other. This fa<51 was firft difeovered by Mr Davy.
When fpring wrater is ufed, or water having azotic gas
in folution, an acid is formed at the extremity of the
pofitive wire, and an alkali at the extremity of the ne¬
gative wire. The acid wras found to be nitric, and the
alkali ammonia. If the wares be plunged in different
glafies, and the conneftion be formed by means of an
animal body, the pofitive wire produces in the water
tinged with an infufion of litmus, a red colour, while
the negative wire alfo reddens an infufion of brafil
wood.
If other wires befide tbofe of gold or platina be ufed,
it is found that the pofitive wire undergoes oxidation,
but little or no gas is feparated from it; while the ne¬
gative wire, as in the former cafe, gives out hydrogen
gas. When the wires are immerfed into metallic folu-
tions, as acetate of lead, nitrate of filver, &c. the fil-
ver or lead is revived, and depofited on the negative
wire ; and if folutions which contain fulphuric, nitric,
or oxymuriatic acids, are ufed for the immerfion of the
conducing wires, the acids are decompofed, oxygen
gas is evolved from the pofitive wire, and fulphur or
hydrogen gas makes its appearance at the negative wire.
The decompofition of ammonia has already been men¬
tioned. This w as difeovered by Mr Henry. The hy¬
drogen is given out by the negative ware, while the azo¬
tic gas is evolved by the pofitive wire. When plum¬
bago or charcoal are employed as condudlors in place
of metals, it is found that carbonic acid is evolved from
the pofitive end, and hydrogen gas from the nega-
vtive.
It may be neceffary here to deferibe a galvanic bat¬
tery, conilrufled by Mr Davy, on principles fomewhat
•different from that of Volta. In the Voltaic pile there
are tw'o perfect conductors, and one imperfect conduc¬
tor ‘7 but this confifts of two imperfefl, and one perfedt
conduCtpr : the two imperfeCt conductors arc nitrous
I
Part H,
acid and liquid fulphuret of potafh. A trough is di- .Theory,
vided into cells with Hips of horn and plates of zinc, v-“—v—
arranged alternately } nitrous acid is poured into the firft
cell, and fulphuret of potafh into the fecond , the tw'o
liquids being feparated by the flip of horn, a commu¬
nication is formed between them by means of a moift
piece of cloth laid over the horn, and in the fame way
the reft of the cells are filled. In this cafe the liquids
are the imperfeCt conductors, and the zinc is the per¬
fect one •, and the aCtion of the battery continues till
the oxidation of one of the furfaces of the zinc takes
place, the other furface remaining unchanged.
Having finifhed the fliort view which we propofed to
give of the hiftory and progrefs of galvanifm, we fhould
next proceed to detail fome of the later experiments
and difeoveries which have been made on this fubjeCt.
What we here chiefly allude to, is the difeovery of the
formation of muriatic acid and foda by means of the
galvanic fluid. But this is propofed to be the fubjeCt
of a feparate chapter. We {hall therefore proceed in
the next chapter to confider the hypothefis by means of
which the phenomena of galvanifm have been explain¬
ed, and to point out the analogy between eleClricity
and galvanifm.
Chap. II. Of the ^Theory of Galvani/m, and the Ana*
logy between the Galvanic dluid and EleElricity.
We have already obferved, that the philofophers
who were occupied in refearches on galvanifm, early di¬
vided themfelves into two parties. According to one
party, with Volta at their head, the phenomena of gal-
vaniftn were aferibed to the atlion of common eleCtri-
city on the mufcular fibres ; w hile another party main¬
tained the opinion that they depended entirely on fome-
thing peculiar to animal matter. This was the opinion
of Gaivani himfelf, the original difeoverer, and it was
fupported by his nephew Aldini, with certain modifica¬
tions. The greater number of philofophers have now
adopted the opinion of Volta, as being more confiftent
with the phenomena. We {hall therefore now give a
more particular account of the hypothefis which has
been more generally followed in explaining thefe phe¬
nomena on the principles of eleflricity. 56
According to the received principles of eledlfricity, Theory of
there is a fubtile fluid which exifts in all bodies) but^1101*'
the exiftence of this fluid can only be recogniied when
the proportion which a body contains is greater or lefs
than the quantity w-hich is natural to it. When the quan¬
tity is greater than ufual, the body is faid to be ele&ri-
fied pofitively ox plus ; and when the quantity is lefs
than ufual, the body is faid to be ele£lrifled negatively
or minus. The eleftric fluid penetrates certain bodies,
and pafles through them with facility, and thefe bodies
are called conduRors of ehRricity ; but there are other
bodies which it cannot pafs through without difficulty,
thefe bodies are called non-conduclors or elcRrics. Of
conduttors there are two kinds ) one of which is de¬
nominated perfcRy becaufe the ele&ric fluid paffes
through them with eafe ) the other is called imperfeR
conductors, becaufe the fluid pafles through them with
difficulty. The perfect conduftors are folid bodies
which are fufceptible of oxidation ) and when they en¬
ter into combination with oxygen, they lole their pro¬
perties as perfect -conductors. Tire metals and charcoal
are
art II.
GALVANISM.
361
Theory, are the only p&rfe& conduclors which are known. The
imperfect conductors are thofe bodies which contain
oxygen, and when they are deprived of it, they lofe the
properties of imperfect conductors. They are all liquid
bodies, and ufually contain water as one of their com-
^ ponent parts. See Electricity.
Iffiaity of There is an affinity between the perfeCt conductors
ie electric ancl tlie eleCtric fluid, in confequence of which this
llK) remains in combination with the perfeCt conductor,
Jil Ut"°rj ’ till it is attracted by fome body, for which it has a
ftronger affinity, or is excelled by fome body combining
with the conductor, for which the conductor has a
ftronger affinity than it has for the eleCtric fluid. Per¬
feCt conductors poffefs different forces or degrees of affi¬
nity for the eleCtric fluid. Thus, if two perfeCt con¬
ductors be brought into contaCt, the proportion of elec¬
tric matter in each of them changes. That conduCtor
which has the ftrongeit affinity for the fluid, is eleCtrified
politively, or plus 5 and the conduCtor which has the
weaker affinity is eleCtrified negatively or minus. If
a plate of zinc and one of copper, each of which pofi.
feffes its natural proportion of eleCtric fluid, be brought
into contaCt, the zinc is eleCtrified plus, and the copper
minus j or, if iron and filver be brought into contaCt,
the iron is eleCtrified plus, and the filver minus j and if
no other circumftances operate to change the ftate of
the eleCtricity, thefe two flates will be permanent.
But, when a perfeCt conductor in the pofitive ftate
of eleCtricity, enters into combination with oxygen, it
parts with the excefs of eleCtric fluid which it contain¬
ed, and the difcharge is made towards the fide of the
conduCtor which is combined with oxygen. The affi¬
nity of iraperfeCt conductors for the eleCtric fluid is
weaker than that of the perfeCt conductors, fo that,
if a perfeCt and imperfeCt conduCtor he brought into
contaCt, the perfeCt conduCtor becomes plus, and the
imperfeCt, minus *, and this ftate is not changed, if the
imperfeCt conduCtor cannot communicate oxygen to the
58 perfeCt one.
r Mr° Between the eleCtric fluid and hydrogen there is alfo
an affinity, fo that the eleCtric fluid combines with hy¬
drogen, provided this latter be prefent when the fluid
is feparated from a perfeCt conduCtor. The eleCtric fluid
is differently conducted through the bodies which are
called perfeCt and imperfeCt conductors. The fluid paffes
through the perfeCt conductors, in its Ample and un¬
combined ftate ; but unlefs the fluid be combined with
hydrogen, it cannot pafs through the imperfeCt conduc¬
tors, and this compound of eleCtricity and hydrogen
is capable of palling invifibiy through liquid con¬
ductors.
Let us now fuppofe a plate of copper and another of
zinc, to be brought into contaCt, the zinc is immedi¬
ately eleCtrified plus, and the copper minus j but let us
fuppofe alfo, that the furface of the zinc fartheft from
the copper, is brought into contaCt with a liquid which
can communicate oxygen to that furface, fo that it be¬
comes oxidated, luch, for inftance, is water impregna¬
ted with common air, or with an acid. As foon, then,
as the oxygen of the imperfeCt conduCtor combines with
the zinc, the excefs of its electricity is feparated, and
paffes towards the imperfeCt conduCtor ; but the zinc is
oxidated by the decompofition of the water, the oxygen
ot which combines with the metal, while the hydrogen
is fet free. The eleCtricity of the perfeCt conduCtor en-
Vol. IX. Part I.
ters into combination with the hydrogen, and in this Theory,
ftate it can pafs through the imperfeCt conduCtor. Ifl'——
then the imperfeCt conduCtor be in contaCt on the other
fide with a perfeCt conduCtor, fuch as a plate of cop¬
per, which cannot, in this cafe, be oxidated, the elec¬
tric fluid leaves the imperfeCt conduCtor, and enters the
perfeCt one j but it cannot combine with a perfeCt con¬
duCtor while it is in union with hydrogen ; the hydro¬
gen, therefore, is left behind, and, accordingly, when
the eleCtric fluid paffes from the perfeCt to the imper¬
feCt conduCtor, a portion of hydrogen gas is given out at
the furface of the perfeCt conduCtor j or, if that furface
has undergone any degree of oxidation, the hydrogen
combines with the oxygen, and thus leaves the conduc¬
tor in the metallic ftate. But, farther, if a plate of
zinc be in contaCt with a plate of copper, the fluid hav-
ing a greater affinity for the zinc, will enter it j and if
the zinc be again followed by another imperfeCt con¬
ductor, its furface is oxidated, the eleCtricity is difen-
gaged •, it combines with hydrogen, and paffes through
the imperfeCt conduCtor as in the former cafe. What¬
ever the number of thefe fets of bodies may be, if they
are arranged in the fame order, the fame phenomena
will be exhibited.
Let us now fuppofe, that a battery is conftruCted, ei¬
ther in the form of a pile or trough, of any given num¬
ber of pairs of plates 5 and fuppofe, if this battery is in
the form ef a pile, that the uppermoft plate is zinc,
the loweft is therefore of copper 5 the zinc is eleCtrified
plus, and the copper minus. If, then, a communica¬
tion is eftabliffied between the upper and lower plates of
the pile, by means of conductors, according to the laws
of eleCtricity, the excefs at the top of the pile immedi¬
ately pafles to the bottom. A current of eleCtricity,
therefore, will pafs through the pile, and will continue
till the furfaces of the zinc next the imperfeCt conduc¬
tors are completely oxidated, when the aCtion ceafes,
becaufe the double decompofitions on which this aCtion
depends, can no longer take place.
The number of repeated charges w hich pafs through Different
the pile, muft be in proportion to the number of plates, effe<^s froa*
fo that the intenlity of the pile increafes with the num-of6 Jates11”
her of plates of which it is compofed. Hence it is, that° ^ & ' *
the effeCts of galvanifm on animals is found to be in pro¬
portion to the number of plates employed in the batte¬
ry *, but this depends upon its intenfity, or the number
of difcharges followed by intervals, which pafs through
the body in a given time. ^
But, on the other hand, the effeCt of the galvanic and extent
fluid on metallic fubftances depends on the abfolute of furface.
quantity which paffes through the metal in a given
time. But the abfolute quantity of fluid difcharged
from a Angle pair of plates, muft be proportional to the
furface of thefe plates ; and hence it is, that the quantity
of eleCtricity difcharged from a pile in a given time,
depends upon the furface of the plates. When a bat¬
tery is difeharged, the fmall charge contained in each
pair of plates, paffes through the difcharger ; but there
muft be an interval between each of thofe feparate
charges, for they cannot be fuppofed to pafs inftantane-
oully, although the interval being too fmall to be per¬
ceptible, the difcharge of the battery feems to be in-
ftantaneous. As then the number of fmall difcharges
which are apparently inftantaneous, when a battery is
difcharged, is in proportion to the number of plates,
Z z the
i
362
Theory, the intenfity of each little difeharge is proportional to
" the places which the pair of plates occupies in the bat¬
tery -y and hence it is, that the (hock is increased by the
number of plates more rapidly than the effe£l of the
battery on metals is increaled ; but, on the contrary,
the furface of the plates being increafed, the eft'eft on
metals is alfo increafed, becaufe the quantity difeharged
at once from the upper pair is increafed , and it feems
to be in this way that the effedt on metallic fubftances
<51 is produced.
Chemical jn t]ie fame way the chemical changes which are ef-
effedb. fe&ed by means of galvanifm may be explained. Let
it be fuppol’ed, that a gold wire, connected with the up¬
per plate of the battery, terminates in a glafs of water,
and another gold wire, from the lower plate of the
battery, terminates in the fame water. The circle is
then completed by the gold wire, which is a perftdt
condu&or. The current of eleftricity paffes through
the wire which is connedled with the uppermoi} plate
to the bale of the battery, and it would pafs uninter¬
ruptedly, if there were no interval between the wires.
This interval is fupplied with water, and, when the
eledtric fluid reaches the extremity of the wire, it mult
pafs through the water, but it can only pafs through an
imperfedt condudtor when it is in combination with hy¬
drogen. It therefore combines with the hydrogen of
tjie water, which is accordingly decompoled at the
oint of the wire. The oxygen is difengaged, and the
ydrogen in combination with the eledtrieity paffes
through the water till it reach the point of the other
wire ; and the affinity between this wire and the elec¬
tric fluid being greater than the affinity of the latter for
water, the eledtric fluid enters the wdre, and paffes on
to the other end of the battery ; but the hydrogen is
previoufly feparated from the extremity of this fecond
wire, in the form of gas, becaufe the fluid cannot enter
the wire in combination with hydrogen.
If the wires are immerfed in ammonia, the hydrogen
is derived from that fubftance of which it forms one
of the component parts ; the azotic gas, the bafe of
which is its other conftituent, is evolved at the extre¬
mity of the firft wire, and hydrogen gas at the extre¬
mity of the fecond. But, if the wires are plunged in
the water which contains common air, and confequently
a certain portion of azote, as oxygen gas combines with
azote in its nafeent date, or at the moment of its evo¬
lution, the compound refulting from this combination
is nitric acid. Hydrogen gas alfo, in its nafeent ftate,
will combine with azote, and ammonia is the refult of
this combination. Hence it is, that in fome experiments
nitric acid is found at the point of the pofitive wire, and
ammonia at the point of the negative wire, when com¬
mon water is employed.
When liquids holding in folution a metallic fait, the
bafe of which is an oxide of the metal, are employed j
as hydrogen gas poffeffes the property of reducing or
reviving metals, if in its nafeent ftate it comes in con¬
tact with their oxides, the metallic falls are in this cafe
djecompofed., and the metal is revived. It is found de-
pofited on the negative wire. When copper or iron
wires are employed to complete the circle, inftead of
wires of gold or platina, as oxygen has the property of
combining with thefe metals, at the moment of its dif-
engagement, it is depofited on the pofitive wire, and
in this cafe none is feparated from it j but if the circle
Part II.
be completed by means of charcoal or plumbago, and Theory,
the interval between thefe conducing fubftances be wa- '— i
ter, carbonic acid gas is feparated from the pofitive con-
dutfor, becaufe the oxygen in its nafeent ftate is fufeep-
tible of combination with carbone j and the hydrogen
in the fame ftate combining with carbone,carbureted hy¬
drogen is given out by the negative condudtor.
Such is the hypothetical explanation which has been
given of the adtion of galvanifm, and the phenomena
which it exhibits. A fuller view of the analogy be¬
tween galvanifm and eledtricity has been given, by Dr
Wollafton.
“ Notwithftanding, he obferves, the power of Mr Vol¬
ta’s eledfric pile is now known to be proportional to the
difpofition of one of the metals to be oxidated by the
fluid interpofed, a doubt has been entertained by many
perfons, whether this power ariies from the chemical
adfion of the fluid on the metal, or, on the contrary,
whether the oxidation itfelf may not be occafioned by
eledtricity, let in motion by the contadt of metals that
have different condudting powers. . fa
“That the oxidation of the metal is the primary Eledtricity
caufe of the eledtric phenomena obferved, is, I think, to evolve(l
be inferred from the following experiments, w’hich
hibit the galvanic procels reduced to its moft fimple
ftate.
“ Exfier. 1.—If a piece of zinc and a piece of filver
have each one extremity immerfed in the fame veffel,
containing fulphuric or muriatic acid diluted with a
large quantity of w ater, the zinc is diffolved, and yields
hydrogen gas, by decompofition of the water ; the fil¬
ver, not being adted upon, has no power of deeompofing
water *, but, whenever the zinc and filver are made to
touch, or any metallic communication is made between
them, hydrogen gas is alfo formed at the lurface of the
filver.
“ Any other metal befides zinc, which by affiftance
of the acid employed is capable of decompoiing water,
will fucceed equally, if the other wire confifts of a metal
on which the acid has no effedf.
“ Exper. 2.—If zinc, iron, or copper, is employed
with gold in diluted nitric acid, nitrous gas is formed •,
in the fame manner, and under the fame circumftances,
as the hydrogen gas in the former experiment.
“ Exper. 3.—Experiments analogous to the former,
and equally fimple, may alfo be made with many me¬
tallic folutions. If, for inftance, the folution contains
copper, it will be precipitated by a piece of iron, and
appear on its farface. Upon filver merely immerfed
in the fame folution, no fuch effedt is produced ; but as
foon as the two metals are brought into contadt, the fil¬
ver receives a coating of copper.
“ In the explanation of thefe experiments, it is necef-
fary to advert to a point eftabliihed by means of the
eledtric pile.
“ We know that when water is placed in a circuit of
condudtors of eledtricity, between the two extremities
of a pile, if the power is fufficientto oxidate one of the
wires of communication, the wire connedted with the
oppofite exremity affords hydrogen gas.
“ Since the extrication of hydrogen, in this inftance,
is feen to depend on eledtricity, it is probable, that in
other inltances, eledtrieity may be alfo requifite for its
converfion into gas. It would appear, therefore, that
in the folution of a metal, eledtxicity is evolved during
GALVANISM.
Theory.
art II. G A L V
the a&ion of the acid upon It ; and that the formation
of hydrogen gas, even in that cafe, depends on a tranii-
tion of ele&ricity between the fluid and the metal.
£‘ We fee, moreover, in the firft experiment, that
the zinc, without con tad of any other metal, has the
power of decompoling water ; and we can have no reafon
to fuppofe that the contad of the filver produces any
new power, but that it ferves merely as a condudor
of eledricity, and thereby occafions the formation of
hydrogen gas.
“ In the third experiment alfo, the iron by itfelf has
the power of precipitating copper, by means, I prefume,
of eledricity evolved during its folution •, and here like-
wife the fiiver, by conduding that eledricity, acquires
the power of precipitating the copper in its metallic Hate,
“ The explanation here given receives additional con¬
firmation from comparative experiments which I have
made with common eledricity j for it will be feen, that
the fame transfer of chemical power, and the fame ap¬
parent reverlion of the ufual order of chemical affini¬
ties in the precipitation of copper by lilver, may be ef-
feded by a common eledrical machine.
« The machine with which the following experi¬
ments were conduded, confifts of a cylinder feven inches
in diameter, with a condudor on each fide, 16 inches
long, and three and a half inches diameter, each fur-
nilhed with a Hiding eledrometer, to regulate the
ifrength of the fpark received from them.
“ Exper. 4.—Having a w ire of fine filver of an
Inch in diameter, I coated the middle of it for two or
three inches, with fealing wax, and by cutting through
in the middle of the wax, expofed a fedion of the wire.
The two coated extremities of the wire, thus divided,
were immerfed in a folution of fulphate of copper, placed
in an eledric circle between the two condudors 5 and
fparks, taken at °f an inch diftance, were pafied by
means of them through the folution. After too turns
of the machine, the wire which communicated with
{what is called) the negative condudor, had a precipi¬
tate formed on its furface, which, upon being bur-
nifhed, was evidently copper $ but the oppofite wire
had no fuch coating.
“ Upon reverfing the diredion of the current of
eledricity, the order of the phenomena w as of courfe
xeverfed ; the copper being fhortly re-diflblved by affilt-
ance of the oxidating power of pofitive eledricity, and
a fimilar precipitate formed on the oppofite wire.
“ Exper. 5.— A fimilar experiment made with gold
wires of an inch diameter, in a folution of corrofive
fublimate, had the fame fuccefs.
ci The chemical agency, therefore, of common elec¬
tricity, is thus proved to be the fame with the power
excited by chemical means *, but, fince a difference has
been obferved in the comparative facility w:Tth which
the pile of Volta decompofes water, and produces other
effeds of oxidation and de-oxidation of bodies expofed
to its adion, I have been at fome pains to remove this
difficulty, and can at lead produce a very clofe imita¬
tion of the galvanic phenomena, by common eledri¬
city.
“ It has been thought neceffary to employ powerful
machines, and large Leyden jars, for the decompo-
fition of water ; buf when I confidered that the decom-
pofition mull depend on duly proportioning the ftrength
«f the charge of eledricity to the quantity of water,
I As of
fitted
■if lettri-
A N I S M.
and that the quantity expofed to Its adion at the fur- 'The ,
face of communication depends on the extent of that ~
furface, I hoped that, by reducing the fur ace of com¬
munication, the decompofiiion of water might be effect¬
ed by fmaller machines, and with lefs powerful excita¬
tion, than have hitherto been uled for that purpofe j
and, in this hope, I have not been dilappointed.
‘‘ Exper. 6.—Having procured a fmail wire of fine-
gold, and given it as fine a point as I could, I in-
ierted it into a capillary glafs tube j and after heat¬
ing the tube, fo as to make it adhere to the point and
cover it in every part, I gradually ground it down,
till, with a pocket lens, I could difeern that the point
of the gold w as expofed. 64
£‘ The fuccefs of this method exceeding my ex-uidecom-
pedations, I coated feveral w ires in the fame manner, wa"
and found, that when fparks Irom the condudors be- tt;r’
fore-mentioned were made to pafs through water, by
means of a point fo guarded, a fpark paffiug to the
diilance of one-eighth of an inch would decompofe
water, when the point expofed did not exceed of
an inch in diameter. With another point, which I
effimated at TyVrr, a fucceffion of fparks -o'o of an inch
in length, afforded a current of fmail bubbles of air.
“ i have fince found, that the fame apparatus will
dtcompofe water, with a wire ^ of an inch diameter,
coated in the manner before deferibed, if the fpark
from the prime condudor paffes to the diftance of
of an inch of air.
“ Exper. 7.—In order to try how far the ftrength of
the eledric fpark might be reduced by proportional
diminution of the extremity of the w ire, I palled a fo¬
lution of gold in aqua regia through a capillary tube,
and, by heating the tube, expelled the acid. There
remained a thin film of gold, lining the inner furface of
the tube, which, by melting the tube, was converted
into a very fine thread of gold, through the fubftance
of the glafs.
“ When the extremity of this thread was made the
medium of communication through water, I found that
the mere current of eledricity would occafion a ftream
of very fmall bubbles to rife from the extremity of the
gold, although the wire, by which it communicated
with the pofitive or negative condudor, was placed in
abfolute contad with them. Hence it appears, that
decompofition of water may take place by common
eledricity, as well as by the eledric pile, although no
difcernible fparks are produced.
“ The appearance of two currents of air may alfo
be imitated, by occafioning the eledricity to pafs by fine
points of communication on both fidcs of the water :
but, in fad, the refemblance is not complete j for, in
every way in which I have tried it, I obferved that
each wire gave both oxygen and hydrogen gas, in-
ftead of their being formed feparately, as by the elec¬
tric pile.
“ I am inclined to attribute the difference in this
refped to the greater intenfity with which it is neceffary
to employ common eledricity ; for, that pofilive and
negative eledricity, fo excited, have each the fame
chemical power as they are obferved to have in the
eledric pile, may be afeertained by other means.
“ In the precipitation of copper by filver, an inftance
of de-oxidation (or phlogiftieation) by nega.ive elec¬
tricity has been mentioned ; the oxidating power of po-
Z z 2 fitive
CO 5
and in
changing
the blue
colour of
G A L V A
filive ele&ricity may be alfo proved, by its effe&s on
vegetable blue colours.
“ Exper. 8.—Having coloured a card with a ftrong
infufion of litmus, I paffed a current of eleftric fparks
along it, by means of two fine gold points, touching it
at the dillance of an inch from each other. The efFecf,
vge a es. jn 0^er cafes> depending on the fmallnefs of the
quantity of water, was moft difcernible when the card
was nearly dry. In this ftate a very few turns of the
machine were fufficient to occafion a rednefs at the po-
fitive wire, very manifeft to the naked eye. The nega¬
tive wire, being afterwards placed on the fame fpot,
foon reftored it to its original blue colour.
“ By Mr Volta’s apparatus the fame effedts are pro¬
duced in a much lefs time.
“ Befides the fimilarity which has thus been traced
between the effedls of eledfricity excited by the com¬
mon machine, and thofe obferved from the eledtric pile,
I think it appears alfo probable, that they originate from
the fame fource.
“ With regard to the latter, its power is known to
depend on oxidation ; fo alfo does the excitement in
the former appear very much to depend on the fame
procefs ; for,
“ Exper. 9.—I have found that, by ufing an amalgam
of fitver or of platina, which are not liable to be oxi¬
dated, I could obtain no eledfricity. An amalgam of
tin, on the contrary, affords a good degree of excite¬
ment. Zinc adts {fill better ; but the beft amalgam is
made with both tin and zinc, a mixture which is more
eafily oxidated than either metal feparately.
“ Exper. ia.—But, as a farther trial whether oxida¬
tion aflifts in the produdtion of eledfricity, I mounted
a fmall cylinder, with its cufhion and condudtor, in a
veffel fo contrived, that I could at pleafure change the
contained air.
“ After trying the degree of excitement in common
air, I fubftituted carbonic acid gas, and found that the
excitement was immediately dellroyed, but that it re¬
turned upon re-admiffion of atmofpheric air.
“ In conformity to this hypothefis, we find that the
metal oxidated is, in each cafe, in a fimilar ftate of
eledlricity j for the cufhion of the machine, by oxida¬
tion of the amalgam adhering to it, becomes negative;
and in the fame manner, zinc, oxidated by the accu¬
mulated power of an eledfric pile, or fimply by adtion
©f an acid, is alfo negative.
“ This fimilarity in the means by which both elec¬
tricity and galvanifm appear to be excited, in addition
to the refemblance that has been traced between their
effedfs, (hews that they are both effentially the fame, and
confirms an opinion that has already been advanced by
others, that all the differences difcoverable in the effedfs
of the latter, may be owing to its being lefs intenfe, but
produced in much larger quantity
This analogy was ftill farther eftablifhed by the ex¬
periments of Van Marum, in which he fucceeded in
charging aneledfrical battery, .confifting of I37~fquare
feet, by means of the galvanic pile. On examining
the power of the fhocks which were given by the bat¬
tery charged with the pile, it was found that the
fhock from 100 pairs of plates was about equal to a
fhock from the battery, when it was charged by means
n>f 200. A pile of 200 pairs of 'plates feemed to have
* Phil.
Tranf.1%01.
p. 427.
N I S M. Part II,
fix times the power of an eledfrical machine, having a Theory,
plate of 31 inches diameter. -v—^
The following experiments made by MrCuthbertfon,r» a S<5 •„
• 1 , r rjLi- rrl tJiftinruiili.
with galvanic batteries, are iuppoled by him to afford ini, pr„.
a diftinguifliing property between the galvanic and elec-pertybe-
tric fluids. 1. Charcoal was deflagrated and ignitedtween gal-
for above an inch in length. 2. Iron wire -3— of
inch diameter was melted into a ball of inch diame- '
ter. 3. Platina wire inch diameter, was melted in¬
to a ball -yT- inch diameter. 4. Brafs wire ^ inch di¬
ameter, three-fourths of an inch in length was ignited.
5. Brafs wire inch diameter was red hot at the end.
6. Iron wire inch diameter was red hot for 16 in¬
ches in length. 7. Iron wire, 12 inches deflagrated, and
melted into a ball. 8. Iron wire fix inches in length
was deflagrated. 9. Iron wire eight inches in length
was ignited.
The firft feven experiments above were made with
two troughs, each containing 30 pairs of plates, fix in¬
ches fquare, but in the laft two experiments, one of
thefe troughs only was ufed. The conclufion drawn
from the four laft experiments is, that double quanti¬
ties of galvanic fluid only burn double lengths of wire,
and not the fquare, as eleftrical difeharges do*. * Phil
To difeover what quantity of coated glafs would be^^’KVlltt
required to take a charge fufticient to ignite the fame3;>
lengths of wire, the two laft experiments were compared
with common eleftrical difeharges. Tw o jars, each
containing about 170 fquare inches of coating, were fet
to the conductor of a 24 inch fingle-plate eledlrical ma¬
chine, with the author’s univerfal eleftrometer, loaded
vvith 31 grains. Eight inches of the fame kind of w ire
were laid in the circuit, and with 57 revolutions of
the plate the eleftrometer difeharged the jars, and the
wire was ignited as perfedfly as in experiment 9th.
Afterwards fix inches of the wire being laid in the cir¬
cuit, a difeharge was produced with the fame number of
revolutions of the machine, and the wire was deflagrated,
and fufed into balls, in the fame manner as in the 8th
experiment. Hence he concluded, that 340 fquare in¬
ches of coated glafs, properly conftrudted, are fufticient
to bear a charge equal to a galvanic battery of 108a
fquare inches of fufface. On comparing the above ex¬
periments with feme others made feme time before, the
author finds it neceffary to modify the conclufion which
he had deduced from them. With a pile of 16 pairs
of plates, of 10 inches diameter, eight of which wera
laid upon each other in the ufual manner, and cloths
moiftened with diluted muriatic acid interpofed, he
burnt half an inch of wire of viy inch diameter ; and
when the other eight pairs were added, he burnt four
inches fof the lame w ire. This was repeated with the
eight in pairs with the fame refult, with refpeH to the
burning of metals, but it gave ftrong and loud fparks
from metal to metal, which might be heard at the di-
ftance of 300 yards. This refult, he obferves, had net
been attained from troughs, to be heard at any diftance.-
In the laft experiment the cloths were moiftened with
a ftrong folution of muriate of ammonia. Comparing
this eflfeft of the pile and the trough, Mr Cuthbertfon.
thinks, there is feme defeft in the arrangement or eon-
ftru&ion of the latter.
In many experiments which Volta made on piles
compofed of a Angle metal, and a fingle wet flratum^
which,
toll. _ . « ALVA
Formatien which of thevnfelves are inaftive, it ivas found that they
i' Muriatic became more or lefs active, after affording a paffage for
Acid, &C. a longer or Sorter time to an eleftric current, which
was fet in motion by an attive pile. According U>
Hitter, the aftive pile or common ele&rometer tranfmits
a real charge to the pile, which is itfelf inaftive, and
this he calls the charged pile. Volta, however, is of
opinion, that no charge is tranfmitted but by means of
the ordinary chemical action; for the eledtrical current
being continued, changes the Angle wet flratum inter-
pofed between two pieces of gold, for example, into
two different fluids \ one acid, by which the eledlric
current iffues out of the metal, and the other alkaline,
by which it enters, thus conftituting a pile of the fe-
cond order, compofed of one metal, and two fluids of
different natures. The attion of this pile, however,
iNiehol. foon ceafes, becaufe the fluids foon mix together *.
Journ. xi.
‘dd* Chap. III. Of the Formation of Muriatic Acid and
Soda, by means of Galvanfm.
Some of the moft curious phenomena which have yet
been exhibited in galvanifm, relate to the formation of
muriatic acid by means of this power. In the account
which has been given of Mr Cruickfhank’s experi¬
ments, it will be recolledted that he made the difcovery
of the formation of an acid and alkali, during the adtion
of the galvanic battery. This acid, he concluded, was
the nitric, and the alkali, ammonia. The theory of the
produdfion of thefe fubftances in the galvanic pile has
been already mentioned, and it correfponds with the
explanation of the principles which have been adopted
for explaining the phenomena of galvanifm j later re-
fearches, however, have been condudled with more ac¬
curate obfervation, or have opened a wider field of
difcovery. The truth of this remark will be fully con¬
firmed, if it be at laft finally afcertained, that common
fait, the component parts of which are muriatic acid
and foda, is produced by the adtion of galvanifm.
The firft hint of this difcovery was given by Mr
Peel of Cambridge, in a letter dated April 1805, ad-
■ Vol. xxi. tbefifed to the editor of the Philofophical Magazinef , of
*■ i7-?‘ which the following account is given in his own words.
Vtr Peel’s 4‘ I took (fays he), about a pint of diftilled water, and
lifcovery of decompofed one half of it by means of galvanifm ) the
he forma- other half I evaporated, and I found to remain at the
iate^ffo11" bottom of the glafs a fmall quantity of fait, which upon
examination I found to be muriate of foda, or common
fait.—What induced me to try the experiment was this;
I knew that when water was decompofed by means of
galvanifm, the water near one of the w ires had alkaline,
while that near the other had acid properties. This
being the cafe, I inferred, that if an alkali and an acid
were really produced, I fhould, by decompofing a large
quantity of water, obtain a fmall quantity of fome kind
of neutral fait : as was actually the cafe on trying the
experiment. The fait could not have been contained
in the water before I made the experiment, becaufe I
ufed every precaution to have it free from impurities.
I even took the trouble to repeat the experiment,
though a tedious one, and I again obtained the fame
refult.” He adds, that a fimilar experiment being re¬
peated by a friend of his, afforded a fimilar refult.
It having been fuggefted to Mr Peel, that it might
he worth while to vary the experiment, by employing
N I S M. 3^5
water formed of its elements, he gives the following ac. Fonoanon
count of the refult of this procefs, in another letter,
dated June 1805. # w—y——/
“ Having proceeded, he obferves, to the formation
of water from its elements, with which to repeat my
former experiment, I found when the oxygen and hyr
drogen gafes were quite pure, and exactly in due pro¬
portion, that no refiduum of air was left, and that the
water formed was not in the flightefl degree acidulous.
When the procefs was not conduced with great accu¬
racy, or any precaution to have it accurate w as omitted,
I then found the water acidulous, and the acid that
caufed this acidity to be the nitric acid.
“ The acidulous w’ater thus obtained I neutralized
with lime, from which I diililled the water, and this
water I decompofed by the galvanic procefs, a* in the
experiment detailed in my former letter.
“ I did not imagine the ufing water fo obtained could
make the leaft difference on the refult of the experi¬
ment 5 but as a. wiih was expreffed to have the trial
made, I again undertook that interefting but very tedi¬
ous labour..
“ When I came to examine the refiduum, to my
great aftonifhment I found that not muriate of foda, but
muriate of potafh, was produced. I mult own I feel
myfelf entirely at a lofs how’ to account for this, nor
fliall I attempt it; all I can fay is, that this, as well as* Phi?.
my former experiment, wras conducted w ith the greatefl xxu,"‘
care and accuracy that I could beftow I^‘68
About the fame time a difcovery of a fimilar nature Paccbiani’s,
was made byProfefl.br Pacchiani of Pifa. This dif-of muriatic-
covery, which relates to the compofition of muriatic ac'd.
acid, was firfl announced in this country in the number
of the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, pub-
lilhed the iff July 1805. The following is an account
of his experiments, and the conclufions which he dedu¬
ces from them in his own words. “ The fimplicity of
the apparatus, (he fays), and of the means adopted to
attain my views, the care with which I endeavoured to
avoid every fource of error, have, I hope, fufficiently
fecured me againft thofe illufions which frequently de¬
ceive young men ardent in the purfuit of faience, and
even thofe praftifed in the art of extorting from nature
her lecrets. Want of time prevents me from relating
the feries of experiments by which I arrived at the dif¬
covery I have mentioned ; but you may fee it by per-
ufing the manufeript of my memoir, which will be im¬
mediately publilhed, to fubmit my refearches and their
refults to the judgment of the learned. For the pre-
fent, I fliall fele£l from the experiments and fa£ls there¬
in deferibed thofe which are decilive, and which efta-
blilh, in an evident manner, the following truths :—
“ I. Muriatic acid is an oxide of hydrogen, and con-
fequently compofed of hydrogen and oxygen.
u II. In the oxygenated muriatic acid, and therefore,
a fortiori, in muriatic acid, .there is a much lefs propor¬
tion of oxygen than in water.
“ III. Hydrogen is fufceptible of very many and
different degrees-of oxidation, contrary to what is uni-
verfally believed by pneumatic chemifts, who affert
that hydrogen is fufceptible only of one invariable de¬
gree of oxidation, that in which it forms water.
“ Having at firft examined the phenomenon of the
decompofition of w'ater by the galvanic pile, and
having, by accurate experiments, afcertained the true
theory.
366 GALVANISM. Part II
Formation theory, I readily difcovered a very fimple and exafl
^Acid'^c'0aPParatusi in which I could diftin&ly perceive the
■ changes which happen to water, which, from the con¬
tinued action of the galvanic pile, is continually lofing
its oxygen at the furface of a wire of very pure gold
immerfed indt.
M I therefore proceeded to examine thefe gradual
changes of water thus lofing its oxygen j and 1 at lafi:
obferved a very Angular fa61, which unequivocally in¬
dicated the formation of an acid. In other antecedent
experiments 1 had examined the nature of the air ob¬
tained before arriving at this remarkable point, and I
always found, by means of the eudiometer of Giobert,
that it was very pure oxygen, as the refiduum fcarcely
amounted to one-fixtieth.
“ Having thus examined the nature of the air form¬
ed in various experiments, from the firft moment of de-
compofition, Aintil there were evident indications of the
formation of an acid, 1 began to endeavour to deter¬
mine, in a more pofitive manner, the exiftence and na¬
ture of this acid.
“ When the vrater, or, to fpeak more accurately, the
tefidual fluid, occupied about half the capacity of the
receiver, which at firft contained the water, this refi-
dual fluid prefented the following characters :
“ Its colour was an orange yellow', more or lefs deep,
according as the bulk of the refidual liquor was greater
or lefs, and it refembled m appearance a true folution
■of gold.
“ From the inferior orifice of the veflel, which was
clofed with a piece of taffety, and then with double
bladder, there efcaped a fmell which was eafily recog¬
nized to be that of oxygenated muriatic acid.
“ The gold wire had in part loft its metallic luftre,
and its furface appeared as if corroded by a folvent.
“ The bit of taffety which had been in contaft with
the coloured fluid, in confequence of its aftion, was
eafily torn, as is ufual with fimilar bodies when half
burnt (femi-combujio').
“ Around the edges of the veffel, on the bladder,
there was formed a deep purple ring, which furrounded
a circular fpace rendered entirely colourlefs, or white.
“ A drop of this fluid tinged the Ikin of the hand,
after feme hours, with a beautiful rofe colour.
“ Having obtained, in various fucceflive experiments,
the fame liquid, poflVfling conftantly the fame proper¬
ties, I chofe that obtained in thelaft experiment toiub-
jeCt it to chemical examination. The very able chemift
of this univerfity, Signior Giufeppe Branchi, had the
goodnefs to enter zealoufly into my views; and in his
laboratory we eafily proved,
“ i. The exiftence of a volatile acid, bv the white va¬
pours which were formed by ammonia placed near it.
“ 2. That this acid was certainly oxygenated muria¬
tic acid, fince it formed in nitrate of filver a curdy pre¬
cipitate, the luna cornea of the antients or the muriate
of filver of the moderns. From thefe fafts we may draw
the following pofitive and undeniable refults:
“ i. Muriatic acid is an oxide of hydrogen, and is
therefore compofed of hydrogen and oxygen.
“ l. Oxygenated muriatic acid, and of courfe muri¬
atic acid, contains lefs oxygen than water does.
“ 3. Hydrogen has not one degree of oxygenation,
but many. One of thefe conftitutes water, another be¬
low it oxygenated muriatic acid, and, below this, there Formation
is another which conftitutes muriatic acid.” Muriatic
Mr Henry of Manchefter, in an account of his in-
veftigations on this fubjedt, obferves that there is a ^
confiderable point of difference between the Englilh Henry’s re.
and the Italian chemift. The refult of Mr Peel’s ex-11181*5*
periment was found to be muriate of foda j but in
Profeffor Pacchiani’s, in which an interrupted gold
wire was employed, it appeared to be muriate of gold.
This ingenious chemift, with the fame view, made the
following experiment. He took a glafs tube 4-^ inches
long, .3 j inches diameter, in which were fecured with
corks, two flips of platina, having their extremities at
a proper diftance to effect the decompofition of the
water. The quantity of water, at the beginning of
the experiment, amounted to two drams. After being
expofed to the galvanic aftion for fix days, it was fo
far diminiflied, that 4 inch °f the tube was unfilled.
The water which was employed was carefully puri¬
fied, by being firft diftilled, and then, after adding
nitrate of filver, by a fecond diftillation. After the
experiment was finifhed, with the addition of nitrate
of filver, it became opalefcent in a few feconds, and
being expofed to the light, exhibited thofe changes
which indicate the prefence of muriatic acid. It did
not appear that muriate of platina had been produced,
for muriate of ammonia being added to one portion,
and carbonate of foda to another, produced no precipi¬
tation.
In making this experiment, Mr Henry fuggefts a
very ufeful precaution. The water employed, he ob¬
ferves, ftiould never, on any account, come into contadl
with the fingers, becaufe there is a conftant excretion
of muriate of foda from the Ikin, and in this way the
pureft water is very foon contaminated. He recom¬
mends alfo, that glafs (toppers fhould be employed
in place of corks, for tranfmitting the conducting
wires *. * IbuL i8>
In another communication by Mr Peel on the fame
fubjedt, he relates the following experiments, which
were undertaken, he fays, 70
“ ift, To determine whether the difference in the New expe-
refult of the before-mentioned experiments was owing *
in any degree to my having employed lime to neutralize
the water employed in my fecond experiment, before it
was diftilled.
“ 2d, To afeertain whether the falts found in
the refidual water, or any component part of them,
came from the galvanic battery by means of the
wires.
“ To determine the firft point, I varied my experi¬
ment by employing for decompofition water diftilled
under different circumftances.
“ Exper. 1.—The water employed in this experi¬
ment was diftilled from water containing lime. A
portion of it was decompofed in the manner that has
before been ftated. The remaining water yielded
muriate of potafh
“ Exper. 2 —Water diftilled from water containing
magnefia was decompofed in the fame manner. Ihe
refult was muriate of foda.
“ Exper. 3 —In this experiment double diftilled
fnow water was employed. The refult was muriate of
foda.
“ Exper,
Fart II.
G A L V
71
id others.
Formation 11 Exper, 4.—"Water diftilted from barytes was now
i Muriaticu^e(j# j'jie refu|t, was ilill muriate of foda.
Acid, &c. <t vvater whieh I ufed in the experiment detailed
in my firft letter was diltilled from pump water (the
pump is on the premifes where I live), which I have
not mylelf analyzed, but a friend has been fo good as
to take upon him that trouble. He has not been able
to deleft in it the minuted portion of magnefia. In one
of the above experiments, having ufed w'ater diddled
from magnefia, I obtained muriate of foda j but, having
obtained the fame refuit from diddled fnow w'ater, and
from water diddled from barytes, I conclude that the
produftion of the foda has nothing to do with the pre¬
fence of magnefia.
“ But, in the produftion of potalh, the prefence of
lime feems to be effential, and, as you hinted, a portion
of lime mud have been carried over with the diddled
water, a faft which few would fufpeft, and which pro¬
bably may often be the caufe of differences in the re-
fults of chemical invedigations, condufted, to all ap¬
pearance, in a fimilar manner.
“ To determine the fecond point which I had in
view, namely, whether the falts found in the refidual
water, or any component part of them, came from the
galvanic battery by means of the condufting wires, I
made fimilar experiments to thofe before dated, em¬
ploying for the decompofition of the diddled water a
_ powerful eleftrical machine indead of a galvanic bat-
'Z&ii.mu.tery, but without obtaining refults different from what
have been already dated
It is dated in the fame number of the Philofophical
Magazine, that the following refuit was obtained in an
experiment on the fame fubjeft. By continuing to pafs
the galvanic fluid from a trough compofed of 40 pairs
of fquare inch plates, through diddled water, contain¬
ed in a glafs tube, the tube being furniflied at one end
with a wire of gold, and at the other with a wire of
platina, it was found that a coating of oxide of gold
was depofited on the gold wire, from which it is con¬
cluded, that oxymuriatic acid was found in the procefsf.
A more particular account was afterwards given by the
author of this experiment, and of the precautions he ob-
ferved in repeating it. He took a clean glafs tube,
which was bent as in the former experiment j but, in¬
dead of the gold wire, he employed one of platina, fo
that both wires were of the fame metal. One of the
wires was only introduced a fliort way into the tube
containing the diddled water •, the other wire intro¬
duced at the other extremity, paffed nearly through its
whole length, till it reached beyond the point at which
the fhort wire terminated. After the apparatus had
dood for three days, with the zinc end of the trough
connefted with the fliort platina wire, the latter af-
fumed the colour of gold, and the long one became
black from the lower end to the height of the ftiort
" ire, and continued fo for the fpace of three weeks.
The water being diminiflied one-third, the fliort wire
was connefted with the copper end of the trough, and
m one day’s time the long wire became bright, and the
fliort one black. After two days had elapfed, that part
of the long wire which reached to the height of the
fliort one, affumed a yellowifli golden tinge. Both the
vires remained fo for three days, when they were placed
in their firft fituation. The black powder then left the
fliort wire, and the long one became black. A flip of
?• 185*
A N I S M. 367
blue tell: paper being immerfed in the remaining water, Formation
its colour was changed, which indicates the produftionof ^buiatic
of an acid. Acid,
Pacchiani, the difeoverer, in another letter on this
fubjeft addreffed to Fabroni, feems to think that thofe
who have failed in obtaining the fame refults in the
decompofition of water, have either been influenced in
condufting their experiments by preconceived opinions,
or have deviated from the procefs which he followed.
But for an account of his views and reafonings, fee
de Chim. tom. Ivi. or Phil. Mag. xxiv. 176. We fliall
only obferve, that he flill confiders himfelf warranted to
draw the fame conclufion with regard to the formation
of the acid, by the aftion of galvanifm.
Mr Sylvefler of Sheffield made the following experi¬
ment on this fubjeft. The water which he employed
was not changed by adding nitrate of filver. This
Avater was introduced into a tube which was fecured-
at one end with a bit of bladder. At the other end
was a cork, through which a wire of platina was
paffed, nearly to the bottom of the tube. The tube
was then let in a wine glafs, containing alfo pure
water, and into this was alfo introduced another wire
of platina, the extremity of which came under the end
of the tube, and as near as poffible to the bladder.
The wire within the tube was connefted with the zinc
end of the trough, and the wire in the glafs, which
was in contaft with the bladder, proceeded from the
copper end. After the procefs had continued for an
hour, the liquid in the tube was put to the teft of ni¬
trate of lilver, and when a fufficient precipitate was ob¬
tained, to afeertain the prefence of muriatic acid, the
liquid in the glafs contained an alkali, which the au¬
thor fufpefted was ammonia*. * NichoL
Brugnatelli obferves, that, after having galvanifed ,7ow,'wa/*
feveral times, both negatively and pofitively, a certain xiv*
quantity of pure water with golden wires, inferted in
feparate tubes, till he found, by the ufual lefts, -that
acid was produced on the one part, and alkali on the
other, when the two liquids were mixed to perfeft
faturation, and evaporated in the air, he always ob¬
tained muriate of foda cryftallized in cubes. He has
therefore no doubt, that water negatively and pofi¬
tively galvanifed, by means of gold wires, produces or
difengages muriatic acid in the one cafe, and foda in
the other f. _ _ _ f w//,.
Such are the authorities for this curious phenomenon Mag. xxv.
which we have hitherto had an opportunity of confult-<5(S-
ing j but although in general it would appear that the
experiments made with the view of afeertaining the
truth of the difeovery announced by Pacchiani, have
molt generally fucceeded, fome other experiments, made
with the fame view, have failed. For this purpofe a
feries of experiments was inftituted by the Galvanic
Society of Paris, whofe attention was direfted to endea¬
vour, as well by means of eleftricity as of galvanifm, to
confirm this important difeovery j but although they
employed a very fimple apparatus, and one which
feemed leaft fufceptible of any foreign influence, they
do not think it poflible to produce any thing by the
aftion of the galvanic pile, except the decompofition
of a greater or lefs proportion of the water fubmitted
to its aftion. The water remaining in the tube being
carefully examined, produced no effeft on the tinftures
of turnfole or brazil wood, or the folution of nitrate of
filver.
Formati'on illvef. Hence it is concluded that neither muriatic acid
•of Muriatic nor f0(ja was formed in this experiment.
Some other experiments made with the fame view
have alfo failed ) but according to De Buch, certain pre¬
cautions feem to be neceffary in condufting this experi¬
ment, which, if overlooked, it cannot be expefttd, he
thinks, to be followed with fuccefs. For the particulars
of thefe, fee Phil. Mftg. xxiv. 244. For an account of
the analogy between the peculiarity of llrudture of the
torpedo, by which it is enabled to give dearie fhocks,
and the galvanic battery, fee Torpedo ; and for a full
detail of the chemical effeas of Galvanifm, fee Zinc.
The following faas, which feem to extend the ana-
logy of galvanifm with elearicity on the one hand, and
with magnetifm on the other? were omitted in the pre¬
ceding treatife. #
Ritter, one of the moft indefatigable phuofophers,
in profecuting experiments and inquiries on this fubjea,
has fucceeded in charging a piece of money with the
galvanic fluid, and with this feme of the phenomena of
galvanifm can be exhibited. J o effea this, he places
a louis d’sr between two pieces of pafteboard, thorough¬
ly wetted, and keeps it for fix or eight minutes in the
chain of circulation conneaed with the pile. In this
way the louis becomes charged, without being imme¬
diately in contaa with the conduaing wires. If this
louis be afterwards applied to the crural nerves of a
frog, recently prepared, the ufual contraaions will be
produced. It is found that the charge is retained, in
proportion to the time that the piece has remained in
the circuit of the pile. Some have retained it foi five
Part III
minutes. Ritter has alfo difeovered, that the piece of Formatk,!
gold thus galvanifed, exerts at once the aaion of two^jH
metals j the half next the negative pole, while in th«
circle, became pofitive, and the half towards the pofitive
pole became negative. He alfo tried the effea of golden
needles charged with galvanifm, and balanced on a
pivot, and he perceived, to his furprife, that thefe needles
had a certain dip and variation ;—that the angle of va¬
riation was uniformly the fame, differing, however, from
that of the magnetic needle, and that the pofitive pole
always dips *. # * Nicbo.'
If the fa£ts which the above experiments feem to
prove, fhould be fully afeertained, there is an obvious xii. 99.
analogy, not only between elettricity and galvanifiti,
but alfo between the latter and magnetifm.
A galvanic pile has been conftru&ed by Dr Baronio
of Milan, entirely of vegetable matters. ^ For this pur-
pofe he cut difes of horfe radilh and beet root, of two
inches in diameter. He then prepared equal difes of
walnut tree wood j the latter difes were raifed at their
edges, to contain a little folution of acidulous tartrate of
potafli in vinegar, in which they had been previoufly
boiled to free the wood from rofin. Sixty pairs of difes
were employed in the following order -, viz. horfe ra-
difli, beet-root, difes of wood, in each of which the fo¬
lution was put. The fpinal marrow of a prepared frog
was connedted w ith the pile, by means of a leaf of coch-
learia; the mufcles of the frog were connefted with
the top of the pile by means of a double band of gray
paper wetted with vinegar, and as often as this circuit
v-as completed, contradtions were excited in the animal.
GALVANISM,
GAL
.Galway. GALWAY, or Galloway, a county of Ireland,
-—w~' which is 76 miles in length, and 40 in breadth, bounded
by the counties of Clare, Tipperary, King’s County,
Rofcommon, and the fea. The river Shannon wafties
-the frontiers of the eaft and fouth-eaft, and forms a lake
feveral miles in length. This county contains 28,212
"houfes, and the number of inhabitants is eftimated at
142,000. This county fends two members to the Im¬
perial parliament. The capital town is of the fame name.
Galway, a town of Ireland, in the county of the
fame name, and province of Connaught, of which it
is the capital. It is feated on the bay of Galway on the
^eftern ocean, 96 miles weft of Dublin, and in W. Long.
& 58. N. Lat. 53. 15. It is furrounded with ftrong
walls, and the houfes, which are well built, amount to
950, wfith 12,000 inhabitants. It has a good trade into
foreign parts, on account of its harbour, which is de¬
fended by a fort. It is governed by a mayor, (heriffs,
and recorder. It has but one parilh church, which is
a large and beautiful Gothic ftru&ure, an exchange,
barracks for 10 companies of foot, a charter fchool, and
an hofpital. This was one of the ftrongeft towns in the
kingdom j it held out fome time againft General Ginkle,
who inverted and took it after the battle of Aughrim.
Its fortifications were then repaired. The walls are
flanked by baftions, but are moftly gone to decay.
The falmon and herring fiftieries are carried on here
with great fpirit, and employ 700 boats j the quantity
a
GAL
: kelp manufactured and exported is confiderable ; and Galway.j
ic growth of the linen manufacture, though of late in- * 1 ri
oduCtion, is become very important. In I 296, Sir
William de Burgh founded a monaftery here for Fran-
ifean friars, on St Stephen’s ifland, fituated without the
orth gate of the town. In 1381, there being two popes
t Rome, and the people of Ireland being doubtful to
hich they ftiould pay obedience, Pope Urban, to fix
hem entirely to his intereft, empowered the guardian of
his monaftery to excommunicate every perlon in the
irovince of Connaught who ftiould adhere to his rival
Element VII. whohe affured them was antipope.—Near
he weft gate of the town,-without the walls, was the
nonaftery of St Mary of the Hill : on the nuns forlak-
ng it, the fecular clergy entered into and kept poffel-
ion of it for a confiderable time •, but on the petition of
he inhabitants of the town to Pope Innocent VIII. it
ivas granted to the Dominican friars, by a bull dated
he 4th December 1488. There are no remains ot
this foundation except the cemetery j the whole build¬
ing having been demolilhed by the townfmen in the year
1652, in order to prevent Cromw’cll from turning it
into a fortification againft themfelves : there was alfo an
Auguftinian friary, on a hill near this town, founded
by Stephen Lynch, and Margaret his wife, in the year
1508, at the earneft felicitation of Richard Nangle, a
friar of the fame order, who afterwards became bilhop
of ruam# GAMA*
Galvanism
PLATE CCXXIX.
GAM [ 3% ] GAM
GAMA, Vasco or Vasques de, a celebrated navi¬
gator, was born at Sines, a fea-port town in the province
of Alentejo, in Portugal. When King Emanuel re-
folved to extend the difcoveries formerly made of the
fouthern parts of Africa, and the feas lying between
thefe and the Ealt Indies, the well-known prudence and
courage of De Gama pointed him out as a proper per-
fon to condufl fuch an enterprife. He failed from Lif-
bon in the month of July 1497, with no more formi¬
dable a fquadron than three imall armed veffels and a
ftore ihip, with which he did not reach the Cape of
Good Hope till the end of four months, owing to
violent and contrary winds. He doubled this promon¬
tory, and afterwards coafted along the fouth-eail fide of
Africa, till he reached Melinda, having touched at dif¬
ferent ports on his way. At this place he procured a
Mahometan pilot, by whom he was conducted in fafety
to the coalt of Malabar, and he reached Calicut in the
month of May. The prince at fir lt received him in a
hofpitable manner, but a plot being at length laid for
his deftru&ion by the Mahometan merchants, he made
the belt of his way to Europe as foon as he difeovered
it. He arrived at Liibon in September 1499, with the
lofs of the majority of his crew, arifing from fatigue
and difeafe. Having fpent fome time in devotion at a
hermitage, he made a fplendid entrance into the city,
and befides pecuniary rewards, was honoured by the
king with the title of count of Videgueira. By this
voyage the pra&icability of a new paflage to the Indies
was fully eftablifhed. De Gama undertook a fecond
voyage, with the title of admiral of the Indian, Perfian,
and Arabian feas, having 20 fail of {hips under his
command. This voyage began in February 1502, and
after compelling feveral princes in his route to pay
tribute to him, he arrived at Cochin, where a deputa¬
tion from the Chriftians of St Thomas, to whom he
promifed prote&ion, waited upon him. The Zamorin
being extremely fufpieious of thefe new vifitors, fitted
'out a fleet, but De Gama anticipated the defign, and
began the attack, making a prize of two large vef¬
fels of prodigious value. He left a fquadron at Cana-
nor after this vi£Iory, and failed for Lifbon, at which
place he arrived in the month of September 1503. On
the acceflion of John III. to the throne, De Gama, then
very far advanced in years, was prevailed upon to un¬
dertake a third voyage, with the exalted rank of vice¬
roy of the Indies. He conquered the people of Cali¬
cut in a naval engagement, and died at Cochin in the
year 152?.
GAMBIA, a large river of Negroland in Africa,
running from call to weft to the Atlantic ocean } it
is fuppofed to be a branch of the Niger.
GAMBOGE is a concreted vegetable juice, partly
of a gummy and partly of a refinous nature, chiefly
brought in large cakes or rolls from Cambaja in the
Eaft Indies. See Chemistry and Materia Medi-
ca Index.
GAME, in general, fignifies any diverfion or fport,
that is performed with regularity, and conducted by
certain rules. See Gaming.
Games are ufually diftinguifhed into thofe of exer-
cife and addrefs, and thofe of hazard. To the firft
belong chefs, tennis, billiards, &e. and to the latter
thofe performed with cards, or dice, as back-gam-
Vol. IX. Part I.
mon, ombre, piquet, whift, &c. See BACK-Ga/n*
morr, Sic.
Games, in antiquity, were public diverfions, exhi-
bited on folemn occafions. Such among the Greeks
were the Olympic, Pythian, Ifthmian, Nemean, See.
games j and, among the Romans, the Apollinarian,
Cireeniian, Capitoline, &c. games. See Olympic,
Pythian, Funeral, &c.
Game, in Law, fignifies birds, or prey, taken or kill¬
ed by fowling or hunting.
The property of fuch animals ferx natures as are
known under the denomination of game, w ith the right
of purfuing, taking, and deftroying them, is veiled in
the king alone, and from him derived to fuch of his
fubjefts as have received the grants of a chafe, a park,
or a free warren.
By the law of nature, indeed, every man, from tho
prince t@ the peafant, has an equal right of purfuing,
and taking to his own ufe, all 1'uch creatures as are
ferce natures, and therefore the property of nobody,
but liable to be feized by the firft occupant. But it
follows from the very end and conftitution of fociety,
that this natural right, as well as many others be¬
longing to man as an individual, may be reftrained by
pofitive laws ena6led for reafons of ftate, or for the
fuppofed benefit of the community. This reftriftion
may be either with refpeft to the place in which this
right may, or may not, be exercifed j with refpeft to
the animals that are the fubjt fts of this right j or with
refpe£t to the perfons allowed or forbidden to exercife
it. And, in confequence of this authority, we find
that the municipal laws of many nations have exerted
fuch power of reftraint j have in general forbidden
the entering on another man’s grounds, for any caufe,
without the owmer’s leave j have extended their pro¬
tection to fuch particular animals as are ufually the
objeCts of purfuit j and have invefted the prerogative of
hunting and taking fuch animals in the fovertign of
the ftate only, and fuch as he (hall authorife. Many
reafons have concurred for making thefe conftitutions:
as, 1. For the encouragement of agriculture and im¬
provement of lands, by giving every man an exclu-
five dominion over his own foil. 2. For the prefer-
vation of the feveral fpecies of thefe animats, which
would foon be extirpated by a general liberty. 3. For
prevention of idlenefs and diffipation in hulbandmen,
artificers, and others of lower rank 5 which would ba
the unavoidable confequence of univerfal licenfe. 4. For
prevention of popular infurreCtions and refiftance to
the government, by difarming the bulk of the people :
which laft is a reafon oftener meant than avowed, by
the makers of foreft or game laws. Nor certainly, iu
thefe prohibitions is there any natural injuftice, as fome
have weakly enough fuppofed : fince, as Puftendorf
obferves, the law does not hereby take from any man
his prefent property, or what was already his own j
but barely abridges him of one means of acquiring a
future property, that of occupancy j which indeed the
law of nature would allow him, but of which the laws
of fociety have in moil inftances very juftly and reafon-
ably deprived him.
Yet, however defenfible thefe provifions in general
may be, on the footing of reafon, or juftice, or civil
peliev, we muft, nolwithftanding, acknowledge, that,
3 A in
Grafflftr
GAM [ 37° ] GAM
Game, in their prefent {hape, they owe their immediate ori-
ginal to ilavery. It is not till after the irruption of
the northern nations into the Roman empire, that we
read of any other prohibitions, than that natural one
of not fporting on any private grounds without the
owner’s leave.
With regard to the rife and original of our prefent
civil prohibitions, it will be found, that all foreft and
game la .vs were introduced into Europe at the fame
time, and by the fame policy, as gave birth to the
feodal fyltem : when thofe fwarms of barbarians iffued
from their northern hive, and laid the foundation of
moil of the prefent kingdoms of Europe, on the ruins
of the weftern empire. For when a conquering gene¬
ral came to fettle the economy of a vanquifhed coun¬
try, and to part it out among his foldiers or feudato¬
ries, who were to render him military fervice for fuch
donations ; it behoved him, in order to fecure his new
acquifitions, to keep the rujiici or natives of the coun¬
try, and all who were not his military tenants, in as
low a condition as poflible, and efpecially to prohibit
them the ufe of arms. Nothing could do this more
effectually than a prohibition of hunting and fporting :
and therefore it was the policy of the conqueror to re-
ferve this right to himfelf, and fuch on whom he
Should beftow it; which were only his capital feudato¬
ries, or greater barons. And, accordingly, we find,
in the feudal conftitutions, one and the lame law pro¬
hibiting the rujiici in general from carrying arms, and
alio profcribing the ufe of nets, Inares, or other en¬
gines for deftroying the game. This exclufive privi¬
lege well fuited the martial genius of the conquering
troops, who delighted in a {port which in its purfuit
and daughter bore fome refemblance to war. Vita
cmnis (fays Csefar, fpeaking of the ancient Germans)
in venationibus atque in Jludus rei mihtaris confiftit. And
Tacitus in like manner obferves, that quoties bella non
ir.cunt, mu/tum venatibus, plus per otium tranjigunt. And
indeed, like forae of their modern fucceffors, they had
no other amufement to entertain their vacant hours y,
for they defpiled all arts as efteminate, and had no
other learning than what was couched in fuch rude ditties
as were fung at the folemn caroufals which fucceeded
thefe ancient huntings. And it is remarkable, that, in
thofe nations where the feodal policy remains the molt
uncorrupted, the foreit or game laws continue in their
highelt rigour. Formerly in France, all game was pro¬
perly the king’s 5 and in fome parts of Germany it is
death for a peafant to ba found hunting in the woods
of the nobility.
With us, in Britain, alfo hunting has ever been
efteemed a molt princely diverfion and exercife. The
whole ifland was replenilhed. with all forts of game in
the time of the Britons ; who lived in a wild and paf-
toral manner, without enclofing or improving their
grounds y and derived much of their fubfillence from
the chafe, which they all enjoyed in common. But
when hulbandry took place under the Saxon govern¬
ment, and lands began to be cultivated, improved, and
encloled, the bealls naturally fled into the woody and
defert tradls, which were called the forejls ; and, ha¬
ving never been difpofed of in the firfl: dillribu-
tion of lands, were therefore held to belong to the
§fQ\vn. Thefe were filled with great plenty of
game, which our royal fportfmen referved for their Game,
own diverfion, on pain of a pecuniary forfeiture for
fuch as interfered with their fovereign. But eve¬
ry freeholder had the full liberty of fporting upon
his territories, provided he abrtained from the king’s
forefts.
However, upon the Norman conqueff, a new doc¬
trine took place ; and the right of purfuing and ta¬
king all beafts of chafe or Denary, and fuch other ani¬
mals as were accounted game, was then held to belong
to the king, or to fuch only as were authorifed under
him. And this, as well upon the principles of the
feodal law, that the king is the ultimate proprietor of
all the lands in the kingdom, they being all held of
him as the chief lord, or lord paramount of the fee y
and that therefore he has the right of the univerfal foil^
to enter thereon, and to chafe and take fuch creatures
at his pleafure : as alfo upon another maxim of the
common law, that thefe animals are bona vacantia, and,
having no other owner, belong to the king by his
prerogative. As therefore the former reafon was held
to veil in the king a right to purfue and take them
anywhere, the latter was fuppofed to give the king,
and fuch as he Ihould authorife, a foU and exclujive
right.
This right, thus newly vefted in the crown, was ex¬
erted with the utmoft rigour, at and after the time of
the Norman eftablilhment ; not only in the ancient fo-
reils, but in the new ones which the Conqueror made,
by laying together vaft trafts of country, depopulated
for that purpofe,. and referved folely for the king’s
royal diverfion y- in which were exercifed the moll hor¬
rid tyrannies and oppreflions, under colour of foreft.
law, for the fake of preferving the beafts of chafe y
to kill any of which, ivithin the limits of the foreft,
was as penal as the death of a man. And, according
to the fame principle, King John laid a total in-
terdift upon the winged as well as \\\& four-footed crea-* M.Parh,
tion y capturam avium per totam Angliatn interdixit*. 303.
The cruel and infupportable hardlhips which thefe fo¬
reft laws created to the fubje£l, occafioned our an-
ceftors to be as zealous for their reformation, as for
the relaxation of the feodal rigours and the other ex-
a<ftions introduced by the Norman family : and ac¬
cordingly we find the immunities of charta de forefa as
warmly contended for, and extorted from the king
with as much difficulty, as thofe of magna charta itfelf..
By this charter, confirmed in parliament f, many fo- fpHen.Ilf.
refts were difafforefted, or ftripped of their oppreffive
privileges, and regulations were made in the regimen
of fuch as remained y particularly killing the king’s-
deer was made no longer a capital offence, but only pu-
niflied by a fine, imprifonment, or abjuration of the
realm. And by a variety of fubfequent ftatutes, toge¬
ther with the long acquiescence of the crown without
exerting the foreft laws, this prerogative is now be¬
come no longer a grievance to the fubjedl.
But as the king referved to himfelf \heforef for his
own exclufive diverfion, fo he granted out from time
to time other tradls of -lands to his fubje&s under the
names of chafes or parks ; or gave them licenfe to make
fuch in their own grounds ; which indeed are fmaller
forefts in the hands of a fubjett, but not governed by
the foreft laws 5 and by the common law no perfon is .
GAM r 371 ] GAM
Came, at liberty to take or kill any beafts of chafe, but fuch
V"—”' as have an ancient chafe or park j unlefs they be alfo
beafts of prey.
As to all inferior fpecies of games called beajls and
fowls of warren; the liberty of taking or killing them
is another franchife or royalty, derived likewife from
the crown, and called free warren ; a word which fig-
nifies prefervation or cuftody : as the exclufive liberty
of taking and killing fifh in a public Itream or river
is called a free fifhery; of which, however, no new
franchife can at prefent be granted by the exprefs pro-
vifion of magna charta, c. 16. The principal inten¬
tion of granting a man thefe franchifes or liberties was
in order to proteft the game, by giving him a foie and
exclufive power of killing it himielf, provided he pre¬
vented other perfons. And no man but he who has a
chafe or free warren, by grant from the crown, or pre-
fcription, which fuppofes one, can juitify hunting or
fporting upon another man’s foil-, nor indeed, in tho¬
rough ftridlnefs of common law, either hunting or fport¬
ing at all.
However novel this doflrine may feem, it is a regu¬
lar confequence from what has been before delivered,
that the foie right of taking and dellroying game be¬
longs exelulively to the king. This appears, as well
from the hiftorical deduflion here made, as becaufe he
may grant to his fubje£ts an exclufive right of taking
them; which he could not do, unlefs fuch a right was
firil inherent in himfelf. And hence it will follow,
that no perfon whatever, but he who has fuch deriva¬
tive right from the crown, is by common law entitled
to take or kill any bealt of chafe, or other game w hat-
foever. It is true, that by the acquiefcence of the
crown, the frequent grants of free warren in ancient
times, and the introdufh’on of new penalties of late by
certain flatutes for preferving the game, this exclufive
prerogative of the king is little know n or confidered ;
every man that is exempted from thefe modern penal¬
ties looking upon himftlf as at liberty to do what he
pleafes with the game; whereas the contrary is’ ftriflly
true, that no man however well qualified he may vul¬
garly be efteemed, has a right to encroach on the royal
prerogative by the killing of game, unlels he can £hew
a particular grant of free warren ; or a prefcription
which prefumes a grant ; or fome authority under an
a£t of parliament. As for the latter; there are but
two inftances wherein an exprefs permiffion to kill
game was ever given by ilatute : the one by « Jac. I.
c. 27. altered by Jac. I. c. 12. and virtually repeal¬
ed by 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 25. which gave authori¬
ty, fo long as they remained in force, to the owners of
free warren, to lords of manors, and to all freehold¬
ers having 40I. per annum in lands of inheritance, or
Sol. for life or lives, or 400I. perfonal eftate (and
their fervants), to take partridges and pheafants, upon
their own, or their mailer’s free w'arren, inheritance, or
freehold: the other by 5 Ann. c. 14. which em¬
powers lords and ladies of manors to appoint game-
keepers, to kill game for the ufe of fuch lord or lady ;
which with fome alteration Hill fubfifts, and plainly
fupp ofes fu h power not to have been in them before.
J he truth of the matter is, that thefe game laws do
andeed qualify nobody, except in the inftance of a game-
keeper, to kill game : but only to fave the trouble
and formal procels of an aftion by the perfon injured,
who perhaps too might remit the offence, thefe fiatutes Cdmie.
intlidt additional penalties, to be recovered ritlicr in a ■ y ^
regular or fummary way, by any of the king’s iubjedts,
from certain perfons of inferior rank who may be found
offending in this particular. But it does not follow
that perfons excuh-d from thefe additional penalties
are therefore authorised to kill game. The circum-
fiance of having ipol. per annum, and the reft, are not
properly qualifications, but exemptions. And thefe per¬
fons fo exempted from the penalties of the game fta-
tutes, are not only liable to adfions of trefpafs by the
owners of the land ; but alfo if they kill game within
the limits of any royal franchife, they are liable to the
aftions of fuch who may have the right of chafe or
free warren therein.
Upon the whole it appears, that the king, by his
prerogative, and fuch perfons as have, under his au¬
thority, the ROYAL FRANCHISE of CHACE, PARK, or
Free WARREN-^, are the only perfons who may acquire [See thofe
any property, however fugitive and tranfitory, in thefe articles,
animals ferce naturae, while l#ng; which is laid to be
veiled in them propter privilegiutn. And it muft alfo
be obferved, that fuch perfons as may thus lawfully
hunt, filli, or fowl, ratione privilegii, have only a qua¬
lified property in thefe animals; it not being abfolute
or permanent, but lafting only lo long as the creatures
remain within the limits of fuch refpedlive franchife or
liberty, and ceafing the inllant they voluntarily pafs
out of it. It is held indeed, that if a man Harts any
game within his own grounds, and follows it into an¬
other’s and kills it there, the property remains in him¬
felf. And this is grounded on reafon and natural juf-
tice; for the property confifts in the poffi flion ; which
poffeflion commences by the finding it in his own li¬
berty, and is continued by the immediate purfuit. And
fo, if a ftranger ftarts game in one man’s chafe or free
warren, and hunts it into another liberty, the proper¬
ty continues in the ow ner of the chafe or warren ; this
property arifing from privilege, and not being changed
by the aft of a mere ftranger. Or if a man ftarts game
on another’s private grounds, and kills it there, the
property belongs to him in whofe ground it was killed,
becaufe it wras alfo ftarted there; this property ariling
ration? foli. Whereas if, after being ftarted there, it is
killed in the grounds of a third perfon, the property
belongs not to the owner of the firfl ground, becaufe
the property is local; nor yet to the owner of the fe-
cond, becaufe it was not ftarted in his foil ; but it vefts
in the perfbn who ftarted and killed it; though guilty
of a trefpaf. againft both the owners. See the article
Game LAW'S.
It will probably be confidered by fportfmen who have
not an opportunity of feeing the book, as a curious
piece of information, to have the following, which we
extraft from Daniel’s Rural Sports, concerning the
quantity of game killed in different countries.
“ The lifts of the game, fays he, that has been killed
upon particular manors in England by parties, and
even by fingle gentlemen, evhibit fuch a wanton rtgiftry
of flaughter, as no fportfman can read without regret;
but to prove that Britijh are rather more merciful than
French fhooters, the account of the former game eftab-
lifhment at Chantilli is fird prefented to the reader, in
the w^ords of the very ingenious perfon who recorded
it.
3 A 2
“ The
Cam«.
GAM t 3
“ The game eftablifliment at fchantilli was the moft
extraordinary eftablifhment of the kind in Europe..
“ The following lift of the quantity of different kinds
of game killed at Chantilli, in a period of 32 years,
beginning with the year 1748, and ending with the
year 1779, was copied from the houfehold regillers
there, and what feems unaccountable, never was print¬
ed before, not even in France ! The copy was taken in
1788, and the ftatement, as an object in natural hiftory,
is no fmall curiolity, and as fuch it is philofophically
inlerefting.
Hares
Rabbits
Partridges
Red, ditto
Pheafants
Quails
Ralles
Woodcocks
Snipes
Ducks
Wood pigeons
Curlews
Buftards -
Larks
Thru flies
Stags
Hinds
Fawns
Does
Young does
Roe-bucks
Young, ditto
Wdld boars
Marcaflins
77^75°
587,470
116,574
1 2,426
86,193
19,696
449
2164
2856
1353
S1?
32
2
106
^313
1682
1682
5r9
1921
*35
4669
8x0
1942
8x8
Conne6fed with this eftablifhment, there was a park
of 21 miles, and a foreft of 48 miles in extent, and
while the family were at the place, they had 500
horfes, as many fervants, and from 60 to 80 couple of
dogs.
“ The Germans too, fays Mr Daniel, have a happy
knack at a maffacre. In 1788 a party of 10 perfons at
the chateau of Prince Adam Daverfperg, in Bohemia,
were out five hours on the 9th and 10th of September,
allowed that the firft day 6168 fliots were fired, and
876 hares, 259 pheafants, 362 partridges, befide quails,
rabbit', &c. were bagged, or rather waggoned. On
the fecond day 5904 fhots were difcharged, and 181
hares, 634 pheafants, and 736 partridges were killed,
befides fome that were picked up in the evening. The
number of ftiots in the two days were 11,972, the game
carried home were
Hares, I099
Pheafants, 958
Partridges, 1201
befides fmall game. It is added that the birds were all
fliot on the wing.
“ In Germany, during the month of O&ober 1797,
Prince Lichtenftein, and eleven other gentlemen, killed
in one day, when they were out fourteen hours, 39,000
pieces of game-, it was of all forts, but chiefly hares and
partridges. The king of Naples and Sir W. Hamilton
killed 800 head of game in the neighbourhood of Ca-
■ 2 ] GAM.
farte, of which 640 were partridges, in a very fhort Game
fpace of time. tl ' 1
“ Up on Mr Colquhoun’s manor in our own country,. anilng»
at Writham in Norfolk, the late duke of Bedford, ’
and fix other gentlemen, in 1796, killed 80 cock
pheafants, 40 hares, befides partridges, in one day.
At Houghton, in the fame county, the duke of
Bedford, and feven others, killed in the fame fpace,
16 <; hares, 42 pheafants, 5 rabbits, a couple of wood¬
cocks, and a brace of partridgesj and this was done, al¬
though the woods had been beat five times before dur¬
ing the feafon *Vol.iL
Game Cock, a fighting cock, or one kept for fport j
a barbarous practice, which is a difgraee to any civi¬
lized nation. See COCK-Fighting.
GAMELIA, in Grecian antiquity, a nuptial feaft,
or rather facrifice, held in the ancient Greek families
on the day before a marriage j thus called from a cu-
ftom they had of (having themfelves on this occafionj
and prefenting their hair to fome deity to whom they
had particular obligations.
GAMELION, in the ancient chronology, was the
eighth month of the Athenian year, containing 29
days, and anfwering to the latter part of our January
and beginning of February. It was thus called, as be¬
ing, in the opinion of the Athenians, the moft proper
feafon of the year for marriage.
GAMING, the art of playing or pra&ifing any
game, particularly thofe of hazard 3 as cards, dice,
tables, &c.
Gaming has at all times been looked upon as a
thing of pernicious confequence to the commonwealth 3
and is therefore feverely prohibited by law. It is con-
fidered as a practice generally intended to fupply, or
retrieve, the expences occafioned by luxury : it be¬
ing a kind of tacit confiflion, that the company enga¬
ged therein do, in general, exceed the bounds of their
refpedlive fortunes 3 and therefore they caft lots to de¬
termine upon whom the ruin (hall at prefent fall, that
the reft may be faved a little longer. But taken in
any light, it is an offence of the molt alarming nature,
tending by neceffary confequence, to promote public
idlenefs, theft, and debauchery, among thofe of .a
lower clafs 3 and, among perfons of a fuperior rank, it
hath frequently been attended w ith the bidden ruin and
defolation of ancient and opulent families, and abandon¬
ed proftitution of every principle of honour and virtue,
and too often hath ended in felf-murder. To reftraia
this pernicious vice among the inferior fort of people,
the ftatute 33 Hen. VIII. c. 9. was made 3 which
prohibits to all but gentlemen, the games of tennis,
tables, cards, dice, bowls, and other unlawful diverfions
there fpecified, unlefs in the time of Chriftmas, under
pecuniary pains and imprifonment. And the fame law,
and alfo the ftatute 23 Geo. II. c. 24. inflid pecuni¬
ary penalties, as well upon the mailer of any public
houie wherein fervants are permitted to game, as upon
the fervants themfelves, who are found to be gaming
there. But this is not the principal ground of modem
complaint; it is the gaming in high life that demands
the attention of the magiftrate 3 a pafliun to which
every valuable confideration is made a facrifice, and
which we feem to have inherited from our anceftors,
the ancient Germans 3 whom Tacitus deferibes to have
been bewitched with the fpirit of play to a moft exor¬
bitant
GAM r 373 ] GAM
gaming, bilant degree. “ They addi£t themfelves (fays he)
to dice (which is wonderful) when fober, and as a
ferious employment, with fuch. a mad defire of win¬
ning or lofing, that, when ftript of every thing elfe,
they will flake at laft their liberty, and their very
felves. The lofer goes into a voluntary fiavevy •, and,
though younger and ftronger than his antagonift, buf¬
fers himfelf to be bound and fold. And this perfe-
verance in fo bad a caufe they call the point of ho¬
nour : en ejl in re prava pervicacia, ipji /idem vacant.”
One would almoft be tempted to think Tacitus wras de-
fcribing a modern Englifhman. When men are thus
intoxicated with fo frantic a fpirit, laws will be of
little avail: becaufe the fame falfe fenfe of honour that
prompts a man to facrifice himfelf, will deter him from
appealing to the magiftrate. Yet it is proper that laws
fhould be, and be known publicly, that gentlemen may
confider what penalties they wilfully incur, and what
a confidence they repofe in lharpers ; who, if fuccels-
ful in play, are certain to be paid with honour, or, if
unfuccefsful, have it in their power to be {till greater
gainers by informing. For, by flat. i6Car. II. c. 7.
ifany perfon by playing or betting {hall lofe more than
tool, at one time, he (hall not be compelled to pay
the fame j and the winner fhall forfeit treble the value,
one moiety to the king, the other to the informer.
The ftalute 9 Ann. c. 14. enafts, that all bonds and
other fecurities, given for money won at play, or
money lent at the time to play withal, (hall be utterly
void : that all mortgages and encumbrances of lands,
made upon the fame confideration, fhall be and endure
to the heir of the mortgager : that, if any perfon at
one time lofes 10I. at play, he may fue the winner,
and recover it back by aftion of debt at law'; and, in
cafe the lofer does not, any other perfon may fue the
winner fpr treble the fum fo loft •, and the plaintiff in
either cafe may examine the defendant himfelf upon
oath : and that in any of thefe fuits no privilege of
parliament fhall be allowed. The ftatute farther enafls,
that if any perfon cheats at play, and at one time wins
more than 10I. or any valuable thing, he may be in-
dialed thereupon, and fhall forfeit five times the value,
fhall be deemed infamous, and fuffer fuch corporal
punifhment as in cafe of wilful perjury. By feveral
ftatutes of the reign of King George II. all private
lotteries by tickets, cards, or dice, (and particularly
the games of faro, baffet, ace of hearts, hazard, paf-
fage, roily polly, and all other games with dice, ex¬
cept backgammon), are prohibited under a penalty of
2ool. for him that fhall erect fuch lotteries, and 50I.
a-time for the players. Public lotteries, unlefs by au¬
thority of parliament, and all manner of ingenious de¬
vices, under the denomination of fa/cs or otherwife,
"hich jn the end are equivalent to lotteries, were be¬
fore prohibited by a great variety of ftatutes under
heavy pecuniary penalties. But particular defcriptions
will ever be lame and deficient, unlefs all games of
mere chance are at once prohibited; the invention of
harpers being fwifter than the punifhment of the law,
vhich only hunts them from one device to another.
Fhe flat. 14 Geo. II. c. 19. to prevent the multipli¬
city of horfe races, another fund of gaming, dire£ls,
that no plates or matches under 50I. value fhall be run,
up»n penalty of 200I. to be paid by the owner of
each horfe running, and 100I. by fuch as advertife the
plate. By ftatute 18 Geo. I. c. 34. the ftatute 9 Ann. GamiHg.
is farther enforced, and fome deficiencies fupplied : "
the forfeitures of that a<ft may now be recovered in a
court of equity and, moreover, if any man be con¬
victed, upon information or indictment, of winning or
lofing at any fitting icl. or 20I. within 24 hours, he
{hall forfeit five times the fum. Thus careful has the
legiflature been to prevent this deftruftive vice : which
may ftiow that our laws againft gaming are not fo de¬
ficient as ourfelves and our magiftrates in putting thofe
law's in execution.
Chance, or Hazard, in GAMING. Hazard, or chance,
is a matter of mathematical confideration, becaute
admits of more and lefs. Gamefters either fet out up¬
on an equality of chance, or are fuppofed to do fo.
1 his equality may be altered in the courfe of the game,
by the greater good fortune or addrels of one of the
gamefters, whereby he comes to have a better chance, fo
that his fhare in the flakes is proportionably better than
at firft. This more and lefs runs through all the ratios ,
between equality and infinite difterence, or from an in¬
finitely little difference till it come to an infinitely great
one, whereby the game is determined. The whole game,
therefore, with regard to the iffue of it, is a chance of
the proportion the two fhares bear to each other.
The probability of an event is greater or lefs, ac¬
cording to the number of chances by which it may hap¬
pen, compared with the number of all the chances by
which it may either happen or fail.
M. de Moivre, in a treatife de Menfura Sortis, has
computed the variety of chances in feveral cafes that
occur in gaming, the laws of which may be underflood
by w'hat follows.
Suppofe p the number of cafes in which an event
may happen, and q the number of cafes wherein it may
not happen, both fides have the degree of probability,
which is to each other as p to q.
If two gamefters, A and B, engage on this footing,
that, if the cafes p happen, A fhall win ; but if q hap¬
pen, B fhall win, and the flake be a ; the chance of
A will be ~—, and that of B — : confequently, if
?+/> . y*+?’ 1 ^
they fell the expectancies, they ftiould have that for
them refpeClively.
If A and B play with a fingle dice, on this conditien,
that, if A throw twm or more aces at eight throws,
he {hall win •, otherwife B fliall win j What is the ra¬
tio of their chances ? Since there is but one cafe where¬
in an ace may turn up, and five wherein it may not,
let a—\, and b~$. And again, fince there are eight
throws of the die, let «— 8 j and you will have
a-\.b\n—bn—n a bn—r, to bn-\-n a bn—l: that is,
the chance of A w ill be to that of B as 66399.1 to
icl56525, or nearly as 2 to 3.
A and B are engaged at fingle quoits j and, after
playing fome time, A wants 4 of being up, and B 6j
but B is fo much the better gamefter, that his chance
againft A upon a fingle throw w ould be as 3 to 2 j What
is the ratio of their chances ? Since A wants 4, and
B 6, the game will be ended at nine throws; there*-
fore, raife a-\-b to the ninth power, and it will be
Zi9-f9 08£-f-36 d,bb-\-%0t 126 a5b*-\-li6 a*b*
to 84 fl3^c-i-36 aa b"1 -\-6a C3-j-C9; call a 3, and Z»2, and
you will have the ratio of chances in numbers, viz.
1759077 to 19-1048.
A
i
Gamin?,
GAM £ 374- 1
A and B play at fmgle quoits, and A is the beft or oftener
1 gamefter, fo that he can give 13 2 in 3 : W^hat is the
ratio of their chances at a {ingle throw ? Suppofe the
chances as 3 to t, and raife fc-j-i to its cube, which
will bezS-f 33*-}-355 + i. Now fxnce A could give B
2 out of 3, A might undertake to win three throws
running j and consequently the chances in thiscaie will
be as z1 to 33*+32;-f-1. Hence 33z:334-f-3!S+1 •, or
2z*=z* +32*—33-f-i. And therefore 3^/2=^+! >
and, confequently, —  • The chances, there
GAM
?
1/
t
fore, are ^2—1, and 1, refpe&ively.
in three times: therefore the odds againlt
throwing it in three times are 125 to 91. Again, fup-
pofe we would know the probability of throwing an ace
once in four times, and no more j hnce the probability
of throwing it the firlt time is •£, and of miffing it the
bther three times, is 4-x£X-5> it follows, that the pro¬
bability of throwing it the firft time, and miffing it the
other three fucceflive times, is X 5 X £ X |)
but becaufe it is poffible to hit every throw as well as
the firit, it follows, that the probability of throwing it
once in four throws, and miffing it the other three, is
Gaming.
4 X I 25  500
1296
-A——- which being fubtracled from
1.96’ *
1,there
Again, fuppofe I have two wagers depending, in the
firft of which I have 3 to 2 the beft of the lay, and in
the fecond 7 to 4 ; What is the probability I win both
wagers ?
I. The probability of winning the firft is f, that is,
the number of chances I have to win, divided by the
number of all the chances : the probability of winning
the fecond is : therefore, multiplying thefe two frac¬
tions together, the produdt will be which is the
probability of winning both wagers. Now, this fraftion
being fubtra&ed from I, the remainder is -|4, which is
the probability I do not win both wagers : therefore the
odds againft me are 34 to 21.
2. If I would know what the probability is of win¬
ing the firft, and lofing the fecond, I argue thus j the
probability of winning the firft is ^ the probability of
lofing the fecond is -A : therefore multiplying by j\
the produft will be the probability of my winning
the firft and lofing the fecond j which being fubtraft-
ed from I, there will remain which is the probabi¬
lity I do not win the firft, and at the fame time lofe the
fecond.
3. If I would know what the probability is of win¬
ning the fecond, and at the fame time lofmg the firft,
I fay thus : The probability of winning the fecond is
•, the probability of lofing the firft is ■§■: therefore,
multiplying thefe two fraftxons together, the product
is the probability I wdn the fecond, and alfo lofe the
firft.
4. If I would know what the probability is of lofing
both wagers, I fay, the probability of lofing the firft is
and the probability of lofing the fecond -fr : there¬
fore the probability of lofing them both is 3A : which,
being fubtrafted from I, there remains -£f • therefore,
the odds of lofing both v agers is 47 to 8.
This way of reafoning is applicable to the happening
or failing of any events that may fall under confidera-
tion. Thus if I would know what the probability is of
.miffing an ace four times together with a die, this I con-
fider as the failing of four different events. Now the
^probability of miffing the firft is -s, the fecond is alfo 4,
the third and the fourth 4 ; therefore the probabili¬
ty of miffi ig it four times together is 4x4 X 5_X4—
5 which being fubilraded from x, there will re¬
main TVy«5 f°r tlie probability of throwing it once or
oftener in four times ; therefore the odds of throwing an
ace in four times, is 671 to 625.
But if the Hinging of an ace was undertaken in three
times, the probability of miffing h three times would
be4X 4 X 4=444 which being fubtra&edfrom 1, there
will remain f°r the probability of throwing it once
■will remain for the probability of throwing it
once, and no more, in four times. Therefore, if one
undertake to throw an ace once, and no more, in' four
times, he has 500 to 796 the worft of the lay, or 5 to 8
very near.
Suppofe two events are fuch, that one of them has
twice as many chances to come up as the other j what
is the probability that the event w hich has the greater
number of chances to come up, does not happen twice
before the other happens once, which is the tale of
flinging 7 with two dice before 4 once ? Since the
number of chances is as 2 to 1, the probability of
the firft happening before the fecond is -f, but the pro¬
bability of its happening twice before it is but -f X t or
•§ : therefore it is 5 to 4, feven does not come up twice
before four once.
But, if it were demanded, what muft be the pro¬
portion of the facilities of the coming up of two events,
to make that which has the moft chances come up
twice, before the other comes up once ? The aniwer
is, 12 to 5 very nearly : whence it follows, that the
probability of throwing the firft before the lecond is 4t»
and the probability of throwing it twice is 44X or
444 i therefore the probability of not doing it is 444 i
therefore the odds againft it are as 145 to 144, which
comes very near an equality.
Suppofe there is a heap of thirteen cards of one
colour, and another heap of thirteen cards of another
colour j What is the probability, that, taking one card
at a venture out of each heap, I {hall take cut the two
aces ?
The probability of taking the ace out of the firft
heap is T'T ; the probability of taking the ace out of
the fecond heap is y\ ; therefore the probability of
taking out both aces is ttXiV—t47> which bung
fubtraded from 1, there will remain 4|4 : therefore the
odds againft me are 168 to I.
In cafes where the events depend on one another,
the manner of arguing is fomewhat altered, i bus,
fuppofe that out of one Angle heap of thirteen cards
of one colour I fliould undertake to take out firit the
and, fecondly, the two : though the probability
ace
of taking out the" ace be Ty, and the probability^ of
taking out the two be likewile Vy • the ace being
fuppofed as taken out already, there will remain only
twelve cards in the heap, which will make the proba¬
bility of taking out the two to be therefore the
probability of taking out the ace, and then the two,
will be yt X tt•
In this lait queftion the two events have a dependence
on each other $ which conftfts in this, that one o' the
events
GAN
Ganges.
Gaming events being fuppofed as having happened, the proba-
11 bility of the other’s happening is thereby altered. But
the cafe is not fo in the two heaps of cards.
If the events in queftion be n in number, and be
fuch as have the fame number a of chances by which
they may happen, and likewife the fame number b of
chances by which they may fail, raife a + b to the
power n. . And if A and B play together, on condition
that if either one or more of the events in queition
happen, A lhall win, and B lofe, the probability of
t., . . , aJtb\n—bn
A s winning will be
1 375 3
GAO
ning will be
bn
a+b\
, and that of B’s win-
a-\-b\n
for when a-\-b is aftually raifed
to the power n, the only term in which a does not oc¬
cur is the laft bn: therefore all the terms but the laft
are favourable to A.
Thus if «~3, railing a + b to the cube
all the terms but will be favourable to
Aj and therefore the probability of A’s winning will
be
fl3 + 3fll£-f-3tf a-\-b\y—^
or
a-\-b\
lity of B’s winning will be
a+bf
by
and the probabi-
But if A and B
play on. condition, that if either two or more of the
events in queftion happen, A lhall win 5 the probabi¬
lity of A’s winning will be na^
for
die only two terms in which a a does not occur are the
two laft, viz nabn—* and b".
GAMMONING, among feamen, denotes feveral
turns of a rope taken round the bowfprit, and reeved
through holes in knees of the head, for the greater
fecurity of the bowfprit.
GAMMUT, Gamut, GjM-ut, in Mu/ic, a fcale
whereon we may learn to found the mufical notes, ut,
rfi m!> fa<, la, in their feveral orders and difpoft-
tions. See Music.
I he invention of this fcale is owing to Guido Are-
tin, a monk of Arezzo, in Tufcany, about the year
locpj though it is not fo properly an invention, as an
improvement on the diagram or fcale of the ancients. ■
See A.RETIN.
Several alterations have been made in the gammut.
M. Le Maire, particularly, has added a feventh note ;
Viz.yf; and the Englilh ufually throw out both ut and
and make the other five ferve for all.
. GANDER, in Ornitholopj, the male of the goofe
kind. See Anas, Ornithology Index.
GANG-way, is the feveral paflages or ways from
one part of the Ihip to the other j and whatfoever is
laid in any of thofe paffages is faid to lie in the pane-
way... 45
GANGANELLI. See Clement XIV.
GANGES, a large and celebrated river of India.
It has its fource in the mountains which border on Little
Ihibet, in 96 degrees of longitude, and 350 45' of
atitude. It croffes feveral kingdoms, running from
north to fouth ; and falls into the bay of Bengal by
ieveral mouths. The waters are loweft in April and
May, and highert before the end of September. It
overflows yearly like the Nile j ai\d renders the king¬
dom of Bengal as fruitful as that of the Delta in E-
gypt. The people in thefe parts hold the water of
this river in high veneration 5 and it is vilited annually
by a prodigious number of pilgrims from all parts of
India. The greateft happinefs that many of the In¬
dians wilh for, is to die in this river. The Englifti
have feveral fettlements on this river, which will be
taken notice of in their proper places.
GANGLION, in Anatomj, denotes a knot fre¬
quently found in the courfe of the nerves, and which
is not morbid; for wherever any nerve fends out a
branch, or receives one from another, or where two
nerves join together, there is generally a ganglion or
plexus, as may be feen at the beginning of all the
nerves of the medulla fpinalis, and in many other pla¬
ces of the body.
Ganglion, in Surgery, a hard tubercle, generally
moveable, in the external or internal part of the car¬
pus, upon the tendons or ligaments in that part} ufu¬
ally without any pain to the patient.
GANGRENE, a very great and dangerous degree
of inflammation, wherein the parts affefted begin to
corrupt, and put on a ftate of putrefaction. See Me¬
dicine, and Surgery.
GANNE l, or SOLAND Goofe, in Ornithology, See
Pelicanus, Ornithology Index.
GANTLET, or Gauntlet, a large kind of glove
made of iron, and the fingers covered with fmall plates.
It was formerly worn by the cavaliers, when armed at
all points. The word is derived of the French gante-
let; and that from gand, or gant, “ glove.”
1 he cafque and gauntlets were always borne in the
ancient marches in ceremony. Gauntlets were not in¬
troduced till about the 13th century.
The gauntlet was frequently thrown like the glove,
by way of challenge.
GANTLOPE. See Gauntlope.
GANYMEDE, in mythology, a beautiful youth
of Phrygia, fon of 1 ros and brother to Hus j accord¬
ing to Lucian, he was the fon of Dardanus. Jupiter was
charmed with him ; and carrying him away, made him
his cupbearer in the room of Plebe. Some fay that
he caufed him to be carried away by an eagle, and
others affirm he was himfelf the ravither under the form,
of that bird. He deified this youth j and to comfort
his father made a prefent to him of fome of thofe very
fwift horfes upon which the gods rode.
GAOL [Gaola. Fr. Geole, i. e. Cwoeola, it a cage
for birds”), is ufed metaphorically for a prifon. It is
a ftrong place or houfe for keeping of debtors, &c.
and wherein a man is reftrained of his liberty to an-
fwer an offence done agamft'the laws f and every coun¬
ty hath two gaols, one for debtors, which may be any
houfe where the fheriff pleafes; the other for the
peace and matters of the crown, which is the county
gaol.
If a gaol be out of repair, or infufficient, &c. ju-
ftices of peace, in their quarter feffions, may contract
with workmen for the rebuilding or repairing it 5 and
by their warrant order the fum agreed on for that
purpafe to be levied on the feveral hundreds, and
other divifions in the. county, by a juft rate, 11 and 12
Will. III. c. 19. See Prison.
GAOL' Delivery. The adminiftration of juftice be-
ing originally in the crown, in former times our kings
in •
Ganges
n
Gaol.
Gaoi
u
Gatamond.
GAR [ 37^ ] GAR
in petfon rode through the realm once in fcven years,
to judge of and determine crimes and oflences j aftei-
wards juftices in eyre were appointed j and lince, ju-
ftices of atTize and gaol delivery, &c. A commiflion of
gaol delivery, is a patent in nature of a letter irom the
king to certain perfons, appointing them his juft ices,
or two or three of them* and authorizing_ them to de¬
liver his gaol, at fuch a place, of the priloners in^ it^.
for which purpofe it commands them to meet at luch
a place, at the time they themfelves ftiall appoint ; and
informs them, that, fur the fame purpofe, the king
hath commanded his flier iff of the fame county to bring
all the prifoners of the gaol, and their attachments,
before them at the day appointed.
The j. ftices of gaol delivery are empowered by the
common law to proceed upon indi61ments of felony,
trefpals, &c. and to order to execution or reprieve •.
they may like wife difcharge fuch prifoners, as on their
trials are acquitted, and thofe againrt whom, on pro¬
clamation being made, no evidence has appeared :
they have authority to try offenders for treafon, and
to punifh many particular offences, by ftatute, 2 Hawk.
24. 2. Hale’s Hr/I. Plant. Cor. 35.
GAOLER, the keeper of a gaol or prifon. . She¬
riffs are to make fuch gaolers for whom they will be
anfwerable : but if there be any default in the gaoler,
an a&ion lies againft him for an efcape, &c. yet the
(heriff is moft ufually charged ; 2d Inft. 392. Where
a gaoler kills a prifoner by hard ufage, it is felony j 3d
Infl. 52. No fee ftiall be taken by gaolers, but what
is allowed by law, and fettled by the judges, who may
determine petitions againft their extortions, &c. 2 Geo.
II. C. 22. , rv C
GAONS, a certain order of Jewifli doftors, who
appeared in the Eaft, after the doling of the Talmud.
The word Gaons fignifies “ excellent, fublime j” as in
the divinity fchools we formerly had Irrefragable, Sub¬
lime, Refolute, Angelic, and Subtile doftors. J he
Gaons fucceeded the Seburseans or Opiners about the
beginning of the fixth century. Chanan Meifehtia
was the head and firft of the excellents. He reftored
the academy of Pandebila, which had been (hut up for
30 years. „ „ _
GAR FISH, HoRNji/h, or Sea need/e. See Esox,
Ichthyology Index.
GARAMA, in Ancient Geography, the capital of
the Garamantes in Libya Interior-, near the fprings of
the Cinyphus, now in ruins. Garamantes the people.
It lay to the fouth of Gsetulia, extending from the
fprings of the Cinyphus, and the adjacency of th« river
Gir, to the mountains which form at the Valin Gara-
mantica (Pliny) : or from the fprings of the Eagrades
to the lake Nuba (Ptolemy).
GARAMOND, Claude, a very ingenious letter-
founder, was born at Paris ; where he began, in the
vear 1910, to found his printing types free from all
the remains of the Gothic, or (as it is generally called)
the black letter, and brought them to luch perfection,
that he had the glory of lurpafling all who went before
him, and of being fcarcely ever excelled by his fuc-
ceffors in that ufeful art. His types were prodigioufly
multiplied : both by the great number of matrices he
flruck, and the types formed in refemblance of his
in all parts of Europe. Thus in Italy, Germany,
England, and Holland, the bookfelkrs, by way of
recommending their books, diftinguilhed the type by Garaniori
his name; and in particular the fmall Roman was Girc!jlaff(|.
by way of excellence known among the printers of. ‘ .^d ^
thefe nations by the name of Garamor,d'‘s fmall Roman.
By the Ipecial command of King Francis I. he founded
three fizes of Greek types for the ufe of Robert Ste¬
phens, who with them printed all his beautiful editions
of the New Tell ament, and other Greek authors. He
died at Paris in 1561.
GARASSE, Francis, a remarkable Jefuitical wri¬
ter, the firft author of that irreconcilable enmity that
ftill fubfifts between the Jefuits and Janfenifts, in the
church of Rome, was born at Angoulefme in 1585,
and entered the Jefuits college in 1600. As he had
a quick imagination, a ftrong voice, and a peculiar
turn to wit, he became a popular preacher in the chief
cities of France ; but not content with this honour,
he diftinguilhed himfelf ftill more by his writings,
which were bold, licentious, and produced much con-
troverfy. The moft confiderable in its confequences
was entitled La fomme theologique des veriteos, capita/es de
la religion Cretienne; wEich was firft attacked by the
abbot of St Cyran, who observing in it a prodigious
number of falfifications of the Scriptures and of the
fathers, befides many heretical and impious opinions,
conceived the honour of the church required him to
undertake a refutation. Accordingly he publilhed a
full anfwer to it ; while Garaffe’s book was alfo under
examination of the doclors of the Sorbonne, by whom
it was afterwards condemned. Garaffe replied to St
Cyran ; but the two parties of Jefuits and Janfenifts, of
whom thefe were refpedively the champions, grew to
an implacable animofity againft each other^ that is not
even now likely to fubiide. The Jefuits were forced to
remove their brother to a diftance from Paris j where,
probably weaiy of his ina&ive obfeurity, when the
plague raged at Poiaiers in 1631, he begged leave of
his fuperior to attend the fick, in which charitable of¬
fice he caught the difovder, and died.
G ARBE, in Heraldry, a ilieaf of any kind of grain,
borne in feveral coats of arms, and faid to reprelent
fummer, as a bunch of grapes does autumn.
GARBLE, a word ufed to fignify the aaion of
feparating the drofs and dull from fpice, drugs, &c.
Garbling is the cleanfing and purifying the good from
the bad ; and many come from the Italian garbo ; i. e.
finery or neatnefs : and hence, probably, we fay, when
we fee a man in a neat habit, that he is in handfome
garb.
GARCILASSO,DE la Vega, an eminent Spanilh
poet, was born at Toledo, in 1303. He w7as the
younger fon of a man of rank, who had been employed
in negociating bufinefs of importance. Garcilaffo was
diftinguilhed for his wit and bravery, and in a particu¬
lar manner for his poetical talents. He w as chiefly in-
ftrumental in giving popularity to an innovation of his
friend Bofcan," who introduced meafures borrowed from
the Italians. His works confift chiefly of paftorals,
which have a tedious prolixity He is chiefly noted
for tendernefs, which is remarkably confpicuous in
fome of his fonnets. He is freer of bombart than the
generality of his countrymen, owing to his familiar ac¬
quaintance with the ancients ; and it is laid that his
learning and tafte were fuperior to his genius. He fol¬
lowed the profeflion of arms, and attended Charles V.
' : in
aflo
bn.
GAR
in a number of his expeditions.      
attack of a fortrefs in Provence, when only 33 years of
age. Garcilaflb is alfo the name of an author, a native
of Cufco in Peru, who compofed a hiftory of h’lorida
in the Spanith language, and another of Peru and its
Incas.
GARCINIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dodecandria clafs ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 18th order, Bicornes. See Botany
Index.
GARCON, or Garsoon, a French term, literally
fignifying a boy or male child any time before his mar¬
riage.—It is alfo applied to divers inferior officers,
among us called groom, garfiones. Thus all the fer-
vants in the French king’s chambers, wardrobe, &c.
who performed the Idler offices under the proper
officers, were called garfons de la chambre, de la garde-
robe, &c.
GARDANT, or Guardant, in Heraldry, denotes
any bead full faced, and looking right forward.
GARDEN, Francis, better known to the public
by the title of Lord Gardenjlone, was born at Edin¬
burgh June 24th, in the year 1721. His father .was
Alexander Garden of Troup, an opulent landholder
in Aberdeenffiire ; his mother was Jane, daughter of
Sir Francis Grant of Cullen, S. C. I.
After palling through the ufual courfe of liberal edu¬
cation at the fchool and the univerlity, he betook him*
felf to the ftudy of law for his profeffion j and in the
year 1744 he was admitted a member of the Faculty of
Advocates, and called to the Scottiffi bar.
In his practice as an advocate he foon began to be
diltinguilhed, by a ftrong native reditude of under-
ftanding ; by that vivacity of apprehenfion and imagi¬
nation, which is commonly denominated genius; by
manly candour in argument, often more perfuafive than
fubtlety and fophiftical artifice j by powers which, with
diligence, might eafily attain to the higheft eminence
ef the profeffion. But. the fame ftrength, opennefs,
and ardour of mind, which diftinguiffied him fo advan-
tageoufly among the pleaders at the bar, tended to*
give.him a fondnefs for the gay enjoyments of convi¬
vial intercourfe, which was unfavourable to his progrefs
m juridical erudition. Shining in the focial and convi¬
vial circle, he became lefs folicitoufly ambitious than
he might otherwife have been, of the character of an
eloquent advocate, or of a profound and learned law¬
yer. T he vivacity of his genius w*as averfe from au-
uere and plodding ftudy, while it was captivated by
me fafeinations of polite learning, and of the fine arts.
Nor did he.always efcape thofe exceffes in the purfuit
o pleafure into which the temptations of opening life
«ire apt, occafionally, to feduce the moft liberal and in¬
genuous youth. But his cheerful conviviality, his wit,
mmour, ta.fte, good-nature, and benevolence of heart,
rendered him the delight of all his acquaintance. He
became his majefty’s folicitor July 3d, 1764.
.At length the worth of his. chara&er, and his abi¬
lities as. a lawyer, recommended him to the office of a
Ju ge m. the courts of feffion and jufticiary, the
upreme judicatures, civil and criminal, for Scot¬
land. His.place in the court of feffion he continued
m occupy till his death j but had, fome years before,
> ?Clgned the office of a commiffioner of jufticiary, and
m jrecompence got a penfion of 200I. per. annum.
IX. Part I.
Voj
[ 377 1 gar
He loft his life at the Clear difeernment, ftrong good fenfe, confcientious ho*
nefty, and amiable benevolence, remarkably diftinguiffi¬
ed all his opinions and condudt as a judge.
In the year 1762 he purchafed the eftate of John-
fton, in the county of Kincardine. Within a few
years after he began to attempt a plan of the moft
liberal improvement of the value of this eftate, by an
extenfion of the village of Laurencekirk, adjoining. He
offered leafes of fmall farms, and of ground for building
upon, which were to laft for the term of one hundred
years ; and of which the conditions were extremely in¬
viting to the labourers and tradefmen of the furround¬
ing country. Thefo offers were eagerly liftened to,
More delirous to make the attempt beneficial to the
country than to derive profit from it to himfelf, he
was induced, within a few years, to reduce his ground-
rents to one-half of the original rate.—Weavers, join¬
ers, ftioemakers, and other artifans in a confiderabla
number, reforted to fettle in the rifing village. Hia
lordffiip’s earneftnefs for the fuccefs of his prejeft,
and to promote the profperity of the good people
whom he had received under his proteftion, led him to
engage in feveral undertakings j by the failure of which
he incurred confiderable Ioffes. Projects of a print-
field, and of manufadtures of linen and of ftockings,
attempted wdth fanguine hopes in the new village, and
chiefly at his lordffiip’s rilk and expence, mifgave in
fuch a manner as might well have finally difgufted a man
of lefs fteady and ardent philanthropy with every fuch
engagement. But the village Hill continued to advance.
It grew up under his lordffiip’s eye, and was the fa¬
vourite objedl: of his care. In the year 1779, he pro¬
cured it to be eredled into a burgh of barony j having
a magiftracy, an annual fair, and a weekly market. He
provided in it a good inn for the reception of travel¬
lers j and with an uncommon attention to the enter¬
tainment of the guefts who might refort to it, furniffied
this inn with a library of books for their amufement.
He invited an artift for drawing, from the continent,
to fettle at Laurencekirk. He had the pleafure of
feeing a confiderable linen-manufadlur^ at length fixed
in it. A bleachfield was alfo eftabliftied as a natural
counterpart to the linen-manufadlure. Before his lord-
fliip’s death, he faw his plan of improving the condition
of the labourers, by the formation of a new village
at Laurencekirk, crowned with fuccefs beyond his
moft fanguine hopes. He has acknowledged, with an
amiable franknefs, in a memoir concerning this village,
“ That he had tried, in fome meafure, a variety of the
pleafures which mankind purfue; but never reliffied
any fo much as the pleafure arifing from the progrefs
of his village.”
In the year 1785, upon the death of his elder bro¬
ther, Alexander Garden of Troup, M. P. fot Aberdeen¬
ffiire, Lord Gardenftone fucceeded to the poffeffion of
the family eftates, which were very confiderable. Un¬
til this time his lordlhip’s income had never been
more than adequate to the liberal expence into which
his rank, and the generofity of his nature, unavoidably
led him. But the addition, of a fortune of about
three thoufand pounds a-year to his former revenue,
gave him the power of performing many ads of bene¬
ficence w'ith which he could not before gratify his
good heart. It was happy, likewife, that his fuccef-
lion to this ample income, at a period when th© vigour
3 B of
Garden.
gar r
Garden, of his conilitution was rai>idly yielding to the infirmi-
  ' ties of old age, enabled him to leek relief, by a partial
ceffation from bufinefs, by travel, and by other means,
which could not have been eafily compatible with the
previous ftate of his fortune. r t
In the month of Sept. 1786, he fet out from Lon-
don for Dover, and paffed over into France. After vifit-
ins Paris, he proceeded to Provence, and Ipent the
winter months in the genial climate of Hieres. In the
fpriivr of 1787 he returned northward?, vifitmg t^e-
neva'° Switzerland, the Netherlands, and the Dutch
provinces, and palling through Germany into Italy.
With a fond curioiity, attentive alike to the wonders
of nature, to the noble monuments of the arts, and
to the awful remains of ancient grandeur, with which
Italy abounds, he vifited all its great cities, and lur-
veyed almolt every remarkable and famous Icene that
it exhibits. „ , .
His firft obieft, in thefe travels, was to obtain the
reftoration of his declining health by the influence o^ a
milder climate, by gentle, continued, and varied exer-
cife ; by that pleafmg exhilaration of the temper and
fpirits, which is the heft medicine to health, and is molt
fuccefsfullv produced by frequent change of place, and
of the obi efts of attention. But the cunofities of na¬
ture and art, in thofe countries through which he tra¬
velled, could not fail to attraft, in a powerful manner,
the curiofity of a mind cultivated and ingenious as his.
He, whofe breaft glowed with the moll ardent philan¬
thropy, could not view the varied works and manners
of a diverfity of nations of his fellow men, without be-
ino- deeply intereiled by all thofe circumftances which
might appear to mark their fortunes as happy or
wretched. He eagerly collefted fpecimens of the (pars,
the (hells, the ftrata of rocks, and the veins of metals,
in the feveral countries through which he paffed. He
amaffed alfo cameos, medals, and paintings. He en¬
quired into fcience, literature, and local mftitutions.
He wrote down his obfervations, from time to time ;
not indeed with the minute care or a pedant, or the
©flentatious labour of a man travelling n'1l1 a e'1Sn
publifh an account of his travels-, but fimpy 0 al
memory and imagination in the future remembrance of
©biefts ufeful or agreeable.
After an abfence of about three years, he returned
to his native country. The laft years were fpent m
the difcharge of the duties of his office as a judge , m
focial intercourfe with his friends among whom was
the venerable Lord Monboddo, and others of the moft
refpeftable charafters that our country has to boait
off in the performance of a thoufand generous offices
of benevolence and humanity in chenlhing thofe fine
arts, of which he was an eminent admirer and judge 5
and above all, in promoting the comfort, and encou¬
raging the xnduftry of his dependants, and m lending
his aid to every rational attempt at the improvement of
public economy and public virtue. _
St Bernard’s Well, in the neighbourhood of Ldm-
burgh, had been, long fmce, diftinguifhed for the me¬
dicinal virtues of its waters. But various circum fan-
ees had alfo concurred of late to throw it into negleft.
Yet its waters being flrongly mineralized by a iulphu-
rated hydrogenous gas, were, by this means unquef-
iionably qualified to operate, with highly beneficial ef-
fefts, in the cure of various difeaies. lire qualities of
378 ] G A It
this mineral water falling under Lord Gardenffone’s Ganl
notice, he was induced to purchafe the property of the r 1
well, to direft it to be cleared from furrounding ob-
ftacles, which contaminated the virtues of the water, or
made it inacceffible} to ereft: a beautiful and commo¬
dious edifice over it j and to appoint proper perfons to
diitribute the water, for a very trivial compenfation, to
the public. The well lies at a diftance from Edin-
burgh, which is very convenient for a fummer morn¬
ing’s walk. Within the few years which have paffed
fince Lord Gardenftone’s benevolent care brought it
into notice, it has attrafted many of the inhabitants of
that city Lo vilit in the mornings of Ipring and fummer.
And, undoubtedly, the agreeable exercife to which they
have thus been allured, and the falutary effefts of the
water, have contributed, in no mean degree, to difpel
difeafe, and to confirm, or re-eftablifh health. Such
monuments are worthy to preferve the memory of a
patriotic and a good man !
As an amufement for the laft two or three years ox
his life, when his increafmg infirmities precluded him
from more aftive exereife, and from mingling fo fre¬
quently in the fociety of his friends as was agreeable
to his focial and convivial temper, he bethought hmi-
felf of reviling fome of the>«» d'efpnt, and light fugi¬
tive pieces, in which he had indulged the gaiety of his
fancy, in his earlier days;, and a fmall volume of poems
was publifhed, in which the beft pieces are, upon good
authority, afenbed to Lord Gardenftone. He reviled
alfo the memorandums which he had made upon his
travels, and permitted them to be fent to prefs. Hie
two former volumes were publifhed one after another
while his lerdlhip was yet alive ; the third after his
death They met with a very favourable reception in
the world, and were honoured with the high approba¬
tion of the moft relpeftable writers of periodical cnti-
cifm. They convey much agreeable information, and
befpeak an elegant, enlightened, and amiable mind.
The laft volume is filled chiefly with memorandums^of
his lordfhip’s travels in Italy ; and contains many m*
terefting criticifms upon fome of the nobleft produc*
tions of the fine arts of painting and fculpture.
His lordfhip’s health had long been declining and
he died a bachelor on the 22d of july 1793, ]a^eI^ed
by his relations and friends, by his tenants and humble
dependents, and by all true patriots and good men to
whom his merits and virtues were known.
Garden, a piece of ground properly laid out cult -
vated, and ornamented with a variety of plants, flowers,
fruits &c. See Gardening. .
Gardens are uiually diftinguifhed into flower garden,
fruit garden, and kitchen garden: the firft of which,
being defigned for pleafure and ornament, is to be pla¬
ced in the moft confpicuous part, that is, next t0 6
back front of the houfe ; and the two latter being e-
figned for ufe, ftmuld be placed left in fight. But
though the fruit and kitchen gardens are here mention-
ed as two dininfl gardens, yet they are now usually m
one; and that with good reaton, fince they both requ re
a good foil and expolbre, and equally requ.re to be pla-
eed out of the view of the houle.
In the choice of a place proper for a garden, the
moft effential points to be confidered are the fituaho ,
the foil, the expofure, water, and pioiped.
jft. As to the fituation, it ought to be fuch a one
J <r3
OAR C 379 ] GAR
tn. as is wholefome, and in a place neither too high nor
^ too low 5 for if a garden be too high, it will be ex-
pofed to the winds, which are very prejudicial to trees j
and if it be too low, the datnpnefs, the vermine, and
the venomous creatures that breed in ponds and mar-
fliy places, add much to their infalubrity. The moll
happy fituation is on the fide of a hill, efpecially if the
Hope be eafy, and in a manner imperceptible $ if a
good deal of level ground be near the houfe ; and if it
abounds with fprings of water : for, being Iheltered
from the fury of the winds and the violent heat of the
fun, a temperate air will be there enjoyed; and the
water that defcends from the top of the hill, either from
fprings or rain, will not only fupply fountains, canals,
and cafcades for ornament, but, when it has performed
its office, will water the adjacent valleys, and, if it be
not fuffered to llagnate, will render them fertile and
wholefome.
2dly, A good earth or foil is next to be confidered ;
for it is fcarce pollible to make a fine garden in a bad
foil. There are indeed ways to meliorate ground, but
they are very expenfive; and fometimes, when the ex¬
pence has been bellowed of laying good earth three
feet deep over the whole furface, a whole garden has
been ruined, when the roots of the trees have come
to reach the natural bottom. To judge of the quality
of the foil, obferve whether there be any heath, thrftles,
or fuch like w’eeds, growing fpontaneoufly in it ; for
they are certain figns that the ground is poor. Or if
there be large trees growing thereabouts, obferve w he¬
ther they grow crooked, ill lhaped, and grubby ; and
whether they are of a faded green, and full of rnofs, or
infelted w ith vermine: if this be the cafe, the place is
to be rejected. But, on the contrary, if it be covered
with good grafs fit for pallure, you may then be encou¬
raged to try the depth of the foil. To know this, dig
holes in leveral places, fix feet wide and four deep ; and
if you find three feet of good earth it will do very well,
but lefs than two will not be fufficient. The quality of
good ground, is neither to be llony nor too hard to
work j neither too dry, too moilt, nor too fandy and
light-, nor too ftrong and clayey, which is the wrorft of
all for gardens.
3dly, The next requifite is w'ater : the want of which
is one of the greatefi: inconveniences that can attend a
garden, and will bring a certain mortality upon what¬
ever is planted in it, tfpecially in the greater droughts
that often happen in a hot and dry fituation in fummer;
befides its ufiefubrefs in fine gardens for making foun¬
tains, canals, cafcades, &c. which are the greatell orna¬
ments of a garden.
4thly, The laft thing to be confidtred is the profpeifl
of a fine country j and though this is not fo ablblutely
neceffary as water, yet it is one of the molt agreeable
Beauties of a fine garden: befides, if a garden be plant¬
ed in a low place that has no kind of profped, it will
not only be difagreeable but unwholefome.
In the laying out and planting of gardens, the beau¬
ties of nature ffiould alw ays be ftudied ; for the nearer
a garden approaches to nature, the longer it will pleafe.
According to Mr Miller, the area of a handfome gar¬
den may take up 30 or 40 acres, but not more 5 and
the following rules ffiould be obferved in the difpofition
it. There ought always to be a defeent of at leall
three iteps from the houfe to the garden 5 this w ill ren- Gard
der the houfe more dry and wholefome, and the profpe6t '-“"■“Y*
cm entering the garden more extenlive.—The firit thing
that ought to prefent itfelf to view ffiould be an open
lawn of grafs, which ought to be coufiderably broader
than the front of the building ; and if the depth be
one half more than the w idth, it will have a better ef-
fedl : if on the fides of the lawn there are trees planted
irregularly, by way of open groves, the regularity of
the lawn will be broken, and the whole rendered more
like nature. For the convenience of walking in damp
weather, this lawn ffiould be furrounded with a gravel
walk, on the outfide of which ffiould be borders three
or four feet wide for flowers : and from the back of
tbefe the profpetl wall be agreeably terminated by a
hope of evergreen ffirubs ; which, however, ffiould ne¬
ver be fuffered to exclude agreeable profpedts, or the
view of handfome buildings. Thefe walks may lead
through the different plantations, gently winding about
in an eafy natural manner 5 which will be more agree¬
able than either thofe long llraight walks, too frequent¬
ly feen in gardens, or thofe lerpentine windings that
are twilled about into fo many ffiort turns as to render
it difficult to walk in them ; and as no garden can be
pleafing where there is a want of ffiade and ffielter, thefe
walks ffiould lead as loon as poffibie into plantations,
w here perfons may walk in private, and be ffieltered
from the wind.
Nanw rivulets, if they have a conllant ftream, and
are judicioufly led about a garden, have, a better effeft
than many of the large llagnating ponds or canals fo
frequently made in large gardens. When wilderneffes
are intended, they ffiould not be cut into liars and
other ridiculous figures, nor formed into mazes of laby¬
rinths, which in a great befign appear trifling.
In ffiort, the feveral parts of a garden Humid be dx-
verfifitd; but in places where the eye takes in the
wffiole at once, the two fides Ihould be always the fame.
In the bufinefs of defigns, the aim ihould be always-at
what is natural, great, and noble. The general dilpo-
fition of a garden and of its parts ought to be accom¬
modated to the different fituations of the ground, to hu¬
mour its inequalities, to proportion the number and forts
of trees and ffirubs to each part, and to Unit out from
the view of the garden no objects that may become or¬
namental. But for a more extended view of‘this tub-
jeft, fee the article Gardening.
A practical attention to a garden, is by feme etleem-
ed a degrading employment. It is true, indeed, that
patloral and agricultural manners, if we may form a
judgment from the dignified deferiptions of Virgil, are
greatly degenerated. The employments of ffi. pherds
and huffiandmen are now become mean and lord id. The
wmrk of the garden is utually left to a peafant. Nor is
it unreafonable to aflign the labour, which wearies with¬
out amufement, to thofe who are fuffieiently amufed by
the profpecl of their wages. But the operations of
grafting, of inoculating, of pruning, of tranfplanting,
are curious experiments in natural philofophy ; and that
they are pleafing as w'ell as curious, thofe can teftify
who remember what they felt on feeing their attempts
in the amufement of pra&ieal gardening attended with
fuccefs. Among the employments fuitable to old age,
Cicero has enumerated the fuperintendence of a garden.
3 B 2 6 It
GAR [ 380 ] GAR
It requires no great exertion of mind or body ; and its
fatisfa£tions are of that kind which pleafe without vio¬
lent agitation. Its beneficial influence on health is an
additional reafon for an attention to it at an age when
infirmities abound.
In almofl every defcription of the feats of the
bleffed, ideas of a garden feem to have predominated.
The word Paradife itfelf is fynonymous with garden.
The fields of Elyfium, that fweet region of poefy, are
adorned with all that imagination can conceive to be
delightful. Some of the molt pleafing paffages of Mil-
ton, are thofe in which he reprefents the happy pair
engaged in cultivating their blifsful abode. Poets have
always been delighted with the beauties of a garden.
Lucan is reprefented by Juvenal as repofing in his
garden. Virgil’s Georgies prove him to have been
captivated with rural feenes j though, to the furprife of
his readers, he has not afligned a book to the fubjeft of
a garden. Our Shenftone made it his ftudy j but, with
all his tafte and fondnefs for it, he was not happy in
it. The captivating feenes which he created at the
Leafowes, afforded him, it is faid, little pleafure in
the abfence of fpeftators. The truth is, he made the
embelliffiment of his grounds, which Ihould have been
the amufement of his life, the bufinefs of it ; and
involved himfelf in fuch troubles, by the expences
it occafioned, as neceflarily excluded tranquil enjoy¬
ment.
It is the lot of few, in comparifon, to poffefs territo¬
ries like his, extenfive, and fufficiently well adapted to
conftitute an ornamented farm. Still fewer are ca¬
pable of fupporting the expence of preferving it in
good condition. But let not the rich fuppofe they
have appropriated the pleafures of a garden. The
pofleffor of an acre, or a fmaller portion, may receive
a real pleafure, from obferving the progrefs of vegeta¬
tion, even in a plantation of culinary plants. A very
limited traft, properly attended to, will furnifh ample
employment for an individual. Nor let it be thought
a mean care ; for the fame hand that raifed the cedar,
formed the hyfibp on the wall. Even the orchard,
cultivated folely for advantage, exhibits beauties une¬
qualled in the (hrubbery ; nor can the greenhoufe pro¬
duce an appearance to exceed the bloffom of the apple
and the almond.
Hanging GARDENS, in antiquity, gardens raifed on
arches by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, in or¬
der to gratify his wife Amyftis, daughter of Aftyages
king of Media. Quintus Curtius makes them equal in
height to the walls of the city, viz. 50 feet. They
contained a fquare of 400 feet on every fide, and were
carried up into the air in feveral terraces laid above
one another, and the afeent from terrace to terrace was
by flairs 10 feet wide. The arches fuftaining the
whole pile were raifed above one another, and it was
flrengthened by a wall, furrounding it on every fide,
of 22 feet in thicknefs. The floors of each of the ter¬
races were laid in the following manner ; on the top
of the arches were firft laid large flat ftones 16 feet
long and 4 broad, and over them was a layer of reeds
mixed with a great quantity of bitumen, over which
were two rows of bricks clofely cemented together by
pi after, and over all were laid thick ftieets of lead;
and laftly, upon the lead was laid the mould of the
garden. The mould or earth was of fuch a depth as
to admit the largeft trees to take root and grow ; and
it was covered with various kind of trees, plants, and
flowers. In the upper terrace there was an aqueduifl
or engine, whereby water was drawn up out of the river
for watering the whole garden.
Floating GARDENS. We are informed by the abbe
Clavigero in his Hiftory of Mexico, that when the
Mexicans were brought under fubjeftion to the Col-
huan and Tepanecan nations, and confined to the
miferable little iflands in the lake of Mexico, they
ceafed for fome years to cultivate the land, becaufe
they had none, until neceflity and induftry together
taught them to form moveable fields and gardens, which
floated on the waters of the lake. The method which
they purfued to make thefe, and which they ftill prac-
tife, is extremely Ample. They plait and twift willows
and roots of marlh plants or other materials together,
w'hich are light, but capable of fupporting the earth
of the garden firmly united. Upon this foundation they
lay the light bullies which float on the lake j and over
all, the mud and dirt which they draw up from the bot¬
tom of the fame lake. Their regular figure is quadran¬
gular j their length and breadth various: but generally
they are about eight perches long, and not more than
three in breadth, and have lefs than a foot of elevation
above the furface of the water. Thefe were the firft fields
which the Mexicans owned after the foundation of
Mexico; there they firft cultivated the maize, great pep¬
per, and other plants neceffary for their fupport. In
progrefs of time, as thofe fields grew numerous from
the induftry of the people, there rvere among them
gardens of flow'ers and odoriferous plants, which were
employed in the wrorlhip of their gods, and lerved for
the recreation of the nobles. At prefent they culti¬
vate flowers and every fort of garden herbs upon them.
Every day of the year, at funrife, innumerable veflels
loaded with various kinds of flowers and herbs,. which
are cultivated in thofe gardens, are feen arriving by
the canals, at the great market place of that capital.
All plants thrive there furprifingly j the mud of the
lake is an extremely fertile foil, and requires no water
from the clouds. In the largeft gardens there is com¬
monly a little tree, and even a little hut to {heller the
cultivator and defend him from rain or the fun. When
the orvner of a garden, or the Clunainpa as he is ufual-
ly called, Avilhes to change his fituation, to remove
from a dilagreeable neighbour, or to come nearer ta
his own family, he gets into his little veffel, and by his
oAvn ftrength alone, if the garden is fmall, or wfith the
afliftance of others if it is large, he tows it after
him, and condufts it Avherever he pleafes with the
little tree and hut upon it. il hat part of the lake
where thofe floating gardens are, is a place of
recreation, Avhere the fenfes receive the higheft poflib e
gratification.
GARDENING 3
t 381 ]
GARDENING;
r|^HE art of planning and cultivating gardens. In
its utmoft extent, whatever contributes to render
the fcenes of nature delightful, is among the fubjefts
of gardening j and animate as well as inanimate objedls
are circumftances of beauty or character. The whole
range of nature is open to the gardener, from the par¬
terre to the foreft 5 and whatever is agreeable to the
fenfes or the imagination, he may appropriate to the
{pot he is to improve ; it is a part of his bufinefs to col-
left into one place the delights which are generally dif*
perfed through different fpecies of country.
HiJlortj of Gardening.
of Gardening, Mr Walpole f obferves, was probably
Moi Gar- one of the firll: arts that fucceeded to that of building
houfes, and naturally attended property and individual
theVhvol. poffeflion. Culinary, and afterwards medicinal herbs,
olbhAnec- were the objefts of every head of a family ; it became
dotes of convenient to have them within reach, without feeking
Fainting, them at random in woods, in meadows, and on moun¬
tains, as often as they were wanted. When the earth
ceafed to furnilh fpontaneoufly all thofe primitive luxu¬
ries, and culture became requifite, feparate enclofures
for rearing herbs grew expedient. Fruits were in the
fame predicament j and thofe moil; in ufe or that de¬
mand attention muff have entered into and extended
the domeftic enclofure. The good man Noah, we are
told, planted a vineyard, drank of the wine, and was
drunken j and every body knows the confequences.
Thus we acquired kitchen gardens, orchards, and vine¬
yards. No doubt the prototype of all thefe forts was
the garden of Eden j but as that Paradife was a good
deal larger than any we read of afterwards, being en-
clofed by the rivers Pifon, Gihon, Hiddekel, and Eu¬
phrates ; as every tree that was pleafant to the fight
and good for food grew in it j and as two other trees
were likewife found there, of which not a flip or fucker
remains j it does not belong to the prefent difeuflion.
After the fall, no man living was fuffered to enter into
the garden j and the poverty and neceflities of our firff
anceftors hardly allowed them time to make improve¬
ments in their eftates in imitation of it, fuppoflng any
plan had been preferved. A cottage and a flip of
ground for a cabbage and a goofeberry bulb, fuch as
we fee by the fide of a common, were in all probability
the earliefl: feats and gardens: a well and bucket fuc¬
ceeded to the Pifon and Euphrates. As fettlements
increafed, the orchard and the vineyard followed ; and
the earlieft princes of tribes poffeffed juft the neceffaries
of a modern farmer.
Matters, we may well believe, remained long in this
fituation •, and we have reafon to think that for many
centuries the term garden implied no more than a
kitchen garden or orchard.
The garden of Alcinous, in the Odyffey, is the moft
renowned in the heroic times. Is there an admirer of
Homer who can read his defeription without rapture ?
or who does not form to his imagination a feene of de¬
lights more pifturefque than the landfcapes of Tinian
3
or Juan Fernandez ? “ Yet (continues our author)
what was that boafted Paradife with which
the gods ordain’d
To grace Alcinous and his happy land ?
Why, divefted of harmonious Greek and bewitching
poetry, it was a fmall orchard and vineyard, wuth fome
beds of herbs and two fountains that watered them,
enclofed within a quickfet hedge. The whole compafs
of this pompous garden enclofed—four acres :
Four acres was th’ alloted fpace of ground,
lenc’d with a green enclofure all around.
The trees were apples, figs, pomegranates, pears, olives,
and vines.
Tall thriving trees confefs’d the fruitful mold j
The red’ning apple ripens into gold.
Here the blue fig with lufeious juice o’erflows,
With deeper red the full pomegranate glows 5
The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear,
And verdant olives flourilh round the year. *
******
Beds of all various herbs, for ever green,
In beauteous order terminate the feene.
Alcinous’s garden was planted by the poet, enriched
by him with the fairy gift of eternal fummer, and no
doubt an effort of imagination furpafling any thing he
had ever feen. As he has beftowed on the fame happy
prince a palace with brazen walls and columns of lil-
ver, he certainly intended that the garden fhould be
proportionably magnificent. We are fure, therefore,
that, as late as Homer’s age, an enclofure of four acres,
comprehending orchard, vineyard, and kitchen garden,
was a ftretch of luxury the w orld at that time had ne¬
ver beheld.”
Previous to this, however, we have in the facred
writings hints of a garden ftill more luxurioufly fur-
nifhed. We allude to the Song of Solomon, part of
the feene of which is undoubtedly laid in a garden *. * Chap,
Flowers and fruits are particularly fpoken of as the or-1*
naments and the produce of it 5 and befides thefe, aro¬
matic vegetables formed a confiderable part of the gra¬
tification it afforded. The camphor and the cinna¬
mon tree, with all trees of frankincenfe, and all the
chief fpices, flourilhed there f. Solomon tells us in an-1. Cant
other place J, That he made him jjreat works j—gar-13. " ' ^
dens and orchards, and planted in them trees of every 1 Eccl. ib .
kind. Indeed we muft fuppofe his gardens to have been 4. 5*
both amply and curioufly furniftied, feeing the kinds,
nature, and properties of the vegetable tribes, feem to
have been a favourite ftudy with the royal philofophei*,
and to have been deemed a fubjeft worthy of his pen :
for we are told, that he wrote of plants, from the great
cedar of Lebanon down to the hyffop of the walH.,K. .
Fountains and ftreams of water appear alfo to have had„ nSSlV*'
a (hare in the compofition, and probably for ornament33’
as well as ufe.
The hanging gardens of Babylon, mentioned in a
preceding
s$2
GARDE
preceding article, were a ftill greater prodigy. But as
they are fuppofed to have been formed on terraces and
the walls of'the palace, whither foil was conveyed on
purpofe, Mr Walpole concludes, “ they were what
fuxnptuous gardens have been in all ages till the prelent,
unnatural, enriched by art, poffibly with fountains, tta-
tues, baiuftrades, and furatner houfes, and were any
thing but verdant and rural.”
Others, however, have allowed them greater praife.
They feem, in many refpefts to have been laid out
with good tafte. Their elevation not only produced
a variety and extent of view, but was alfo ufeful in mo--,
derating the heat. Such a fituation would likewife
fuit a greater variety of trees and plants than a plain
furface, and would contain a larger as well as a more
diverfrfied extent.
The fuiting of the fituation to the nature of the
trees feems, from the account given by Jolephus, to
* rnnfrn have been one view t in the ere&ing the building in
Apion,lib. i. fuch a manner. And the fuccefs feems to have been
] 19. anfwerable, as the trees are laid to have flounlhed ex-
ts.Curt. tremely wellf, and to have grown as tall as in their
lib. v. native ntuations. On the whole, then, however diner-
ent thefe may appear from modern gardens, they feem
to have been formed with judgment and taite, and well
adapted to the fituation and circumftances.
It feems probable, from feveral circumftances, that
the eailern gardens were adjoining to the houfe or pa¬
lace to which they belonged. Thus, King Ahafuerus
goes immediately from the banquet of wine to walk
« Either vii. in the garden of the palace §. The garden of Cyrus,
7. at Sardis, mentioned by X( n iphon *, was probably con-
* Oecon. tj„uous to the palace : as was that of Attains, men-
„ T -h xx,v; tinned by Juftin |). The hanging gardens at Babylon
c 1 'were not fo much adjacent to the palace, as a part of
the palace itfelf, fince feveral of the royal apartments
± Diod. were beneath them J.
jib. ii. It is not clear what the tafte for gardening was among
the Greeks. The Academus, we know, was a wooded
fhady place-, and the trees appear to have been of the
olive fpecics. It was fituated beyond the limits of the
w .Is, and adjacent to the tombs of the heroes ; and
though we art nowhere informed of the particular man¬
ner in which this grove was difpofed or laid out, it
may be gathered from Pauianias, in his Attica, that it
was an elegant ornamented place. At the entrance
was an altar dedicated to Love, which was faid to be
the firft ere&ed to that deity. Within the Academus,
were the altars of Prometheus, of the Mufes, of Mer¬
cury, of Minerva, and Hercules 5 and at a final] di-
ftanee was the tomb of Plato. So-that in all praoa-
bility, it was highly adapted by art, as well as nature,
to philofophic refleftion and contemplation.
We are told by Plutarch, that before the time of
Cimon, the Academus was a rude and uncultivated
foot : but that it was planted by that general, and had
water conveyed to it $ whether this water was brought
merely for ufe to refreth the trees, or for ornament, does
not appear. It was divided into gymnalia, or places
of exercife, and philofophic walks, (haded with trees.
Thefe are faid to have flourhhed very well, until de-
jftroyed by Sylla (when he belieged Athens), as well
as thofe in the Lyceum.
Near the academy were the gardens of the philolo-
phers, of Plato and of Epicurus; which, however,
KING. Hiftory.
were probably but fmall. . The fcene of Plato’s Dia¬
logue concerning Beauty is elegantly defcribed as be¬
ing on the banks of the river Iliflus, and under the
(hade of the plantain j but no artificial arrangement of
objedts is mentioned, nor any thing which will lead us to
irpagine the prolpeftto beany other than merely natural.
Among the Romans, a tafte of gardening, any
otherwife than as a matter of utility, feems not to have
prevailed till a very late period j at lead the writers en
hufbandry, Cato, Varro, Columella, and Palladius,
make not the leait mention of a garden as an objedt of
pleafure, but folely with refpedt toils produftions of
herbs and fruits. The Lucullan gardens are the
firft we find mentioned of remarkable magnificence ;
though probably from the extravagance to which theie
were arrived, they were not the firft. Plutarch ipeaks
of them as incredibly expenfive, and equal to the mag¬
nificence of kings They contained artificial elevations
of ground to a furprifing height, of buildings project¬
ed into the fea, and vaft pieces of water made upon
land. In (hort his extravagance and expence were io
great, that he acquired thence the appellation of the
Roman Xerxes. It is not improbable, from the above
account, and from the confideration of Lucullus hav¬
ing (pent much time in Afia, in a fituation wherein he
had an opportunity of obferving the moil fpleno.d
conftrudtions of this kind, that thefe gardens might be
laid out in the Afiatic ftyle. The vaft maftes of build¬
ing faid to have been erefted, might have borne fome
refemblance, in the arrangement and ftyle, to the Laby-
lonian gardens ; and the epithet of the Roman Xerxes
might be applicable to the tafte, as well as to the fize
and expence of his works.
The Tufculan villa of Cicero, though mten men-
tioned, is not anywhere defcribed in histvorks, io as to
give an adequate idea of the ftyle in winch his gardens
or grounds were difpofed. .
There is but little to be traced in Virgil relative to
this fubieft. Pines f, it feems probable, were a j Er!og. v;|,
vourite ornament in gardens; and flowers § rofes 6 Sec.
efpecially, were much elteemed, perfumes indeed hav- Gaar.iv.
i„E been always highly valued m warm climates. Vn-
gil places Auchifes in Elyfium, m a grove of bays:
and is careful to remark, that they were of the iweet-
fcented kind. The Prnftan roles were chiefly valued
for Iheir excellent odour ; and tne fame quality ap¬
pears to be the caufe why they were placed by 1 ibul-
los as ornaments to the Elyfian fields. 1 here appears
alfo to have prevailed among the Romans a piece of
luxury relative to gardens, which is equally pievalent
at prefent among us, namely the forcing of flowers at
feafons of the year not fuited to them natural blowing,
and roles were then, as at prefent, the principal flowers
upon which thefe expenments were tried, as appears
from Martial J and others. , , , n ^ vide,.t
When Roman authors (Mr Walpole remarks),q
whofe climate inftilled a wift, for cool retreats, fpeak vi. eP: »o.
whole climate mltiuea d wim f 71 jp, x v. ep.
of their enjoyments in that kind, they figh for grottoes, ^ and
caves and the refreftiing hollows of mountains, near ir Lcmpridni<
riguous and lhady founts * or boaft of their porticoes,
walks of planes, canals, baths, and_ breezes iron, the
fea. Their gardens are never mentioned as affording
lhade and Ihelter from the rage of the dog ftar. Plmy
has left us defcriptions of two of his villas. As i
ufed his Laurentine villa for his winter retreat^It ^ ^
383
GARDENING.
Hiftory.
furprifing tliat the gardea makes no confiderable part
of the account. All he fays of it is, that the geftatio
or place of exercife, which furrounded the garden (the
latter confequently not being very large), was bounded
by a hedge of box, and, where that was perilhed, with
rol'emary j that there was a walk of vines ; and that
molt of the trees were fig and mulberry, the foil not
being proper for any other forts. On his Tufcan villa
he is more diffufe } the garden makes a confiderable
part of the defer!ption :—and what was the principal
beauty of that pleafure ground ? Exa£lly what was the
admiration of this country about threefcore years ago ;
box trees cut into monfters, animals, letters, and the
names of the mafter and the artificer. In an age when
arehitefture difplayed all its grandeur, all its purity,
and all its tafte ; when arofe Vefpafian’s amphitheatre,
the temple of Peace, Trajan’s forum, Domitian’s baths,
and Adrian’s villa, the ruins and veltiges of which ftiil
excite our aftonithment and curiofity ; a Roman con-
ful, a polithed emperor’s friend, and a man of elegant
literature and tafte, delighted in what the mob now
fcarce admire in a college garden. All the ingredients
of Pliny’s correfponded exadtly with thofe laid out by
London and Wife on Dutch principles. He talks of
flopes, terraces, a wildernels, (hrubs methodically trim¬
med, a marble bafon, pipes fpouting water, a cafcade
falling into the bafon, bay trees alternately planted
with planes, and a ftraight walk from whence ifi’ued
others parted off by hedges of box and apple trees, with
obelilks placed between every two. There wants no¬
thing but the embroidery of a parterre, to make a gar¬
den in the reign of Trajan ferve for a defeription of
one in that of King William. In one paffage above,
Pliny feems to have conceived that natural irregularity
might be a beauty j in opere urbaniflimo, fays he,fubita
velut illati ruris imitatio. Something like a rural view
was contrived amidft fo much polilhed compofition.
But the idea foon vaniihed, lineal walks immediately en¬
veloped the ilight feene, and names and inferiptions in
box again fucceeded to compenlate for the daring in¬
troduction of nature.
In the paintings found at Herculaneum are a few
traces of gardens, as may be feen in the fecond volume
of the prints. They are fmall fquare enclofures, formed
by trellis-work and efpaliers, and regularly ornamented
with vafes, fountains, and careatides, elegantly fymme-
trical, and proper for the narrow fpaces allotted to the
garden of a houfe in a capital city.
From what has been faid, it appears how naturally
and infenfibly the idea of a kitchen garden Hid into
that which has for fo many ages been peculiarly term¬
ed garden, and by our anceftors in this country di-
ftinguifhed by the name of a pleafure garden. A fquare
piece of ground was originally parted off in early ages
for the ufe of the family :—to exclude cattle, and af-
certain the property, it was feparated from the fields by
a hedge. As pride and defire of privacy increafed,
the enclofure was dignified by walls; and in climes
where fruits were not lavifhed by the ripening glow of
nature and foil, fruit trees were alfifted and (heltered
from lurrounding winds by the like expedient: for the
inundation of luxuries, which have fu elled into general
neceftities, have almoft all taken their fource from the
fimple fountain of reafon.
When the cuftom of making fquare gardens enclof-
ed with walls was thus eftabliftied to the exelufion of
nature and profpect, pomp and folitude combined to
call for fomething that might enrich and enliven the
infipid and unanimated partition. Fountains, firft in¬
vented for ule, which grandeur loves to difguile and
throw out of the queftion, received embellilhmentsfrom
coftly marbles, and at laft, to contradicl utility, toffed
their wafte of waters into the air in fpouting columns.
Art, in the hands of rude man, had at firft been made
a luccedaneum to nature ; in the hands of oftentatious
wealth, it became the means of oppofing nature ; and
the more it traverfed the march of the latter, the
more nobility thought its power was demonftrated.
Canals meafured by the line w'ere introduced in lieu of
meandering ftreams, and terraces were hoifted aloft in
oppofition to the facile Hopes that imperceptibly unite,
the valley to the hill. Baluftrades defended thefe pre¬
cipitate and dangerous elevations, and flights of fteps
rejoined them to the fubjacent fiat from which the ter¬
race had been dug. Vafes and fculpture were added
to thefe unneceffary balconies, and ftatues furnilhed
the lifelefs fpot with mimic reprefentations of the ex¬
cluded Tons of men. Thus difficulty and expence were
the conftituent parts of thofe fumptuous and felffih fo-
litudes; and every improvement that was made, w’as
but a ftep farther from nature. The tricks of water¬
works to wet the unwary, not to refreffi the panting
fpeftator; and parterres embroidered in patterns like a
petticoat, were but the childiffi endeavours of faffiion
and novelty to reconcile greatnefs to what it had fur-
leited on. To crown thefe impotent difplays of falfe
tafte, the {beers w'ere applied to the lovely w ildnefs of
form with which nature has diftinguiffied each various
fpecies of tree and ffirub. The venerable oak, the ro¬
mantic beech, the ufeful elm, even the afpiring cir¬
cuit ol the lime, the regular round of the chefnut,
and the almoft moulded orange tree, w'ere corrected
by fuch fantaftic admirers of fymmetry. The com-
pafs and fquare W'ere of more ufe in plantations than
the nurferyman. The meafured w'alk, the quincunx,
and the etoile, impofed their unfatisfying famenefs on
every royal and noble garden. Trees were headed,
and their fides pared away ; many French groves feem
green chefts fet upon poles. Seats of marble, arbours,
and fummer houfes, terminated every villa ; and fym¬
metry, even wffiere the fpace was too large to permit
-its being remarked at one view, was fo effential, that,
as Pope obferved,
■ each alley has a brother,
And haif the garden juft reflefts the other.
Knots of flowers were more defenfibly fubjefted to the
fame regularity. Leifure, as Milton expreffed it,
— in trim gardens took his pleafure.
In the garden of Marffial de Biron at Paris, confifting
of 1 4 acres, every walk is buttoned on each fide by
lines of flower pots, which fucceed in their feafons.
It does not preciiely appear what our anceftors meant
by a bower : it was probably an arbour ; fometimes it
meant the whole frittered enclofure, and in one inftance
it certainly included a labyrinth Roiamond’s bower
was indifputably of that kind ; though whether com-
pofed of walls or hedges, we cannot determine. A
fquare and a round labyrinth were fo capital ingredients
of
384
gardening.
of a garden formerly, that in Du Cerceau’s architec¬
ture, who lived in the time of Charles IX. and Hen¬
ry III. there is fcarce a ground plot without one of
each.
In Kip’s Views of the Seats of our Nobility and
Gentry, we fee the fame tirefome and returning uni¬
formity. Every houfe is approached by two or three
gardens, confiding perhaps of a gravel walk and tw o
grafs plats or borders of flowers. Each rifes above
the other by two or three Heps, and as many walls and
terraces, and fo many iron gates, that we recollect
thofe ancient romances in which every entrance was
guarded by nymphs or dragons. Yet though thefe
and fuch prepofterous inconveniences prevailed from
age to age, good fenfe in this country had perceived
the want of lomething at once more grand and more
natural. Thefe reflections, and the bounds fet to the
vafte made by royal fpoilers, gave origin to Parks.
They were contracted forefts, and extended gardens.
Hentzner fays, that, according to Rous of Warwick,
the firlt park was that at Woodltock. If fo, it might
be the foundation of a legend that Henry II. fecured
his miftrefs in a labyrinth : it was no doubt more diffi¬
cult to find her in a park than in a palace, where the
intricacy of the woods and various lodges buried in co¬
vert might conceal her aCtual habitation.
It is more extraordinary that, having fo long ago
Rumbled on the principle of modern gardening, we
fhould have perfifted in retaining its reverfe, fymme-
trical and unnatural gardens. That parks were rare
in other countries, Hentzner, who travelled over great
part of Europe, leads us to fuppofe, by obferving that
they were common in England. In France they retain
the name, but nothing is more different both in com-
pafs and difpofition. Their parks are ufually fquare or
oblong enclofures, regularly planted wuth walks of
chefnuts or limes, and generally every large town has
one for its public recreation.
“ One man, one great man we had (continues Mr
Walpole), on whom nor education nor cuflom could
impofe their prejudices j who, ‘ on evil days though
fallen, and with davknefs and folitude compaffed round,’
judged that the miffaken and fantaftic ornaments he had
feen in gardens, were unworthy of the Almighty hand
that planted the delights of Paradife. He feems with
the prophetic eye of tafte to have conceived, to have
foreseen modern gardening ■, as Lord Bacon announced
the difcoveries fince made by experimental philofophy.
The defcription of Eden is a warmer and more juft pic¬
ture of the prefent ftyle than Claud Lorraine could have
painted from Hagley or Stourhead. The firft lines we
fhall quote exhibit Stourhead on a more magnificent
fcale :
Thro’ Eden went a river large,
Nor chang’d his courfe, but thro’ the ftiaggy hill,
Pafs’d underneath ingulph’d : for God had thrown
That mountain as his garden mound, high rais’d
Upon the rapid current ——»
Hagley feems pictured in what follows :
Which thro’ veins
Of porous earth with kindly third updrawo,
Rofe a frefh fountain, and with many a rill
Water’d the garden———
A
Hiftory,
What colouring, what freedom of pencil, what land-
fcape in thefe lines !
———from that fapphire fount the crifped brooks,
Rolling on orient pearl and fands of gold,
With mazy error under pendant ftiades,
Ran nectar, vifiting each plant, and fed
Flow’rs worthy of Paradife, which not nice art
In beds and curious knots, but nature boon.
Pour’d forth profufe on hill, and dale, and plain.
Both where the morning fun firft warmly fmote
The open jield, and where the unpierc’d lhade
Imbrown’d the noontide bow’rs—Thus was this place
A happy rural feat of various view.
Read this tranfporting defcription, paint to your mind
the fcenes that follow, contrail them with the favage
but refpe&able terror with which the poet guards the
bounds of his paradife, fenced
  w ith the champaign head
Of a deep wildernefs, whofe hairy fides
With thicket overgrown, grotefque and wild,
Accefs denied j and over head up grew
Infuperable height of loftieft {hade,
Cedar and pine, and fir, and branching palm,
A fylvan fcene, and, as the ranks afeend,
Shade above lhade, a woody theatre,
Of ftatelieft view 
and then recoiled, that the author of this fublime vifion
had never feen a glimpfe of any thing like what he has
imagined •, that his favourite ancients had dropped not
a hint of fuch divine fcenery; and that the conceits in
Italian gardens, and Theobalds and Nonfuch, were the
brighteft originals that his memory could furnilh. His
intelledual eye faw a nobler plan, fo little did he fuller
by the lofs of fight. It fufticed him to have feen the
materials with which he could w ork. The vigour of a
boundlefs imagination told him how' a plan might be
difpofed, that would embellifli nature, and reftore art
to its proper office, the juft improvement or imitation
of it.
“ Now let us return to an admired writer, pofterior
to Milton, and fee how cold, how infipid, how taftelefs,
is his account of what he pronounced a perfect garden.
We fpeak not of his ftyle, which it was not neceflary
for him to animate with the colouring and glow of
poetry. It is his want of ideas, of imagination, of
tafte, that deferve cenfure, when he diftated on a fub-
je£t which is capable of all the-graees that a knowledge
of beautiful nature can beftow'. Sir William I emple
was an excellent man j Milton, a genius of the firft;
order.
“ We cannot wonder that Sir William declares in fa¬
vour of parterres, fountains, and ftatues, as neceflary to
break the famenefs of large grafs plots, w hich he thinks
have an ill effeft upon the eye, when he acknowledges
that he difcovers fancy in the gardens of Alcinous.
Milton Itudied the ancients with equal enthufiafm, but
no bigotry ; and had judgment to diftinguifh between
the want of invention and the beauties of poetry. Com¬
pare his paradife with Homer’s garden, both afcribed
to a celeftial defign. For Sir William, it is juft to ob-
ferve, that his ideas centered in a fruit garden. He
had the honour of giving to his country many delicate
fruits,
385
G ARDENT N G
iftory.
fruits, and he thought of little elfe than difpofing
them to the beft advantage.
“ The bed figure of a garden (fays he) is either a
fquare or an oblong, and either upon a fiat or a de-
feent: they have all their beauties, but the beft I
efteem an oblong upon a defeent. The beauty, the
air, the view make amends for the expence, which is
very great in finiftiing and fupporting the terrace walks,
in levelling the parterres, and in he done flairs that
are neceffary from one to the other. The perfected
figure of a garden I ever faw, either at home or abroad,
was that of Moor Park in Hertforddiire, when 1 knew
it about 30 years ago. It was made by the countefs
of Bedford, efteemed among the greated wits of her
time, and celebrated by Dr Donne; and with very
great care, excellent contrivance, and much cod ; but
greater fums may be thrown away without effedl or ho¬
nour, if there want fenfe in proportion to money, or
* if nature be not followed which I take to be the
great rule in this, and perhaps in every thing elle, as
far as the condu6I not only of our lives but our govern
ments.’ [We thall fee how natural that admired gar¬
den was]. ‘ Becaufe I take the garden I have named
to have been in all kinds the mod beautiful and per
fed, at lead in the figure and difpolition, that I ever
have feen, I will deferibe it for a model to thofe that
meet with fuch a fituation, and are above the regards
of common expence. It lies on the fide of a hill, upon
which the houfe dands, but not very deep. The
length of the houfe, where the bed rooms and of mod
ufe or pleafure are, lies upon the breadth of the gar¬
den •, the great parlour opens into the middle of a ter-
- race gravel walk that lies even with it, and which may
be, as I remember, about 300 paces long, and broad
in proportion ; the border fet with dandard laurels and
at large didances, which have the beauty of orange
trees out of flower and fruit. From this walk are three
defeents by many done deps, in the middle and at each
end, into a very large parterre. This is divided into
quarters by gravel walks, and adorned with two foun¬
tains and eight datues in the feveral quarters. At the
end of the terrace wralk are two dimmer houfes, and the
fides of the parterre are ranged with two large cloiflers
epen to the garden, upon arches of done, and ending
with two other dimmer houfes even with the cloiders,
which are paved wuth done, and deiigned for walks of
fliade, there being none other in the whole parterre.
Over thefe two cloifters are two terraces covered with
lead and fenced with baluflers; and the palfage into
thefe airy walks is out of the two dimmer houfes at the
end of the firll terrace walk. The cloifter facing the
fouth is covered with vines, and w ould have been proper
for an orange houfe, and the other for myrtles or other
more common greens, and had, I doubt not, been cad
for that purpofe, if this piece of gardening had been
then in as much vogue as it is now. From the middle
of this parterre is a defeent by many deps flying on
each fide of a grotto, that lies between them, covered
with lead and flat, into the lower garden, which is all
fruit trees ranged about the feveral quarters of a wil-
dernefs, which is very lhady ; the walks here are all
green, the grotto embelliflied with figures of (hell rock
work, fountains, and water works. If the hill had not
ended with the lower garden, and the wall were not
bounded by a common way that goes through the
Vol. IX. Part I.
park, they might have added a third quarter of all
greens 5 but this want is fupplied by a garden on the
other fide the houfe, w hich is all of that fort, very wild,
Arady, and adorned with rough rock-work and foun¬
tains. This was Moor Park when I w7as acquainted
with it, and the fweeted place, I think, that I have
fetn in my life, either before or fince, at home or
abroad.’
“ It is unneceflary to add any remarks on this de-
feription. Any man might defign and build as fweet a
garden, who had been born in and never dim d out of
Tiolborn. It w-as not, however, peculiar to Sir Wil¬
liam iemple to think in that manner. How many
Frenchmen are there who have leen our gardens, and
dill prefer natural flights of deps and drady cloiders
covered with lead ! Le Nautre, the architedl of the
groves and grottoes at Verfailles, came hither on a mif-
fion to improve our tade. He planted St James’s and
Greenwich Parks'—no great monuments of his inven¬
tion.
“ t o do farther judice to Sir William Temple, we
mud not omit what he adds, ‘ What I have Did of
the bed forms of gardens is meant only of fuch as are
in fome lort regular ; for there may be other forms
w-holly irregular, that may, for ought I know, have
more beauty than any of the others: but they mud owe
it to fome extraordinary difpofitions of nature in the
feat, or fome great race of fancy or judgment in the
contrivance, which may reduce many difagreeing parts
into fome figure, which (hall yet, upon the whole, be
"very agreeable. Something of this I have feen in fome
places, but heard more of it from others who have li¬
ved much among the Chinefes, a people whole way of
thinking feems to lie as wide of ours in Europe as their
country does. Their greatelt reach of imagination is
employed in contriving figures, where the beauty fiiall
be great and drike the eye, but without any order or
difpolition of parts, that drall be commonly or ealily ob-
ferved. And though we have hardly any notion of this
fort of beauty, yet they have a particular word to ex-
prefs it: and when they find it hit their eye at fird
fight, they fay the Sharawadgi is fine or is admirable,
or any fuch expr. flion of edeem : but I Ihould hardly
advife any of thefe attempts in the figure of gardens
among us ; they are adventures of too hard achieve¬
ment for any common hands; and though there may
be, more honour if they fucceed well, yet there is more
didtom ur if tluy fail, and it is twenty to one they will j
when eas in regular figures it is hard to make any great
and remarkable faults.’
“ Fortunately Kent and a few others w'ere not quite
fo timid, or we might dill be going up and down itairs
in the open air. It is true, we have heard much lately,
as Sir William Temple did, of irregularity and imita¬
tions of nature in the gardens or grounds of the Chi-
nefe. The former is ctrtainly true : they are as whim-
ficaily irregular, as European gardens are formally
uniform and unvaried :—but with regard to nature,
it feems as much avoided, as in the fquares and oblongs
and draight lines of our ancedors. An artificial perpen¬
dicular rock darting out of a fiat plain, and connected
with nothing, often pierced through in various places
with oval hollows, has no more pretenfion to be deem¬
ed natural than a lineal terrace or a parterre. The
late Mr jofeph Spence, who had both tade and zeal
3 ^
' 385
GARDENING.
for the prefent ftyle, was fo perfuaded of the Chinefe
emperor’s pleafilre ground being laid out on principles
refembling ours, that he tranflated and publithed, un¬
der the name of Sir Harry Beaumont, a particular
account of that enclofure from the collection of the
letters of the Jefuits. But except a determined irre¬
gularity, one can find nothing in it that gives any
idea of attention being paid to nature. It is of vaft
circumference, and contains 200 palaces, befides as ma¬
ny contiguous for the eunuchs, all gilt, painted, and
varnithed. There are raifed hills from 20 to 60 feet
high, dreams and lakes, and one of the latter five
miles round. Thefe waters are pafled by bridges :—
but even their bridges mud not be draight—they fer-
pentize as much as the rivulets, and are fometimes fo
long as to be furnilhed with reding places, and begin
and end with triumphal arches. The colonnades un¬
dulate in the fame manner. In Ihort, this pretty gau¬
dy fcene is the work of caprice and whim, and, when
we reded on their buildings, prefents no image but
that of unfubdantial tawdrinefs. Nor is this all.
Within this fantadrc paradife is a fquare town, each
fide a mile long. Here the eunuchs of the court, to
entertain his imperial majedy with the budle and bu~
•finefs of the capital in which he refides, but which it
is not of his dignity ever to fee, aft merchants and all
forts of trades, and even defignedly exercife for his
royal amufement every art of knavery that is praftifed
under his aufpicious government. Methinks this is
the childilh folace and repofe of grandeur, not a retire-
m. nt from affairs to the delights of rural life. Here
too his majefty plays at agriculture : there is a quarter
fet a part for that pUrpofe •, the eunuchs fovv, reap, and
carry in their harved, in the imperial prefence *, and
his majedy returns to Pekin, perfuaded that he has
been in the country.
“ Having thus cleared cur way by afcertaining what
have been the ideas on gardening in all ages as far
as we have materials to judge by, it remains to diow
to what degree Mr Kent invented the new dyle, and
what hints he had received to fugged and conduft his
undertaking.
“ We have feen what Moor Park was, when pro¬
nounced a dandard. But as no fucceeding generation
in an opulent and luxurious country contents.itfelf w ith
the perfeftion edablifhed by its ancedors, more perfeft
perfeftion was dill fought ; and improvements had
gone on, till L,ondon and Wife had docked all our
gardens with giants, animals, menders, coats of arms,
and mottoes, in yew, box, and holly. Abfurdity could
go no farther, and the tide turned. Bridgman, the next
tadiionable defigner of gardens,, was far more chade j
and whether from good fenfe, or that the nation had
been druck and reformed by the admirable paper in
the Guardian, N° 173. he banilhed verdant fculpture,
and did not even revert to the fquare precifion of the
foregoing age. He enlarged his plans, difdained to
make every divifion tally to its oppofite •, and though
he dill adhered much to draight walks w ith high clip¬
ped hedges, they were only his great lines ”, the red he
diverfified by wildernefs, and with loofe groves of oak,
though dill wdthin furrounding hedges. As his ref r-
jnation gained footing, he ventured, in the royal gar¬
den at Richmond, to introduce cultivated fields, and
e^en models of a foreft appearancej by the Tides of
Riftory,
thofe endlefs and tirefome walks that dretched out of
one into another without intermiflion. But this was
not till other innovators had broke loofe too from ri¬
gid fymmetry.
“ But the capital droke, the leading dep to all that
has followed, was the dedruftion of walls for bounda¬
ries, and the invention of foffes—an attempt then deem¬
ed fo ad on idling, that the common people called them.
Ha ! Ha’s ! to exprefs their furprife at finding a lud-
den and unperceived check to their walk.
“ A funk fence may be called the leadingjlep,for thefo
reafons. No fooner was this fimple enchantment made,,
than levelling, mowing, and rolling, followed. The
contiguous ground of the park without the funk fence
was to be harmonized with the lawn within j and the
garden in its turn was to be fet free from its prime re¬
gularity, that it might affort with the wilder country
without. The funk fence afeertained the ipecific gar¬
den 5 but that it might not draw too obvious a line of
didinftion between the neat and the rude,, the conti¬
guous out-lying parts came to be included in a kind of
general defign y and when nature was taken into the
plan, under improvements, every ftep that was made
pointed out new' beauties, and inlpired new ideas. At
that moment appeared Kent, painter enough to taife
the charms of landfcape, bold, and opinionative enough
to dare and to diftate, and born with a genius toftrike
out a great fyftem from the twilight of imperfeft ef-
fays. He leaped the fence, and faw that all nature
was a garden. He felt the delicious contraft of hill
and valley changing imperceptibly into each other,
tafted the beauty of the gentle fwell or concave fcoop,.
and remarked how loofe groves crowned an eafy emi¬
nence with happy ornament y and while they called
in the diftant view between their graceful ftems, re¬
moved and extended the perfpeftive by delufive corn-
par ifon.
“ Thus the pencil of his imagination bellowed all the
arts of landfcape on the feenes he handled. Ihe great
principles on which he worked were perfpeftive, and
light and fhade. Groups of trees broke too uniform
or too extenfive a lawn •, evergreens and woods were
oppofed to the glare of the champaign j and where,
the view was lefs fortunate, or fo much expofed as to
be beheld at once, he blotted out fome parts by thick
(hades, to divide it into variety, or to make the richeft
feene more enchanting by relerving it to a farther ad¬
vance of the fpeftator’s ftep. Thus, felefting favourite
objefts, and veiling deformities by fereens of planta¬
tion y fometimes allowing the rudeft wafte to add its
foil to the richeft theatre *, he realized the compofitions
of the greateft mafters in painting. Where objefts were
wanting to animate his horizon, his tafle as an archi-
teft could bellow immediate termination. His build¬
ings, his feats, hi^ temples, were more the works of his
pencil than of his compaffes. We owe the reftoration
of Greece and the diffufion of architefture to his fkill
in landfcape.
“ But of all the beauties he added to the face of this
beautiful country, none furpaffed his management of
water. Adieu to canals, circular bafons, and cafcades
tumbling down marble fteps, that laft abfurd magnifi¬
cence of Italian and French villas. The forced eleva¬
tion of catarafts was no more. The gentle ftream was
taught to ferpentize feemingly at its pleafure y and;
where;
I. GAUD
where dlfcontinued by different levels, its courfe ap¬
peared to be concealed by thickets properly interfper-
fed, and glittered again at a diftance, where it might
be fuppofed naturally to arrive. Its borders were
fmoothed, but preferved their waving irregularity. A
few trees fcattered here and there on its edges fprink-
led the tame bank that accompanied its meanders *,
and when it difappeared among the hills, (hades def-
cending from the heights leaned towards its progrefs,
and framed the diftant point of light under which it
was loft, as it turned afide to either hand of the blue
horizon. \
“ Thus, dealing in none but the colours of nature,
and catching its molt favourable features, men law a
new creation opening before their eyes. The living
landfcape was chaitened or polifhed, not transformed.
Freedom was given to the forms of trees: they ex¬
tended their branches unreftritfted } and where any
eminent oak, or matter beech, had efcaped maiming
and furvived theforeft, bulb and bramble was removed,
and all its honours were reftored to diftinguilh and
(hade the plain. Where the united plumage of an
ancient wood extended wide its undulating canopy, and
ftood venerable in its darknefs, Kent thinned the fore-
ttioft ranks, and left but fo many detached and fcattered
trees, as foftened the approach of gloom, and blended
a chequered light with the thus lengthened (hadovrs of
the remaining columns.
“ Succeeding artifts have added new mafter ftrokes
to thefe touches ■, perhaps impr Ved or brought to per*
feclion fome that have been named. The introduc¬
tion of foreign trees and plants, which we owe prin¬
cipally to Archibald duke of Argyle, contributed ef-
fentially to the richnefs of colouring fo peruliar to our
modern landfcape. The mixture, of various greens,
the contrail of ftirrns between our foreft trees and the
northern and Weft Indian firs and pines, are improve¬
ments more recent than Kent, or but little known to
him. The weeping willow, and every florid (hrub,
each tree of delicate or bold leaf, are new tints in the
compofition of our gardens.
“ But juft as the encomiums are that have been be¬
llowed on Kent’s difeoveries, he was neither without
aftiftance or faults. Mr Pope undoubtedly contributed
to form his tafte. The dofignof the prince of Wales’s
garden at Carlton houfe was evidently borrowed from
the poet’s at Twickenham. There was a little of af¬
fected modefty in the latter, when he faid, of all his
works he was mod proud of his garden. And yet
E N I N G.
it was a fingular effort of art and tafte to Jm-
prefs fo much variety and fcencry on a Ipot of five
acres. The palling through the gloom from the
grotto to the opening day, the retiring and again
affembling (hades, the dulky groves, the larger lawn,
and the (blemnity of the termination at the cypreffes
that lead up to his mother’s tomb, are managed with
exquifite judgment j and though Lord Peterborough
aflifted him
To form his quincunx and to rank his vines,
thofe were not the mod plealing ingredients of his little
perfpeClive.
‘ Having routed profeffed art (for the modern gar¬
dener exerts his talents to conceal his art), Kmt, like
other reformers, knew not how to (lop at the juft;
limits. He had followed Nature, and imitated her fo
happily, that he began to think all her works were
equally proper for imitation. In Kenfington garden he
planted dead trees to give a greater air of truth to the
feene—but he was foon laughed out of this excefs.
His ruling principle was, that nature abhors a ftraight
line. His mimics (for every genius has his apes), feem-
ed to think that (he could love nothing but what was
crooked. Yet fo many men of tafte of all ranks de¬
voted themfelves to the new improvements, that it is
furprifmg how much beauty has been itruek out, with
how' few abfurdities. Still in fome lights the reforma¬
tion ftems to have been pushed too far. Though an
aVenue crofting a park or feparating a lawn, and inter¬
cepting views from the feat to which it leads, are capital
faults ; yet a great avenue cut through woods, perhaps
before entering a park, has a noble air, and,
Like footmen running before coaches
To tell the inn what lord approaches,
announces the habitation of fome man of diftinCliom
In other places the total banishment of all particular
neatnefs immediately about a houfe, which is frequent¬
ly left gazing by itielf in the middle of a park, is a
defeft. Sheltered and even clofe walks, in So Very un¬
certain a climate as ours, are comforts ill exchanged
for the few piclurefque days that we enjoy •, and when¬
ever a family can purloin a warm and even fomething
of an old-faftiioned garden from the landfcape defigned
for them by the undertaker in fafliion, without inter¬
fering with the pifture, they will find fatisfaiftions in
thofe days that do not invite ilrangers to come and fee
their improvements.”
PART I. PRINCIPLES OF GARDENING,
GARDENING, in the perfe&Ion to which it
has been lately brought in Britain, is entitled to a
place of considerable rank among the liberal arts. It
is (fays Mr Wheatley) as fuperior to landfcape paint¬
ing as a reality to a representation : it is an exertion of
fancy ; a fubjeCl for tafte; and being releafed now from
the reftraints of regularity, and enlarged beyond the
purpofes of domeftic convenience, the mod beautiful,
the mod fimple, the moil noble feenes of nature, are all
within its province. For it is no longer confined to the
fpots from which it takes its name ; but, as already ob*
ferved, regulates alio the diipofition and embelliftiment
of a park, a farm, a foreft, &.c. : and the bufinefs of a
gardener is to feleCl and apply whatever is great, ele¬
gant, or charaCleriftic in any of them ; to difeover, and
to (how all the advantages of the place upon which he
is employed ; to fupply its deftCls, to correCl its faults,
2nd to improve its beauties.
3 C a Sect,
387
38S
Ground,
W^0tl- Sect. I. Materials of Gardening.
These may be divided into two general clafles;
Natural and Yaftitious.
§ i. Of the Natural Materials.
Thefe, according to Mr Wheatley’s enumeration,
are—Ground, Wood, Water, and Rocks.
I. GROUND. By this is meant that portion of
naked furface which is included within the place to
be improved j whether that furface be fwamp, lawn,
roughet, or broken ground } and whether it be a
height, a .valley, a plain, or a compofition of fwells,
dips, and levels.
The following paffage has been quoted from Mr
* Page 62. Gilpin’s obfervations on the Wye5*1, as affording a
fublime idea of what ground ought to be.—“ No¬
thing (fays he) gives fo juft an idea of the beautiful
fwellings of ground as thofe of water, where it has
fufficient room to undulate and expand. In ground
which is compofed of very refradfory materials, you
are prefentt d often with harfh lines, angular infertions,
and disagreeable abruptneffes. In water, whether in
gentle or in agitated motion, all is eafy, all is foftened
into itfelf 5 and the hills and valleys play into each
other in a variety of the moft beautiful forms. In
agitated water, abruptmffes indeed there are, but yet
they are fuch abruptneffes as in fume part or other
unite properly with the furfac around them ; and are
on the whole peculiarly harmonious. Now', if the
ocean in any of thefe fwellings and agitations could be
arrefted and fixed, it would produce that pleafing va¬
riety which w e admire in ground. Hence it is common
to fetch our images from water, and apply them to
land : we talk of an undulating line, a playing lawn,
and a billowy furface ; and give a much ftronger and
more, adequate idea by fuch imagery, than plain lan¬
guage could poftibly prefent.”
The exertions of art, however, are here inadequate •,
and the artift ought not to attempt to create a mountain,
a valley, or a plain : he fhould but rarely meddle even
with the fmaller inequalities of grounds. Roughets and
broken ground may generally be reduced to lawn, or
hid with wood and a fwamp may be drained or cover¬
ed wilh water ; whilft lawn may be variegated at plea-
fure by wood, and fometimes by water.
II. WOOD, as a general term, comprehends all
trees and fhrubs in whatever difpofition ; but it is fpe-
cifically applied in a more limited fenfe, and in that
fenfe we fhall now ufe it.
Every plantation muft be either a wood, a grove, or
clump. A wood is compofed both of trees and under¬
wood, covering a confiderable fpace. A grove confifls
of trees without underwood. A clump differs from
either only in extent: it may be either clofe or open •,
when clofe, it is fometimes called a thicket ; when open,
a group of trees ; but both are equally clumps, w hat-
1 ever may be the fliape or fituation.
Gf the fur- I. One of the nobleft objefts in nature (Mr Wheat-
lice of a ley obferves) is the furface of a large thick wood, corn-
wood. .manded from an eminence, or feen from below hanging
Part l
on the fide of a hill. The latter is generally the more Wood,
interefting objedt. Its afpiring fituation gives it an air ——v"*J
of greatnefs } its termination is commonly the horizon ;
and, indeed, if it is deprived of that fplendid boundary
if the brow appears above it (unlefs lome very peculiar
effedt charadterifes that brow), it lofes much of its
magnificence : it is inferior to a wood which covers
a lefs hill from the top to the bottom ; for a whole
fpace filled is feldom little. But a wood commanded
from an eminence is generally no more than a part
of the fcene below ; and its boundary is often ina¬
dequate to its greatnefs. To continue it, therefore,
till it winds out of fight, or lofes itfelf in the horizon,
is generally defirable : but then the varieties of its fur¬
face grow' cdnfufed as it retires ; w hile thofe of a hang¬
ing wood are all diftindt, the fur the ft parts are held up
to the eye, and none are at a diftance though the whole
be extenfive.
The varieties of a furface are efiential to the beauty
of it : a continued fmooth fit a veh level of foliage is
neither agreeable nor natural ; the difterent grow ths
of trees commonly break it in reality, and their fha-
dows ftill more in appearance. Thefe (hades are fo
many tints, which, undulating about the furface, are
its greateft embellilhment; and fuch tints may be pro¬
duced with more effedl, and more certainty, by a ju¬
dicious mixture of greens j at the fame time an addi¬
tional variety may be introduced, by grouping and
contrafting trees very different in lhape from each
other ; and whether variety in the greens or in the
forms be the defign, the execution is often eafy, and
feldom to a certain degree impofiible.j In railing a
young wood, it may be perfeft. In old woods, there
are many fpots which may be either thinned or thick¬
ened : and there the chara&eriftic diliinftions fhould
determine what to plant, or which to leave \ at the lead
will often point out thofe which, as blemilhes, ought
to be taken away j and the removal of two or three
trees will fometimes accomplilh the defign. The
number of beautiful forms and agreeable tnailes, which
may decorate the furface, is lo great, that where the
place will not admit of one, another is alw ays ready j
and as no delicacy of finilhing is required, no minute
exaftnefs is worth regarding j great eftedls will not be
difconcerted by fmall obitrudtions and little difappoint-
ments.
The contrails, how'ever, of maffes and of groups muft
not be too ilrong, where greatnefs is the character of
the wood ; for unity is effential to greatnels: and it di¬
rect oppofites be placed dole together, the wood is no
longer one objeft j it is only a confufed colle&ion of
feveral feparate plantations. But if the progiefs be gra¬
dual from the one to the other, lhapes and lints widely
different may affemble on the fame furface ; and each
fhould occupy a confiderable fpace : a fingle tree, or a
fmall duller of trees, in the midft of an extenfive wood,
is in fize but a fpeck, and in colour but a fpot ; the
groups and the maffes muft be large to produce any fen-
lible variety.
When, in a romantic fituation, very broken ground
is overfpread with wood, it may be proper on the lur-
face of the wood to mark the inequalities of the ground.
Kudenefs, not greatnefs, is the prevailing idea 5 and a
choice diredlly the reverfe of that which is prcdudlive
of unity will produce it. Strong contrails, even oppo-
fitions,
GARDENING.
GARDENING.
3&9
C he out-
li of a
wd.
fitions, mny be eligible ; the aim is rather to disjoin
than to conned : a deep hollow may link into dark
greens-, an abrupt bank may be Ihewn by a riling llage
of afpiring trees, a lharp ridge by a narrow line of co¬
nical lhapes : firs are of great ufe upon fuch occafions ;
their tint, their form, their Angularity, recommend
them.
A hanging wood of thin forej} trees, and feen from
below is feldom pleating : thefe few trees are by the
perfpedive brought nearer together it loies the beau¬
ty of a thin wood, and is defective as a thick one : the
moli obvious improvement, therefore is to thicken it.
But, when feen from an eminence, a thin wood is often
a lively and elegant circumtlance in a view ; it is full
of objeds 5 and every feparate tree Ihows its beauty.
To increafe that vivacity which is the peculiar excel¬
lence of a thin wood, the trees Ihould be charaderilti-
cally diftinguilhed both in their tints and their lhapes}
and fuch as for their airinefs have been profcribed in a
thick wood, are frequently the molt eligible here.
Differences aifo in their growths are a farther fource
of variety ; each Ihould be confidered as a diltind ob-
jed, unlefs where a fmall number are grouped together j
and then all that compofe the little clutter mult agree:
but the groups themfelves, for the fame reafon as the
feparate trees, Ihould be lirongly contralted 5 the con¬
tinued underwood is their only connexion, and that is
not affeded by their variety.
Though the furface of a wood, when commanded,
deferves all thefe attentions, yet the outline more fre¬
quently calls for our regard : it is alfo more in our
power 5 it may fometimes be great, and may always
be beautiful. The firft requifite is irregularity. That
a mixture of trees and underwood Ihould form a long
ftraight line, can never be natural; and a fucceflion of
eafy fweeps and gentle rounds, each a portion of a
greater or lefs circle, compofing all together a line lite¬
rally ferpentine, is, if polhble, worfe. It is but a num¬
ber of regularities put together in a diforderly manner,
and equally dillant from the beautiful both of art and
of nature. The true beauty of an outline conlifts more
in breaks than in fweeps 5 rather in angles than in
rounds j in variety, not in fucceflion.
Every variety in the outline of a w-ood mull: be a
prominence or a recefs. Breadth in either is not fo im¬
portant as length to the one and depth to the other.
If the former ends in an angle, the latter diminilhes to
a point they have more force than a {hallow dent, or
a dwarf excrefcence, how wide foever. They are great¬
er deviations from the continued line which they are in¬
tended to break 5 and their effedt is to enlarge the wood
itfelf, which feems to ftretch from the moil advanced
point, back beyond the moft diflant to which it retires.
The extent of a large wood on a flat, not commanded,
can by no circumftance be fo manifeftly (hewn as by a
deep recefs j efpecially if that recefs wind fo as to con¬
ceal the extremity, and leave the imagination to purfue
ft. On the other hand, the poverty of a (hallow wood
Might fometimes be relieved by here and there a pro¬
minence, or clumps which by their apparent jundlion
fliould feem to be prominences from it. A deeper
wood with a continued outline, except when commarrU-
cd, would not appear fo confiderable.
An inlet into a wood feems to have been cut, if the
®Ppofite points of the entrance tally j and that flrow of
art depreciates its merit: but a difference only in the Wood,
lituation of thofe points, by bringing one more forward f ' 'v
than the other, prevents the appearance, though theirQbj-™Vl*u *
forms be fimilar. Other points, vvhicn diftinguifh the0„ Modzrn
great parts, fliould in general be ftr^ngly marked : ^Gardening,
ihort turn has more fpirit in it than a tedious circuity $
and a line broken by angles has a precifion and firm-
nefs, which in an undulated line are wanting j the
angles ihould indeed commonly be a little foltened j
the rotundity of the plant which forms them is iome-
times futficient for the purpofej but if they are mellow¬
ed down too much, they lofe all meaning. 1 hree or
four large parts thus boldly diftinguilhed, will break a
very long outline. When two woods are oppofed on
the lides of a narrow glade, neither has fo much oeca-
fion for variety in itlelf as if it were Angle} if they are
very different from each other, the contrail iuppiies the
deficiency to each, and the interval between them is
full of variety. The form of that interval is indeed of
as much confequence as their own: though the outlines
of both the woods be feparately beautiful, yet if toge¬
ther they do not caft the open fpace into an agree¬
able figure, the whole feene is not plealing j and a
figure is never agreeable, when the lides too clolely
correfpond : whether they are exactly the lame, or ex-
a£!ly the reverie of each other, they equally appear ar¬
tificial.
Every variety of outline hitherto mentioned may be.
traced by the underwood alone j but frequently the lame
effedls may be produced with more eafe, and with much-
more beauty, by a fewr trees Handing out from the thick¬
et, and belonging, or fteming to belong, to the wood,
fo as to make a part of its figure. Even w'here they are
not wanted for that purpofe, detached trees are fuch
agreeable objedls, fo diftinct, fo light, when compared
to the covert about them, that Ikirting along it in fome
parts, and breaking it in others, they give an unaffeft- ^
ed grace, which can no otherwife be given to the out- Of a grove,
line. They have a ftill further effedl, when they ftretch
acrofs the whole breadth of an inlet, or before part of
a recefs into the wood -, they are themfelves Hi own to
advantage by the fpace behind them ; and that fpace,
feen between their Items, they in return throw into an
agreeable perfpedtive.
2. The prevailing character of a wood is generally
grandeur: the principal attention therefore which it re¬
quires, is to prevent the exceffes of that charabter, todi-
verfify the uniformity of its extent, to lighten the un-
wieldinefs of its bulk, and to blend graces with great-
nefs. The charadler of a grove is beauty. Fine trees
are lovely objects : a grove is an affemblage of them j
in which every individual retains much of its own pecu¬
liar elegance, and whatever it lofes is transferred to the
fuperior beauty of the w'hole. To a grove, therefore,
which admits of endlefs variety in the difpofition of the
trees, differences in their lhapes and their greens are
feldom very important, and fometimes they are detri¬
mental. Strong contrails fcatter trees which are thinly
planted, and w hich have not the connexion of under¬
wood ; they no longer form one plantation ; they are a-
number of fingle trees. A thick grove is not indeed
expofed to this mifehief, and certain fituations may re¬
commend different lhapes and different greens for their
effedls upon the furface ; but in the outline they are fel¬
dom much regarded. The eye attracted into the depth
of
/
39°
VV^ood.
Ibid.
New
Ether in
Surry.
CARD]
of the grove, paffes by little circumftances at the en¬
trance } even varieties in the form of the line do not al¬
ways engage the attention; they are not fo apparent as
in a continued thicket, and are icarcely feen if they are
not confiderable.
But the furface and the outline are not the onlycir-
cumltances to be attended to. Though a grove be
beautiful as an objeft, it is befides delightful as a fpot
to walk or to fit in j and the choice and the difpolition
of the trees for eflfe&s within, are therefore a principal
conlideration. Mere irregularity alone will not pleale:
ftrift order is there more agreeable than abfolute confu-
fion ; and fome meaning better than none. A regular
plantation has a degree of beauty ; but it gives no fatif-
faftion, becaufe we know that the fame number of trees
might be more beautifully arranged. A difpofition,
however, in which the lines only are broken, without
varying the diftances, is equally improper. The trees
ftiould gather into groups, or Hand in various irregular
lines, and defcribe various figures: the intervals between
-them fhould be contrafted both in fliape and in dimcn-
fions: a large fpace thould in fome places be quite
open in others the trees ihould be fo clofe together,
as hardly to leave a pafl'age between them ; and in
others as far apart as the connexion will allow. In the
forms and the varieties of thefe groups, thefe lines, and
thefe openings, principally confifts the interior beauty
of a grove.
The force of them is moft ftrongly illuftrated at
Claremontf, where the walk to the cottage, though
deftitute of many natural advantages, and eminent for
none ; though it commands no profpeft •, though the
water below it is a trifling pond j though it has nothing,
in fhort, but inequality of ground to recommend it ; is
yet the fineft part of the garden : for a grove is there
planted in a gently curved dire&ion, all along the fide
of a hill, and on the edge of a wood, which rifes above
it. Large recefies break it into feveral clumps, which
hang down the declivity : fome of them approaching,
but none reaching quite to the bottom. Thefe recefl'es
are fo deep as to form great openings in the midft of the
grove ; they penetrate almoft to the covert : but the
clumps being all equally fufpended from the wood j and
a line of open plantation, though fometimes narrow,
running conltantly along the top j a continuation of
-grove Is preferved, and the connexion between the parts
is never broken. Even a group, w hich near one of the
extremities ftands out quite detached, is fiill in flyle fo
fimilar to the reft as not to lofe all relation. Each of
thefe clumps is compofed of feveral others (till more in¬
timately united j each is full of groups, fometimes of no
more than two trees, fometimes of four or five, and now
and then in larger clufters j an irregular waving line,
iffuing from fome little crowd, lofes itfelf in the next ;
.or a few' fcattered trees drop in a more diftant luccefliofi
from the one to the other. The intervals, winding
here like a glade, and widening there into broader
openings, differ in extent, in figure, and direftion } but
all the groups, the lines, and the intervals, are colleft-
ed together into large general clumps, each of which is
at the fame time both eompaft and free, identical and
various. The whole is a place wherein to tarry with
fecure delight, or faunter w ith perpetual amufement.
The grove at Eiher place was planted by the fame
jnafterly hand j but the neceflity of accommodating the
4
2 N I N G. Part I.
young plantation to fome large trees which grew there Wood,
before, has confined its variety. The groups are few
and fmall: there w as not room for larger or for more j
there were no opportunities to form continued narrow
glades between oppofite lines ; the vacant fpaces are
therefore chiefly irregular openings, Ipreading every
way, and great differences of diftance between the trees
are the principal variety *, but the grove winds along
the bank of a large river, on the fide and at the foot
of a very hidden afeent, the upper part of which is co¬
vered with wood. In one place, it preffes elofe to the
covert j retires from it in another 5 and flretches in a
third acrofs a bold recefs, which runs up high into the
thicket. The trees fometimes overfpread the flat be¬
low } fometimes leave an open fpace to the river j at
other times crown the brow of a large knoll, climb up
a ileep, or hang on a gentle declivity. Thefe varieties
in the iituation more than compenfate for the want of
variety in the difpofition of the trees } and the many
happy circumftanees which concur,
 In Eflier’s peaceful grove,
Where Kent and nature vie for Pelham’s love,
render this little fpot more agreeable than any at Clare¬
mont. But though it was right to preferve the trees al¬
ready Handing, and not to facrifice great preient beau¬
ties to ftill greater in futurity j yet this attention has
been a reftraint 5 and the grove at Claremont, confider-
ed merely as a plantation, is in delicacy of tafle, and
fertility of invention, fuperior to that at Eiher.
It is, however, poflible to fecure both a prefent and
a future effect, by fixing firit on a difpofition which will
be beautiful when the trees are large, and then inter¬
mingling another which is agreeable while they are
fmall. Thefe occafional trees are hereafter to be taken
away •, and muft be removed in time, before they be¬
come prejudicial to the others.
The confequence of variety in the difpofition, is va¬
riety in the light and fiiade of the grove j which may
be improved by the choice of the trees. Some are
impenetrable to the fierceft funbeam j others let in
here and there a ray between the large maffes of their
foliage j and others, thm both of boughs and of leaves*
only chequer the around. Every degree of light and
fiiade, from a glare to obfeurity, may be managed,
partly by the number, and partly by the texture, of the
trees. Differences only in the manner of their growths
have alfo correfponding effe&s : there is a clofenefs
under thofe whofe branches defeend low, and fpread
wide j a fpace and liberty where the arch above is Ingb y
and frequent tranfitions from the one to the other are
very pleafing. 1 heie ftill are not all the varieties of
which the interior of a grove is capable; trees, indeed,
whole branches nearly reach the ground, being each a
fort of thicket, are inconfiftent with an open planta¬
tion : but though fome of the eh a rafter ill ic diilinclions
are thereby excluded, other varieties more n inute iuc-
ceed in their place j for the freedom of paflage throi gh-
out brings every tree in its turn near to the eye, and-
fubjedts even differences in foliage to oblervation.
Thefe, flight as they may feem, are agreeable when they
occur j it is true, they are not regretted when want¬
ing j but a defeft; of ornament is not necefiarily a ble-
3. It has been already obferved, that clumps differ01’CiUa,?
©nly
art X
Wood, only in extent from woods, if they are clofe 3 or from
-—groves, if they are open : they are fmall woods, and
Ibid. fmall groves, governed by the fame principles as the
larger, after allowances made for their dimenfions. But
behdes the properties they may have in common with
woods or with groves, they have others peculiar to
themfelves which require examination.
They are either independent or relative : when inde¬
pendent, their beauty, as fingle objetls, is folely to be
attended to 3 when relative, the beauty of the indivi¬
duals muft be facrificed to the effe£l of the whole, which
is the greater confideration.
The occajions on which independent clumps may he
applied, are many. They are often defirable as beauti¬
ful objefts in themfelves 3 they are fometimes neceffary
to break an extent of lawn, or a continued line whether
of ground or of plantation ; but on all occafions a jea-
loufy of art conftantly attends them, which irregularity
in their figure will not always alone remove. Though
elevations (how them to advantage, yet a hillock evi¬
dently thrown up on purpofe to be crowned with a
clump, is artificial to a degree of difguit : fome of the
trees thould therefore be planted on.the fides, to take
off that appearance. The fame expedient may be ap¬
plied to clumps placed on the brow of a hill, to inter¬
rupt its famenefs : they will have lefs oftentation of de-
fign, if they are in part carried down either declivity.
The obje£lion already made to planting many along
luch a brow, is on the fame principle : a fingle clump
is lefs fufpefted of art 3 if it be an open one, there can
be no finer fituation for it, than juft at the point of an
abrupt hill, or on a promontory into a lake or a river.
It is in either a beautiful termination, dillinft by its po-
fition, and enlivened by an expanfe of Iky or of water
about and beyond it. Such advantages may balance
little defe&s in its form : but they are loft if other
clumps are planted near it 3 art then intrudes, and the
whole is difpleafing.
But though a multiplicity of clumps, when each is
an independent object, feldom feems natural 3. yet a
number of them may, without any appearance of art,
be admitted into the fame fcene, if they bear a rela¬
tion to each other : if by their fuccefiion they diverfify
a continued outline of w^ood, if between them they
form beautiful glades, if altogether, they call an ex-
tenfive lawn into an agreeable ftiape, the eff.B prevents
any fcrutiny into the means of producing it. But when
the reliance on that effect is fo great, every other con¬
fideration muft give way to the beauty of the whole.
Ihe figure of the glade, of the lawn, or of the wood,
are principally to be attended to : the fineft clumps, if
they do not fall eafily into the great lines, are ble-
milhes 3 their connexions, their contrails, are more im¬
portant than their forms.
5
^ a Lake HI. WAI E.R. All inland water is either running
or Jlagnated. When ftagnated, it forms a lake or a
/W, which differ only in extent 3 and a pool and a
pond are the fame. Running waters are either a rivu¬
let, p river, or a rill ,• and thefe differ only in breadth :
a rivulet and a brook are fynonymous terms 3 a Jlream
and a current are general names for all.
t. Space or expanfion is effential to a take. It can¬
not be too large as a fubjtdt of defcription or of
contemplation 3 but the eye receives little faiisfa&ion
39l
when it has not a form on which to reft : the ocean Water,
itfelf hardly atones by all its grandeur for its infinity 3
and a profpedl of it is, therefore, always moft agree¬
able, when in lome part, at no great diftance, a reach
of fhore, a promontory, or an iiland, reduces the im-
menfity into fliape. An artificial lake, again, may be
comparatively extravagant in its dimenfions. It may
be fo out of proportion to its appendages, as to feem
a wafte of water 3 for all fize is in fome refpe£ts re¬
lative : if this exceeds its due dimenfions, and if a
flatnefs of fhore beyond it, adds ftill to the drearinefs
of the fcene 3 wood to raife the banks, and objects to
diftinguifh them, are the remedies to be employed. If
the length of a piece of water be too great for its
breadth, fo as to deftrOy all idea of circuity, the extre¬
mities fhould be confidered as too far off, and made im¬
portant to give them proximity 3 while at the lame
time the breadth may be favoured, by keeping down
the banks on the fides. On the fame principle, if the
lake be too Iraall, a low Ihore will, in appearance, in-
creafe the extent.
But it is not neceffary that the whole fcene be
bounded ; if form be impreffed on a confiderable part,
the eye can, without dilguft, permit a large reach to
ftretch beyond its ken 3 it can even be plealed to ob-
ferve a tremulous motion in the horizon, which fhows
that the water has not there yet attained its termina¬
tion. Still fhort of this, the extent may be kept in
uncertainty 3 a hill or a wood may conceal one of the
extremities, and the country beyond it, in fuch a man¬
ner as to leave room for the fuppofed continuation of
fo large a body of water. Opportunities to choofe this
ftiape are frequent, and it is the molt per fed! of any :
the fcene is clofed, but the extent of the •lake is un¬
determined 3 a complete form is exhibited to the
eye, while a boundlefs range is left open to the imagi¬
nation.
But mere form will only give content, not delight :
that depends upon the outline, which is capable of ex-
quifite beauty 3 and the bai/s, the creeks, and the pro¬
montories, which are ordinary parts of that outline, to¬
gether with the accidents of ijlands, of inlets, and of
outlets to rivers, are in their fhapes and their combina-
tions an inexhauftible fund of variety.
Bays, creeks, and promontories, however, thoug
extremely beautiful, ftiould not be very numerous : for
a Ihore broken into little points and hollows has no
certainty of outline 3 it is only ragged, not diverfi-
fied 3 and the diftindlnefs and fimplicity of the great
parts are hurt by the multiplicity of fubdivifions.
But illands, though the channels between them be
narrow, do not fo often derogate from greatnefs : they •.
intimate a fpace beyond them whole boundaries do
not appear 3 and remove to a diftance the ihore which
is feen in perfpeftive between them. Such partial in¬
terruptions of the fight fuggeft ideas of extent to the
imagination.
2. Though the windings of a river are proverbially Q£a ^jver
defcriptive of its courfe 3 yet without being perpetual¬
ly wreathed, it may be natural Nor is tho chara&er
expreffed only by the turnings. On the contrary, if
they are too frequent and fudden, the current is redu¬
ced into a number of feparate pools, and the idea of
progrefs is obfcured by the difficulty of tracing it.
Length is the ftrongeft fymptom of continuation :
long
GARDENING.
39 2
Water.
u-——
Ibid.
GARDE
long readies are therefore diaraderiftic of a river, and
they conduce much to its beauty ^ each is a conlider-
able piece of water, and variety of beautiful forms may
be given to their outlines.
A river requires a number of accompan ments. The
changes in its courfe furnilh a variety of lituations *,
while the fertility, convenience, and amenity, \yhich
attend it, account for all appearances of inhabitants
and improvement. Profufion of ornament on a fidi-
tio s river, is a juft imitation of cultivated nature.
Every ipecies t>f building, every ftyle of plantation,
may abound on th*- banks 5 and whatever be their cha¬
racters, their proximity to the water is commonly the
happielt circumttance in their fituation. A luitre is
from thence diftufed on all around each derives an
importance from its relation to this capital feature ;
thofe which are near enough to be reflected, immedia-
ately belong to it j thofe at a greater diltance {till
(hare in the animation of the fcene *, and objeCts total¬
ly detached from each other, being all attracted towards
the fame interefting connexion, are united into one
compofition.
In the front of Blenheim was a deep broad valley,
which abruptly feparated the caftle from the lawn and
the plantations before it j even a direft approach could
not be made without building a monftrous bridge over
the vaft hollow; but this forced communication was
only a fubjeCt of raillery; and the fcene continued
broken into two parts, abfolutely diftinCt from each
other. This valley has been lately flooded : it is not
filled; the bottom only is covered with water ; the
fides are dill very high ; but they are no longer the
Beeps of a chafm, they are the bold (bores of a noble
river. The fame bridge is (landing without altera¬
tion : but no extravagance remains ; the water gives
it propriety. Above it the river firtl appears, wind¬
ing from behind a fmall thick wood in the valley ;
and foon taking a determined courfe, it is then broad
enough to admit an ifland filled with the fined tiees ;
others correfponding to them in growth and difpofi-
tion, Band in groups on the banks, intermixed with
younger plantations. Immediately belong the bridge,
the river fpreads into a large expanfe : the fides are
open lawn. On that furtheil from the houfe formerly
Bond the palace of Henry II. celebrated in many an
ancient ditty by the name of Fair Rofamond’s Bower.
A little clear fpring, which rifes there, is by the
country people Bill called Fair Rofamond’s Well. Rhe
fpot is now marked by a fingle pillow. Near it is
a fine collateral Bream, of a beautiful form, retaining
its breadth as far as it is feen, and retiring at lad behind
a hill from the view. The main river, having received
this acceflion, makes a gentle bend : then continues
for a confiderable length m one wide direa_reach •, and,
juft as it difappears, throws itfelf down a high cafeade,
which is the prefent termination. On one of the
banks of this reach is the garden : the Beeps are there
diverfified with thickets and with glades ; but the co¬
vert prevails, and the top is crowned with lofty trees.
On the other fide is a noble hanging wood in the park:
it was depreciated when it funk into a hollow, and
was poorly loft in the bottom; but it is now a rich
appendage to the river, falling down an eafy dope
quite to the water’s edge, where, with overfliadow-
ing, it is refle£ted on the furface. Another face of
MING.
Part I.
the fame wood borders the collateral dream, with an Water,
outline more indented and various : while a very large ' * —
irregular clump adorns the oppofite declivity. This
clump is at a coniiderable diftance from the principal
river : but the dream it belongs to brings it down to
conned with the reft ; and the other obje&s, which
were before difperfed, are now, by the intereft of each
in a relation, which is common to all, collected into
one illuftrious fcene. The caftle itfelf R a prodigious
pile of building ; which, with all the faults in its
architedure, will never feem lefs than a truly princely
habitation •, and the confined (pot vhere it was placed,
on the edge of an abyfs, is converted into a proud litua-
tion, commanding a beautiful profped of water, and
open to an extendve lawn, adequate to the manlion,
and an emblem of its domain. In the midft of this
lawn (lands a column, a (lately trophy, recording the
exploits of the duke of Marlborough and the grati¬
tude of Britain. Between this pillar and the cattle is
the bridge, which now, applied to a fubjed worthy of
it, is eftablithed in all the importance due to its great-
nefs. The middle arch is wider than the Rialto, but
not too wide for the oceafion ; and yet that is the nar¬
rowed part of the river *, but the length of the reaches
is everywhere proportioned to their breadth. Each
of them is alone a noble piece of water; and the laft,
the fined of all, lofes itfell gradually in a wood, which
on that fide is alfo the boundary of the lawn, and rifes
into the horizon. All is great in the front of Blen¬
heim : but in that vaft fpace no void appears ; fo im¬
portant are the parts, fo magnificent the objed. The
plain is extenfive, the valley is broad, the wood is deep.
Though the intervals between the building are large,
they are filled with the grandeur which buildings of
fuch dimenfions and fo much pomp diffufe all around
them ; and the river in its long varied courfe, approach¬
ing to every objed, and touching upon every part,
fpreads its infiuence over the whole.
In the compofition of this fcene, the river, both as
a part itfelf, and as uniting the other parts, has a
principal (hare. But water is not loft though it be
in fo confined or fo concealed a fpot as to enter into
no view •, it may render that fpot delighful. It is
capable of the moil exquifite beauty in its form ; and
though not in fpace, may yet in difpofition have pre-
tenfions to greatnefs ; for it may be divided into feve-
ral branches, which will form a cluiler of iflands all
ccnneded together, make the whole place irriguous,
and, in the (lead of extent, fupply a quantity of water.
Such a fequeilered icene ufually owes its retirement
to the trees and the thickets with which it abounds ;
but, in the difpofition of them, one diftindion (liould
be conftantly attended to. A river flowing through
a wood which overfpreads one continued furface of
ground, and a river between two woods, are in very
different circum(lances. In the latter cafe, the v?oods
are feparate ; they may be contrafted in their forms
and their charaders, and the outline of each ftiould be
forcibly marked. In the former no outline ought to
be difcernible ; for the river paffes between trees, not
between boundaries ; and though in the progrefs of
its courfe, the ftyle of the plantations may be often
changed, yet on the oppofite banks a fimilarity ft ould
conftantly prevail, that the identity of the wood may
never be doubtful. .
CARD
A river between two woods may enter into a view •,
and then it muft be governed by the principles which
regulate the conduct and the accompaniments of a ri¬
ver in an open expofure. But when it runs through a
wood, it is never to be feen in a profpe£t j the place is
naturally full of obftruftions; and a continued open¬
ing, large enough to receive a long reach, would feem
an artificial cut. The river muft therefore neceffarily
wind more than in crofting a lawn where the paflage
is entirely free. But its influence will never extend fo
far on the fides : the buildings muft be near the banks:
and, if numerous, will feem crowded, being all in one
track, and in fituations nearly alike. The fcene, how¬
ever, does not want variety : on the contrary, none is
capable of more. The objefts are not indeed fo differ¬
ent from each other as in an open view •, but they are
very different, and in much greater abundance for
this is the interior of a wood, w here every tree is an
objeft, every combination of trees a variety, and no
large intervals are requifite to diftinguiih the feveral
difpofitidhs 5 the grove, the thicket or the groups, may
prevail, and their forms and their relations may be con-
ftantly changed without reftraint of fancy, or limita¬
tion of number.
Water is fo univerfally and fo defervedly admired
in a profpedl, that the moft obvious thought in the
management of it, is to lay it as open as poflible j and
purpofely to conceal it would generally feem a fevere
felf-denial: yet fo many beauties may attend its paf-
fage through a wood, that larger portions of it might
be allowed to fuch retired fcenes than are commonly
fpared from the view, and the different parts in dif¬
ferent ftyles would be fine contrafts to each other. If the
water at Wotton * were all expofed, a w alk of near two
miles along the banks would be of a tedious length,
from the want of thofe changes of the fcene which
now fupply through the whole extent a fucceflion of
perpetual variety. The extent is fo large as to admit
of a divifion into four principal parts, all of them great
in ftyle and in dimenfions, and differing from each
other both in charadler and fituation. The two firft
are the leaft. The one is a reach of a river, about the
third of a mile in length, and of a competent breadth,
flowing through a lovely mead, open in fome places
to views of beautiful hills in the country, and adorned
in others with clumps of trees, fo large, that their
branches ftretch quite acrofs, and form a high arch
over the w'ater. The next feems to have been once a
formal bafin encompaffed w-ith plantations, and the
appendages on either fide ftill retain fome traces of
regularity ; but the fliape of the water is free from
them ; the fize is about 14 acres1, and out of it iffuc
two broad collateral ftreams, winding towards a large-
river, which they are feen to approach, and fuppofed
to join. A real junction is however impoffible, from
the difference of the levels; but the terminations are
fo artfully concealed, that the deception is never fu-
fpefted, and when known is not eafily explained. The
river is the third great divifion of the w ater; a lake
into which it falls, is the fourth. Thefe two do ac-
tually join ; but their charafters are directly oppo-
fite •, the fcenes they belong to are totally diftinft;
and the tranfition from the one to the other is very
gradual y for an ifland near the conflux, dividing the
breadth, and concealing the end of the lake, mode-
VoL. IX. Part I.
E N I N G.
rates for fome way the fpace y and permitting it to ex¬
pand but by degrees, raiies an idea of greatnefs, from
uncertainty accompanied with increafe. The reality
does not difappoint the expectation •, and the ifland,
w hich is the point of view’, is itfelf equal to the fcene :
it is large, and high above the lake y the ground is ir¬
regularly broken y thickets hang on the fides •, and to¬
wards the top is placed an Ionic portico, which com¬
mands a noble extent of water, not lefs than a mile
in circumference, bounded on one fide with wood, and
open on the other to two floping lawns, the leaft of
an hundred acres, diverfified with clumps, and bor¬
dered by plantations. Yet this lake, when full in view',
and with all the importance which fpace, form, and
fituation can give, is not more interefting than the
fequeftered river, which has been mentioned as the
third great divifion of the water. It is juft within the
verge of a wood, three quarters of a mile long, every¬
where broad, and its courfe is fueh as to admit of in¬
finite variety without any confufion. The banks are
cleared of underwood y but a few thickets ftill remain,
and on one fide an impenetrable cov’ert foon begins :
the interval is a beautiful grove of oaks, fcattered over
a green fward of extraordinary verdure. Between thefe
trees and thefe thickets the river feems to glide gently
along, conftantly winding, without one Ihort turn or
one extended reach in the whole length of the way.
This even temper in the ftream fuits the fcenes through
which it paffes y they are in general of a very fober
caft, not melancholy, but grave y never expofed to a
glare y never darkened with gloom y nor, by flrong
contrafts of light and {hade, exhibiting the excefs of
either. Undifturbed by an extent of profpeft w ithout,
or a multiplicity of objefts wfithin, they retain at all
times a mildnefs of chara&er y which is ftill more for¬
cibly felt when the ftiadow s grow faint as they lengthen,
when a little ruftling of birds in the fpvay, the leap¬
ing of the fifli, and the fragrancy of the woodbine,
denote the approach of evening *, while the fetting fun
fhoots its laft gleams on a Tufcan portico, which is
clofe to the great bafin, but which from a feat near
this river is feen at a diftance, through all the obfeu-
rity of the wood, glowing on the banks, and reflefled
on the furface of the water. In another ftill more
diftinguiftied fpot is built an elegant bridge, with a
colonnade upon it, which not only adorns the place
w'here it ftands, but is alfo a piflurefque obje<ft to an
oftagon building near the lake, where it is fhown in
a fingular fituation, overarched, encompaffed, and
backed with wood, without any appearance of the
water beneath. This building in return is alfo an
objedft from the bridge *, and a Chinefe room, in a
little ifland juft by, is another: neither of them are
confiderable, and the others which are vifible are at a
diftance; but more or greater advent itious ornaments are
not required in a fpot fo rich as this in beauties pecu¬
liar to its charafter. A profufion of water pours in
from all fides round upon the view' y the opening of the
lake appears j a glimpfe is caught of the large bafin:
one of the collateral ftreams is full in fight, and the
bridge itfelf is in the midft of the fineft part of the
river : all feem to communicate the one with the other.
Though thickets often intercept, and groups perplex
the view, yet they never break the connexion between
the feveral pieces of water ; each may ftill be traced
3 I) along
.
394
Water.
Ibid.
CARD
along large branches or little catches j which in fome
places are overthadowed and dim j in others glirten
through a glade, or glimmer between the boles of
trees in a diftant perfpe&ive •, and in one, where they
are quite loll to the view, fome arches of the ftone
bridge, but partially feen among the wood, preferve
their connexion
Of a kill 3* ^ a large river may fotnetimes, a fmaller current
and a Rjvu- undoubtedly may often, be conducted through a wood :
let. it feldom adorns, it frequently disfigures, a profpedt,
where its courfe is marked, not by any appearance of
■water, but by a confufed line of clotted grafs, which
difagrees with the general verdure. A Rivulet may,
indeed, have confideration enough for a home fcene,
though it be open ; but a Rill is always mult agreeable
when molt retired from public view. Its charabteriltic
excellencies are vivacity and variety, which require at¬
tention, leifure, and filence, that the eye may pore
upon the little beauties, and the ear lilten to the low
murmurs of the llream without interruption. To fuch
indulgence a confined fpot only is favourable j a elofe
eopfe is therefore often more acceptable than a high
wood, and a fequeftered valley at all times preferable to
any open expofure : a fingle rill at a very little dillance
is a mere water courfe •, it loles all its charms j it has
no importance in itfelf, and bears no proportion to the
fcene. A number of little dreams have indeed an ef-
fe.61: in any fituation, but not as objects j they are
interefting only on account of the charafter they ex-
prefs, the irriguous appearance which they give to the
whole.
The full tide of a large river has more force than
activity, and feems too unwieldy to allow of very
quick tranfitions. But in a rill, the agility of its mo¬
tion accounts for every caprice j frequent windings
difguife its infignificance *, ihort turnings fiiow its vi¬
vacity •, fudden changes in the breadth are a fpecies of
its variety ; and however fantaftically the channel may
be wreathed, contrafted, and widened, it dill appears
to be natural. We find an amufement in tracing the
little dream through all the intricacies of its courfe,
and in feeing it force a paflage through a narrow drait,
expatiate on every opportunity, druggie with obdruc-
tions, and puzzle out its way. A rivulet, which is
the mean betwixt a river and a rill, partakes of the cha-
rafter of both : it is not licenfed to the extravagance
of the one, nor under the lame redraints as the other :
it may have more frequent bends than the river, longer
reaches than a rill: the breadth of a dream deter¬
mines whether the principal beauty refults from extent
or from variety.
The murmurs of a rill are amongd the mod pleaf-
ing circumdances which attend it. If the bed of the
ftream be rough, mere declivity will occafion a con-
, ftant ripling noife : when the current drops down a
defcent, though but of a few inches, or forcibly
bubbles up from a little hollow, it has a deep gurgling
tone, not uniformly continued, but inceflantly repeat¬
ed, and therefore, more engaging than any. 1 he
flatted of all, Is that found rather of the fpladiing than
the fall of water, which an even gentle dope, or a tame
obflruftion, rvill produce : this is lefs pleafing than
the others j but none Ihould be entirely excluded : all
in their turns are agreeable ; and the choice of them
is much in our power. By obferving their caufes, we
E N I N G. Parti,
may often find the means to ftrengthen, to weaken, or Rocks,
to change them j and the addition or removal of a V"—'
fingle done, or a few pebbles, will fometimes be fuffi-
cient for the purpofe. g
A rill cannot pretend to any found beyond that of Of Caf.
a little water fall : the roar of a calcade belongs onlyca£k5.
to a larger dream *, but it may be produced by a rivu¬
let to a confiderable degree, and attempts to do more
have generally been unfuccefsful. A vain ambition to
imitate nature in her great extravagancies betrays the
weaknefs of art. Though a noble river, throwing it¬
felf headlong down a precipice, be an object truly
magnificent, it mud however be confefl'ed, that in a
fingle dieet of water there is a formality which its vad-
nefs alone can cure. But the height, not the breadth,,
is the wonder : when it falls no more than a few feet,
the regularity prevails; and its extent only ferves to
expofe the vanity of aflefting the dyle of a cataraft in
an artificial cafcade. It is lei's exceptionable if divided
into ieveral parts : for then each feparate parj, may be
wide enough for its depth j and in the whole, variety
not grealnefs, will be the predominant charafttr. But
a drufture of rough, large, detached dones, cannot
eafily be contrived of drength fufficient to fupport a
great weight of water : it is fometimes from neceflity
almod fmooth and uniform, and then it lofes much of
its offefts. Several little falls in fucceflron are preferable
to one great cafcade which in figure or in motion ap¬
proaches to regularity.
When greatnefs is thus reduced to number, and
length becomes of more importance than breadth, a ri¬
vulet vies with a river : and it more frequently runs in
a continued declivity, rvhich is very favourable to fuch a
fucceflion of falls. Half the expence and labour which
are fometimes bedowed on a river, to give it at the bed
a forced precipitancy in one fpot only, would animate
a rivulet through the whole oi its courfe. And, after
all, the mod intereding circumdance in falling waters
is their animation. A great cafcade fills us with fur-,
prife : but all furprife mud ceafe; and the motion, the
agitation, the rage, the froth, and the variety of the
water, are finally the objefts which engage the atten¬
tion : for thefe a rivulet is fufficient j and they may
there be produced without that appearance of effort
which raifes a fufpicion of art.
To obviate fuch a fufpicion, it may be fometimes
expedient to begin the defcent out of fight j for the
beginning is the difficulty if that be concealed, the
fubfequent falls feem but a confequence of the agitation
which charafterifes the water at its fird appearance j
and the imagination is, at the fame time, let loofe to
give ideal extent to the cafcades. Wken a dream iffues
from a wood, fuch management will have a great ef-
feft : the bends of its courfe in an open expofure may
afford frequent opportunities for it j and fometimes a
low broad bridge may furnifh the occafion : a little
fall hid under the arch will create a diforder •, in con¬
fequence of which, a greater cafcade below will appear
very natural.
9
IV. ROCKS. Rocks are themfelves too vad and0fRock''
too dubborn to fubmit to «ur controul ; by the ad¬
dition or removal of appendages which we can com¬
mand, parts may be fhowm or concealed, and the cha-
rafters with their impreflions may be weakened or en¬
forced :
irt.L CARD
Rucks, forced: to adopt the accornpanlments accordingly, is
^ the utmolt ambition of art when rocks are the fub-
jeft.
Their mofl: diftinguidied charafters are, d'gnity, ter¬
ror, and fancy: the expreffions of all are contlantly
wild: and fotnetimes a rocky fcene is only wild, with¬
out pretenfions to any particular fharaOer.
Hills, rivulets, and cafcades, abound among rocks:
they are natural to the fcene ; and fuch fcenes common¬
ly require every accompaniment which can be procured
for them. Mere rocks, unlels they are particularly adapt¬
ed to certain impreflions, though they may lurprife,
cannot be long engaging, if the rigour of their charac¬
ter be not foftened by eireumftances which may belong
either to thefe or to more cultivated fpots: and when
the dr.earinefs is extreme, little ttreams and waterfalls
are of themfelyes infufficient for the purpofe ; an inter¬
mixture of vegetation is alfo necelTary, and on fome oc-
caiions even marks of inhabitants are proper.
Larg# clefts, doping or precipitous, with a dale at
bottom, furnifh fcenes of the wildeit nature. In fuch
fpots, verdure alone will give fome relief to the dreari-
nefs of the fcene $ and Ihrubs or bufhes, without trees,
are a fufEciency of wood : the thickets may alfo be ex¬
tended by the creeping plants, fuch as pyracantha,
vines, and ivy, to wdnd up the fides or cluiter on the
tops of the rocks. And to this vegetation may be
added fome lymptoms of inhabitants, but they mull be
flight and few j the ufe of them is only to cheer, not
to deftroy, the folitude of the place ; and fuch there¬
fore lliould be chofen as are fometimes found in fitua-
tions retired from public re fort; a cottage may be
lonely, but it mult not here feem ruinous and negledl-
ed ; it fhould be tight and warm, with every mark of
comfort about it, to which its pofition in fome fheltered
recefs may greatly contribute. A cavity alfo in the
rocks, rendered eafy of accefs, improved to a degree
of convenience, and maintained in a certain Hate of
prefervation, will fugged fimilar ideas of proteftion
from the bittered inclemencies of the Iky, and even of
oecafional refrelhment and repofe. But we may venture
dill further •, a mill is of neceffity often built at fome
didance from the town which it fupplies j and here it
would at the fame time apply the w'ater to a ufe, and
mcreafe its agitation. The dale may belldes be made
the haunt of thofe animals, fuch as goats, which are
fometimes wdld, and fometimes domeftic j and which
accidentally appearing, will divert the mind from the
fenfations natural to the fcene, but not agreeable if
continued long without interruption. Thefe and fuch
other expedients will approximate the fevered retreat
to the habitations of men, and convert the appearance
of a perpetual banidiment into that of a temporary re¬
tirement from fociety.
But too drong a force on the nature of the place al¬
ways fails. A winding path, which appears to be worn,
not cut, has more effect than a high road, all artificial
and level, which is too weak to overbear, and yet con¬
tradicts, the general idea. The objefts therefore to be
introduced mud be thofe which hold a mean between
folitude and population ; and the inclination of that
choice towards either extreme, dmuld be directed by
the degree of wildnefs which prevails j for though that
runs fotnetimes to an excefs which requires correction,
at other times it wants encouragement, and at all times
E N I N G.
it ought to be preferved : it is the predominant charac¬
ter of rocks, which mixes with every other, and to which
all the appendages mud be accommodated j and they
may be applied fo as greatly to increafe it: a licentious
irregularity of wood and of ground, and a fantadic con-
dud: of the dreams, neither of which would be to¬
lerated in the midlt of cultivation, become and improve
romantic rocky fpots 5 even buildings, partly by their
ftyle, but dill more by their pofition, in drange, dif*
ficult, or dangerous lituations, didinguilh and aggravate
the native extravagancies of the fcene.
Greatnefs is a chief ingredient in the charader of
dignity, with lefs of wildnefs ihan in any other. The
effed here depends more upon amplitude of furface,
than variety of forms. The parts, therefore, mud be
large : if the rocks are only high, they are but dupen-
dous, not majedic : breadth is equally eflential to their
greatnefs; and every flender, every grotefque (hape,
is excluded. Art may interpofe to Ihow thefe large
parts to the eye, and magnify them to the imagina¬
tion, by taking away thickets which ftretch quite
acrofs the rocks, fo as to difguife their dimenfion-.; or
by filling with wood the fmall intervals between them,
and thus, by concealing the want, preferving the ap¬
pearance of continuation. When rocks retire from the
eye down a gradual declivity, we can, by railing the
upper ground, deepen the fall, lengthen the perfpec-
live, and give both height and extent to thofe at a
didance : this effeft may be dill increafed by covering
that upper ground with a thicket, which lhall ceafe,
or be lowered, as it defeends. A thicket, on other
occafions, makes the rocks which rife out of it feem
larger than they are. If they Hand upon a bank over-
fpread with (hrubs. their beginning is at the lead un¬
certain ; and the prefumption is, that they dart from
the bottom. Another ufe of this brulhy underwood is
to conceal the fragments and rubbi h which have fallen
from the fides and the brow, ard which are often un-
fightly. Rocks are feldom remarkable for the ele¬
gance of their forms; they are too vnfi, and too rude,
to pretend to delicacy : but their fhapes are often
agreeable : and we can affeft thofe Hi, p s to a certain
degree, at lead we can cover many blemidies in them,
by condufting the growth of fhrubby and creeping
plants about them.
For all thefe purpofes mere underwood fuffices : but
for greater effeids larger trees are requilite : tiny are
worthy of the fcene ; and not only improve un nls, but
acceflions to its grandeur: we are ufi d to rank them
among the nobleft obje£\s of nature ; and when we fee
that they cannot afpire to the midway of the heights
around them, the rocks are raifed by the compaiifon.
A fingle tree is, therefore, often preferable to a clump :
the fize, though really lefs, is more remarkable : and
clumps are befides generally exceptionable in a very
wild fpot, from the fufpicion of art w hich attends them ;
but a wood is free from that fufpicion, and its own
character of greatnefs recommends it to every fcene of
magnificence.
On the fame principle all pr.flible confideration
Ihould be given to the dreams. No number of little
rills are equal to one broad river ; and in the principal
current, fome varieties may be facrificed to importance :
but a degtee of drength Ihould always be preferved :
the water, though it needs not be furious, ihould not be
3 D 2 dull}
39s
Rocks.
—V  
396
GARDENING.
Part I,
Rock*, dull 5 for dignity, when mofl ferene, is not languid j
“P* and fpace will hardly atone for want of animation.
* This character does not exclude marks of inhabi¬
tants, though it never requires them to tame its vvild-
nefs : and without inviting, it occafionally admits an
intermixture of vegetation. It even allows of build¬
ings intended only to decorate the fcene: but they
mull be adequate to it, both in uze and in charafter.
And if cultivation is introduced, that too fliould be
conformable to the reft j not a fmgle narrow patch
cribbed out of the wafte j but the confines of a coun¬
try (helving into the vale, and fuggefting the idea of
extent: nothing trivial ought to find admittance. But,
on the other hand, no extravagance is required to fup-
port it} ftrange fhapes in extraordinary pofitions, enor¬
mous weights unaccountably fuftained, trees rooted in
the fides, and torrents raging at the foot of the rocks,
Sire at the belt needlefs excefles. There is a temper¬
ance in dignity, which is rather hurt by a wanton vio¬
lence on the common order of nature.
The terrors of a fcene in nature are like thofe of a
dramatic reprefentation : they give an alarm } but the
fenfations are agreeable, fo long as they are kept to
fuch as are allied only to terror, unmixed with any that
are horrible and difgulting. Art may therefore be
ufed to heighten them, to difplay the objefts which are
diftinguilhed by greatnefs, to improve the circumftances
which denote force, to mark thofe which intimate dan¬
ger, and to blend withal here and there a call of me¬
lancholy.
Greatnefs is as effential to the charafter of terror as
to that of dignity : vaft efforts in little objects are but
ridiculous; nor can force be fuppofed upon trifles inca¬
pable of refiftance. On the other hand, it muft be al¬
lowed, that exertion and violence fupply fome want of
fpace. A rock wonderfully fupported, or threatening
to fall, acquires a greatnefs from its fituation, which it
has not in dimenfions; fo circumftanced, the fize ap¬
pears to be monftrous : a torrent has a confequence
which a placid river of equal breadth cannot pretend
to; and a tree, which would be inconfiderable in the
natural foil, becomes important when it burfts forth
from a rock.
Such circumftances ftiould be always induftrioufly
fought for. It may be worth while to cut down fe-
veral trees, in order to exhibit one apparently rooted in
the ftone. By the removal perhaps of only a little
brufhwood, the alarming difpofition of a rock, ftrangely
undermined, rivetted, or fufpended? may be ftiown ;
and if there be any foil above itst brow, fome trees
planted there, and impending over it, will make the
objeift: Itill more extraordinary. As to the ftreams,
great alterations may generally be made in them : and
therefore it is of ufe to afcertain the fpecies proper to
each fcene. becaufe it is in our power to enlarge or
contraft their dimenfions; to accelerate or retard their
rapidity ; to form, increafe, or take away obftruftions ;
and always to improve, often to change, their charac¬
ters.
Inhabitants furnifli frequent opportunities to ftrength-
en the appearances of force, by giving intimations of
danger. A houfe placed at the edge of a precipice,
any building on the pinnacle of a crag, makes that
fituation feem formida’fte, which might otherwife have
been unnoticed; a fteep, in itfelf not very remarkable,
3
becomes alarming, when a path is carried aflant up the Rocks,
fide : a rail on the brow of a perpendicular fall, (hows
that the height is frequented and dangerous: and a
common foot bridge thrown over a cleft between rocks
has a ftill ftronger effeft. In all thefe inftances, the
imagination immediately tranfports the fpeftator to the
fpot, and fuggefts the idea of looking down fuch a
depth ; in the laft, that depth is a chafm, and the fitua¬
tion is direftly over it.
In other inftances, exertion and danger feem to at¬
tend the occupations of the inhabitants :
 -Half way down
Hangs one that gathers famphire ; dreadful trade !
is a circumftance chofen by the great poet of nature,
to aggravate the terror of the fcene he deferibes.
The different fpecies of rocks often meet in the
fame place, and compofe a noble fcene, which is not
diftinguifhed by any particular character; it is only
when one eminently prevails, that it deferve^ fuch a
preference as to exclude every other. Sometimes a
fpot, remarkable for nothing but its wildnefs, is highly
romantic: and when this wildnefs rifes to fancy; when
the moft fingular, the moft oppofite forms and combi¬
nations are throwm together ; then a mixture alfo of
feveral charafters adds to the number of inftances
w’hich there concur to difplay the inexhaufiible variety
of nature.
So much variety, fo much fancy, are feldom found
within the fame extent as in Dovedale *. It is about *Near Aft.
two miles in length, a deep, narrow, hollow valley :^ou'ne'n
both the fides are of rock ; and the Dove in its paffage1^1 • lir'
between them is perpetually changing its courfe, its
motion, and appearance. It is never lefs than ten,
nor fo much as twenty, yards wide, and generally about
four feet deep ; but tranfparent to the bottom, except
when it is covered with a foam of the pureft white,
under waterfalls, which are perfe&ly lucid. Thefe
are very numerous, but very different. In fome places
they ftretch ftraight acrofs, or aflant the flream : in
others, they are only partial; and the water either
dallies againft the ftones, and leaps over them, or,
pouring along a fteep, rebounds upon thole below;
fometimes it rulhes through the feveral openings be¬
tween them; fometimes it drops gently down ; and at
other times it is driven back by the obftruftion, and
turns into an eddy. In one particular fpot, the valley,
almoft doling, leaves hardly a paffage for the river,
which, pent up, and ftruggling for a vent, rages, and
roars, and foams, till it has extricated itfelf from the
confinement. In other parts, the ftream, though never
languid, is often gentle ; flows round a little defert
ifland, glides between bits of bulrufhes, difperfes
itfelf among tufts of grafs or of mofs, bubbles about
a ivater dock, or plays with the (lender threads of
aquatic plants which float upon the furface. The
rocks all along the dale vary as often in their ftrufture
as the ftream in its motion. In one place, an extended
furface gradually diminifties from a broad bafe almoft
to an edge : in another, a heavy top hanging forwards,
overftiadows all beneath : fometimes many different
lhapes are confufedly tumbled together; and fome¬
times they are broken into flender lharp pinnacles,
which are upright, often twro or three together, and
often in more numerous clufters. On this fide of the
dale.
■art I.
:Rocks, dale, they are univerfally bare j on the other, they are
—v—' intermixed with wood j and the vaft height of both the
'■t“ iides, with the narrownefs of the interval between
them, produces a further variety : for whenever the
fun {hines from behind the one, the form of it is di-
ftinftly and completely call upon the other j the rugged
furface on which it falls diverfifies the tints •, and a
ftrong reflected light often glares on the edge of the
deepeft fhadow. The rocks never continue long in
the fame figure or fituation, and are very much fepa-
rated from each other : fometimes they form the Tides
of the valley, in precipices, in deeps, or in itages ;
fometimes they feem to rife in the bottom, and lean
back againlt the hill; and fometimes they ftand out
quite detached, heaving up in cumbrous piles, or dart¬
ing into conical diapes, like vad fpars, loo feet
high; fome are firm and folid throughout •, fome are
cracked ; and fome, fplit and undermined, are wonder¬
fully upheld by fragments apparently unequal to the
weight they fudain. One is placed before, one over
another, and one fills at fome didance behind an in¬
terval between two. The changes in their difpofition
are infinite ; every dep produces fome new combina¬
tion j they are continually eroding, advancing, and re¬
tiring ; the breadth of the valley is never the fame 40
yards together : at the narrow pafs which has been
mentioned, the rocks almod meet at the top, and the
fky is feen as through a chink between them : jud by
this gloomy abyfs, is a wider opening, more light,
more verdure, more cheerfulnefs than anywhere elfe
in the dale. Nor are the forms and the dtuations of
the rocks their only variety : many of them are per¬
forated by large natural cavities, fome of which open
to the fky, fome terminate in dark receffes, and through
fome are to be feen feveral more uncouth arches, and
rude pillars, all detached, and retiring beyond each
other, vuth the light fhining in between them, till a
rock far behind them clofes the perfpeftive : the noife
of the cafcades in the river echoes amongd them ; the
water may often be heard at the fame time gurgling
near, and roaring at a didance ; but no other founds
didurb the filence of the fpot : the only trace of men
is a blind path, but lightly and but feldom trodden, by
thofe whom curiofity leads to fee the wonders they
have been told of Dovedale. It feems indeed a fitter
haunt for mere ideal beings : the whole has the air of
enchantment. The perpetual diifting of the feenes j
the quick tranfitions, the total changes, then the forms
all around, grotefque as chance can cad, wild as nature
can produce, and various as imagination can invent j
the force which feems to have been exerted to place
fome of the rocks where they are now' fixed immove¬
able, the magic by w'hieh others appear dill to be fuf-
pended j the dark caverns, the illuminated recedes, the
fleeting fhadows, and the gleams of light glancing on
the fides, or trembling on the dream •, and the loneli-
nefs and the dillnefs of the place, all crowding toge¬
ther on the mind, almod realize the ideas which natu¬
rally prefent themfelves in this region of romance and
of fancy.
The folitude of fuch a feene is agreeable, on ac¬
count of the endlefs entertainment which its variety
affords, and in the contemplation of which both the
eye and the mind are delighted to indulge : marks of
inhabitants and cultivation would diflurb that folitude 5
397
and ornamental buildings are too artificial in a place Fence, Stc-
fo abfolutely free from redraint. The only accom- v
paniments proper for it are wood and water ; and by
thefe fometimes improvements may be made. When
two rocks fimilar in diape and pofition are near toge¬
ther, by fkirting one of them with wood, while the
other is left bare, a material didin&ion is edabliftied
between them : if the dreams be throughout of one
character, it is in our pow'er, and fhould be our aim,
to introduce another. Variety is the peculiar pro¬
perty of the fpot, and every acceffion to it is a valuable
acquifition. On the fame principle, endeavours Ihould
be ufed not only to multiply, but to aggravate differ¬
ences, and to increafe didinctions into contrads : but
the fubjeft wrill impofe a caution againd attempting
too much. Art mud almod deipair of improving
a feene, where nature feems to have exerted her in¬
vention.
§ 2. Of Factitious Accompaniments.
These confid of Fences, Walks, Roads, Bridges, PraElical
Seats, and Buildings. Treatifc on
Planting
“ I. The FENCE, where the place is large, becomes
neceflary ; yet the eye didikes condraint. Our ideas p, 593/&c,
of liberty carry us beyond our own fpecies: the ima¬
gination feels a didike in feeing even the brute creation
in a date of confinement. The birds wafting them¬
felves from w'ood to grove are objects of delight j and
the hare appears to enjoy a degree of happinefs un¬
known to the barriered flock. Befides, a tall fence fre¬
quently hides from the Tight objects the mod pleafing j
not only the flocks and herds themTelves, but the Turface
they graze upon. TheTe confiderations have brought
the unTeen fence into general ufe.
This fpecies of barrier it mud be allowed incurs a
degree of deception, which can fcarcely be warranted
upon any other oecafion. In this inflanee, however,
it is a fpecies of fraud which we obferve in nature’s
practice : how often have we feen two diflindt herds
feeding to appearance in the fame extended meadow j
until coming abruptly upon a deep funk rivulet, or an
unfordable river, we difeover the deception.
Befides the funk fence, another fort of unfeen bar¬
rier may be made, though by no means equal to that,
efpecially if near the eye. This is conflrufted of paling,
painted of the invifible green. If the colour of the
back ground were permanent, and that of the paint
made exa&ly to correfpond with it, the deception
would at a diflance be complete j but back grounds
in general changing with the feafon, this kind of fence
is the lefs eligible..
Clumps and patches of woodinefs fcattered promif-
cuoufly on either fide of an unfeen winding fence, aflift
very much in doing away the idea of conflraint. For
by this means
The w and’ring flocks that browfe between the fhade^,
Seem oft to pafs their bounds $ the dubious eye
Decides not if they crop the mead or. lawn.
Mason, .
“ II. The WALK, in extenfive grounds, is as ne-
ceffary as the fence. The beauties of the place are dif-
clofed that they may be feen j and it is the office of th«
walk.
GARDENING.
398
Bridge, See. walk to lead the eye from view to view j in order that
^-“-v whilft the tone of health is preferved by the favourite
Ibld* exereife of nature, the mind may be thrown into unifon
by the harmony of the furrounding objedts.
The diredtion of the walk muft be guided by the
points of view to which it leads, and the nature of the
ground it paffes over : it ought to be made fubfervient
to the natural impediments (the ground, wood, and
water) which fall in its way, without appearing to
have any diredlion of its own. It can feldom run with
propriety any diftance in a ftraight line ; a thing which
rarely occurs in a natural walk. The paths of the Ne¬
groes and the Indians are always crooked ; and thofe of
the brute creation are very fimilar. Mr Mafon’s deferip-
tion of this path of nature is happily conceived.
The peafant driving through each fhadowy lane
His team, that bends beneath th’ incumbent weight
Of laughing Ceres, marks it with his wheel ;
At night and morn, the milkmaid’s carelefs ftep
Has through yon pafture green, from ftile to ftile
Impreft a kindred curve : the feudding hare
Draws to her dew-fprent feat, o’er thymy heaths,
A path as gently waving 
Eng. Card. v. 60.
“ III. The ROAD may be a thing of neceflity, as
an approach to the manfion •, or a matter of amufement
only, as a drive or a ride, from which the grounds and
the furrounding country may be feen to advantage.
Tt (hould be the ftudy of the artift to make the fame
road anfwer, as far as may be, the twofold purpofe.
The road and the walk are fubjedt to the fame rule
of nature and ufe. The dire&ion ought to be natural
and eafy, and adapted to the purpofe intended. A road
of neceffity ought to be ftraighter than one of mere
conveniency : in this, recreation is the predominant
idea •, in that, utility. But even in this the direft line
may be difpenfed with. The natural roads upon heaths
and open downs, and the graffy glades* and green roads
acrofs forefts and extenfive waites, are proper fubjefts
to be ftudied.
“ IV. The BRIDGE fhould never be feen where it
is not wanted : a ufelefs bridge is a deception *, decep¬
tions are frauds •, and fraud is always hateful, unlefs
■when praftifed to avert fome greater evil. A bridge
■without water is an abfurdity •, and half a one ftuck up
as an eye-trap is a paltry trick, which, though it may
Rrike the ftranger, cannot fail of difgufting when the
fraud is found out.
In low' lituations, and wherever water abounds,
bridges become ufeful, and are therefore pleafing ob¬
jects : they are looked for ; and ought to appear not
as objefts of ornament only, but like wife as matters of
utility. The walk or the ioad therefore ought to be
direfted in fuch a manner as to crofs the water at the
point in which the bridge will appear to the greateft
advantage.
In the conftru&ion of bridges alfo, regard muft be
had to ornament and utility. A bridge T an artificial
prod Lift ion, and as fuch it ought to appear. It ranks
among the nobleft of human inventions ; the fhip and
the fortrefs alone excel it. Simplicity and firmnefs are
the loading principles in its conrtruftion. Mr Wheat-
ley’s oblervation is juft when he fays, « The fingle
Ibid.
GARDENING. Partlj
wooden arch, now much in faftiion, feems to me gene- Buildings,,
rally mifapplied. Elevated without occaiion fo much ‘
above, it is totally detached from the river; it
often feen ftraddling in the air, without a glimpfe
of water to account for it 5 and the oftentation of it
as an ornamental objeft, diverts all that train of ideas
which its ufe as a communication might fuggeft.”
But we beg leave to differ from this ingenious writer
when he tells us, “ that it is fpoiled if adorned j it is
disfigured if only painted of any other than a dufky
colour.” In a rultic feene, where nature wears her
own coarfe garb, “ the vulgar foot bridge of planks
only guarded on one hand by a common rail, and fup-
ported by a few ordinary piles,” may be in chaiafter ;
but amidft a difplay of ornamented nature, a contrivance
of that kind would appear mean and paltry ; and would
be an affeftation of fimplicity rather than the lovely
attribute itfelf. In cultivated feenes, the bridge ought
to receive the ornaments which the law's of architec¬
tural tafte allow j and the more polilhed the fituation,
the higher Ihould be the ftyle and finilhings.
“ V. SEATS have a tw'ofold ufe ; they are ufeful as
places of reft and converfation, and as guides to the
points of view' in which the beauties of the furround¬
ing feene are difclofed. Every point of view ftiould
be marked with a feat ; and, fpeaking generally, no
feat ought to appear but in fome favourable point of
view'. This rule may not be invariable, but it ought
feldom to be deviated from.
In the ruder feenes of neglefted nature, the fimple
trunk, rough from the woodman’s hands, and the
butts or ftoolsof rooted trees, w ithout any other marks
of tools upon them than thofe of the law which fe¬
vered them from their Items, are feats in charafter j
and in romantic or reclufe lituations, the cave or the
grotto are admiftible. But wherever human delign has
been executed upon the natural objefts of the place,
the feat and every other artificial accompaniment ought
to be in unifon j and whether the bench or the alcove
be chofen, it ought to be formed and finilhed in luch a
manner as to unite with the wood, the lawn, and th6
walk, which lie around it.
The colour of feats flrould likewife be fuited to fi-
tuations : where uncultivated nature prevails, the na¬
tural brow n of the w ood itfelf ought not to be altered j
but where the rural art prefides, white or ftone colour
has a much better effeft.”
“ VI. BUILDINGS probably were firft introduced ffUnU
into gardens merely for contrivance, to afford rtfugcley's 0'Jer’
from a hidden (hower, and fhelter againft the wind ^ or, vaiioni &
at the moft, to be feats for a party j or for retirement. urae
They have fince been converted into objefts, and now
the original nfe is too often forgotten in the greater
purpofes to which they are applied : they are confi-
dered as objefts only j the infid^ is totally negltfted,
and a pompous edifice frequently wants a room bare¬
ly comfortable. Sometimes the pride of making a
lavifh difplay to a vifitor without any regard to the
owner’s enjoyments, and fometimes too fcrupulous an
attention to the ftyle of the ftvufture, otcafions a po¬
verty and dulneff within, which deprive the buildings
of part of their utility. But in a gaiden they ought
to be confidered both as beautiful objefts and as a-
greeabl*
db,
^art I. GAUD
iJuiidmgs. graeable retreats: if a cbaraiSer becomes them, it is
«- v**"" that of the fcene they belong to •, not that of their
primitive application. A Grecian temple or Gothic
church may adorn fpots where it would be affectation
to preferve that folemnity within which is proper for
places of devotion : they are not to be exact models,
fupjeCts only of curiofity or ftudy : they are alfo feats:
and fuch feats will be little frequented by the proprie¬
tor ; his mind mult generally be indifpofed to fo much
fimplicity, and lo much gloom, in the midlt of gaiety,
riehnefs, and variety.
But though the interior of buildings fhould not be
difregarded, it is by their exterior that they become
objetts ; and fometimes by the one, fometimes by the
other, and fometimes by both, they are entitled to be
I0 confiderfd as charaBers.
if build- I. As objects, they are defigned either to dLftinguiJh,
igs intend- or t0 break, or to adorn, the fcenes to which they are
lfofob* applied.
The differences between one wood, one lawn, one
piece of water, and another, are not always very appa¬
rent: the feveral parts of a garden would, therefore, of¬
ten feem limilar, if they were not diltinguilhed by build¬
ings ; but thefe are fo obfervable, fo obvious at a
glance, fo eafily retained in the memory, they mark
the fpots where they are placed with fo much llrength,
they attra£l the relation of all around with fo much
power, that parts thus dillinguilhed can never be con¬
founded together. Yet it by no means follows, that
therefore every fcene muff have its edifice : the want
of one is fometimes a variety ; and other circumftances
are often fufficientlycharaCteriftic : it is only when thefe
too nearly agree, that we mult have recourfe to build¬
ings for differences: we can introduce, exhibit, or
contrail them as we pleafe : the molt linking object is
thereby make a mark of diltinCtion j and the force of
this firlt impreffion prevents our obferving the points of
refemblance.
The uniformity of a view may be broken by fimi-
lar means, and on the fame principle : when a wide
heath a dreary moor, or a continual plain, is in pro-
fpeCt, objeCts which catch the eye fupplant the want of
variety: none are fo effectual for this purpofe as build¬
ings. Plantations or water can have no very fen-
fible effeCt, unlefs they are large or numerous, and
almolt change the character of the fcene : but a fmall
fiftgle building diverts the attention at once from the
famenefs of the extent ; which it breaks, but does not
divide ; and diverfifies, without altering its nature.
The defign, however, mult not be apparent. The me¬
rit of a cottage applied to this purpofe, confilts in its
being free from the fufpicion : and a few trees near it
■will both enlarge the objeCt, and account for its pofi-
tion. Ruins are a hackneyed device immediately de¬
tected, unlefs their Ryle be Angular, or their dimen-
fions extraordinary. The femblanee of an ancient
Britifh monument might be adapted to the fame end,
with little trouble, and great fuccefs. The materials
might be brick, or even timber plafiered over, if
Rone could not eafily be procured : whatever they
were, the fallacy would not be difcernible ; it is an
objeCt to be feen at a diflance, rude, and large, and'
in character agreeable to a wold open view'. But no
building ought to be introduced, which may not in
reality bglong to fuch a fituation; uo Grecian tear-
2
’/rrz). o«
oil. Gar-
mng.
E N I N G. 309
pies, no Turkilh mofques, no Egyptian obelifks or py- Bund «s.
ramids; none imported from foreign countries, and
unufual here. The apparent artifice would defiroy an
effeCt, which is fo nice as to be weakened, if objcCts
proper to produce it are difplayed with too much oRen-
tation j if they feem to be contrivances, not accidents j
and the advantage of their pofition appear to be more
laboured than natural.
But in a garden, where objeCts are intended only to
adorn, every fpecies of architecture may be admitted,
from the Grecian down to the Chinefe j and the choice is
fo free, that the mifehief molt to be apprehended is an
abufe of this latitude in the multiplicity of buildings.
Few fcenes can bear more than two or three : in fome,
a fingle one has a gi*eater effect than any number : and
a carelefs glimpfe, here and there, of fuch as belong
immediately to different parts, frequently enliven the
landfcape with more fpirit than thofe which are induf-
trioufly Ihown. If the effed of a partial fight, or a
diflant view, were more attended to, many fcenes might
be filled, without being crowded-, a greater number of
buildings would be tolerated, when they feemed to be
cafual, not forced j and the animation, and the rich-
nefs of the objeCts, might be had without pretence or
difplay.
Too fond an oRentation of buildings, even of thefe
which are principal, is a common error j and when all
is done, they are not always fl>own to the greateR ad¬
vantage. Though their fymmetry and their beauties
ought in general to be diflinCtly and fully feen, yet an
oblique is fometimes better than a direCt view’ ; and-
they are often lefs agreeable objeCts w'hen entire, than
when a part is covered, or their extent is interrupted;
when they are bofomed in w-ood, as well as backed by
it; or appear between the Rems of trees which rife
before or above them : thus thrown into perfpeCtive,
thus grouped and accompanied, they may be as impor¬
tant as if they were quite expoled, and are frequently
more piCturefque and beautiful.
But a Rill greater advantage arifes from this ma¬
nagement, in connecting them with the fcene : they
are confiderable, and different from all around them ;
inclined therefore to feparate from the reR ; and yet
they are fometimes Rill more detached by the pains
taken to exhibit them : that very importance which is-
the caufe of the diRinCtion ought to be a reafon for
guarding againfl the independence to which it is natu¬
rally prone, and by which an objeCt, which ought to
be a part of the whole, is reduced to a mere indivi¬
dual. An elevated is generally a noble fituation. When
it is a point or a pinnacle, the flruCture may be a conti¬
nuation of the afeent; and on many occafions, feme
parts of the building may defeend lower than others,
and multiply the appearances of connexion : but an
edifice in the midfi of an extended ridge, commonly
feems naked alone, and impofed upon the brow, not
joined to it. If wood, to accompany it, will not grow
there, it had better be brought a little way down the
declivity ; and then all behind, above, and about it,
are fo many points of contaa, by which it is incorpo¬
rated into landfcape.
Accompaniments are important to a building ; but
they lofe much of their effeCt when they do not ap¬
pear to be cafua!. A little mount juR large enough
for it ; a fra all piece of water below, of no other ufe
' than
400
Buildings, than to refie£l it*, and a plantation clofe behind, evi-
dently placed there only to give it relief j are as arti¬
ficial as the rtru&ure itfelf, and ^ alienate it from the
fcene of nature into Avhich it is introduced, and to
which it ought to be reconciled. Thefe appendages
therefore {tumid be fo difpofed, and fo connected with
the adjacent parts, as to ant'wer other purpofes, though
applicable to this : that they may be bonds of union,
not marks of difference ; and that the fituation may
appear to have been chofen at the molt, not made, for
the building.
In the choice of a fituation, that which (hows the
building bed ought generally to be preferred : emi¬
nence, relief, and every other advantage which can
be, ought to be given to an objedd of fo much confider-
ation i they are for the mod part defirable j fometimes
neceffary j and exceptionable only when, indead of ril¬
ing out of the fcene, they are forced into it, and a
contrivance to procure them at any rate is avowed
without any difguife. There are, however, occafions,
in which the mod tempting advantages of fituation
mud be waved *, the general compofition may forbid a
building in one Ipot, or reejuire it in another ; at other
times, the intered of the particular group it belongs .to
may exadil a facrifice of the opportunities to exhibit its
beauties and importance *, and at all times, the pre-
tenfions of every individual objed mud give way to the
tt greater effeft of the whole.
Of thofe 2. The fame drudure which adorns as an obje£I,ma.y
^eAprefllve alfo be expredive as a charaEier. Where the.former is
of charac- not wanted, the latter may be defirable : or it may be
*er* weak for one purpofe, and drong for the other } it
may be grave, or gay } magnificent, or fimple : and
according to its dyle, may or may not be agreeable to
the place it is applied to. But mere confidency is not
all the merit which buildings can claim : their charac¬
ters are fometimes drong enough to determine, improve,
or correEl, that of the fcene : and they are fo confpicu-
ous, and fo didinguifhed, that whatever force they
have is immediately and fenfibly felt. Ihey aie fit
therefore to make a fird impredion j and when a fcene
Is but faintly charafterized, they give at once a cad
which fpreads over the whole, and which the weaker
parts coQcur to fupport, though perhaps they were not
able to produce it.
Nor do they dop at fixing an uncertainty, or re¬
moving a doubt they raife and enforce a character
already marked: a temple adds dignity to the nobled,
a cottage fimplicity to the mod rural, feenes ; the
lightnefs of a fpire, the airinefs of an open rotunda,
the fplendour of a continued colonnade, are lefs orna¬
mental than expredive ; others, improve cheerfulnefs
into gaiety, gloom into folemnity, and richnefs into
profufion : a retired fpot, which might have been paffed
unobferved, is noticed for its tranquillity, as foon as it
is appropriated by fome drufture to retreatand the
mod unfrequented place feems lefs folitary than, one
which appears to have been the haunt of a fingle indi¬
vidual, or even of a fequedered family, and is maiked
by a lonely dwelling, or the remains of a deferted ha¬
bitation. . .
The means are the fame, the application of them
only is different, when buildings are ufed to corieft
the charafter of the fcene j to enliven its dulnefs, miti¬
gate its gloom, or to check its extravagance, and, on
Fart T.
a variety of occafions, to foften, to aggravate, or to Buildings,
counteraft, particular circumdances attending it. But'~~v-^
care mud be taken that they do not contradift too
drongly the prevailing idea : they may leffap the
drearinefs of a wade, but they cannot give it amenity j
they may abate horrors, but they will never convert
them into graces •, they may make a tame fcene agree¬
able, and even intereding, not romantic ; or turn fo¬
lemnity into cheerfulnefs, but not into gaiety. In
thefe, and in many other indances, they corred tha
charader, by giving it an inclination towards a better
which is not very different; but they can hardly alter
it entirely : when they are totally inconfident with it,
they are at the bed nugatory.
The great effeds which have been aferibed to build¬
ings do not depend upon thofe trivial ornaments and
appendages which are often too much relied on } fuch
as the furniture of a hermitage,’ painted gl.afs in a
Gothic church, and fculpture about a Grecian tem¬
ple •, grotefque or bacchanalian figures to denote
gaiety, and death’s heads to fignify melancholy.
Such devices are only deferiptive, not expredive, of
charader ; and mud not be fubdituted in the dead of
thofe fuperior properties, the want of which they ac¬
knowledge, but do not fupply. . They befides often
require time to trace their meaning, and to fee their
application •, but the peculiar excellence of buildings
is, that their effeds are indantaneous, and therefore the
impredions they make are forcible. In order to pro¬
duce fuch effeds, the general dyle of the drudure,
and its polition, are the principal confiderations : either
of them will fometimes be drongly charaderidic alone j
united, their powers are very great ; and both are fo
important, that if they do not concur, at lead they
mud not contra did one another. . n
Every branch of architedure furnilhes, on different Species and
occafions, objeds proper for a garden 5 and there is no fituatiom
redraint on our feledion, provided it be conformable to
the dyle of the fcene, proportioned to its extent, and
agreeable to its charader.
The choice of fituations is alfo very free. A hermi¬
tage, indeed, mud not be clofe to a road } but whether it
be expofed to view on the fide of a mountain, or conceal¬
ed in the depth of a wood, is almod a matter of indif¬
ference } that it is at a diftance from public refort is fuf-
ficient. A cadle mud not be funk in a bottom *, but that
it diould dand on the utmod pinnacle of a hill, is not
neceffary : on a lower knoll, and backed by the rife, it
may appear to greater advantage as an objed, and. be
much more important to the general compofition.
Many buildings, which from their fplendour bed become
an open expofure, will yet be fometimes not ill bedov-
ed on a more fequedered fpot, either to chara£terize or
adorn it *, and others, for which a folitary would in ge¬
neral be preferred to an eminent fituation, may occa-
fionally be objefts in very confpicuous pofitions. . A
Grecian temple, from its peculiar tade and dignity,
deferves every didin&ion *, it may, however, in the
depth of a wood, be fo circumdanced, that the. want
of thofe advantages to which it feems entitled will not
be regretted. A happier fituation cannot be devifed,
than that of the temple of Pan on the fouth lodge on
Enfield Chafe. It is of the ufual oblong form, encom-
pafled by a colonnade ; in dimenfions, and in dyle, it
is equal to a mod extenlive landfcape t- and yet by.t ie
antique
GARDENING.
Y;'r:Urg
f/i Gar-
fl
Vi -9s-
|:rt!. - , GARDE
1 Idings. antique and ruftic air of its Doric columns without
t -y—^ bales j by the chaftity of its little ornaments, a crook,
a pipe, and a fcrip, and thofe only over the doors ; and
by the fimplicity of the whole both within and without j
it is adapted Avith fo much propriety to the thickets
Avhich conceal it from the view, that no one can willi
it to be brought fonvard, who is fenfible to the charms
of the Arcadian fcene which this building alone has
created. On the other hand, a very ipacious field, or
fheep Avalk, Avill not be difgraced by a farm houfe, a
cottage, or a Dutch barn ; nor will they, though fmall
and familiar, appear to be inconfiderable or inngnifi-
cant objetts. Numberlels other inftances might be ad’
duced to prove the impo-ihbiiity of reilraining particu¬
lar buildings to particular fituations, upon any general
principles : the variety in their forms is hardly greater
than in their application. Only let not their ules be
dilguifed, as is often abfurdly attempted with the hum¬
bler kinds. “ A barn J drefied up in the habit of a
country church, or a farm houfe figuring away in the
fiercenefs of a caitle, are ridiculous deceptions. A
landfcape daubed upon a board, and a Avooden fteeple
iluck up in a Avood, are beneath contempt.”
Temples, thofe favourite and moft coftly objects in
gardens, too generally merit cenfure for their inutility,
their profufion, or the impropriety of their purpofe.
“ Whether they be dedicated to Bacchus, Venus, Pria-
pus, or any other demon of debauchery, they are in
this age, enlightened Avith regard to theological and
fcientific knowledge, equally abfurd. Architecture,
in this part of its fphere, may more nobly, and Avith
greater beauty and efieft, be exercifed upon a chapel,
a maufoleum, a monument, judiciouily difpofed among
I--V-S99- the natural ornaments. The late Sir William Har-
bord has given us a model, of the firft kind, at Gun-
ton, in Norfolk ; the parilh church Handing in his
park, and being an old unfightly building, he had
it taken doAvn, and a beautiful temple, under the di¬
rection of the Adams erected upon its fite for the fame
facred purpofe :—The maufoleum at CafUe-HoAvard,
in Yorklhire, the feat of the earl of Cariiile, is a noble
ftructure:—And as an inftance of the laft fort, may be
mentioned the Temple of Concord and Victory at
Stowe, eredted to the memory of the great Lord Cha¬
tham and his glorious Avar 5 a beautiful monumental
building, fuited to the greatnefs of the occafion.”
To the great variety above mentioned mult be added,
Mr Wheatley obferves, the many changes which may
be made by the means of ruins. They are a clafs by
themfelves, beautiful as objects, expreffive as characters,
and peculiarly calculated to connect with appendages
into elegant groups. They may be accommodated
with eafe to irregularity of ground, and their diforder
is improved by it. They may be intimately blended
with trees and thickets ; and the interruption is an ad¬
vantage : for imperfeCtion and obfeurity are their pro¬
perties, and to carry the imagination to fomething
, . , greater than is feen, is their effeCt. They may for any
°f thefe purpofes be feparated into detached pieces :
contiguity is not neceffary, nor even the appearance
of it, if the relation be preferved ; but ftraggling ruins
have a bad effeCt, when the feveral parts are equally
confiderable. There Ihould be one large mafs to raife
an idea of greatnefs, to attraCl the others about it, and
be a common centre of union to all: the fmaller
iU
tr on
to
IX. Part II,
N I N G. 401
pieces then mark the original dimenfions of one exten- Buildmgs.
live HruCture •, and no longer appear to be the remains
of feveral little buildings.
All remains excite an inquiry into the former Hate of
the edifice, and fix the mind in a contemplation of the
ufe it Avas applied to *, befides the characters exprefied
by their ftylc and pofition, they fuggelt ideas which
Avould not arife from the buildings if entire. The pur¬
pofes of many have ceafed : an abbey, or a cattle, if
complete, can hoav be no more than a dwelling j the
memory of the times, and of the manners to Avhich
they are adapted, is preferved only in hittory, and in
ruins; and certain fenfations of regret, of veneration,
or compaffion, attend the recolleCtion. Nor are thefe
confined to the remains of buildings Avhich are in
difufe 5 thofe of an old manfion raife reflections on the
domettic comforts once enjoyed, and the ancient hof-
pitality Avhich reigned there. Whatever building avc
fee in decay, avc naturally contrail its prefent Avith
its former Hate, and delight to ruminate on the com-
parifon. It is true that fuch effeCts properly belong
to real ruins : they are, hoAvever, produced in a cer¬
tain degree by thofe which are fictitious : the impref-
fions are not fo ttrong, but they are exaCtly fimilar ;
and the reprefentation, though it does not prefent fads
to the memory, yet fuggefts fubjeCts to the imagina¬
tion. But, in order to affect the fancy, the fuppofed
original delign fhould be clear, the ufc obviou-, and the
form eafy to be traced : no fragments fhould be
hazarded Avithout precife meaning, and an evident
connexion ; none fliould be perplexed in their con-
ftro.Ction, or uncertain as to their application. Con¬
jectures about the form raife doubts about the exift-
ence of the ancient ftruCture : the mind muft not be
alloAved to hefitate ; it muft be hurried aAvay from exa¬
mining into the reality by the exactnefs and the force
of the refemblance.
In the ruins of Tintern abbey § the original con- 5 Pctwcea
ftruCtion of the church is perfectly marked j and it is Chepftow
principally from this circumftance that they are cele-and Mon-
braied as a fubjeCt of curiofity and contemplation.mout1'’
The Avails are almolt entire; the roof only is fallen in,
but moft of the columns which divided the aiiles are
Hill Handing : of thofe Avhich have dropped doAvn, the
bates remain, every one exaCtly in its place ; and in the
middle of the nave four lofty arches, which once fup-
ported the Heeple, rife high in the air above all the
relt, each reduced nowr to a narrow rim of Hone, but
completely preferving its form. The fnapes even of
the AvindoAVs are little altered •, but fome of them are
quite obfeured, others partially Hiaded, by tufts of
ivy : and thofe Avhich are mofl clear are edged Avith
its flender tendrils, and lighter foliage, Avreathing
about the fides and the diviiions: it winds round the
pillars it clings to the walls ; and in one of the aides
cluflers at the top in branches, fo thick and fo large as
to darken the fpace belotv. The other aifles, and the
great nave, are expofed to the fky : the floor is entire¬
ly overfpread Avith turf; and to keep it clear from
Aveeds and bufltes, is iaoav its higheH prefervation.
Monkiftt tomb Hones and the monuments of bene-
fa&ors long fince forgotten, appear above the green
fward : the bafes of the pillars Avhich have fallen,
rife out of it; and maimed effigies, and fculpture
Avorn with age and Aveather, Gothic capitals, carved
3 E cornices.
402
Art.
.Planting
and Gar¬
defling,
$• 6c*.
GARDENING.
cornice* and various fragment*, are fcattered about,
or lie in heaps piled up together. Other fhattered
pieces, though disjointed and mouldering, ftill occupy
their original places y and a ftaircafe much impaired,
which led to a tower now no more, is fufpended
at a great height, uncovered and inacceflible : nothing
is perfect y but memorials of every part Hill fubfift y
all certain, but all in decay y and fuggefting at once
every idea which can occur in a feat of devotion,
folitude, and defolation. Upon fuch models fictitious
ruins fhould be formed ^ and if any parts are en¬
tirely loft, they ftiould be fuch as the imagination
can eafily fupply from thofe which are ftill remain¬
ing. Diftinft traces of the building, which is fuppofed
to have exifted, are lefs liable to the fufpicion of
artifice, than an unmeaning heap of confufion. Pre-
cifion is always fatisfa6iory, but in the reality it is
only agreeable y in the copy it is effential to the imita¬
tion.
A material circumftance to the truth of the imitation
is, that the ruins appear to be very old. The idea is befides
interefting in itfelf: a monument of antiquity is never
feen with indifference y and a femblance of age may be
given to the reprefentation by the hue of the materials,
the growth of ivy and other plants, and cracks and frag¬
ments feemingly occafioned rather by decay than by
deftruelion. An appendage evidently more modern than
the principal ftructure will fometimes corroborate the
effeft : the fired of a cottager amidft the remains of a
temple, is a contrail both to the former and to the pre-
fent ftate of the building y and a tree flouriftiing among
ruins, (hows the length of time they have lain neglefted.
No circumftance fo forcibly marks the defolation of
a fpot once inhabited, as the prevalence of nature
over it :
Campos ubi Troja fait,
is a fentence which conveys a ftronger idea of a city
totally overthrown, than a defeription of its remains 5
but in a reprefentation to the eye, fome remains mull
appear y and then the perverfion of them to an ordinary
ufe, or an intermixture of a vigorous vegetation, inti¬
mates a fettled defpair of their reftoration.
Sect. II. Principles of Selection and Arrangement in
the SubjeRs of Gardening.
I. Of ART. In the lower claffes of rural improve¬
ments, art ftiould be feen as little as may be ; and in the
more negligent feenes of nature, every thing ought to
appear as if it had been done by the general laws of
nature, or had grown out of a feries of fortuitous cir-
cumftances. But in the higher departments, art can¬
not be hid y and the appearance of defign ought not to
be excluded. A human production cannot be made
perfectly natural y and held out as fuch it becomes an
impofition. Our art lies in endeavouring to adapt the
productions of nature to human tafte and perceptions y
and if much art be ufed, do not attempt to hide it. Art
feldom fails to pleafe when executed in a mafterly man¬
ner : nay, it is frequently the defign and execution,
more than the production itfelf, that ftrikes us. It is
the artifice, not the defign, which ought to be avoid¬
ed. It is the labour and not the art which ought to
*e concealed. The rural artift ought, therefore, up¬
Part I,
on every occafion, to endeavour to avoid labour } or, Pidlurefqm
if indifpenfably neceffary, to conceal it. No trace Beauty, I
ftiould be left to lead back the mind to the expenfive ,
toil. A mound railed, a mountain levelled, or a ufe-
lefs temple built, convey to the mind feelings equally
dilgufting.
II. PICTURESQUE BEAUTY. Though theof^
aids of art are as effential to gardening, as education is '
to manners y yet art may do too much : (he ought to
be confidered as the handmaid, not as the miftrefs, of
of nature y and whether (he be employed in carving a
tree into the figure of an animal, or in fhaping a view
into the form of a picture, Ihe is equally culpable.
The nature of the place is facred. Should this tend
to landfcape, from fome principal point of view, affiit
nature and perfeCt it; provided this can be done with¬
out injuring the views from other points. But do not
disfigure the natural features of the place :—do not ia-
crifiee its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of land¬
fcape painting.
Great Nature fcorns controul y (he will not bear
One beauty foreign to the fpot or foil
She gives thee to adorn : ’Tis thine alone
To mend, not change, her features. Mason.-
Nature fcarcely knows the thing mankind call a !and-
fcape. The landfcape painter feldom, if ever, finds it
perfeCled to his hands y fome addition or alteration
is almoft always wanted. Every man who has made
his obfervations upon natural feenery, knows that the
mifletoe of the oak occurs almoft as often as a perfeCt
natural landfcape ; and to attempt to make up artifi¬
cial landfcape upon every occafion is unnatural and ab-
firrd.
If, indeed, the eye wrere fixed in one point, the trees-
could be raifed to their full height at command, and the
fun be made to ftand ftill, the rural artift might work
by the rules of light and lhade, and compofe his land¬
fcape by the painter’s law. But, whilft the fun con¬
tinues to pour forth its light impartially, and the
trees to rife with flow progreftion, it would be
ridiculous to attempt it. Let him rather feek out, imi¬
tate, and affociate, fuch ftriking paffages in nature as-
are immediately applicable to the place to be improved,
with regard to rules of landfcape, merely human y—and'
let him,
  in this and all
Be various, wild, and free, as Nature’s felf. Mason.
Inftead of facrificing the natural beauties of the place
to one formal landfcape, let every ftep difclofe frelb
charms unfought for.
III. Of CHARACTER. Charafter is very recon¬
cilable with beauty y and, even when independent of
it, has attracted fo much regard, as to occafion feye- lVhl.atleps
ral frivolous attempts to produce it: ftatues, inferip- QijjerM.
tions, and even paintings, hiftory and mythology, and t:ju.
a variety of devices, have been introduced for this
purpofe. The heathen deities and heroes have there- I4
fore had their feveral places afligned to them in the of embfc'
woods and lawns of a garden; natural cafcades havematica^
been disfigured with river gods, and columns eredted on-c ia
ly to receive quotations ; the compartiments of a fum-
aaer
art I.
GARDENING
i rnnta-
re cha-
clcrs.
haracler. mer houfe have been filled with pi<51ures of gambols and
revelSj a3 fignificant of gaiety } the cyprefs, becaufe
it was once ufed in funerals, has been thought pecu¬
liarly adapted to melancholy ; and the decorations, the
furniture, and the environs of a building, have been
crowded with puerilities under pretence of propriety.
All thefe devices are rather emblematical than expreffive:
they may be ingenious contrivances, and recal abfent
ideas to the recoiled!ion ; but they make no immediate
impreffion: for they mull be examined, compared,
perhaps explained, before the v'hole defign of them is
well underilood. And though an allufion to a favourite
or wTell known fubjedl of hiltory, of poetry, or of tra¬
dition, may now and then animate or dignify a fcene j
yet as the fubject does not naturally belong to a garden,
the allufion fiiould not be principal: it Ihould fcem to
have been fuggefted by the fcene 5 a tranfitory image,
which irrefiilibly occurred ; not fought for, not labour¬
ed j and have the force of a metaphor, free from the detail
i - of an allegory.
Another fpecies of character arifes from direct imi¬
tation ; when a fcene or an objedt, which has been ce¬
lebrated in defcription, or is familiar in idea, is repre-
fented in a garden. Artificial ruins, lakes, and rivers,
fall under this denomination. The air of a feat extend¬
ed to a diftance, and feenes calculated to raife ideas of
Arcadian elegance or of rural fimplicity, with many
more which have been occafionally mentioned, or will
obvioufly occur, may be ranked in this clafs. They
are all reprefentations. But the materials, the diinen-
fions, and other circumftances, being the fame in the
copy and the original, their effedls are fimilar in both :
and if not equally ilrong, the defedf is not in the re-
femblance; but the confcioufnefs of an imitation
checks that train of thought which the appearance na¬
turally fuggefts. Yet an over anxious folicitude to dif-
guife the fallacy is often the means of expofing it: too
many points of likenefs fometimes hurt the deception ;
they feem ftudied and forced 5 and the affedfation of
refemblance deftroys the fuppofition of a reality. A
hermitage is the habitation of a reclufe ; it Ihould be
diftinguifiied by its folitude, and its fimplicity : but
if it is filled with crucifixes, hour glaffes, beads, and
every other trinket which can be thought of, the
attention is diverted from enjoying the retreat to ex¬
amining the particulars: all the collateral circumftan¬
ces which agree with a charadler leldom meet in one
fubjedl; and when they are induftrioufty brought to¬
gether, though each be natural, the collection is ar¬
tificial.
16
original
rafters.
But the art of gardening afpires to more than imita¬
tion : it can create original charadters, and give expref-
fions to the feveral feenes fuperior to any they can re¬
ceive from allufions. Certain properties, and certain
difpofitions, of the objedls of nature, are adapted to ex¬
cite particular ideas and fenfationsj many of them have
been occafionally mentioned, and all are very well
known. They require no difeernment, examination, or
uifeuflion j but are obvious at a glance, and inftantane-
oufly diftinguiftied by our feelings. Beauty alone is not
fo engaging as this fpecies of charadler : the impreflions
it makes are more tranfient and lefs interefting ; for it
aims only at delighting the eye, but the other affedls
*>ur fenfibility. An afiemblage of the moft elegant
2orms in the happieft lituations is to a degree indiferimi-
nate, if they have not "been feledled and arranged with
a defign to produce certain expreflions 5 an air of mag¬
nificence, or of fimplicity, of cheerfulnefs, tranquillity,
or lome other general charadlcr, ought to pervade the
whole ; and objedls pleafing in themfelves, if they con-
tradid! that charadler, ftiould therefore be excluded :
thofe which are only indifferent muft fometimes make
room for fuch as are more fignificant 5 many will often
be introduced for no other merit than their expreflion 5
and fome, which are in general rather difagreeable, may
occafionally be recommended by it. Barrennefs itfelf
may be an acceptable circumftance in a fpot dedicated
to folitude and melancholy.
The power of fuch charadlers is not confined to the
ideas which the objedls immediately fuggeft 5 for thefe
are conuedted with others, which infenfibly lead to
fubjedls far diftant perhaps from the original thought,
and related to it only by a fimilitude in the fenfations
they excite. In a profpedl enriched and enlivened with
inhabitants and cultivation, the attention is caught at.
firft by the circumftances which are gayeft in their fea-
fon, the bloom of an orchard, the feftivity of a hay
field, and the carols of harveft home ; but the cheerful¬
nefs which thefe infufe into the mind, expands afterwards
to other objedls than thofe immediately prefented to the
eye j and we are thereby difpofed to receive, and de¬
lighted to purfuc, a variety of plcafing ideas, and every
benevolent feeling. At the fight of a ruin, refiedlions
on the change, the decay and the defolation before us,
naturally occur ; and they introduce a long fucceftion
of others all tindlured with that melancholy which thefe
have infpired •, or if the monument revive the memory
of former times, we do not flop at the fimple fad! which
it records, but recoiled! many more coeval circumftan¬
ces, which we fee, not perhaps as they were, but as they
are come down to us, venerable with age, and magni¬
fied by fame. Even without the afiiftance of buildings
or other adventitious circumftances, nature alone fur-
nifties materials for feenes which may be adapted to al-
moft every kind of expreffion ; their operation is gene¬
ral, and their confequences are infinite : the mind is
elevated, depreffed, or compofed, as gaiety, gloom, or
tranquillity, prevails in the fcene j and we foon lofe
fight of the means by which the charadler is formed j
we forget the particular objedls it prefents ; and giving-
way to their effedls, without recurring to the caufe, wc
follow the track they have begun, to any extent which
the difpofition they accord with will allow. It fuftices
that the feenes of nature have a power to affedl our ima¬
gination and our fenfibility 5 for fuch is the conftitution
of the human mind, that if once it is agitated, the
emotion fpreads far beyond the occafion : when the
paftions are roufed, their courfe is unreftrained j when
the fancy is on the wing, its flight is unbounded j and,
quitting the inanimate objedls which firft gave them
their fpring, we may be led by thought above
thought, widely differing in degree, but ftill corre-
fponding in charadler, till we rife from familiar fub¬
jedls up to the fublimeft conceptions, and are wrapt in
the contemplation of whatever is great or beautiful,
which we fee in nature, feel in man, or attribute to di¬
vinity.
IV. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT. Notwith-
ftanding the nature of the place, as already obferved,
3 E 2 ought
403
General
Arrange-
4°4
G A R D E N I N G.
Part II.
Pratt.
Treat, on
Planting
and Gar¬
dening.
Ibid,
p. 606.
ought Uot to be faerificcd to the manfion •,—the houfe
muft ever be allowed to be a principal in the compofi-
tion. It ought to be confidcred as the centre of the
fyftemj and the rays of art, like thofe of the fun,
(hould grow fainter as they recede from the centre.
The houfe itfelf being entirely a work of art, its imme¬
diate environs fliould be highly finilhed but as the
diftance increafes, the appearance of defign thould gra¬
dually diminifh, until nature and fortuitoufnefs have
full pofleffion of the fcene.
In general, the approach fhould be to the back front,
which, in fuitable fituations, ought to lie open to the
pafture grounds. On-the fides more highly ornamented,
a well kept gravel walk may embrace the walls j to this
the tliaven lawn and fhrubbery fucceed : next, the
grounds clofely paftured j and laftly, the furrounding
country, which ought not to be conlidered as out of the
art ill’s reach : for his art confifts not more in decorating
particular fpots, than in endeavouring to render the
whole face of nature delightful.
Another reafon for this mode of arrangement is, ob¬
jects immediately under the eye are feen more dillindl-
ly than thofe at a diftance, and ought to be fuch as are
pleafing in the detail. The beauties of a flower can
be difeerned on a near view only ; ■whilft at a diilance
a roughet of coppice wood, and the molt elegant ar¬
rangement of flowering fhrubs, have the fame effect.
The mod rational entertainment the human mind is
capable of receiving, is that of obferving the operations
of nature. Tfie foliation of a leaf, the blowing of
flowers, and the maturation of fruits, are among the Ornament,
moll delightful llibje&s that a contemplative mind can ^ c°ttag;,
be employed in. Thefe proceffes of nature are flow ; y""'w
and except the objefl fall fpontaneoufly under the eye
of the obferver, the inconveniences of vifiting it in a
remote part, fo far interfere with the more important
employments of life, as to blunt, if not deftroy, the
enjoyment. This is a ftrong argument in favour
of Ihrubs and flowers being planted under or near
our windows, efpecially thofe from whence they
may be viewed daring the hours of leifure and tran¬
quillity.
Further, the vegetable creation being fubjeft to the
animal, the fbrub may be cropt, or the flower trodden
down in its day of beauty. If therefore we wilh to
converfe with nature in private, intruders muft be kept
oft',—the (hrubbery be fevered from the ground 5—yet
not in fuch a manner as to drive away the pafturing
Hock from cur fight. For this reafon, the Ihaven lawn
ought not to be too extenfive, and the fence •which in-
clofes it fhould be fuch as will not interrupt the view :
but whether it be feen or unfeen, fufpeded or unfufpeft-
ed, is a matter of no great import: its utility in pro-
tefting the fhrubs and flowers,—in keeping the horns
of the cattle from the window, and the feet of the flieep
from the gravel and broken ground,—in preferving
that neatnefs on t he outfide, which ought to correfpond
with the finifhings and furniture within,—render it of
fuff "ient importance to become even a part of the orna¬
ment.
PART II. EXECUTION OF THE GENERAL SUBJECTS.
IMPROVEMENTS in general may be claffed un¬
der the following heads : The Hunting-Box, the Orna¬
mented Cottage, the Villa, and the Principal Rejidence.
But before any ftep can be taken towards the execu¬
tion of the defign, be it large or fmall, a map or plan
of the place, exacly as it lies in its unimproved ftate,
fbould be made j with a correfponding fketch, to mark
the intended improvements upon.. Not a hovel nor a
twig fhould be touched, until the artift has ftudied ma¬
turely the natural abilities of the place, and has deci¬
dedly fixed in his mind, and finally fettled on his plan,
the propoled alterations : and even then, let him “ dare
with caution.”
1. Of Improvements adapted to a Hunting-Box.
Here art has little to do. Hunting may be called
the amufement of nature} and the place appropriated
to it ought to be no farther altered from its natural ftate
than decency and conveniency require With men
who live in the prefent age of refinement, “ a want of
decency is a want of fenfe.”
Ibid. The ilyle throughout ihould be mafathne. If ftirubs
p. 610, &c.required, they fhould be of the hardier forts: the
box, the holly, the lauruftinus. The trees ftiould be
the oak and the beech, which give in autumn an agree¬
able variety of foliage, and anticipate as it were the
feafon of diverfion. A fuite of paddocks fhould be
feen from the houfe 5 and if a view of diftant covers
can be caught, the back-ground will be complete.
The liable, the kennel, and the learing-bar, are the
factitious accompaniments •, in the conffruction ot which
fimplicity, lubftantialnefs, and conveniency, fhould pre¬
vail.
2. Of the Style of an ORNAMENTED COTTAGE.
Neatnefs and fimplicity ought to mark the ftyle of
this rational retreat. Oilentation and fliow fhould be
cautioufly avoided •, even elegance fhould not be at¬
tempted 5 though it may not be hid, if it offer itfelf
fpontaneoufly.
Nothing, however, fhould appear vulgar, nor fliould
fimplicity be pared down to baldnefs j every tiling
whimfical or expenfive ought to be fludioufly avoid¬
ed ;—chaftenefs and frugality Ihould appear in every
part.
Near the houfe a ftudied neatnefs may take place-,
but at a diftance, negligence fliould rather be the cha-
racfteriftic.
If a tafte for botany lead to a colleelion of native
fhrubs and flowers, a fhrubbery will be requifite 5 but
in this every thing fhould be native. A gaudy exotic
ought not to be admitted; nor Ihould the lawn be kept
dole fhaven ; its flowers fliould be permitted to blowj
and the herbage, when mown, ought to be carried oft,
and applied to fome ufeful purpofe.
In the artificial accompaniments, ornament muft be
fubordinate j utility muft prefide. The buildings, if any
appear, fhould be thofe in a dual ufe in rural economics.
If the hovel be wanted, let it appear *, and, as a fide-
fereen, the barn and rick-yard are admiffibie; wlnlft
’ tire
part IT, GARDENING. 4^5
Villa, the dove-houfe and poultry-yard may enter more freely
-’'V—-' into the compofition.
In fine, the ornamented cottage ought to exhibit cul¬
tivated nature in the firft ftage of refinement. It ranks
next above the farm-houfe. The plain garb of rufticity
mav be fet off" to advantage ; but the ftudied drefs of
the artift ought not to appear. That becoming neat-
nefs, and thofe domeftic conveniences, which render
the rural life agreeable to a cultivated mind, are ail
that Ihould be aimed at.
3. Of the Emhellijhments of a Villa.
This demands a ftyle very different from the preced¬
ing. It ought to be elegant, rich, or grand, accord¬
ing to the ityle of the houfe itfelf, and the ftate of the
furrounding country ; the principal bufinefs of the artift
being to conned! thefe two in fuch a manner, that the
one (hall not appear naked or flaring, nor the other de-
folate and inhofpitable.
If the houfe be ftately, and the adjacent country,rich
and highly cultivated, a fhrubbery may intervene, in
which art may ftiow her utmoft Ikill. Here the artift
may even be permitted to play at landfcape : for a place
of this kind being fuppofed to be final!, the purpofe
principally ornamental, and the point of view probably
confined fimply to the houfe, ilde-fcreens may be form¬
ed, and a fore-ground laid out fuitable to the beft dif-
tance that can be caught.
If buildings or other artificial ornaments abound in
the offseape, fo as to mark it ftrongly, they ought aifo
to appear more or lefs in the fore-ground : if the dif-
tance abound with wood, the fore-ground fhould be
thickened, left baldnefs Ihould offend ; if open and na¬
ked, elegance rather than richnefs ought to be ftudied,
left heavinefs fhould appear.
•j It is far from being any part of our plan to cavil
unneceffarily at artifts, whether living or dead •, we
cannot, however, refrain from exprefling a concern for
the almoft total negleft of the principles here in or¬
namenting the vicinages of villas. It is to be regret¬
ted, that in the prefent practice thefe principles feem
to be generally loft fight of. Without anv regard to
J 9 #
uniting the houfe with the adjacent country, and, in¬
deed, feemingly without any regard whatever to the
offseape, one invariable plan of embellifhment prevails j
namely, that of ftripping the fore-ground entirely
naked, or nearly fo, and furrounding it with a wavy
border of ftirubs and a gravel walk leaving the
area, whether large or fmail, one naked fheet of green
fward.
In fmall confined fpots, this plan may be eligible.
But a Ample border round a large unbroken lawn only
ferves to fhow what more is wanted. Simplicity in
general is pleating •, but even fimplicity may be carried
to an extreme, fo as to convey no other idea than that
of poverty and baldnefs. Befides, how often do we
fee in natural feenery, the holly, and the fox-glove
fiouriftiing at the foot of an oak, and the primrofe and
the campion adding charms to the hawthorn fcattered
over the paffilred lawn ? And we conceive that fingle
trees footed with evergreens and native flowers, and
clumps as well as borders of fhrubs, are admiftible in or¬
namental as well as in natural feenery.
The fpeeies of ftirub will vary with the purpofe. If
the principal intention be a winter retreat, evergreens
and the early-blowing ftirubs fhould predominate 3 but Pnndpal
in a place to be frequented in fummer and autumn, the . e
deciduous tribes ought chiefly to be planted.
4. Of the Principal Residence.
Here the whole art centres. The artift has here full
fcope for a difplay of tafte and genius. He has an ex¬
tent of country under his eye, and will endeavour to
make the moft of what nature and accident have fpread
before him.
Round a principal refidence, a gentleman may be fup¬
pofed to have fome confiderable eft ate, and it is not a
Ihrubbery and a ground only which fall under the con-
fideration of the artift : he ought to endeavour to dil-
clofe to the view, either from the houfe or lome other
point, as much as he conveniently can of the adjacent
eftatc. The love of poffeflion is deeply planted in every
man’s breaft : and places ftiould bow to the gratification
of their owners. To curtail the view by an artificial
fide-fereen, or any other unnatural machinery, fo a^.to
deprive a man of the fatisfaction of overlooking his own
eftate, is an abfurdity which no artift ought to be per¬
mitted to be guilty of. It is very different, however,
where the property of another intrudes upon the eye :
Here the view may, with fome colour of propriety, be
bounded by a woody fereen.
The grounds, however, by a proper management,
may be made independent of whatever is external; and
though profpedrs are nowhere more delightful than
from a point of view which is alio a beautiful fpot, yet
if in the environs of fueh a garden they Ihould be
wanting, the elegant, pifturefque. and various feenes
within itfelf, almoft fupply the deficiency.
“ This (fays Mr Wheatley) is the charafter of the Mr Wheat-
gardens at Stowe: for there the views in the country uy's de-
are only circumftances fubordinate to the feenes 5 andfenptmi of
the principal advantage of the fituation is the variety Stowe gar-
of the ground within the inclofure. The houfe ftands J‘
on the brow of a gentle afeent : part of the gardens lie
on the declivity, and fpread over the bottom beyond it:
this eminence is feparated by a broad winding valley
from another which is higher and fteeper 5 and the def-
cents of both are broken by large dips and hollows,
floping down the fides of the hills. The whole fpace is
divided into a number of feenes, eac h diftinguiftied with
tafte and fancy ; and the changes are fo frequent, fo hid¬
den, and complete, the tranfitions fo artfully conducted,
that the fame ideas are never continued or repeated to
fatiety.
Thefe gardens were begun when regularity was in fa~
fliion 5 and the original boundary is ftill preferved, on
account of its magnificence : for round the whole cir¬
cuit, of between three and four miles, is carried a very
broad gravel walk, planted with rows of trees, and open
either to the park or the country ; a deep funk fence
attends it all the way, and comprehends a fpace of near
400 acres. But in the interior feenes of the garden,
few traces of regularity appear; where it yet remains
in the plantations, it is generally difguifed : every fymp-
tom, almoft, of formality, is obliterated from the ground 5
and an o&agon bafon in the bottom is now converted
into an irregular piece of water, which receives on one
hand two beautiful ftreams, and falls on the other down
a cafcade into a lake.
In the front of the houfe is a confiderable lawn, open
1 tat
Principal
Refidence.
to the water : beyond which are two elegant Doric pa-
i vilions, placed in the boundary of the garden, but not
marking it, though they correfpond to each other ) for
dill further back, on the brow of fome rifing grounds
without the inclofure, ftands a noble Corinthian arch,
by which the principal approach is conducted, and from
which all the'gardens are feen, reclining back againft
their hills j they are rich with plantations ; full of ob¬
jects ; and lying on both fides of the houfe almofl
equally, every part is within a moderate diftanee, not-
withftanding the extent of the whole.
On the right of the lawn, but concealed from the
houfe, is a perfedf garden fcene, called the queen's
amphitheatre, where art is avowed, though formality
is avoided. The fore-ground is feooped into a gentle
hollow. The plantations on the fides, though but juft
refcued from regularity, yet in ftyle are contrafted to
each other : they are,’ on one hand, chiefly thickets,
ftanding out from a wood 5 on the other, they are
open groves, through which a glimpfe of the water is
vifible. At the end of the hollow on a little knoll,
quite detached from all appendages, is placed an open
Ionic rotunda : beyond it, a large lawn flopes acrofs the
view ; a pyramid ftands on the brow ; the queen’s pil¬
lar, in a recefs on the defcent •, and all the three build¬
ings, being evidently intended for ornament alone, are
.peculiarly adapted to a garden-fcene. Yet their num¬
ber does not render it gay : the dulky hue of the pyra¬
mid, the retired fituation of the queen’s pillar, and the
folitary appearance of the rotunda, give it an air of
gravity \ it is encompafled with wood *, and all the ex¬
ternal views are excluded *, even the opening into the
lawn is but an opening into an inclofure.
At the king’s pillar, very near to this, is another
lovely fpot \ which is fmall, but not confined \ for no
termination appears } the ground one way, the water
another, retire under the trees out of fight, but no¬
where meet with a boundary. The view is firft over
fome very broken ground, thinly and irregularly
planted *, then between two beautiful clumps, which
feather down to the bottom •, and afterwards acrofs a
glade, and through a little grove beyond it, to that
part of the lake where the thickets clofe upon the
brink, fpread a tranquillity over the furface, in which
their ftiadows are reflected. Nothing is admitted to
difturb that quiet : no building obtrudes •, for objedls
to fix the eye are needlefs in a fcene which may be
comprehended at a glance •, and none would fuit the
paftoral idea it infpires, of elegance too refined for
a cottage, and of fimplicity too pure for any other
■edifice.
The fituation of 'he rotunda promifes a profpe£t
more enlarged ; and in faft moft of the objedls on this
fide of the garden are there vifible : but they want
both connexion and contraft \ each belongs peculiarly
to fome other fpot : they are all blended together in
this, without meaning *, and are rather fhown on a
map, than formed into a pidture. The water only is
capital *, a broad expanfe of it is fo near as to be feen
under the little groups on the bank without interrup¬
tion. Beyond it is a wood, which in one place leaves
the lake, to run up behind a beautiful building, of
three pavilions joined by arcades, all of the Ionic
order : it is called Kerfs Building. And never was a
>defign more happily conceived : it feems to be charac-
5
GARDENING. Part II.
teriftically proper for a garden j it is lb elegant, fo Principal
varied, and fo purely ornamental : it diredtly fronts the i^c^dence.
rotunda, and a narrow rim of the country appears above ll"<
the trees beyond it. But the effcdt even of this
noble objedl is fainter here than at other points : its
pofition is not the moft advantageous ; and it is but
one among many other buildings, none of which are
principal.
The fcene at the temple of Bacchus is in charadler
diredlly the reverie of that about the rotunda, though
the fpace and the objedls are nearly the fame in both :
but in this, all the parts concur to form one whole.
The ground from every fide Ihelves gradually towards
the lake •, the plantations on the further bank open to
ftiow Kent’s building, rife from the water’s edge to¬
wards the knoll on which it ftands, and clofe again
behind it. That elegant ftrudlure, inclined a little
from a front view, becomes more beautiful by being
thrown into perfpedtive *, and though at a greater dil-
tance, is more important than before, becaufe it is alone-
in the view : for the queen’s pillar and the rotunda are
removed far afide ; and every other circumftance refers
to this interefting object : the water attradls, the
ground and the plantations diredt, the eye thither :
and the country does not juft glimmer in the offscape,
but is clofe and eminent above the wood, -and connect¬
ed by clumps with the garden. The fcene altogether
is a moft animated landfcape ; and the fplendor of the
building 5 the refledlion in the lake ; the tranfparency
of the Avater, and pidturefque beauty of its form, diver-
fified by little groups on the brink, Avhile on the broad-
eft expanfe no more trees call their fhadows than are
fufficient to vary the tints of the furface •, all thefe cir-
cumftances, vying in luftre Avith each other, and unit¬
ing in the point to which every part of the fcene is re-
o ior Krillianev over the Avliole com-
lated, diftufe a peculiar brilliancy over the Avhole com-
pofition.
The view from Kent’s building is very different
from thofe Avhich have been hitherto deferibed. 1 hey
are all diredled down the declivity of the laAvn. i his
rifes up the afeent : the eminence being crowned with
loftv Avood, becomes thereby more confiderable ; and
the’ hillocks into which the general fall is broken,
Hoping further out this Avay than any other, they alfo
acquire an importance Avhich they had not before;
that, particularly, on Avhich the rotunda is placed,
feems here to be a profound fituation ; and the ftruc-
ture appears to be properly adapted to fo open an ex-
pofure. The temple of Bacchus, on the contrary,
Avhich commands fuch an illuftrious vIcav, is itfelf a
retired objedl, clofe under the covert. The wood rifimg
on the broAV, and defeending down one fide of the hill,
is fhoAvn to be deep ; is high, and feems to be higher
than it is. The laAvn too is extenfive ; and part the
boundary being concealed, it fuggefts the idea of. a Hill
greater extent. A fmall portion only of the lake indeed
is vifible } but it is not here an obiedl: it is a part of
the fpot •, and neither termination being in fight, it has
no diminutive appearance : if more water had been
admitted, it might have hurt the charadler of the place,
which is fober and temperate ; neither folemn nor gay $
great and Ample, but elegant 5 above rufticity, yet free
from oftentation.
Thefe are the principal feenes on one fide of the gar¬
dens. On the other, cldfe to the lawn before the houfe,
is
Part II.
Principal is the winding valley above mentioned : the lower part
itjcfidcncc.^ 0f jf js affigned to the Elyfian fields. Thefe are water-
v " ed|by a lovely rivulet; are very lightfome, and very
airy, fo thinly are the trees feattered about them *, are
open at one end to more -water and a larger glade j and
the reft of the boundary is frequently broken to let in
objedts afar off, which appear ftill more diftant from
the manner of fhowing them. The entrance is under a
1 Doric arch, which coincides with an opening among the
trees, and forms a kind of villa, through which a Pem¬
broke bridge juft below, and a lodge built like a caftle
in the park, are feen in a beautiful perfpedtive. That
bridge is at one extremity of the gardens; the queen’s
pillar is at another j yet both are vifible from the fame
ftation in the Elyfian fields : and all thefe external ob¬
jects are unaffe&edly introduced, divefted of their own
appurtenances, and combined with others which belong
to the fpot. The temple of Friendlhip is alfo in fight,
juft without the place ; and within it are the temples of
ancient Virtue, and of the Britifh worthies ; the one in
an elevated fituation, the other low down in the valley,
and near to the water : both are decorated rvith the ef-
Bfigies of thofe who have been moft diftinguilhed for mi¬
litary, civil, or literary merit 5 and near to the former
Hands a roftral column, facred to the memory of Cap¬
tain Grenville, who fell in an aftion at fea : by pla¬
cing here the meed of valour, and by filling thefe fields
with the reprefentations of thofe who have deferved
beft of mankind, the character intended to be given to
the fpot is juftly and poetically expreffed ; and the
number of the images which are prefented or excited,
perfe&ly correfponds with it. Solitude was never rec¬
koned among the charms of Elyfium ; it has been al¬
ways pi6tured as the manfion of delight and of joy :
and in this imitation, every circumftance accords with
that eftabliftied idea. The vivacity of the ftream which
flows through the vale ; the glimpfes of another ap¬
proaching to join it; the fprightly verdure of the
green fward, and every buft of the Brititb worthies
reflefted in the water 5 the variety of the trees; the
lightnefs of the greens ; their difpofition ; all of them
diftintft objects, and difperfed over gentle inequalities
of the ground •, together with the multiplicity of ob-
jefts both within and without, which embelliflh and
enliven the feene ; give it a gaiety, which the imagi¬
nation can hardly conceive, or the heart wifh to be ex¬
ceeded.
iClofe by this fpot, and a perfedl contraft to it, is
the alder grove ; a deep recefs in the midft of a (hade,
which the blaze of noon cannot brighten. The water
feems to be a ftagnated pool, eating into its banks 5
and of a peculiar colour, not dirty but clouded, and
dimly reflefting the dun hue of the horfe-chefnuts and
alders which prefs upon the brink : the Items of the
latter, rifing in clufters from the fame root, bear one
another down, and flant over the water. Miihapen
elms and ragged firs are frequent in the wood which
encompaffes the hollow ; the trunks of dead trees are
left Handing amongft them : and the uncouth fumach,
and the yew, with elder, nut, and holly, compofe the
underwood : fome limes and laurels are intermixed ; but
they are not many *, the wood is in general of the
darkeft greens; and the foliage is thickened with ivy,
which not only twines up the trees, but creeps alfo
over the falls of the ground: thefe are fteep and
407
abrupt: the gravel-walk is covered with mofs; and a Principal
grotto at the end, faced with broken flints and pebbles, l^c^fcncfe',
preferves, in the fimplicity of its materials, and the
dufkinefs of its colour, all the charatter of its fituation :
two little rotundas near it were better away j one build¬
ing is lufficient for fuch a feene of folitude as this, in
which more circumftances of gloom concur than were
perhaps ever colledled together.
Immediately above the alder-grove is the principal
eminence in the gardens. It is divided by a great dip
into two pinnacles 5 upon one of which is a large Go¬
thic building. The fpace before this ftrudlure is an
extenfive lawn : the ground on one fide falls imme¬
diately into the dip ; and the trees which border the
lawn, finking with the ground, the houfe rifes above
them, and fills the interval: the vaft pile feems to be
ftill larger than it is; for it is thrown into perfpedlive,
and between and above the heads of the trees, the up¬
per ftory, the porticoes, the turrets, and balluftrades,
and all the flated roofs, appear in a noble confufion. On
the other fide of the Gothic building, the ground flopes
down a long continued declivity into a bottom, which
feems to be perfeflly irriguous. Divers ftreams wander
about it in feveral directions : the conflux of that which
runs from the Elyfian fields with another below it, is
full in fight; and a plain wooden bridge thrown over
the latter, and evidently defigned for a paffage, impofes
an air of reality on the river. Beyond it is one of the
Doric porticoes which front the houfe ; but now it is
alone ; it Hands on a little bank above the water, and is
feen under fome trees at a diftance before it 5 thus group¬
ed, and thus accompanied, it is a happy incident, con¬
curring with many other circumftances to diftinguifh
this landfcape by a charafter of cheerfulnefs and ame¬
nity.
From the Gothic building a broad walk leads to
the Grecian valley, which is a feene of more grandeur
than any in the gardens. It enters them from the
park, fpreading at firft to a confiderable breadth ; then
winds ; grows narrower, but deeper ; and lofes itfelf
at laft in a thicket, behind fome lofty elms, which in¬
terrupt the fight of the termination. Lovely woods
and groves hang all the way on the declivities : and
the open fpace is broken by detached trees; which,
near the park, are cautioufly and fparingly introduced,
left the breadth thould be con traded by them 5 but as
the valley finks, they advance more boldly down the
fides, ftretch acrofs or along the bottom, and clufter
at times into groups and forms, which multiply the
varieties of the larger plantations. Thofe are fome-
times clofe coverts, and fometimes open groves: the
trees rife in one upon high Items, and feather down to
the bottom in another; and between them are ftiort
openings into the park or the gardens. In the midft
of the feene, juft at the bend of the valley, and com¬
manding it on both fides, upon a large, eafy, natural
rife, is placed the temple of Concord and Vidory : at
one place its maieftic front of fix Ionic columns, fup-
porting a pediment filled with bas relief, and the points
of it crowned with ftatues, faces the view ; at another,
the beautiful colonnade, on the fide, of 10 lofty pillars,
retires in perfpedive. It is feen from every part 5 and
imprefling its own charader of dignity on all around,
it fpreads an awe over the whole: but no gloom, no
melancholy, attends it: the fenfations it excites are ra¬
ther,
GARDENING.
g a r d e
Principal tlier placid j bat full of refpcfl, admiration, and fo-
Kefidence. }emn^y . no Avater appears to enliven, no diitant pro-
v ” ’ fpedl to enrich the view 5 the parts of the feene are
large, the idea of it fublime, and the execution happy ;
it is independent of all adventitious circumftances, and
relies on itfelf for its greatnefs.
The feenes which have been deferibed are fuch as
are moll remarkable for beauty or character •, but the
gardens contain many more ; and even the objects in
thefe, by their feveral combinations, produce very dif¬
ferent effects, within the diftance fometimes of a few
paces, from the unevennefs of the ground, the variety
of the plantations, and the number of the buildings.
The multiplicity of the lait has indeed been often urged
as an objection to Stowe •, and certainly, wtren all are
feen by a ftranger in two or three hours, twenty or
thirty capital ItruCtures, mixed with others of inferior
note, do feem too many. But the growth of the wrood
every day weakens the objection, by concealing them
one from the other : each belongs to a diltindt feene ;
and if they are confidered feparately, at different times,
and at leifure, it may be difficult to determine which
to take awray. Yet ftill it muft be acknowledged that
their frequency deftroys all ideas of filence and retire¬
ment. Magnificence and fplendor are the charadterif-
tics of Stov'e : it is like one of thofe places celebrated
in antiquity, which were devoted to the purpofes of
religion, and filled v-ith facred groves, hallowed foun¬
tains, and temples dedicated to feveral deities; the
refort of diftant nations, and the objedt of veneration
to half the heathen world : this pomp is, at Stowe,
blended with beauty; and the place is equally diftin-
guiffied by its amenity and its grandeur.
In the midft of fo much embelliffiment as may be
introduced into this fpecies of garden, a plain field, or
a Iheep-v'alk, is fometimes an agreeable relief, and
even wilder feenes may occafionally be admitted. I hefe
indeed are not properly parts of a garden, but they
may be comprehended within the verge of it; and the
proximity to the more ornamented feenes is at leaft a
convenience, that the tranfition from the one to the
other may be eafy, and the change always in our op¬
tion. For though a fpot in the higheft ftate o± im¬
provement be a necelfary appendage to a feat 5 yet, in
a place which is perfect, other characters will not be
wanting * if they cannot be had on a large leale, they
are acceptable on a fmailer $ and lo many circumfian¬
ces are common to all, that they might often be inter¬
mixed •, they may always border on each other.”
But on this head it would be in vain to attempt to
Practical ]ay down particular rules : different places are marked
Treatife on ^ petg c£ features as different from each other as are
And Gar- thofe in men’s faces. Much muft be left to the fkill
daring, and tafte of the artift *, and let thofe be what they may,
p. 615. nothing but mature ftudy of the natural abilities of the
particular place to be improved can render him equal to
the execution, fo as to make the moft of the materials
that are placed before him.
Some few general rules may neverthelefs be laid
down. The approach ought to be conduced in fuch
a manner, that the fir iking features of the place {hall
burft upon the view at once : no trick however fhould
be made ufe of: all ftiould appear to fall in naturally.
In leading towards the houfe, its direction fhould not
be fully in front, not exactly at an angle, but ffiould
N I N G. Fart 11,
pafs obliquely upon the houfe and its accompaniments j Principal
fo that their pofition with refpedt to each other, as Mcnra.
well as the perfpeclive appearance of the houfe itfelf,
may vary at every ftep ; and having Inown the tront
and the principal wing, or other accompaniment, to
advantage, the approach ihould wind to the back front,
which, as has been already oblerved, ought to lie open
to the park or paftured grounds.
The improvements and the rooms from which they
are to be feen Ihould be in unifon. Thus, the view
from the drawing-room (hould be highly embellilhed,
to correfpond with the beauty and elegance within:
every thing here {hould be feminine, elegant, beauti¬
ful, fuch as attunes the mind to politenefs and lively
converfatiom The breakfafting room fhould have
more mafcullne objects in view : wood, water, and an,
extended country for the eye to roam over •, fuch as al¬
lures us imperceptibly to the ride or the chafe. I he
eating and banqueting rooms need no exterior allure¬
ments.
There is a harmony in tafte as in mufic-: variety,
and even wildnefs upon feme occafions, may be ad¬
mitted j but difeord cannot be allowed. If, therefore,
a place be fo circumftanced as to confift of properties
totally ir reconcile able, the parts ought, if poffible, to
be feparated in fuch a manner, that, like the air and
the recitative, the adagio and the allegro, in mufic,
they may fet off each other’s charms by the contrail:.—
Thefe obfervations, in the elegant performance whence Defcr;ptio,
they are extracted, the author illuftrates by the follow-0f Perie-
ing defeription and propofed improvement of Perfe- thd.
field, the feat of Mr Morris, near Chepftow in Mon-P-6l°>&c’
mouth ft) ire \ a place upon which nature has been pe¬
culiarly laviffi of her favours, and which has been ipo-
ken by Mr Wheatley, Mr Gilpin, and other writers, in
the moft flattering terms.
“ Perfefield is fltuated upon the banks of the river
Wye, which divides Gloucefterfhire and Monmouth-
ftrire, and which was formerly the boundary between
England and Wales. The general tendency of the ri¬
ver is from north to fouth} but about Perfefield it de-
feribes by its winding courfe the letter S, fomewhat
compreffed, fo as to reduce it in length and increafe
its width. The grounds of Perfefield are lifted high
above the bed of the river, fhelving, and form the
brink of a lofty and fteep precipice, towards the louth-
weft.
“ The lower limb of the letter is filled with Perfe-
wood, which makes a part of Perfefield j but it is at pre-
fent an impenetrable thicket of coppice-wood. I his
dips to the fouth-eaff down to the water’s edge 5 and,
feen from the top of the oppofite rock, has a good ef-
fe6i.
“ The upper limb receives the farms of Llancot, rich
and highly cultivated, broken into inclofures, and
fcattered with groups and fmgle trees } two well-look¬
ing farm-houies m the centre, and a neat white chapel
on one fide : altogether a lovely little paradifaical {pot.
The lowlinefs of its fituation {lamps it with an air. of
meeknefs and humility 5 and the natural barriers which
furround it add that of peacefulnefs and fecurity.
The pidlurelque farms do not form a low flat bot¬
tom, fubjedl to be overflowed by the river} but
the form of a gorget, riling fulleft in the middle, ^and
falling on every {ide gently to the brink of the M ye ;
except
'art II, GAUD
Principal except on tlie eaft fide, where the top of the gorget
ilefidcnce. ]eans in an eafy manner agajnft a range of pcrpendicu-
" * lar rock 5 as if to thow its dilk with advantage to the
walks of Perfeiield.
“ This rock ilretches acrofs what may be called the
IJIhmus, leaving only a narrow pals down into the fields
of Llancot, and joins the principal range ol rocks at the
lower bend of the river.
“ lo the north, at the head of the latter, Hands an
immenfe rock (or rather a pile of immenfe rocks heap¬
ed one above another) called Winddijf; the top of
which is elevated as much above the ground of Perfe-
field as thofe are above the fields of Llancot.
“ 1 hefe feveral rocks, with the wooded precipices
on the fide of Perfefield, form a circular inclofure,
about a mile in diameter, including Perfe-wood, Llan¬
cot, the Wye, and a fmall meadow lying at the foot of
Windcliff.
1 he grounds are divided into the upper and low¬
er lawn, by the approach to the houfe : a fmall irregular
building, Handing near the brink of the precipice, but
facing down the lower lawn, a beautiful ground, falling
‘ precipitately every way into a valley which flielves
down in the middle,’ and is fcattered with groups and
fingle trees in an excellent flyle.
“ The view from the houfe is foft, rich, and beau¬
tifully piflurefque; the lawn and woods of Perfefield
and the oppofite banks of the river ; the Wye, near
its mouth, winding through ‘ meadows green as eme¬
rald,’ in a manner peculiarly graceful; the Severn,
here very broad, backed by the wooded and highly
cultivated hills of Gloucefierfiiire, Wiltfiiire, and So-
merfetfiiire. Not one rock enters into the compofition.
Ihe whole view confifls of an elegant arrangement of
lawn, Avood, and water.
_ “ The upper laAvn is a lefs beautiful ground, and the
view from it, though it command the ‘ cultivated hills
and rich valleys of Monmouthfliire,’ bounded by the
Severn and backed by the Mendip-hills, is much infe¬
rior to that from the houfe.
_ “ To give variety to the views from Perfefield, to
difclofe the native grandeur which furrounds it, and
to fet off its more linking features to advantage, ivalks
have been cut through the woods and on the face of the
precipice which border the grounds to the fouth and
eaff. The vieiver enters thefe walks at the lower corner
of the loiver laivn.
“ The firff point of vieiv is marked by an alcove,
from which are feen the bridge and the town of Chep-
ffow, with its caflle fituated in a remarkable manner on
the very brink of a perpendicular rock, ivafhed by the
Wye •, and beyond thefe the Severn Hioavs a fmall por¬
tion of its filvery furface.
“ Proceeding a little farther along the \valk, a vieiv
is caught which the painter might call a complete land-
fcape: The caffle, with the ferpentine part of the Wve
below ChepftoAv, intermixed in a peculiar manner with
the broad waters of the Severn, forms the fore-ground 5
which is backed by diffant hills : the rocks, crowned
with \vood, lying between the alcove and the caflle, to
the right, and Cafflehill farm, elevated upon the oppor
fite banks of the river, to the left, form the two iide-
fereens. This point is not marked, and muff frequently
dc lofl to the Hranger.
! he grotto, fituated at the head of Perfe-wood.
Vol. IX. Part I.
E N I N G. 409
commands a near vieiv of the oppofite rocks 5 mag- Principal
nificent beyond,defeription ! The iittlenefs of human ih'licle!ict::\
art was never placed in a more humiliating point of ’
view } the caffle ol ChepffoAV, a noble fortrefs, is, com¬
pared with the natuial bulwarks, a mere houfe of
cards.
“ Above the grotto, upon the iflhmus of the Perfe-
field fide, is a Ihrubbery ; flrangely mifplaced ! an
unpardonable intrulion upon the native grandeur oi
this feene. Mr Gilpin’s oblcrvations upon this, as
upon every other occafion, are very jufl. He fays,
‘ It is a pity the ingenious embelliflier of thefe feenes
could not have been fatisfied Avith the great beauties
of nature which he commanded. The Ihrubberies he
has introduced in this part of his improvements I fear
win rather be efteemed paltry.’ ‘ It is not the Ihrub
which offends j it is the formal introduftion of it.
Wild undenvood may be an appendage of the grandeff
feene ; it is a beautiful appendage. A bed of violets
or of lilies may enamel the ground ivith propriety at
the foot of an oak j but if you introduce them artificial¬
ly in a border, you introduce a trifling formality, and
difgrace the noble objeft you wifli to adorn.’
“ i he Avalk now* leaves the Avood, and opens upon
the lower laAvm, until coming near the houfe it enters
the alarming precipice facing Llancot 5 Avinding along
the face of it in a manner Avhich does great honour to
the artiff. Sometimes the fragments of rock which
fall in its Avay are avoided, at other times partially re¬
moved, lo as to condudt the path along a ledge carved
out of the rock ^ and in one inftance, a huge frag¬
ment, of a fomewhat conical Ihape and many yards
high, is perforated ; the path leading through its bafe. ■
This is a thought which Avill hand doAvn to future
times the greatnefs of Mr Morris’s taffe j the defign
and the execution are equally great ; not a mark of a
tool to be feen ; all appears perfedly natural. The
arch-Avay is made Avinding, lo that on the approach *
it appears to be the mouth of a cave •, and, on a neareSr
vieAV, the idea is ffrengthened by an allowable deception; •
a black dark hole on the fide next the cliff, Avhich, feen
from the entrance before the perforation is difeovered,
appears to be the darkfome inlet into the body of the
cave.
“ From this point, that vafl inclofure of rocks and
precipices Avhich marks the peculiar magnificence of
Perfefield is feen to advantage. The area, contain¬
ing in this point of vicav the fields of Llancot and the
loAver margin of Perfe-Avood, is broken in a manner
peculiarly pi&urefque by the graceful A\inding of the
Wye; here Avalhing a Ioav grafiy lliore, and there fweep-
ing at the feet of the rocks, Avhich rife in feme places
perpendicular from the Avater; but in general they ha at*
a Avooded offset at the bafe; above Avhich they rife to
one, tAvo, or perhaps three or four hundred feet high ;
expofing one full face, filvered by age, and bearded
Avith ivy, growing out of the Avrinkle-like feams and
fiffures. If one might be alloAved to compare the paltry
performances of art Avith the magnificent works of
nature, we Ihould fay, that this inelofure refembles a
prodigious fortrefs Avhich has lain long in ruins. It is
in reality one of nature’s ftrong-holds ; and as ffuch has
probably been frequently made ule of. Acrofs the
iithmus on the Glouceflerfhire fide there are the re¬
mains of a deep intrenchment, called to this day the
3 F Bulwark;
j i q O i\. 11 3 3 E
Principal Buhvarh ; and tradition ilill teems with the extraordi-
Rdidcncc. nary warlike feats that have been performed among this
v romantic fcenery.
“ From the perforated rock, the walk leads down
to the cold-bath (a complete place), feated about the
mid-way of the precipice, in this part lefs tteep •, and
from the cold-bath a rough path winds doAvn to the
meadow, by the fide of the Wye, from whence the
precipice on the Perfefield fide is feen with every ad¬
vantage ; the giant fragments, hung with thrubs and
ivy, rife in a ghaftly manner from amongft the un¬
derwood, and lhow themfelves in all their native fa-
vagenefs.
“ From the cold-bath upward, a coach-road (very
fteep and difficult) leads to the top of the cliff, at the
upper corner of the upper lawn. Near the top of the
road is a point which commands one of the moft plea¬
ting views of Perfefield : The "Wye fweeping through a
graffy vale which opens to the left :—Llancot backed
by its rocks, with the Severn immediately behind them \
and, feen in this point of view, feems to be divided from
the Wye by only a {harp ridge of rock, w ith a precipice
cn either fide 5 and behind the Severn, the vale and
wooded hills of Gloucefterfhire.
“ From this place a road leads to the top of Wind-
cliff—aftoniffiing fight! The face of nature probably
affords not a more magnificent fcene ! Llancot in all
its grandeur, the ground of Perfefield, the caftle and
town of Chepftow, the graceful windings of the Wye
below, and its conflux with the Severn } to the left the
foreft of Dean } to the right, the rich marfhes and pic-
turefque mountains of South Wales •, a broad view of
the Severn, opening its fea-like mouth $ the conflux of
the Avon, with merchant {hips at anchor in King-road,
and veffels of different defcriptions under fail } Auft-
Cliff, and the whole vale of Berkeley, backed by the
wooded fwelts of Gloucefferfhire, the view terminating
in clouds of diftant hills, riling one behind another, un¬
til the eye becomes unable to diftinguifh the earth’s bil¬
lowy furface from the clouds themfelves.”
The leading principle of the improvement propofed
by our author is, to “ feparate the fublime from the
beautiful 5 fo that in viewing the one, the eye might not
fo much as fufpeft that the other rvas near.
“ Let the hanging walk be condufted entirely along
the precipices, or through the thickets, fo as to difclofe
the natural fcenery, wuthout once difcovering the lawrn
er any other acquired foftnefs. Let the path be as rude
as if trodden only by wild hearts and favages, and the
refting places, if any, as ruftic as poffible.
* “ Erafe entirely the prefent ftirubbery, and lay out
another as elegant as nature and art could render it be¬
fore the houfe, fuelling it out into the lawn towards the
ftables \ between which and the kitchen-garden make
sl narrow winding entrance.
“ Convert the upper lawn into a deer-paddock, fuf-
fering it to run as wild, rough, and foreft-like, as total
negligence would render it.
“ The viewer would then be thus conduced : He
would enter the hanging-walk by a fequertrated path at
the l6wer corner of the lawn, purfuing it through the
wood to beneath the grotto, and round the head-land,
er winding through Perfe-wood, to the perforated rock
and the cold-bath, without once conceiving an idea (if
poffible) that art, or at leart that much art, had been
N I N G.
Part II.
made ufe of in difclofing the natural grandeur of the Principal
furrounding objects 5 which ought to appear as if they ^ehdence,
prefented themfelves to his view, or at moft as if no- 'rmmJ
thing was wanted but his own penetration and judge¬
ment to find them out. The walk ftiould therefore be
conducted in fuch a manner, that the breaks might be
quite natural; yet the points of view obvious, or requir¬
ing nothing but a block or ftone to mark them. A
ftranger at leaft wants no feat here ; he is too eager in
the early part of his walk, to think of lounging upon a
bench
“ From the cold bath he would afcend the fteep,
near the top of which a commodious bench or benches
might be placed : the fatigue of afcending the hill
would require a refting pi ace ^ and there are feiv points
which afford a more pleating view than this; it is grand,
without being too broad and glaring.
“ From thefe branches he would enter the foreft
part. Here the idea of Nature in her primitive ftate
would be ftrengthened : the roughneffes and deer to
the right, and the rocks in all their native wildnefs to
the left. Even Llancot might be fhut out from the
view by the natural ffirubbery of the cliff. The Lover’s
Leap, however (a tremendous peep), might remain
but no benches, nor other work of art, fhould here be
feen. A natural path, deviating near the brink of the
precipice, would bring the viewer down to the loiver
corner of the park } wdiere benches fhould be placed in
a happy point, fo as to give a full view of the rocks
and native wildneffes, and at the fame time. hide
the farm houfes, fields, and other acquired beauties of
Llancot.
“ Having fatiated himfelf with this favage fcene, he
would be led, by a ftill ruftic path, through the. laby¬
rinth—when the ffirubbery, the lawn, with all its ap¬
pendages, the graceful Wye, and the broad filver Se¬
vern, would break upon the eye with every advantage
of ornamental nature : the tranfition could not fail to
ftrike.
“ From this foft fcene he would be fhown to the top
of Windcliff, where in one vaft view he would unite the
fublime and beautiful of Perfefield.”
Only one particular remains now to be noticed. A
place which is the refidence of a family all the year is
very defedtive, if fome portion of it be not let apart for
the enjoyment of a fine day, for air, and exercife, in vm-
ter. To fuch a fpot {belter is abfolutely efiential} and
evergreens being the thick eft covert, are therefore the
beft : their verdure alfo is then agreeable to the eye ^
and they may be arranged fo as to produce beautiful mix¬
ture of greens, with more certainty than deciduous trees,
and with almoft equal variety: they may be colie died in¬
to a wood ; and through that wood gravel-walks may be
led along openings of a confiderable breadlh, free from
large trees which would intercept the rays of die fun,
and wunding in fuch a manner as to avoid any draft of
wind, from whatever quarter it may blow'. But when a
retreat at all times is thus fecured, other fpots may be
adapted only to occafional purpofes •, and be ffieltered
towards the north or the eaft on one hand, while they
are open to the fun on the other. The few hours of
cheerfulnefs and warmth which its beams afford, are fo
valuable as to juftify the facrifice even of the principles,
of beauty to the enjoyment of them 3 and therefore no
objections
t
Part HI-
Principal objeclions of farnenefs or formality can prevail againil
| ittefidcnce. pleafantnefs of a ftraight walk, under a thick hedge
.““’-y——■ or a fouth wall. The eye may, however, be diverted
from the Ikreen by a border before it, where the aco¬
nite and the fnowdrop, the crocus and hepatica, brought
forward by the warmth of the fituation, will be wel¬
come harbingers of fpring ; and on the oppofite fide of
the walk little tufts of lauruilines, and of variegated
evergreens, may be planted. The fpot thus enlivened
by a variety of colours, and even a degree of bloom,
may be Hill further improved by a green-houfe. The
entertainment which exotics afford peculiarly belongs
to this part of the year ; and if among!! them be inter-
fperfed fome of our earlielt flowers, they will there
411
blow before their time, and anticipate the gaiety of Principal
the feafon which is advancing. The walk may alfo ^e'~K!encc\
lead to the floves, where the climate and the plants are v
always the fame. And the kitchen-garden Ihould not
be far off; for that is never quite dellitute of produce,
and always an aftive feene : the appearance of bufinefs
is alone engaging^ and the occupations there are an ear- '
neft of the happier feafons to which they are prepara¬
tive. Ey ihefe expedients even the winter may be ren¬
dered cheerful in a place where flicker is provided againfl;
all but the bitterefl: inclemencies of the fky, and agree¬
able objects and interefiing amufements are contrived
for every hour of tolerable weather.
GARDENING.
PART III. PRACTICAL GARDENING.
WE now proceed to treat of horticulture or prafli-
cal gardening. And although it may not appear to be
the molt perfect arrangement yet as it is probably the
molt convenient and ufeful in the directions to be given
for the practical management of the garden, we fhall
confider the work to be done for each month of the
year in the kitchen garden, the fruit garden, the flower
garden and the nurfery, under fo many feparate lec¬
tions.
JANUARY.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
>w ra- ^ie beginning, or any time in the courle of this
:lhes. month, when the weather is open, low fome fliort-top’d
radiihes on a border expofed to the fouth, and protected
by a wall or other fence ; and about the middle or lat¬
ter end of the month, you may fow fome more of the
fame fort, and alfo fome falmon radifhes to fucceed the
Ihort-top’d. The feed fhould be fown pretty thick at
this feafoh, becaufe vegetation being flow at this period
they will be longer expofed to the depredation of birds,
and if the weather prove fevere, many of them will be
cut off after they have appeared above ground. Sow
the feed evenly over the furface, and rake it in with a
large wide-toothed rake, or if fown in beds, cover it
with earth to the depth of half an inch from the alleys.
A covering of Itraw about two inches thick would
greatly promote their growth, and proteft them from
froft and birds. After the plants have come above
ground, the covering of draw Ihould be drawn off with
a light rake in the early part of the day, and replaced
in the evening.
Garden mats are frequently uled to cover radiihes,
a number of fmall pins being previoufly Ituck into the
ground to fupport them an inch or two from the fur-
face, and prevent them from prefling down the young
plants. The covering ought to be continued for a
longer or Ihorter time, according to the feverity of the
weather •, but when the plants have pulhed out their
rough leaves it may fafely be- difeontinued, Radiihes
fown under common hot-bed frames, without the aflilt-
ance of warm dung, will fucceed very well, and come
on much earlier than thofe fown in the open air : due
■attention, however, mult be paid to give them air when¬
ever the weather is mild, by railing the. glaffes, or re¬
moving them altogether during warm days. If want¬
ed very early, recourfe mult be had to a flight hot¬
bed.
At any time in this month, when the weather is mild Carrots-
and dry, let a fpot of ground in a warm fituation be
prepared for fowing a few early carrots, by digging the
ground a full fpade deep, and breaking the earth well j
and when the feed is fown, let it be raked in. When
carrots are wanted very early, they may be reared in a
flight hot-bed. ^
About the beginning, or any time in the month, Spinach,
when the weather is mild, you may fow fome fpinach;
but if the weather will permit, fome ought to be
fown, both in the beginning and towards the end of
the month. The fmooth-feeded or round-leaved fpinach
Ihould chiefly be fown now. It is preferred, on ac¬
count of its leaves being thicker, larger, and more fuc-
culent than the prickly-feeded ; though fome of the lat¬
ter ought alfo to be fown, becaufe it is hardier, and
better able to fultain the feverity of the weather. They
may be fown either broadcalt and raked in, or in flial-
low drills about an inch deep, and nine or ten inches
afunder. It is a frequent pradtice to fow fpinach in
drills between the rows of early beans and cabbages.
You may fow fome feed of crefs, multard, radilh, Smaii *
rape, &c. and likewife fome lap lettuce in a warm fitua- fallad.
tion expofed to the fun. They form an agreeable falad
when cut young. The ground on which they are to
be fown ought to be floped to the fouth, and covered
with a common hot-bed frame, which fliould be funk
in the ground, fo far as to allow the glaffes to ap¬
proach to within fix or eight inches of the fown fur-
face.
But fmall falad will fucceed heft in a flight hot¬
bed of warm dung formed to the depth of 18 or
20 inches 5 air muit be admitted freely, whenever
the weather will permit, by raifing or removing the
glaffes.
About the middle, or towards the latter end of the Parfley:
month, fow parfley feed in any dry fituation, in fliallow
drills nine inches afunder, and cover it in with earth
to the depth of a quarter of an inch, or in fingle rows
along the borders of the kitchen garden. There are
two forts, the Aain-leaved and curled-leaved 3 the latter
is preferred a garnifliing on account of its large bufliy
3 F 2 leaves^
412
January.
Kitchen
Garden.
GARDENING.
J*eas.
23
23
Beans.
24
Lettuce.
*5
Examine
leaves, but both are equally good as pot herbs. This
feed lies very long in the ground before it vegetates.
Soav fome early peas in a warm fituation, to fucceed
thofe fown in November and December. The princi¬
pal early peas are the Charlton hotfpur, golden hotfpur,
Reading hotfpur, Matters hotfpur, &e. the two firtt of
which are reckoned the earliefl. Sow them in rows
tAVo feet and a half afunder, but when they are to be
fupported by flicks they ought to be three feet afun¬
der. Some marroAvfat peas thould like wife be fown at
this feafon for a firft crop of late peas : the dwarf mar-
roAvfat is the mofl proper, but any other late pea Avill
fucceed very well, fuch as the Spanilh moratto, tall
marrowfat, Pruflian prolific, fugar pea, dwarf fugar,
egg pea, pearl pea, &c. Thefe thould be fown in rows
three feet afunder j but when it is intended that they
thould be fupported by flicks, the rows tliould be three
feet and a half apart.
Any time in the courfe of the month, if the weather
be mild, a main crop of beans may be fown. The
Sandwich bean, tokcr, Windfor, broad Spanilh, broad
long-pod, &c. are the kinds mofl commonly ufed. Af¬
ter tiie ground has been well dug, put in the beans to
the depth of about two inches, with a dibble, in roAvs
three feet apart, and at the diftance of four or five
inehes from each other in the toavs : or they may be
fown in drills to the fame depth and diftance. If no
early beans Avere foAvn in November or December, they
ought to be foAvn the earlieft opportunity this month :
the early Mazagan and Lilbon beans are the belt.
They ought to be planted in a warm border 5 if at the
foot of a fouth Avail, they will come on earlier. Thefe
may be planted clofer than the larger beans, tAvo feet,
or tAvo feet and a half, between the rows, being fuffi-
©ient. When peas or beans are wanted very early, they
be foAvn in hot-beds or ftoves, and when fome-
may
what advanced, they may either be planted out into o-
ther hot-beds, into peach and vine-houfes, or into any
warm fituation in the open air.
In the beginning, and again torvards the end of the
month, you may fow fome lettuce. The kinds com¬
monly ufed are the green and rvhite cos, broAvn Dutch,
Cilicia, and common cabbage lettuce. Prepare a
piece of ground in a warm fituation j forv the feeds
moderately thick, and1 rake them in as evenly as pof-
ftble. They may alfo be fown under hand giaiies or
in common hot-bed frames, to be occafionally covered
with glaffes or mats : but in either cafe, air muft be
freely1 admitted, whenever the Aveather Avill permit.
When wilhed for Very early, they may be fow4- in a
flight hot-bed, and planted out in the open air in March
er April.
Take care of lettuce plants which have flood the
winter.-—If you have lettuce plants in frames or under
hoops, covered with mats, give them plenty of air ay hen
the Aveather is moderate. Remove all decayed leaves,
and deftroy fnails which frequently infeft them ; and
when the froft is fevere, take care to proteft them well
with mats.
The cauliflower plants railed laft autumn, which have
cauliflower Hood during the winter in frames, fhould be looked over
plants. 0pen weather. If any decayed leaves appear, pick
them off 5 ftir up the earth between the plants, and re-
xnove, all weeds. In mild weather, give them plenty
January;
Kitchti:
Gardeu
Part Hi
of air during the day, by pulhing doAvn, or removing
tbs glaffes altogether : but cover them during the
night, unlefs when the weather is particularly mild :
Avhen it is frofty, or rains much, they ought to be cover¬
ed during the day. Rut if the froft is very fevere,
the frames fhould be protected at night with a cover¬
ing of mats, and even during the day, fliould the froft
be intenfe,without fun (bine; and fome ftrarv, dried leaves,
or fomething of that nature, fhould likervife be laid all
round the outfide of the frame, to prevent the froft from
penetrating its fides.
Cauliflowers under bell and hand glaffes require the
fame attention : during mild Aveather, the covers fliould
either be taken off altogether, or raifed (or tilted) on
the fouth fide, fo as to admit the air freely during the
day and flint again at night, unlefs the weather fhould
be very mild, in which cafe they may remain a little
tilted on one fide *, but" fhould intenfe froft prevail, they
fhould be kept flint, and covered with ftraw or fome¬
thing of that nature. The free admiflicn of the air will
prevent the plants from becoming Aveak, and make them
lefs apt to run up to floAver before they have
fnffir'ipnt ti/f Tn mild winters, fillers verv f
acquired
fufficient fize. In mild winters, fiugs very frequently
in bare cauliflower plants; they ought, therefore, to be
76
carefully looked for and deftroyed
About the end of the month, if the Aveather is mild, p]ant ca{j.
plant out a ferv early cabbages, on a fpot of ground bages.
well dug and manured with rotten dung, at the di¬
ftance of a foot and a half from each other, or even
clofer, as they are to be cut early, and before they ac¬
quire a great fize. The early York, Batterfea, and fu-
gar-loaf, are the kinds which fhould be planted at this
leafon.
Transplant fome full grown cabbages and favoys, for Trantplant
feed, about the beginning of the month ; though the ear- cabbages,
ly part of Avinter is the molt proper time for doing fo. for
See November. lee 'lS
In open dry Aveather, earth up fuch celery as has ad- £arth.Up
vanced much above ground j let the earth be Avell bro-celery,
ken, and laid up almoft to the tops of the plants, but
care muft be taken not to bruife them. This will af¬
ford them protection againft froft, which might prove
very injurious to them at this feafon.
Where celery is Avanted daily, a quantity of ftraw or
fomething of that nature, fhould be laid over the roAvs
on the approach of froft, which will prevent the froft
from penetrating the ground, and on the removal of the
covering, the celery may be dug up : or when fevere
weather threatens to let in, a quantity of celery may be
taken up, placed in fome fituation fheltered from the
weather, and covered as far as the blanched part extends
with fand. ap
In open dry Aveather prepare fome full groAvn en-Blanch
dive for blanching. When the plants are perfectly dry endive,
tie up their leaves clofe together, and they Avill be com¬
pletely blanched in about a fortnight. As endive is
very apt to* rot in Avet Aveather at this feafon, when
blanched in the open air, a quantity of it ought to be
tranfplanted into a ridge of dry earth, in fome fituation
vyhere it may be fheltered from rain. ^
In open dry weather, the earth fhould be drawn up Earthy
about fuch peas and beans as may have advanced an inch peas and,
or tAvo above ground, which will both ftrengthen them t,tans-
and proteft them againft froft.
If
3^
’/Tanage-
nent of
inuftirooai
>eds.
Part III.
January. It artichokes have not been earthed up before this,
Kitchen that work Ihould now be done the fir it opportunity.
Garden. 5ee NOVEMBER.
'—’'v ' Muihroom beds ought to be well covered at this fea-
Lrtichokes. f!m» aud protected both from rain and froit. The co¬
vering of itraw Ihould be at leait a foot thick, and if
the rain ihould at any time have penetrated nearly
through it, it ought to be removed, and a covering of
dry itraw put in its place 5 for if. the bed ihould get
wet, the fpawn would be injured, and the future crop
deftroyed.
Sometimes it is defirable to have feme of the ordinary
kitchen garden crops, at an earlier period, than that at
which they are produced in the open air. For this
purpofe recourfe is had to hot-beds ; there are likewife
jfome things reared in the kitchen garden, fuch as cu¬
cumbers and melons, which cannot be obtained in this
country without their aid. The principal crops, beiides
cucumbers and melons, for which hot-beds may be pre¬
pared in this month, are afparagus, {mall faiad, mint,
tanfey, peas, and beans for tranfplanting; radiihes,
early carrots, early potatoes, and kidney beans. Hot¬
beds are formed either of freih horfe dung, or of tanners
bark ; the hot-beds nfed tins month, as feed-beds for
early cucumbers and melons, are almoft always formed
of horfe dung. Procure a fufficient quantity of freih
horfe dung, according to the lize and number of the
hot-beds you mean to form, lay it up in a heap to fer¬
ment for ten or twelve days, longer or Ihorter according
to. the condition of the dung or the Hate of the weather,
during which time it ought to be turned over once or
twice with a fork, that it may be thoroughly mixed and
equally fermented. After the violent fermentation is
over, and the rank fteam has efcaped, it will be in
proper condition to form a hot-bed. Dung that is very
much mixed with draw, or is too dry, ought to be
rejefted. About a cart-load may be fufficient for a
common hot-bed frame of one light, and fo on in pro¬
portion for one of two or three lights. Hot-beds fliould
be formed in a fituation Iheltered from the wind, and
expofed to the morning and mid-day fun. Some dig a
trench about a foot deep, and a few inches longer and
wider than the frame with which they mean to cover
the bed ; others form hot-beds on the furface of the
ground. At this feafon of the year the laft mode is to
be preferred, because it affords an opportunity of lining
the bed with freih hot dung quite down to the bottom,
to augment the heat when it declines 5 in this way
water is likewife prevented from fettling about the
bottom of the bed, which is often the cafe, when the
Bed is formed in a trench, which would inevitably check
the fermentation, and confequently deftroy the heat of
the bed.. Mark out a fpace on the ground, a few inches
longer and wider than the frame which you intend to
put on the bed. Spread the dung when in proper con¬
dition, regularly with a fork, beating it down gently
from time to time with the fork 5 when the dung is trod¬
den down-, it is apt to heat too violently, and does not
fucceed fo well as when the dung is allowed to fettle
gradually. The dung ought to be raifed to three feet
and a half, or thereabouts. In this way hot-beds may
be formed, which will pfeferve their heat for a confider*
able time: When (lighter hot-beds are required, the dung
may be raifed to one foot and a half, or two feet: thefe
Sight hot-beds aufwer very well for raifing early crops,.
GARDENING.
Having prepared a hot-bed accordinsr to the di
4*3
January.
Kitchen
Garden.
33
reftions juft given for a larger or (mailer frame, in
proportion to the quantity o( feed you intend to low,
fuch a one as may be covered with a frame of one
light will be futheient to raife plants for an ordinary Sow cu-
crop. Let the frame and lights be put on, and keptcum^er
dole, till the heat begin to nie, then raile the glals,
that the fteam may pais oft’. Three or four days after
the bed lias been formed, it may be covered with earth
prepared for that purpofe, to the depth of about three
inches ; before the earth is put on, if the dung (hall
have fettled unequally, the furface of the bed ought to
be made perfecfly level. Rich light dry earth is belt
adapted to this purpofe : that it may be dry enough,
it ought to have been prote&ed from the rain by fome
lliade during the winter; lor, Ihould it be wet, it is
apt to prevent the feeds from germinating, or to injure
the young plants. Fill two or three fmall flower-pots
with fome of the fame earth, and place them in the hot¬
bed till the earth in them be warmed, and then fow
the feeds. *
Sow the feeds, and cover them about half an indi
deep the bottom of the pots ought to be plunged a
little way into the eaiih with which the bed is covered,
fome of which ought to be drawn up round the pots.
A few days after fowing the feeds in the pots, fome
feeds may be fown in the earth of the bed. By fowing
in pots, if the bed fliould overheat (which is fometimes
the cafe) you have it in your power to withdraw and
remove the pots out of danger.
After fowing the feeds, put on the lights ; when the
fteam rifes copioufly, give the hot-bed air by railing the
glalTes a little. 'I be hot-bed ought to be covered every
evening about funfet with mats, which fhould be taken
olf again in the morning about nine o’clock, fooner or
later according to the Kate of the weather. A Angle,
mat will be iutfieient at firft, as the warmth of the bed
will be ftreng. The ends of the mats ought not to
hang down over the lides of the frame, becaule the rank
fteam proceeding from the bed would be confined, and
might injure the plants. The plants will appear, in
two or three days after the feeds have been fown, when
care muft be taken to raife the glaffes a little to admit
freih air, and to allow the fteam of the bed to efcape y
’if this be not properly attended to, and if the beds be
kept too clofe, the plants will either be deftroyed alto¬
gether, or become weak and yellowilh. About the
time the firft fown feeds appear above ground, a few
more ought to be fown in the earth of the bed. As
thofe tender plants are liable to fuffer from various
caufes at this feafon, it would be proper to fow a little
feed at three different periods, at (hurt intervals, that if
one fowing Ihould milcarry, another may fucceed.
Three or four days after the plants have come up, they
ought to be planted out into (mail pots.
-The day before the plants are to be tranfplanted,
pots filled with light rich dry earth fliould be put into
the bed, that the earth which they contain may be
brought to a proper temperature. Take the plants
carefully up, raifing them with your finger and thumb,
with all the roots as entire as poflible, and with as much
of the earth as will readily adhere about the fibres,.
Plant three cucumbers and two melons in each pot,
and draw the earth well up about the ftems. If the
earth in the pots be very dry, a little water (hould be
eivea
J anuary.
Kitchen
Garden.
CARD
given after the tranfplanting has been finilhed. The
pots ought to be plunged clofe to one another in the
j earth ot the bed, and all the fpaces between them ought
to be carefully filled with earth, to prevent the rank
fleam of the dung from riling up, which would certainly
kill the plants. The bed ought to be carefully exa¬
mined every day to lee that the roots of the plants do
not receive too much heat. If any thing like that appear,
draw up the pots a little, taking care to replunge them
to the rim after the danger is over. When the plants
are fairly rooted, if the earth appears dry, give them a
little water in the warmeft time of the day j let the
watering be occalionally repeated very moderately, ac¬
cording as the earth in the pots becomes dry. All the
water given to the plants at this feafon ought to Hand
for a few hours within the bed, that it may acquire the
fame temperature with the earth in which the plants
grow, as very cold water would chill the plants too much.
In order to prelerve a proper heat in the bed as long as
poffible, the fides of it ought to be covered with Itraw
or dry leaves, which will defend the bed from cold
piercing winds, heavy rains, and fnow. Should the bed
be unprotected when any of thefe prevail, the heat
would be diminifired, and the plants receive a check.
If a lively heat be kept up, you may admit air to the
plants every day, by railing the glaffes in proportion to
the heat of the bed and temperature of the external
air. If the air be very cold, it will be neeefl'ary to fix
a piece of mat or fome fuch thing to the edge of the
falh, which may hang down over the opening, and pre¬
vent the cold air from rufhing too freely into the bed.
About a fortnight after the bed has been formed, it
ought to be examined carefully, to difeover whether the
heat of the bed itill continues Itrong enough •, if not,
the dry leaves and Itraw ought to be removed from the
front and back of the bed ii any had been placed there,
and a quantity of frelh horfe dung Ihould be fupplied.
The lining thus applied fhould not exceed 15 or 18
inches in thicknefs, and fhould be raifed a few inches
higher than the bed. When too thick a lining is applied,
it is apt to throw in too great a heat, and injure the
plants. A quantity of earth fhould be laid on the top
of the dung thus applied to the depth of tw'o inches, to
keep down the rank fleam. The lining will foon in-
creafe the heat of the bed, and maintain it for ten days
or a fortnight longer. At the expiration of that time,
when the heat begins to fail, the tw7o fides of the
bed fhould receive a lining of the fame thicknefs,
which will again augment the heat of the bed, and
preferve it in good condition for upwards of a fort¬
night longer. By lining firft the one fide' and then
the other at the interval of about a week or ten days,
the heat of the bed may be made to lafl longer than
when both linings are applied at the fame time. Either
method may be followTed, according to the degree of
external cold which may prevail, or according to the
degree of warmth required to be maintained in the bed.
After performing the lining, if very cold, wet, or fnowy
weather prevail, it may be proper to lay a quantity of
long dry litter all round the general lining, which will
prote£l the whole of the bed, and keep it in a proper
temperature. By the proper management of this feed-
bed, and by the due application of linings, the growth
•ef young plants may be promoted till they are fit to be
5
Kitchen
Garden.
E N I N G. Part III
planted out into other hot-beds, where they are to remain January,
and produce fruit. Where there is plenty of hot dung
and every other convenience, a lecond bed may be pre- ;
pared, into which the young plants may be transferred
and nurfed till ihey become perfectly fit for final tranf-
plantation. Due attention mull be paid to have this
fecond nurfery-bed in proper condition for the reception
of the pots containing the young plants. It is to be
formed, earthed over, and taken care of, according to
the directions given for the management of the feed-bed.
When the plants have got their two firft rough leaves,
two or three inches broad, and have puihed out their
two firft running buds, they are in a proper Hate for
planting out into larger hot-beds. For the farther ma¬
nagements of cucumbers and melons, fee February.
It is proper that none but fuch feeds, both of cucum¬
bers and melons, as have been kept for fome time,
ftiould be fown j thofe which have been kept for two or
three years are to be preferred, becaufe the plants which
proceed from them are thought to be, not only more
fruitful, but to produce their fruit fooner. Plants which
are produced from recent feeds commonly pufh vigo-
roufty, and their (hoots grow to a great length before
they (how a Angle fruit. The beft forts of cucumbers
for producing an early crop, are the early fhort prickly
and long green prickly j the former of thefe is the
earlier, the other produces the beft crop and the
largeft fruit. There are feveral forts of melons fown
for an early crop, viz. the romana, cantaloupe, polignac,
&c. The romana is a very good bearer, and produces
early, and is a very well-flavoured, though fmall fruit.
The cantaloupe is a very well-flavoured melon, acquires
a good fize, and ripens early. The polignac is alfo a
very good melon. It is better, however, to fow two or
three kinds, if they are eafily to be had, for the fake of
gaining greater variety.
Hot-beds may be formed any time this month for
forcing afparagus : they are to be formed in the fame
way as hot-beds for cucumbers and melons •, the dung,
however, need not be raifed to the fame height, from
two and an half to three feet will be fufficient. After
a bed has been formed, it (hould be covered with
earth to the depth of fix or feven inches, and the af¬
paragus plants immediately put in 5 but the frame and
glaffes are not to be put on till after the violent heat of
the bed (hall have fubfided, and the rank fteam efcaped.
A fufficient quantity of afparagus plants, proper for
forcing, mull be provided 5 viz. fuch as have been
raifed from feed and planted out in the open ground for
two or three years, as directed elfewhere 5 fix hundred
will be fufficient for a frame of three lights, and fo on
in proportion, * for a larger or fmaller frame. The
ftrongeft and molt vigorous plants ought to be chofen,
and Ihould be planted very clofe together, that the
quantity produced may repay the trouble and expence
of forcing. Having marked the fize of the frame on
the furface of the bed, raife a ridge of earth a few inches
high, againft which place the firlt row of plants, and
draw a little earth over the roots of each 5 next to them
another row may be planted as clofe as poffible, and fo
on till the whole fpace is covered, fome moift earth
Ihould be applied all round the outfide of the fpace,
occupied by the plants, and raifed an inch or two above
their tops. Then the whole Ihould be covered with a
quantity
January.
(Kitchen
(Garden.
art HI. GARDE
quantity of ricli light earth, to the depth of about two
inches, and left in that Situation till the buds begin to
^ appear above ground. They fhould then receive an
additional covering of rich light earth to the depth of
three or four inches. A wreath of ftrong itraw band
is previoufly fixed by fome round the bed, which both
fupports the laft covering of earth and the frame. The
ftraw ropes thould be about four inches thick, and fixed
down all round the edge of the bed, exa&ly in that
place where the frame is to be put. Should there be
no reafon to fufpect overheating or burning, the frame
may be immediately put on 5 care Ihould be taken to
raife up or fliove down the glafles to allow the rank
fleam to efcape, particularly about the time the buds
begin to appear. If much rain or fnow fiiould fall after
the bed has been formed, and before the frame is put
on, it will be necdTary to cover the bed with mats or
with ftraw. The heat of the bed like wife during that
time fhould be carefully examined; with that view*, two
or three flicks, called watch Jlicks, fiiould be ftuck in
the dung, to be pulled out occafionally, and examined
by applying the hand to their extremities ; or the heat
may be better regulated by the agricultural thermome¬
ter, invented and conftrudied by Mrs Lovi of Edin¬
burgh. If there be danger of burning, it is moderated
by boring feveral wide holes in the dung on each fide
of the bed, and in the earth immediately under the roots
of the plants, to admit air, and let the rank fleam pafs
off: thefe holes fhould be fhut after the heat of the bed
is become moderate. The outfide of the bed fhould be
protected in wet, or cold windy weather, and when its
heat decays, it is revived by means of lining, as diredted
in cucumber and melon beds. After the afparagus be¬
gins to appear above ground, due attention fhould be
paid to the regular admiffion of air, whenever the wrea-
ther is at all moderate ; and care muft be taken to co¬
ver the beds with mats during fevere weather, and con-
ftantly during the night. In four or five weeks after
the formation of the bed, the afparagus will be fit for
cutting, and will continue to produce abundantly for
two or three weeks longer. During that time three or
four hundred may be collected every week from a three
light frame. They muft not be cut, as is the cafe
when afparagus is colledled in the open air, the fingers
muft be introduced into the earth, and the buds are to
be broken off clofe to the roots.
When carrots are required early, make a hot-bed
about two feet thick of dung, and cover it to the depth
of fix inches with light rich earth. Sow the feed thin,
and cover it to the depth of a quarter of an inch. Ad¬
mit air freely in mild weather through the day, and
cover them during the night. When about an inch or
two high, thin them to about three inches afunder, they
will be fit for drawing in April or May.
Sow rape, creffes, muftard, and radifh, in a flight hot¬
bed. The dung fhould not exceed the thicknefs of
eighteen inches or two feet, and fhould be covered with
five or fix inches of light dry earth. The feeds may be
fown very thick, either in drills or all over the furface
of the bed, and covered flightly. The bed ihould
be covered with a frame and glaffes, and protedled
during the night and fevere weather, with mats. When¬
ever the weather will permit, air muft be admitted,
other wife the plants will be apt to die as fall as they
come up,.
415
J anuary.
Fruit
Garden.
N I N G.
Where mint, tanfey, and terragon, are required very
early, a flight hot-bed may be prepared and covered
with earth to the depth of five or fix inches, in which
the roots of mint, tanfey, and terragon, may be planted
and covered w'ith a frame and glaffes. ^
About the beginning of this month, fome peas and Early peas
beans may be fown in a hot-bed, either for tran(planting and beans,
into a warm border in the open air, or into other hot¬
beds where they are to remain, and produce a crop; the
early framing pea is beft for this purpofe. ^6
A hot-bed may be formed, in which fome early Early po-
dwarf potatoes may be planted, either to be planted out tatoes,
afterwards, or to remain to produce a crop.
Sow fome early kidney beans in a hot-bed, or in pots tarly'kid-
to be placed in a hot-houfe. Fill moderate fized pots ney beans.
(24s) with rich light earth, and fow three or four beans
each pot. When the plants have come up, give
in
them a moderate quantity of water 5 they will produce
a crop in March and April.
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
38
If any apple or pear trees remain unpruned on walls Apple and
or efpahers, that work may be performed any time this pear trees
month, even though the weather Ihould befroftyj fometo
people indeed think it improper to prune trees during
froit, left the trees fhould receive injury by having their
cut furfaces expofed to the action of the froft j but their
apprehenfions are chimerical.
Apple and pear trees produce their flower buds on
fhort branches, (or fpurs as they are termed), which
proceed from the iides of the branches of one' or more
years Handing, and w hich every year increafe in num¬
ber, while the branches from which they proceed,
continue vigorous : if thefe branches, which throw out
fpurs, be fhortened or cut at their extremities, they
commonly puih out a number of fmaller branches*
which acquire confiderable length, but form no flower
buds it is therefore proper in pruning thefe trees, to
take care never to fliortcn a leading branch where
there is room on the wall or efpalier to allow it to be
extended, unlefs when a fupply of new wood is want¬
ed to fill up a vacancy. In young trees which have
not yet formed a fufficient head, feleft the moft vigo¬
rous and beft placed (hoots, and train them to the wall
or efpalier, at the diftance of from four to fix inches
from one another; any branches that intervene be¬
tween them are to be removed clofe to their origin,
and all tbofe branches which do not apply well to
the wall or efpaliers may likewife be removed. When
the branches are too thin, and a fupply of wood is
wanted, one or more of the laft year’s (hoots may be
cut down to within a few inches of its origin ; four
or five buds are commonly left. Thefe branches fo
fhortened, commonly pufh out three or four (hoots the
enfiiing feafon. The young branches that have been
laid in at full length, will in two or three years pro¬
duce a good many fpurs or fhort branches along their
fides, from which a crop of fruit may be expected.
In old trees, that have been already trained, all the vi¬
gorous beari-g branches are to be retained, unlefs where
they may happen to be too crowded, then the branch
in* ended to be removed fhould be cut out clofe to its
infertion. When any of the old bearing blanches feem
to be worn out, or decayed, they fhould be pruned cut
near.:
J armary.
Fruit
Garden.
39 t
Plum and
cherry.
40
Peach,
nedtarine,
&c.
G A D E
near to their infertion; from the flump that is left
fome (hoots -will be puflied out the following feafon,
the bell of which may be retained, to fupply the place
of the branch removed. All the leading branches
ought to be looked over, and the fuperliuous fore¬
right and mifplaced flioots of laft year’s growth which
will not eafily apply to the wall, ought to be cut off
clofe to their infertion into the main branch j the moft
vigorous and belt placed fhoots fliould be trained at
full length to the wall or efpalier at the diftance of
from four to fix inches from one another. When there
happens to be any vacant fpace on the wall or efpaiier,
fome of the lalt year’s (hoots may be fhortened, as di-
refled in the pruning of young trees.
In looking over the leading branches, all the fpurs
which produce flower buds ought to be carefully re¬
tained 5 and any flumps which may have been left, after
former primings, ought to be cut away quite Ciofe to
the branch from which they proceed, for they con-
ftantly produce a redundancy of branches which create
confufion, fliade the fruit from the fun, and rob it of ns
proper nourilhment.
I'his is a proper feafon to prune plum and cherry trees
either on walls or efpaliers: the lame directions which
have been given for pruning apples and pears will apply
to the pruning of plums and cherries, as they likewiie
produce their fruit on fpurs, puflied out from nearly the
extremity of the (hoots, whicljt are two or three years old.
It is improper in pruning to ihorten the branches, bc-
caufe the very part would be removed from which the
fruit buds fliould proceed next or fubfequent feafon.
Thefe trees produce their fruit on the young branches
of laft year. A plentiful fupply of lad year’s (hoots
mull therefore be retained to be nailed to the wall, at
the diftance of from three inches to half a foot Irom one
another •, the moft vigorous and bell placed flioots are
to be feleCled for this purpofe, and all fore-right, weak¬
ly or fuperfluous (hoots are to be removed, likewife
fome of the laft year’s bearers. That the pruning knife
may be ufed more freely, it would be proper not only
to unnail the flioots which had been laid in laft year,
but even fome of the principal branches. In feleCling
the branches, attention mud be paid not only to their
polition and proper diftance, but likewife to the quanti¬
ty of flower buds they contain. Thefe buds are dif-
tinguilhable from thofe which produce branches by their
roundneis} and towards fpring when the buds begin to
fwell, by their fize : thofe which produce branches be-
ingr generally fmall, flat, and pointed. It frequently
happens that one of each is produced at the fame eye
(as it is termed), or fometimes two flower buds, -with a
branch bud between them. All very ftrong thick
branches are to be rejefted, as well as thofe that are
long, fmall, and feeble, becaufe the very vigorous
branches are much more..apt to run to wood, than to
produce fruit, f hofe branches which are feledltd as
the fitted: to be retained, ought to be (hortened (due
regard being paid to their vigour, and to the number
and fituation of the flower buds they contain), which
will make them pu(h out two or three branches the
enfuing fummer, the bed of which may be retained for
next year’s bearers. _ . .
In weak trees that are not difpofed to pufti vigoroui-
jy, the finaller flioots may be (hortened to the length
of fix or eight inches j the more vigorous (hoots may be
N I N G. Tart III;
left from ten to fifteen inches long, or thereby. In trees fimuary.
of moderate growth the branches ought to be left'pro- I
portionally longer, the fmaller ones from half a toot to , ... 'j
ten inches, the mure vigorous from one foot to a (oot
and a half. In very vigorous trees, the branches
ought to be (hortened but little, and fome of them not
at all, the fmaller (hoots may be (hortened to the
length of a foot or fifteen inches; the more vigorous
(hoots Ihould have only about a third or fourth part o.
their lengt h cut off j and the molt vigorous (hould not
be (hortened at all, (or the more they are (hortened,
the more they are difpofed to pulh vigoroufly and run
to wood, and on that account produce few fruit. As the
flower buds are fometiroes (ituated near the extremity,
at other times near the bottom o£ the branch, this cir-
cumltance in a certain degree mud regulate the fliorten-
ing the branch, as care muft be taken to leave a iuf-
fieient quantity of flower buds, where fruit is the ob¬
ject. Care mult likewife be taken to have a bud which
is expected to produce a branch, at the eye which is
next the cut extremity : it is of no moment whether it
be alone or in company with one or two flower buds,
but it is abfolutely neceffary to have one to product; a
leading branch, without which the fruit will not thrive.
When three or four laft year’s ftioots are found on a
branch of the preceding year, the one at the upper and
lower extremities is frequently preferved ; in that cafe
the intermediate ones ought to be cut away clofe to the
branch ; but fliould any of the intermediate ones be
felefted as the moft proper to be retained, the branch
of the preceding year (hould be cut off clofe by the up-
permoit of the flioots which has been fixed on, and all
thofe (hoots which are to be removed ftiould be cut
away clofe to the branch from which they proceed.
After each tree has been gone over, it ought to be care¬
fully nailed to the wall or fixed to the efpalier. _ 41
Vinqs if cut when in a growing ftate are apt to bleed Vines ani
very copioufly. I bis bleeding is detrimental to them, *
and is ilopt with great diificulty. If vines are pruned
a (hort time before the rife of the fap, they are likewife
liable to bleed at the recently cut extremities; it would
therefore be improper any time this month to prune
vines which grow in the hot-houfe or in a vinery
which is to be early forced j but fuch as grow on open
walls or in vineyards may be lately cut any time this
month. Though it would certainly be advifeable to
prune as foon after the fall of the leaf as may be, as in
that cafe the cut extremities would have fufficient time
to heal, and all danger of bleeding would be re¬
moved.
Tig trees may be pruned any time this month, though
•perhaps it would be as well to defer it till next or fol¬
lowing month. For the method, fee February.
Goofeberries and currants may ftill be pruned. See
November. , 48
Goofeberries and currants may be planted if the fe-Plart
verity of the froft does not render the ground too hard
indeed they may be planted any time from the fall of^
the leaf in autumn till the pufhing out of their buds in
fpring. It is ufual to plant them in rows along the
borders, or to divide the plots in the kitchen garden j
in which cafe they ought to be planted two or three
yards apart, and the diftance between the rows mull
depend on the fize of the plots they are to feparate (10,
j r or 18 yards). They ought to be trained up with a
(ingle
lit III.
January.
Flait
Garden.
43
fpber-
fingle ftalk to the lieiglit of 10 or 15 inches, which will
allow the kitchen crops that may be planted near them
j to grow freely, and will render the operations of hoe¬
ing, weeding, and raking under the bulbes ealy. They
are frequently planted out in compartments by tin ra-
felves, in which cafe the buihes ought to Hand at the
didance of from five to eight feet in the row's, and the
rows ought to be eight or nine feet apart.
When plenty of room is allowed between the bullies,
they grow freely, and produce larger fruit ; free ad-
miflion is like wife afforded to the fun and air, without
which, the Iruit would not acquire its proper flavour :
hoeing, and digging between the bufhes, is more ealily
performed, and crops of different kinds of kitchen gar¬
den produftions may be reared in the intervals. Cur¬
rants are very frequently planted againft walls and rails,
to which they are regularly trained. Goofeberries alfo
are fometimes planted againft walls and rails, thofe
againft walls yield early and well-flavoured fruit. The
variety of goofeberries is very great, and every feafon
adds new varieties to thofe already known. The prin¬
cipal kinds are the early rough green, fmall early red,
fmooth green, large Dutch red, common hairy red,
fmooth black, rough white, wffite cryftal, large yellow,
rough yellow, large amber, large tawney, &c.
dhe different kind of currants are the black, commori
white, large Dutch white or grape currant, common red
and champaigne.
Ftafpberries may be pruned or planted during this
or any of the winter months *, they produce their fruit
on fmall branches which proceed from the Ihoots of the
former year. Every year they pufh up a number of
fhoots from the root, which bear fruit the fubfequent
fummer, and then die. In drefling rafpberries, all the
old dead ftalks mull be cut awray clofe by the ground,
and all the young ones except four or five of the ftrong-
eft, which fhould be ftiortened a little. All thefe Ihoots
become fmall towards their extremitv and bend a little \
it is the common practice to cut off the bent part, but
fome fliorten them one-third, others one-fourth. After
the (hoots have been (hortened, they ought to be inter¬
twined or furrounded by a bandage of fome kind to
keep them together, for the fake of mutual fupport, be-
caufe when they are allowed to Hand fingle they are
apt to be weighed down in fummer by the weight of
their own leaves and fruit, particularly when loaded
with rain, or to be beaten down by the wind ; in which
cafe they may frequently lie one over the other, create
confufion, and exclude the fan and air from thofe that
are undermoft, or may lie fo clofe to the ground as to
have their fruit deftroyed. After the plants are pruned,
the ground between them ought to be dug, and all
ftraggling (hoots which advance to a diftance from the
main plants ought to be taken up.
Rafpberries may be planted any time this month
when the weather is moderate : when new plantations
of them are wranted, they ought to be formed in open
fituations, if high-flavoured fruit be Avilhed for $ but
rafps will thrive very well and produce good crops in
(hadoAvy fituations. The ground in Avhich they are to
be planted ought to be well dug, and if a little rotten
dung be added, the plants Avill fucceed the better.
J hey ought to be planted at the diftance of three feet
from each other, in rows four or fiv'e feet apart. The
offsets which are dug up from betAveen the rows of
Vol. IX. Part II.
GARDENING. , 417
old plantations of rafpberries are commonly made ufe Jamn -y.
of for this vmi note. Anv of tho laft vonra flww.i a I i 1 -i t Fruit
ot for this purpofe. Any of the laft years (hoots that G
are well rooted and tolerably vigorous Anil anfwer per- . 11 ‘ .
fedly well. Thofe which have two or three buds, form¬
ed on the roots, from which young (hoots are to proceed
the following fummer, are generally to be preferred to
thofe Avhich have fewer though equally vigorous. They
ought to be taken up carefully Avith all their roots, and
after the Hem has been ftiortened a little (about one-
third) they may be planted at the diftanees already
mentioned. Plantations formed now Avill yield fome
fruit the enfuing fummer, and a plentiful crop the fol-
loAving feafon. 1 he kinds of rafpberries commonly
uled are the Avhite, double bearing, (which bears tAvo
crops, one in fummer the other in autumn), the fmooth
ftalk, the Antwrerp (very large).
If the weather be mild, all kind of fruit trees may Prepare for
be planted anytime this month; but if it fliould be planting
deemed more advifeable to defer planting till nextfruit trces*
month, the ground may be prepared for their reception
any time during open weather. The borders on which
fruit trees are to be planted, Avhich are to be trained
againft walls or efpaliers, (hould be trenched or dug Iavo
fpades deep. For planting and preparing ground for
fruit trees, fee October. ^ ^
J he roots of the more tender forts of fruit trees, viz. Protect the
peaches, neftarines, apricots, and indeed of all forts of roots, &.c.
ftoned fruit, which may have been planted any time in
the courfe of the Avinter, Avill require to be prote&ed
during froft by a covering of ftraAV, or litter mixed
Avith dung, or fomething of that nature, applied to a
confiderable diftance round the ftetn, fo as to cover the
ground completely, and prevent the froft from penetrat-
ing.
Protefl fig trees during frofty Avealher Avith a cover¬
ing of mats, or fomething of that nature, becaufe their
(hoots being fucculent, particularly toAvards their extre¬
mities, are apt to be deftroyed by the froft. This is of
the more confequence as the fruit is produced from the
young (hoots only, and chiefly from their extremities,
the parts mod liable to fuffer. .5
Where there are vineries, peach, cherry-houfes, &c. Force fruit
the glaffes ought to be put on about the beginning oftrecs
the month when it is intended to force early, and Arts
ought to be applied about the middle or towards the
end of it See February. ^
Towards the beginning, middle, or end of the month, and it raw-
hot-beds may be made for forcing ftraAvberries, Avhich, berries,
if properly managed, will produce ripe fruit in March
or April. The hot-beds are to be formed according
to the directions given under the article Melon, and
Cucumber. See Kitchen Garden, JANUARY. The dung
fliould be raifed at lead to the height of three feet, and
the frame and glaffes put on as foon as the bed is made,
which Avill both protect it from rain or fnowr, and draw
up the (team fooner. As foon as the violent heat is
over, the furface of the bed (hould be covered to the
depth of four or five inches with dry earth, or with a
quantity of decayed tanners bark taken from an old
tan-bed. The pots containing the plants ftiould be,
plunged up to the rims into the earth or tan Avith Avhieh
the bed is covered. They fhould be placed as clofe to¬
gether as poftible, and care taken to fill up all the in-
terftices Avith earth or tan. When all the pots are
plunged, put on the glaffes and keep them clofe till
3 G" the ,
4i S
J anuary.
Flower
Garden.
GARDE
the fteam rife in the bed, when it will be nccefTary to
raife them a little behind, to allow the Hearn to pafs oiF.
, The alpine and fcarlet itrawberry are commonly made
ufe of for this pur pole.
The plants ihould be two years old, and if potted
the preceding autumn, they will fucceed the better j but
if a quantity of plants were not put into pots laft
autumn for this purpofe,- that work may be done any
time this month during open weather. Tor the method,
fee September. Or the plants may be taken up now
with balls of earth, and placed in the beds without
being put into pots. When the plants begin to pulh,
let them have plenty of air during favourable weather,
for ihould they be kept too clofe they will become
weakly, and either produce no flowers at all, or their
flowers will drop off without yielding fruit. They
fhould like wife be frequently watered and protected
during the night in fevere weather with a covering of
1 ^ When the heat of the bed begins to decay, it
N I N G.
mats.
ftiould be renewed by proper linings of frelh dung, ap¬
plied as direfted for melon-beds. As to the fize of hot¬
beds nothing need be faid, as that muft be regulated by
the number of plants intended to be forced. Ifot-bcds
formed of tanners bark, particularly where there are pits
Conftrufted on purpofe, will anfwer better than thole of
horfe-dung, becaufe they afford a more equable heat.
Where there are pine houfes, or hot-houfes of any kind,
plenty of ftrawbernes may be obtained early, without
much trouble, by placing pots filled with the plants in
them anywhere near the giafs.
Sect. III. The Flower Garden or Pleafure Ground.
Protect Double flowers, as fweetwilliams,wallflowers, flocks,
flowers in rofe campion, and auriculas, carnations, &c. kept in pots
pots. outfit to be protected in fevere weather, either by com¬
mon garden frames, or by coverings of mats fupported
on hoops. Due attention muff be paid to give them air
whenever the weather is mild. Where there are no
convenienees of the above defcription, the pots may be
plunged up to their rims in well-lheltered borders clofe
to a fouth wall. The pots containing hardy plants
ihould likewife be plunged in the earth in feme dry
fituation up to the rims, to protect the roots from
froft.
BulbJus During fevere frofty weather the beds m which the
roots in finer forts of hyacinths, tulips, ranunculufes, anemones,
beds. have been planted, fhould be protected by a cover¬
ing* of mats or ftraw 5 but if the plants have begun to
make their appearance above ground, the beds fhould
be arched over with low hoops and covered with mats,
which ought to be fixed down to prevent their being
blown off by the wind ; and they fhould be removed
.0 occafionally during mild weather.
Plant bul- If any hyacinth, tulip, narciffus, crotvn imperial,
'bous roots, crocus, or fnowdrop roots remain unplanted, they ought
now to be put into the ground. For the method of
51 planting them, fee October.
Sow hardy 1 About the latter end of the month, if the weather is
annuals. rahd, fow a few fweet peas in any warm flieltered fitua¬
tion Vor flowering early, alfo feme feeds of candytuft,
larkfpur, adonis," dwarf funflower, perficaria, venus
Fait III.,
lilach, hyacinth, polyanthus, narciffus, Italian narciffus, J^uary.
dwarf tulip, jonquil, lily of the valley, &cc. may be ,ijU1‘c'r^
placed in the hot-houfe, where they will flower early.
As foon as they come into blow they fhould be removed
into a green-boufe, or the apartments of a dwelling-
houfe, where they will continue longer in flower than
they would do if left in the ftove, where the great heat
would accelerate their decay. All thole fhould have
been put into pots the preceding autumn, or at leaft
fbme time previous to their being introduced into the
hot-houfe. The rofes in particular require to be well
rooted in the pots before they are forced. ^
Shrubs may now be pruned, which fhould be per-Manage-
formed with a knife and not with garden fheers. Ailment of
irregular fhoots which extend far beyond the reft of
the branches fhould be cut off. A few branches fhould
alfo be cut out wherever they are too much crowded to¬
gether, likewife all dead and decayed ones. After the
pruning has been finilhed, the ground in the fhrubbery
ought to be dug over, and all fuckers removed. W here
the fhrubs are too much crowded together, fomeof them
ought to be taken out 5 and where any of them have
died, or if they Hand too diftant, feme young ones may
now be planted to fill up the vacancies. 54
Grafs walks and lawns Ihould be kept neat by fre- Of grats
quent poling and rolling. Poling may be performed inwalfaanJ
open dry weather, with a long taper alh pole about
twelve or fifteen feet long, which breaks and fcatters
the worm calls. After this' in moderately dry weather,
roll w ith a w-ooden roller, to which all the loofe worm-
cafts will adhere. Walks or lawns may alfo be made
this month during open weather. Good turf may be
obtained from commons or downs where fheep feed,
or from fields which have been long under pafture.
Each turf fhould be marked out a yard long and a foot
in breadth, and cut to the thicknefs of an inch with a
turfing iron. As the cutting proceeds, they fhould be
rolled up compaftly with the grafs fide in. If they are
not clofely rolled up they will be apt to break in
carrying. 'Ihey muft be laid on the walk or lawn clofe
to one another after the furface has been rendered level
and compaft by proper treading, that it may not fettle
unequally. When they have been put on they muft be
beat down with a wooden rammer, and afterwards roll¬
ed with a large iron or wooden roller. 55
Gravel walks fhould be cleared of weeds and all de-Of grave*
cayed leaves, and kept clean ; and in dry weather they walls,
fhould be occafionally rolled. New walks may likewise
be formed nowr. For the method, fee March. ^ 56
Edgings of boxwood, thrift, &c. may be planted ary Edging
time this month in open weather See October. 57
Hedges of hawthorn, barberry, privet, hazel, holm, Planting,
yew, birch, elm, elder, &c. may be planted during this &c. o
month. See November. Old hedges which have
become open below fhould be plafhed. See DECEM¬
BER. . . Ft
Foreft trees for ornamental plantations, coppices, o. >j tJC
woods, may be planted either now, or at any time fromo
the fall of the leaf till the rife of the fap in fpring. See
October.
Force flow-navel-Wort, venus looking-glafs, lobel’s-catchfly, and
®rs in the panfy violet.
hot-houfe. pots 0f pinks, carnations, rofes, Perfian or common
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
Manage-
nient ot
Prune and tranfplant fhrubs, fruit and foren j^bs aad
Trim the ftems of foreft-trees, and cut off all h tj.ec5j
—ular
reg
,irt III.
CARD
60
tf teed
nsrs.
61
“opagate
■ecs, Str.
•j layers,
!y cuttings.
armary. regular rambling flioots of lluubs, and reduce them to a
'Green- reoular neat form.’ This work may be executed any
ouie and t-me m0nth, even during fro It, when little elfe can
^c''10ule', be done. All kinds of hardy deciduous thrubs, fruit,
^ and foreft trees, may be tranfplanted during open wea¬
ther.
Dig ground in open weather, and wheel out dung m
fruit.
Vacant compartments of ground may be dug any
time during open weather j and like wife after the ne-
celTary pruning has been given to the trees and fhrubs,
the ground between the rows may be dug, and all weeds
carefully buried.
The young plants of many of the tenderer kinds of
trees and thrubs, fuch as cedar ot Lebanon, and fome
other fpecies of pine, eyprefs, chinefe arbor vitae, ftraw-
berry-tree, &c. require to be protected during froft.
If they have been raifed in boxes or pots, they may be
placed in garden frames and occaixonally covered with
the glades ; but care mutt be taken always to remove
the glalles in mild open weather. It the plants iland
in beds in the open ground, they may be covered with
mats fupported on hoops, which mult be removed du¬
ring favourable weather, or a covering of peate draw, or
fomething of that nature may anfwer the purpofe.
Layers of many kinds of trees and thrubs may be
made any time this month during open weather ; many
of them which are laid now will be well rooted and
fit for removing by October 5 for the method, fee No¬
vember.
Put in cuttings of honeyfuckles, goofeberries, currants,
&c. indeed moil kinds of trees and thrubs may be pro¬
pagated by cuttings. For this purpofe felect the ftraight
ihoots of lalt year’s growth •, take them oft by a clean
cut with a ftiarp knife, and reduce thein to the length
of ten, twelve, or fifteen inches, by cutting off part of
their fmaller extremities. Plant them in rows a foot a-
part, and at the diftance of four or five inches from one
another in the rows, taking care to infert one-third or
one half of their length into thq ground. Though cut-
tines will grow w’hen their fmallcr extremities aie put
into the ground, they never fucceed fo well in this in¬
verted petition, therefore in planting, attention thould
be paid to place them in their natural pofition. _ Older
and longer branches of fome trees and ftirubs, viz. wil¬
low, elder, &c. may be employed as cuttings.
Goofeberries, currants, rofes, lilachs, and many other
ftirubs and trees, may be propagated by fuckers or off-
, fets from the roots : thefe may be taken on any time
this month, and planted in rows. Previous to their
being planted it would be proper to trim off part of
their extremities.
Sect. V. Grecn-IIouJc and Hot-Houfe.
’he atr to During froft, keep the glaffes ftiut but whenever
e cautiouf-the weather is mild, give the green-home air by opening
1 admitted.glaffes more or lefs according to the ftate of the
weather : even in the brighteft mild days during this
month the glaffes fhould not be opened until about ten
o’clock in the morning, and ought to be ftiut again
about three in the afternoon. In dull foggy days, even
though the weather be mild, they fhould be opened b,ut
little, and that for a fhort time, and in very damp
"weather, not at all. When very fevere froft: prevails,
63
!y fuckers.
E N I N G. 4i9
fires muff be put on, and the flues gently warmed but
the temperature of the air fhould not be raifed higher hemfe.
than merely to keep off the eifedts of the external froii.
A little fire fhould likewife be put on during very wet
weather to banifh the damps. Water fhould be given
to fuch plants as require it, but fparingly. Succulent
plants, fuch as .aloes, &c. require little or no water at
this feafon. All dead and decayed leaves fhould be
carefully picked oft, and the green-houfe kept clean. ^
Particular attention muff be paid to the pine apple Pine apple
plants which are to produce fruit the enfuing hummer,
as many of them in the courfe of this month begin to^.^
fhew flowers. If due ..attention be not now paid to keep
up a proper heat, both in the tanned bed and in the air
of the hot-houfe, the plants may receive fuch a check
as will confiderably affect the fize of the future fruit.
The bark bed mult be carefully examined ; and if the
bark be much decayed and the heat found on the de¬
cline, a quantity of frefti tanners bark fhould be pre¬
pared to" be added as a refreshment to the old. The
pots containing the pine apple plants Ihould then be ta¬
ken out of the tan pits, and a quantity of the decayed
tan removed from the furface and fides of the pits, to
make room for the frefti tan which is to be added*
The old tan mult likewife be turned up from the bot¬
tom, and well mixed with the new, after \vhich the
pots muft be again plunged into the tan. But if, on
examination, the heat of the tan pit be found good,
and the tan not much decayed, it will be fufficient to
turn the old tan, and to mix it well together without
making any addition of new. I his operation will re¬
vive the heat of the bed, and preferve it in good condi¬
tion for fome time to come. X he heat of the air m the
houfe muft likewife be attended to, and regulated by
the thermometer and by due attention to the fires.
Moderate watering muft be given once a week or ten
days, according as the pine apple plants may feem Ui
require it *, and care muft be taken not to pour any of
the water into their hearts or among their leaves.
The other plants in the hot-houfe muft be regularly
watered j but thole of a fucculent nature, fuch as the
different fpecies of aloe, euphorbia, mefembryanthe-
mum, &c. require very little water at a time, and that
but feldom. 66
Kidney beans, fown in pots or in narrow boxes of Kidney
about two or three feet long, may be reared in the hot-beans,
houfe. Thofe fown this month will produce fruit in
April or March. When fown in pots, two or three
may be put into each, and covered about an inch deep :
When in boxes they may be planted to the depth of an
inch along the middle, at the diftance of two or three
inches from one another. T he pots or boxes may be
placed on the crib of the bark bed, on ftielves, or any
convenient fituation, within the houfe, where they may
not encumber the other plants. After the plants have
come up, they fhould be regularly and frequently wa¬
tered. The kinds commonly ufed, for this purpofe are
the early fpeckled dwarf, negro dwarf, and dun-colour¬
ed dwarf. . _ . 67
Cucumbers may be raifed with tolerable fuccels in Cucumbers
the hot-houfe, which will produce fruit early ni fpring.
If the plants have been raifed in fmall pots, plunged in
the tan of the bark bed, or in hot-beds made of horfe
dung, they Ihould be tranfplanted into larger pots or
boxes, in which they may remain and produce fruit;
3 G 2 or
420
G A R D E N I N G. * Part III,
February, or the feeds may be fown at once in the pots where they
Garde''1 are rema‘n* In this cafe iix or eight feeds may be
i ' • fown in each pot, or patches containing that number
may be fown at proper intervals in long narrow boxes/
When the plants have come up, only two or three of
the ftrongelt Ihould be left in each pot or patch. The
pots or boxes may be placed in any convenint fituation
in the hot-houfe, but will fucceed beft on a ihelf fixed
near the top of the houfe, within a Ihort diftance of the
glafs. The plants tnuft be frequently watered, and have
forrie fmall rods fixed near them, to which the runners
may be faftened.
68
Admit air
to cauli¬
flower
plants.
65
Sow cauli¬
flowers.
70
Tranfplant
cabbages.
Sow cab¬
bages.
FEBRUARY.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
The cauliflower plants, which are under frames,
fhould have plenty of air. Indeed, whenever the wea¬
ther will permit, the glafles ought to be taken off en¬
tirely.
About the end of the month, if the weather be mild,
fome of the ftrongefi: p’ants may be tranfplanted into
the iituations where they are to remain. They ought
to be planted in good well-manured ground, in a warm
fituation, at the diftance of two feet and a half each
way from one another. The fame attention muft be
paid to cauliflowers under bell or hand-glaifes. When
more than two plants happen to be under one glafs, the
weakeft of them fhould be planted out about the end of
the month, if the weather be mild, and only one or
two fhould be left under each glafs : but if the weather
is unfettled or fevere, tranfplanting ought to be deferred
till next month.
Some caulifloumr feed may be fown any time this
month to produce plants to fucceed thofe that have been
preferved during wunter under frames or hand-glaffes, or
to fupply the place of thofe which may have been cut
off by the feverity of the weather.
For this purpofe make a flight hot-bed of horfe dung,
to the height of 20 inches or two feet •, cover it with a
light rich earth to the depth of four or five inches, on
the furface of which fow the feeds, and cover them to
the depth of a quarter of an inch with earth of the fame
defeription. After the feed has been fown, a frame and
glaffes fhould be put on, if one can be fpared for this
purpofe ; and when the plants begin to appear above
ground, they fhould have plenty of air, whenever the
weather will permit, otherwife they will be drawn up
and become weak. The glades, therefore, (unlefs in
very fevere weather) flrould be raifed every day, and in
mild ones taken off entirely. When there are no glaf¬
fes to fpare, the bed may be covered during the night,
and in fevere weather, with mats properly fixed over it.
The plants fhould be fprinkled with water from time to
time, if moderate fhowers fhould not render this unne-
ceflary.
Cabbage plants, if tolerably ftrong, fhould be tranf¬
planted in the courfe of this month. See Planting out
cabbages, January.
About the middle, or towards the end of the month,
fow fome cabbage and favoy feed to raife plants for late
crops in fummer and autumn. Both the early and late
kinds of cabbage may be fown now, but it is better to
few them in Auguft j but if none were fown in autumn,
or if the plants raifed then have been cut off by the February,
feverity of the winter, a quantity of both early and late Kitchen
Ihould be fown the firft opportunity this month. That. (-r"ii:Cn-
the plants may fooner acquire fufficient ftrength for
planting out, it would be proper to fow them in a flight
hot-bed. yj
Where fmall falad is required, let fome feeds of Small fa-
muftard, crefs, radilh, rape, &c. be fown regularly every
eight or ten days during the courfe of the month. See
January. ' ^
Earth up celery in open dry w'eather if the plants Celery,
have advanced much above ground. Sow fome upright
celery feed for an early crop about the middle or to¬
wards the end of the month, in a fmall bed of rich light
earth in a warm fituation. There are three ways in
which this may be performed, ift, The earth of the
bed fhould be well broken with the fpade; the feed
fown on the rough furface and raked in. 2dly, The
furface of the bed may be made fmooth 5 the feed fown.
and covered to the depth of a quarter of an inch with
light rich earth, ddly, A quantity of earth, to the
depth of about half an inch, ihould be removed with
the back of a rake from the furface of the bed into the
alleys, which, after the feed has been fown, ihould be
gently replaced with the rake. Thofe who are very
anxious to have early celerv, fhould fow fome in a flight
hot-bed. The plants raifed now7 will be fit for ufe in
June or July} but it would be advifeable to fow few at
this feafon, as they will be very apt to pipe or run up
to feed before they acquire fufficient fize : there are two
kinds of celery, the Italian, and turnip-rooted or cele-
riac. ... 74
About the beginning of this month fow fome fhort-Radiihes:
topped radifties to fucceed thofe fown laft month, and
fome falmon and Italian radiihes at any time during the
month. See January.
Some round-leaved fpinach may be fown any time in Spinach,
the courfe of the month, to fuccced that which was
fown laft month. See January. ^
Some early peas may be fown this month. This is pcas>'
likewife a proper feafon for fowing a full crop of late
peas, fuch as marrowfats, rouncivals, Carolina, and fugar
pea, &c. For the diftances at which they are to be
fown, fee January. ^
This is the proper time to plant beans. For the me- Beans.
thod and diftances, fee January. ^
Such peas and beans as are fufficiently advanced in £arth Up
growth ihould now be earthed up. pea.' and
In mild open weather fow fome feeds of green and beans,
white cos lettuce, like wife fome Sicilian, imperial, brown ^
Dutch, and common cabbage lettuce. See January. trinfpiant
If young lettuce plants are wanted for tranfplanting lettuces,
early, they ffiould be form in a flight hot-bed or in
fome warm fheltered fituation •, and when they have
advanced to the height of about two inches, they may
be planted out in the open ground. Lettuces that have
flood the w’inter in frames, under hand-glaffes, or in
warm borders, ffiould be thinned and left Handing at
the diftance of one foot from each other, and thofe that
are drawn but flrould be planted in feme proper fitua¬
tion. go
About the middle or end of this month fow fome car- sow carrot
rots and parfnips. They fucceed beft in light deep foil, and parfnp
and in an open fituation. The ground ffiould be dug,
at leaft one fpade deep or trvo, if the depth of the foil
will.
rt III.
"ar
February, -will admit, and the clods ought to be well broken.
Kitchen They may be Town either broadcalt, in narrow beds, or
Garden- in drills. See March.
Sow fome ieeds of red, white, and green beet, like-
wife of mangel wurzel or German beet. The fine red
root of the rirlt is ufed as a pickle, &c. •, the leaves of
the white and green are made uie of in foups, &c.; and
the large leaves of the mangel wurzel are boiled and
uled as fpinach. The footitalks of its leaves are like-
wiie ufed as afparagus. Each kind ihould be fown fepa-
rately, either broadcait or in drills, an inch deep, and
about a foot apart 5 but the mangel wurzel requires
more room than the other kinds, becaufe it is of larger
growth. After the plants have come up, they fhould
be thinned out, to the diltance of fix or eight inches
from each other. The feed may likewife be dibbled in
rows, about a foot apart, and at the diilance of fix or
eight inches from each other in the rows. Two or more
feeds may be put into each hole ; and when the plants
appear above ground, one of the ftrongeft only ihould
g2 be left.
nt car- Some of laft year’s carrots, parfnips, and beets, ihould
See. for be planted out in rows, two feet apart, and one foot dif-
led ■ ■ . -1 • .
GARDENING.
421
S3.
t >w onions
1 if leeks.
taut from each other in the row, to itand and produce
feed.
Some onions and leeks may be fown in mild dry wea¬
ther, any time after the middle of this month/ The
ground fiiould be well dug, and the feeds fown when
the furface is dry, and then raked in. The beft mode
is divide the ground into beds of about four feet
wide, for the convenience of thinning, weeding, &c. ;
but they may aim be fown in plots, without being divid¬
ed into beds, in which cafe, if the foil be light, the feed
may be gently trodden in, before the furface is raked.
The leeks will be fit for tranfplanting in June and July,
and the onions for drawing in Auguit. Sometimes a
Itrsali quantity of leek-fecd is fown along with the onion;
and when the onions are drawn in Auguft, the leeks are
allowed to remain to acquire a proper fize ; but it is
better to fow each feparately. The principal kinds of
onions are Strafhurg, Deptford, Spanifli, Portugal, long
keeping, and red.
mburgh The Hamburgh parfley and fcorzonera are cultivated
rfley, &cc. for their roots ; the falfafy for its roots and tops. The
roots of all of them, if lown now or anv time in fpring,
will be fit for ufing in autumn, and continue good all
winter. The Hamburgh parlley roots are not only ufed
for culinary purpofes, but recommended in medicine.
They are faid to be ufeful in the gravel. The feeds
may be fow in drills, fix inches apart, and covered
with earth to the depth of half an inch. The plants
fliould be thinned in May or June, and left Handing
at the diftance of fix inches from each other in the
row's.
About the middle of the month you may fow feeds
of burnet, lovage, angelica, marigold, fennel, dill, forrel,
chervil, and clary. Each kind fliould be fown fepa¬
rately, either in the place where they are to remain, or
they may be tranfplanted in fummer. See June.
About the middle or end of the month fow marjo¬
ram, thyme, favory, and hyffop. The plants may either
remain where fown, or be planted out in the beginning
of fummer. See June.
Towards the end of the month plant fhalot, garlic, and
rokambole. Having procured a quantity of their roots,
6
-herbs,
divide and plant them in rows nine inches apart and fix February,
inches diitant from each other in the row. They may ^itchcn
be put in to the depth of two inches with the dibble, or, ~ .
placed in drills, two inches deep, drawn w ith a hoe. 87
T his is a proper time to raiie a full crop of pariley.Parlley.
See January. gg
A few potatoes may be planted about the middle or Potatoes,
end of this month for an early crop ; out it wanted very
early, fome early dwarf potatoes liiould be planted in
a flight hot-bed. Tor the method of planting, fee
March.
Sc,
Horfe radifli is propagated by offsets or cuttings ofHorfe-ra-
the roots, about three inches long, which may be plant-
ed either with the dibble or fpade, at the diltance of fix
or eight inches from each other, in rows two feet apart.
When they are planted with the dibble, the holes ought
to be made 10 or 12 inches deep 5 when w'ith the fpade
a trench fhould be made a full fpade deep, in the bot¬
tom of which the offsets or cuttings Ihould be placed
ereft, and covered with , earth from the next trench.
As they will not appear above ground till the month of
May, a crop of fpinach, radifhes, or fmall falad, may be
got from the ground, and cleared off before the horfe
radifli appears. After the plants have come above
ground, they ought to be kept clear of w'eeds.
About the middle or towards the end of the month, Sow turnip,
fow fome feed of the early Dutch turnip in a border of
light earth, in a warm fituation. See March.
If no preparations were made laft month for raifingCucumbers
early cucumbers and melons, they may be commenced, and melons,
any time this month, with better profpecfl of fuccefs.
For the method of forming and managing the feed-bed,
fee January.—If the cucumbers and melons, fown lalt
month and tranfplanted into fmall pots, be fit for ridg¬
ing out, a hot-bed for one or more frames fliould be
got ready for their reception, which fliould be raifed to
the height of three feet and a half, and covered with a
frame and glaffes. About a week afterwards, if the
hot-bed has fettled unevenly, the frame and glafies
fliould be removed ; and after the furface of the bed
has been made perfectly level, replaced. As foon as
the violent heat has fubfided, the rank fleam efcaped,
and all danger of burning apparently over, cover the
bed to the depth of two inches with dry light rich
earth, and raife a conical heap of the fame earth, to
the height of about 10 inches, immediately under the
centre of each light. By the following day the earth
will have acquired a proper warmth, and the bed will
be fit for the reception of the young plants. The earth,
laid over the furface of the bed, to the depth of two
inches, will prevent the rank fleam of the dung, on the
one hand, from rifing up freely, and yet not keep it
down altogether : were much of the furface of the dung
expofed, and the fleam allowed to efcape freely, the
young plants wmuld be deftroyed ; and, on the other
hand, were it prevented from efcaping altogether, by
laying on earth to a fufficient depth at once, the bed
would become overheated, and the roots of the plants
might be burnt.
The pots containing the young cucumber and melon Manage-
plants, which were tranfplanted laft month (fee Ja- ment of tfou
nuary), fliould be well watered the day previous totormer
their being ridged out, to make the ball of earth ad-cro^
here, and come out of the pot entire. After the tops
of the hillocks of earth, which had been raifed to the
height
Kitchen
Garden.
422 G A Pt D E
February, height of 10 inches under each light,,have been flatten-
ed hy reducing their height about two inches, make a
hole in the centre of each, capable of containing one of
the. balls of earth, which is to be turned out of the pots.
Scleft fome pots containing the ftrongeft plants ; piace
your hand on the furface of the pot, allowing the plants
to pafs between your fingers; invert it, and ftnke the
edne of it o-ently againft the frame till the bad 01 earth
comes out, which fiiould be put into one of the holes m
the hillock juft mentioned} clofe the earth round the
ball, and make it rife about an inch over its furiace.
After they have been thus ridged out, they mould re¬
ceive a gentle watering, and be covered with the glaf-
fes till the fteam begin to rife much, when air mould
be given by raifing the glades, ihefe hot-beds, into
which the cucumbers and melons have been finally
tranfplanted, muft be managed in the lame manner as
the nurfery beds, mentioned laid month. A covering
of draw, or fomething of that nature, fiiould be laid ad
round the dung > linings of frefh dung fliould be applied
to the fides of the bed when the heat begins to decline
air admitted under the fame circumftances and wit
the fame precautions as there Hated. If three cucum¬
bers or two melons have been planted m the pots, as
before direfted, one of the weakeft of either ftiould e
removed immediately l^efore, or after they are ridged
out. Should any fymptoras of burning appear loon al¬
ter the plants have been ridged out, part of the earth,
clofe to the bottom of the hillocks, muft be removed j
and as Coon as the violent heat has fubfided be replaced
with frefll earth. When the heat of the bed begins to
decline a little, efpecially if any of the roots m ie
.1 r -1 „ *.1 nr the mllocks.
N I N G. Fart fit
beginning of next month j but the melons will not be ^Wry.
ripe before May or June
Cucumbers and melons have male and female flower,
on the fame plant, which are ealily diftinguilhed from 94
one another. The male flowers, in the centre of which Impxegna-
the antherae are fituated that contain the farifia (orjono^he
fecundating powder), have ftalks of an equal thiekne s,
without any bvell immediately under the flowers-,
whereas a fwelling is perceptible immediately under the
female flowers which contain the female organ ol gene¬
ration, as foon as they are pufhed out from the ftalks oi
the plant, which is the germen or future Irmt. It
none of the farina of the male be conveyed mto the fe¬
male flower, the germen decays, becomes yellowifti, and
drops off. It becomes therefore neceffary, particularly
at this early period, to impregnate the female flowers
by fufpending male flowers over them, and Ihakmg
fome of the farina into the piftillum (or female organ) j
for after the plants have continued fome time m flower,
the air of the hot-bed in which they grow becomes
loaded with the farina, by which means it ^ waited into
the female flowers. Infefts likewife, particularly bees,
at a more advanced period of the year, ferve to convey
it from flower to flower. As foon as the female flowers
have opened, pinch off a newly blown male flower, to¬
gether with a portion of its foot flalk, remove the great-
eft part of its corolla or flower leaf, introduce it into -
the female flower, and either touch the piftillum ot the
female gently with the anther* of the male fo as to
make fome of the farina adhere, or Inake the male
flower over the piftillum of the female in order to make
fome of the farina fall on it. In a day or two after im-
decline a little, efpecially if any of the _ roots oi tie the ‘ erraen or’future fruit begins to fw ell,
!«: S^lThSL“pptdeaU Ind U In about a fortnight, if the nef bet be f=able
93
Topping.
a quantity of frefti earth ftiould be applied all round
them which ftiould be kept within the frame for one
night previoufly, that it may acquire a proper tempera¬
ture, for ftiould it be applied cold, it might injure the
young roots. Two or three days after this an addi¬
tional quantity of frefti earth flioud be applied to the
ftdes of the hills and in two or three more toe whole
furface of the bed may be earthed over as high as the
tops of the hills. ,
When the plants have got two rough leaves, a.k!
when the fecond is about an inch broad, the bud,
which is fituated at the axilla (or bafe) of the fecond
rough leaf, muft be removed either with the finger,
a pair of feiffars, or a pen-knife, or, when the bud is
very fmall, with a needle or pm, being careful not to
iniure the joint. After the plants are thus topped or
flopped, they foon acquire ftrengtnand mahout 10
or 12 days, each of them will throw out two or three
runners, which will fhew flowers fometimes at the fe¬
cond or third joint. Were the plants not to be topped,
the principal' (hoots would probably advance to the
length of about two feet, without fending off any run¬
ner? to fill up the frame, and without ftiewmg a fingle
flower. If none of the runners, which are puffed out
after the firft topping, ffew flowers at the third or
fourth joint, they ffould be topped likev ife, which wi
caufe each of them to puff out two or three runners, a
of which may perhaps prove fruitful. As flhefe runners
advance in growth they ought to be trained regularly
along the furface of the beds, and all very weak or re¬
dundant (hoots removed, the encumbers, if wc ma¬
naged, will be fit for the table about the end of this or
pregnanon ine ycmn-.i ^ —-- p
and in about a fortnight, if the weather be favourable
and the heat of the bed good, the young cucumbers
may be brought to table. This operation may be em¬
ployed to produce new varieties, not only of cucumbers
and melons, but of many other vegetables. V> ere the
female of one variety of melon to be impregnateu with
the farina of another, a kind would be produced par¬
taking fomewhat of the properties of both thus a large
melon, not poffeffed of much flavour, might be improved
by intermixture with one fupenor in flavour but inferior
in fize In hermaphrodite flowers this operation of im¬
pregnating, or crofting, as it is called by cattle breeders
is performed by removing the anther* from a flower of
one fpecies, and impregnating it with the farma of ano¬
ther of the fame natural family. 1 he plants proceeding
from fuch a commixture partake more of the properties
of the male than the female parent. We have, feen a
hybrid produced from the papaver fommferum impreg¬
nated with the farina of the papaver oruntak, fold*
the male parent as with difficulty to be diftmguifhcd
^The papaver orientale produces only one flower on
a ftalk : fome of this hybrid however carried more than
one, and in this particular alone it refembled the pa-
paver fomniferum, which branches very much. M
Knight has made fomc curie-s and mtereftmg expm-
ments on this fubjeft, which he has detailed m the fid-
lowing letter to Sir Jofeph Banks, pubhffied m the
Tranfaftions of the Royal Society. ie EA pj, obfen'^'f
fome experiments which I have amufed myUt ™ontllIS fob-
making'on plants, appearing to me to be intereffng t jea.
the naturalift, by proving the exiftence of fuperfetation
Part nr. CARD
February, in the vegetable world, and being likely to conduce to
Kitchen fome improvements in agriculture, I have taken the li-
Gardt^ kerty to communicate them to you. The breeders of
^ animals have very long entertained an opinion that con-
liderahle advantages are obtained by breeding from
males and females not related to each other. Though
this opinion has lately been controverted, the number
of its oppofers has gradually diminifhed, and I can fpeak
from my own obfervation and experience, that animals
degenerate in lize, at lead on the fame pafture, and in
other refpects under the fame management, when this
procefs of eroding the breed is negledded. The clofe
analogy between the animal and vegetable world, and
the fexual fydem equally pervading both, induced me
to fuppofe that dmilar means might be productive of
fimilar ede&s in each 5 and the event has, I think, fully
judified this opinion. The principal objedf 1 had in
view, was to obtain new and improved varieties of the
apple, to fupply the place of thofe which have become
dlfeafed and unproduclive by having been cultivated
beyond the period which nature appears to have afligned
to their exidence. But as I law that leveral years
mult elapfe before the fuccefs or failure of this procefs
could pottibly be afeertained, I wilhed in the interval to
fee what would be its effects in annual plants. Amongd
thefe none appeared lo well calculated to anfwer my
purpofe as the common pea, not only becaufe I could
obtain many varieties of this plant, ol different forms,
lizes, and colours, but alfo becaufe the drudture of its
bloffom, by preventing the ingrefs of infeeds and adven¬
titious farina, has rendered its varieties remarkably per¬
manent. I had a kind growing in my garden, which,
having been long cultivated in the fame foil, had ceafed
to be productive, and did not appear to recover the
whole of its former vigour when removed to a foil of a
fomewhat different quality : on this my fird experiment
in 1787 was made. Having opened a dozen of its
immature bloffoms, I dedroyed the male parts, taking
great care not to injure the female ones ; and a few
days, afterwards when the bloffoms appeared mature, I
introduced the farina of a very large and luxuriant gray
pea into one half of the bloffoms, leaving the other half
as they were. The pods of each grew equally well,
but I foon perceived that in thefe into whofe bloffoms
the farina had not been introduced, the feeds remained
nearly as they were before the bloffoms expanded, and
in that date they withered. Thofe in the other pods
attained maturity, but were not in any fenfible degree
different from thofe afforded by other plants of the
fame variety ; owing, I imagine, to the external cover¬
ing of the feed (as I have found in other plants) being
furnifhed entirely by the female. In the fucceeding
fpring the difference however became extremely obvi¬
ous, for the plants from them rofe with excedive lux¬
uriance, and the colour of their leaves and dems clearly
indicated that they had all exchanged their whitenefs
for the colour of the male parent. The feeds produced
in autumn were dark gray.
“ By introducing the farina of another white variety,
(or in fome indances by fimple culture), I found this
colour was eafjly difeharged, and a numerous variety of
new kinds produced, many of which were in point of
iize and in every other refpeCl much fuperior to the ori¬
ginal white kind, and grew with exceflive luxuriance,
fume of them attaining the height of more than twelve
E N I N G. 423
feet, I had frequent occalion to obferve in this plant a February,
dronger tendency to produce purple bloffoms and co-
loured feeds than white ones j> for when I introduced . ‘ j
the farina of a purple bloffom into a white one, the
whole feeds in the fucceeding year became coloured j
but when I endeavoured to difeharge this colour by
reverfing the procefs, a part only of them afforded plants
with white bloffoms 5 this part fometimes occupying one
end of the pod, and being at other times irregularly
intermixed with thefe which, when fown, retained their
colour. It might perhaps be fuppofed that fomething
might depend on the quantity of farina employed ; but
I never could difeover, in this or any other experiment
in which fuperfeetation did not take place, that the
largeft or fmalleft quantity of farina afforded any dif¬
ference in the effedl produced.
“ The diflimilarity I obferved in the offspring afford¬
ed by different kinds of farina in thefe experiments,
pointed out to me an eafy method of afeertaining whe¬
ther fuperfeetation, (the exiftence of which has been
admitted amongft animals), could alfo take place in the
vegetable world. For as the offspring of a white pea
is always white, unlefs the farina of a coloured kind be
introduced into the bloffom ; and as the colour of the
gray one is. always transferred to its offspring though
the female be white, it readily occurred to me, that if
the farina of both were mingled or applied at the fame
moment, the offspring of each could be eafily diftin-
guifhed.
“ My firft experiment was not altogether fuccefsful,
for the offspring of five pods (the whole which efcap-
ed the birds) received their colour from the coloured
male. There was, however, a ffrong refemblance to
the other male in the growth and charadter of more
than one of the plants, and the feeds of feveral in the
autumn very clolely refembled it in every thing but
colour. In this experiment, I ufed the farina of a white
pea, which poffeffed the remarkable property of fhrivell-
ing exceffively when ripe, and in the fecond year I
obtained white feeds from the gray ones above men¬
tioned, perfedlly fimilar to it. I am ftrongly difpofed
to believe, that the feeds were here of common paren¬
tage ; but I do not conceive myfelf to be in poffeflion
of fadls fufficient to enable me to fpeak with decifion
on this queftion.
“ If, however, the female afford the firft organifed
atom, and the farina act only as a ftimulus, it appears
to me by no means impoffible, that the explofion of
two veficles of farina at the fame moment (taken from
different plants) may afford feeds (as I have fuppofed)
of common parentage, and as I am unable to difeover
any fource of inaccuracy in this experiment, I muft
believe this to have happened.
“ Another fpecies of fuperfoetation, if I have juftly
applied the term to a procefs in which one feed ap¬
pears to have been the offspring of tAvo males), has
occurred to me fo often as to remove all poffibility of
doubt as to its exiftence. In 1797, that, year after I
had feen the refult of the laft-mentioned experiment,
having prepared a great many white bloffoms, I intro¬
duced the farina of a white pea, and that of a gray pea,
nearly at the fame moment into each, and as in the laft
year, the eharaefer of the coloured male had prevailed,
I ufed its farina more fparingly than that of the white
one, and now almoft every pod afforded plants of dif-
ferenfc
424
February.
Kitchen
Garden
G A Tl D E
ferent colours. The majority however were white, but
the characters of the two kinds were not fufficiently dif-
tindt to allow me to judge with precilion whether any
of the feeds produced were of common parentage or
not. In the lait year I was more fortunate, having
prepared bloffoms of the little early frame pea, I intro¬
duced its own farina, and immediately afterwards, that
of a very large and late gray kind ; and 1 fowed the
feeds thus obtained in the end of the laft fummer. Many
of them retained the colour and charadter of the fmall
early pea not in the llighteil degree altered, and blof-
fomed before they were 18 inches high, whillt others
(taken from the fame puds) whofe colour was changed,
grew to the height of more than four feet, and were
killed by the frolt before any blofloms appeared.
“ It is evident that in thofe inftances, fuperfoetation
took place, and it is equally evident that the feeds were
not all of common parentage. Should fubfequent ex¬
perience evince that a fmgle plant may be the offspring
of two males, the analogy between animal and vegetable
nature may induce fome curious conjectures relative to
the procefs of generation in the animal world.
“ In the courfe of the preceeding experiments, I
could never obferve that the character either of the
male or female in this plant at all preponderated in the
offspring, but as this point appeared interefting, I made
a few trials to afcertain it. And as the foregoing ob-
fervations had occurred in experiments made principally
to obtain new and improved varieties of the pea for
garden culture } I chofe for a fimilar purpofe the more
hardy varieties ufually fown in the fields. By intro¬
ducing the farina of the largefl and molt luxuriant kinds
into the bloffoms of the molt diminutive, and by revert¬
ing this procefs, I found that the powers ot the male
and female in their effects on the offspring are exactly
equal. The vigour of the growth, the fize of the
feeds produced, and the feafon of maturity, were the
fame, though the one was a very early, and the other a
late variety. I had in this experiment a ftriking in-
Itance of the ftimulative effects of croffmg the breeds •,
for the fmalleft variety, whofe height rarely exceeded two
feet, was increafed to fix feet, whilft the height of the
large and luxuriant kind was very little diminifhed. By
this procefs, it is evident that any number of new va¬
rieties may be obtained-, and it is highly probable, that
many of thefe will be found better calculated to corredf
the defects of different foils and fituations, than any we
have at prefent -, for I imagine that all we now poffefs
have in a great meafiire been the produce of accident,
and it will rarely happen, in this or any other cafe, that
accident has done all that art will be found able to ac-
complifh.
“ The fuccefs of my endeavours to produce improv¬
ed varieties of the pea, induced me to try fome experi¬
ments on wheat, but thofe did not fucceed to my ex¬
pectations. I readily obtained as manv varieties as I
wifired, by merely fowing the different kinds together,
for the ftrudture of the bloffoms of this plant, (unlike
that of pea), freely admits the ingrefs of adventitious
farina, and is thence very liable to fport in varieties.
Some of t-hefe I obtained were excellent, others very
bad : and none of them permanent. By feparatmg
the beft varieties, a moft abundant crop was produced,
but its quality was not quite equa1 to the quantity,
and all the difearded varieties again made their appear-
N I N G.
Part III
anee. It appeared to me an extraordinary circum-
ftance, that in the .years 1795 and 1796, when almoft
the whole crop of corn in this iband was blighted,. the ^
varieties thus obtained, and thefe only, efcaped in this
neighbourhood, though fown in feveral different foils
and fituations.
“ My fuceefs in the apple (as far as long experience
and attention have enabled me to judge from the culti¬
vated appearance of trees which have not yet borne
iruit) has been fully equal to my hopes. But as the
improvement of this fruit was the firfl objeff of my
attention, no probable means ot improvement either
from foil or afpecf were neglefted. d he plants, how¬
ever, which I obtained from my efforts to unitt the
good qualities of two kinds of apple feem to poflefs
the greateft health and luxuriance of growth, as well as
the moft promifing appearance in other refpedfs In
fome of thefe, the character of the male appears to pre¬
vail-, in others, that of the female ; and in others both
appear blended, or neither is diftinguifhable. I hefe
variations, which w-ere often obfervable in the feeds
taken from the fingle apple, evidently arife from the
wrant of permanence in the characters of this fruit
when raifed from feed.
“ The refults of fimilar experiments on another fruit,
the grape, were nearly the fame as of thofe on the ap¬
ple, except that by mingling the farina of a black and
a white grape, juft as the bloffoms of the latter w ere ex¬
panding, I fometimes obtained plants from the fame
berry fo diflimilar that I had good reafon to believe
them the produce of fuperfoetation. By taking oft the
cups and deftroying the immature male parts (as in the
pea), I perfectly fucceeded in combining the characters
of different varieties of this fruit, as far as the changes
of form and autumnal tints in the leaves of the offspring
will allow' me to judge.
Many experiments of the fame kind were tried on
other plants but it is fufficient to fay that all tended to
evince, that improved varieties of every fruit and efeu-
lent plant may be obtained by this procefs, and that
nature intended that a fexual intercourfe Ihould take
place between neighbouring plants of the fame fpecies.
The probability of this will, I think, be apparent,
when we take a view of the variety of methods which
nature has taken to difperfe the farina, even of thefe
plants in which it has placed the male and female parts
within the fame empalement. It is often Scattered by
an elaftic exertion of the filaments which fupport it in
the firft opening of the bloffom, and its exceffive light-
nefs renders it capable of being carried to a great di-
ftance by the wind. Its pofition within the. bloffom
is generally well adapted to place it on the bodies of in-
feCls, and the villous coat of the numerous family of
bees is not lefs well calculated to carry it. I have fre¬
quently obferved with great pleafure the difperfion ot
the farina of fome of the graffes, w'hen the fun had juft
rifen in a dewy morning. It feemed to be impelled
from the plant with confiderable force, and being blue
was eafily vifible, and very ftrorgly refembled in ap¬
pearance the explofion of a grain of gunpowder. An
examination of the ftruChire of the bloffoms of many
plants, will immediatelv point out that nature has fome-
thing more in view than that its own proper males
fhould fecundate each bloffom, for the means it employs
are always beft calculated to anfwer the intended 1 ur-
J pole.
February
Kitchen
Garden
“ebruary.
Kitchen
jarden.
art III.
pofe. But the farina is often fo placed that it can never
reach the fummit of the pointal, unlefs by adventitious
means 5 and many trials have convinced me that it has
no adtion on any other part of it. In promoting this
fexual intercourfe between neighbouring plants of the
fame fpecies, nature appears to me to have an important
purpofe in view; for independent of its iiimulative
power, this intercoufe certainly tends to confine with¬
in more narrow limits thofe variations which accidental
richnefs or poverty of foil ufually produces. It may be
objected by thofe who admit the exiftence of vegetable
mules, that under this extenfive intercourfe thefe muit
have been more numerous ; but my total want of fuc-
cefs in many endeavours to produce a Angle mule plant,
makes me much difpofed to believe that hybrid plants
Tiave been miftaken for mules, and to doubt (with all
the deference I feel for the opinions of Linnaeus and
his illuftrious followers) whether nature ever did or ever
will permit the production of fuch a monfter. The
exiftence of numerous mules in the animal world be¬
tween kindred fpecies is allowed, but nature has here
guarded againft their production, by impelling every
animal to feek its proper mate ; and amongft the fea¬
thered tribe, when from perverfion of appetite, fexual
intercourfe takes place between thofe of diftinCt gene¬
ra (a), it has in fome inftances at leatt rendered the
death of the female the inevitable confequence. But
in the vegetable world there is not any thing to direct
the male to its proper female, its farina is carried by
winds and infeCts to plants of every different genus and
fpecies, and it therefore appears to me (as vegetable
mules certainly are not common) that nature has not
permitted them to exift at all.
“ I cannot difmifs this fubjeCt, without exprefting my
regret, that thofe who have made the fcience of botany
their ftudy ftiould have confidered the improvement of
thofe vegetables, which in their cultivated ftate afford
the largeft portion of fubfiftence to mankind and other
animals, as little connected with the objeCt of their
purfuit. Hence it has happened, that whilft much at¬
tention has been paid to the improvement of every fpe¬
cies of ufeful animal, the moft valuable efculent plants
have been almoft wholly negleCted. But when the ex¬
tent of the benefit which would arife to the agricul¬
ture of the country, from the poffeffion of varieties of
plants, which with the fame extent of foil and labour
would afford even a fmall increafe of produce, is confi¬
dered, this fubjeCt appears of no inconfiderable impor¬
tance. The improvement of animals is attended with
much expence, and the improved kinds neceffarily extend
themfelves (lowly *, but a fingie bufhel of improved wheat
or peas may in ten years be made to afford feed enough
to fupply the whole ifland, and a fingie apple or other
fruit tree may within the fame time be extended to
every garden in it. Thefe confiderations have been the
-caufe of my addrefling the foregoing obfervations to
you at this time-, for it was much my with to have afcer-
tained before I wTrote to you, whether in any inftance a
fingie plant can be the offspring of two male parents.
The decifion of that queftion muft of neceffity have oc-
Vol. IX. Part II.
GARDENING.
42.5
cupicd two years, and muft therefore be left to the teft February,
of future experiment.” G^arden
The opinion Mr Knight endeavours to eftablifl\ to- > 1 ^ ' •
wards the end of his letter, is certainly incorreCt, if he
means to affert that hybrids can only be produced by a
commixture of different varieties of the fame fpecies,
and that none can be produced by the union of plants
of different fpecies. The faCt already ftated relative to
the hybrid produced between the papav. oriental, and
fommf, (two fpecies as different, in every reipecc, from
each other as the horfe and afs).
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
Where peaches, nectarines, and apricots, have not Prmun? of
been pruned before this, that work ought to be done fruit-trees,,
without delay, becaufe the flower buds .after they have
begun to fwell (which they do at this feafon) are eafily
rubbed off. Plums, cherries, apples, pears, goofeber-
ries, currants, and rafpberries, &c. may like wife be
pruned during this month, if negleCted till now.
About the end of the month you may] prune figFigsf^
trees, as by that time all danger of the young fhoots
being killed by the froft will be over. As the young
fhoots of laft feafon alone produce figs the enfuing, a
fufficient fupply of them muft be left to nail on to the
wrall 5 and fuperfluous, ill-placed, very ftrong long-joint¬
ed (hoots, and fmall w-eak ones, ought to be cut away
clofe to the branch of the former year’s growth. The
branches which are retained ought to be laid in and
nailed to the wall at full length, at the diftance of about
half a foot from each other. They ought not to be
fhortened, becaufe the figs are generally produced from
that part of the branch near to the extremity : on this
account likewife care muft be taken, in choofing thofe
which are to be retained, not only to prefer the fhoots
of moderately vigorous growth, but likewife thofe
which have had leaft of their extremities killed by the
froft, for it frequently happens that the froft kills the
fuceulent extremities of branches, and fometimes even
the whole (hoot.
Shortening the branches has another bad effeCt be-
fides removing the part from which the fruit is to pro¬
ceed, it makes them throw out a crowd of lateral fhoots,
which create confufion and (hade the fruit. All -worn-
out old branches which are not furnifhed with a fuffi-
eient number of young lateral ftioots, ought to be cut
away, either clofe to the main branch from which they
proceed, or clofe to fome (hoot placed near their lower
end. Young fig trees may be planted alfo any time
this month. See October. pj
Strawberry beds fhould now receive a drefling. Laft Plant,
year’s runners fhould be cut away, weeds and decayed ^raw'3er"
leaves removed, the ground betw-een the rows dug ornes‘
loofened with the hoe, and fome earth drawn up about
the roots of the plants. Strawberries may be planted
towards the end of the month : for the method, fee June
and September.
Any time this month you may begin to force the Force*
trees on hot Avails, in vine, peach, and cherry houfes, early fruit,
3 H &c.
(a) This is faid to be the cafe Avith the drake and the hen.
426
G A H D E N I N G.
Part Ii;
1’Ieafure or
Flower
Garden.
February. &c. They ought to be covered with the glaffes, feme places where they are to remain, for none of thefe plants February
  - - application of fire-heat*, and if the fucceed fo. well-when they are transplanted.
jnftrufted with pits for containing Dig fmall patches with a trowel in the flower borders, Qar(]er
time previous to the
hoytfes have been coniiructed with pits for containing
hot-beds of tanners bark or horfe dung, a quantity ol
either ihould be got ready. If tanners bark is to be
ufed, it ought to be fpread out and expofed to the air,
that it may dry, for if it be putin too wet it will either
not heat at all, or heat violently and forih rot, but if
properly dried, the heat will be moderate and laft for a
long time. When horfe dung is to be ufed, it ought
to be forked up into a heap and allowed to remain tor
a few days, during which time it ihould be turned two
or three times with a fork that it may be thoroughly
mixed. Slight fires ihould be applied for two or three
days at firft, which may be gradually increafed. _ They
ought to be kindled about funfet, and fupplied with fuel
from time to time till about ten o’clock, vrhich will
keep the houfe in a proper heat until morning, when
the fires ihould again be fet a going, if the heat has de¬
clined, but it will feldom be neceffary at this feafon to
keep the fires burning all day. I lie fuel employed
may be either coal, wood, peat, or turf: of theie coal
is beft, becaufe it makes the ftrongeft, the moil dura¬
ble, and moft eafily managed fire. The heat of each
houfe ihould be regulated by a thermometer. The de¬
gree of warmth kept up at this feafon, ihould not much
exceed the 60° of Fahrenheit. When the fun {bines
bright, the heat mud be regulated by opening the glades
more or lefs, and admitting the external air. Befides
the trees that may be trained to the wall or front of the
houfe, pots or boxes containing cherry or peach trees
may be introduced •, likewife pots of kidney beans,
ftrawberries, &c. rofes, and a variety of other flowers.
The trees and plants within the houfe muft be duly
watered, and have plenty of air admitted to them
whenever the weather will permit. When the fruit
approach to maturity a greater heat ihould be maintain¬
ed within the houfe, which may be effefted during the day
by the rays of the fun, and fparing admiflion of the ex ¬
ternal air, and during the night (if the weather be cold)
by fire.
Sect. III. The Pleafure or Flower Garden,
Towards the end of the month, you may fow fome
Sow tender tender annuals, fuch as bahams, cockscombs, glnbc
annuals. amaranthus, ice plants, egg plants, &e. I hey muft
be fown in a hot-bed, which is to be formed and eartn-
ed over in the fame way as feed beds for cucumbers and
melons. See January. The feeds may either he fown
in the earth of the bed, or in pots plunged into the earth.
Or a few may be fown in pots, and introduced into a
encumber or melon bed. When the plants have ac¬
quired fufficient ftrength to admit of being tranfplanted,
they ihould be put into feparate pots and transferred to
other hot-beds. See April.
ioi About the end of the month, you may fow iome
Hardy an- fee(J 0f mignionet, ten weeks flock, lark lour, flos A-
*uals< donis, convolvulus, lupines, fcarlet, fweet-feented, and
Tangier pea, candytuft, dwarf lychnis, Venus’s look-
jnp- trials, Lobel’s catchfly, Venus’s navel-wort, dwarf
poppy, annual funflower, oriental mallow, lavatera,
kawkweed, and many others. They muft be fown in
 & patches
break the earth well, remove part of it from the furfac
with- the edge of the trowel, and fow the feeds, which
ihould be covered with the earth which had been moved
aiide from the furface of the patches. I he fmaller
feeds, fuch as mignionet, ten weeks flock, larkfpur, &c.
ihould be covered to the depth of about a quarter of an
inch 5 the larger ones, fuch as lupines, painted and fweet
peas, annual" funflower, &c. may be covered to the
TOO
lOi
depth of an inch. After the plants have advanced a
little in growth, they ihould be thinned out in propor¬
tion to their iize, viz. one funflower ihould be left in a
place, two plants of lavatera and oriental mallow, four
or five of the larger, and fix or eight of the fmaller
lupines, and fo on in proportion.
"Moft kinds of hardy perennials and biennials may Plant harrl
be planted out this month, viz. polyanthufes, prim-perennial;,
rofes, London pride, violets, double dailies, double
chamomile, faxifrage, rofe campion, rockets, campanu¬
la, catchfly, fcarlet lychnis, double feverfew, bache¬
lor’s button, carnations, pinks, fweetwilliam, colum¬
bines, monkihood, tree primrofe, foxglove, golden-
rod, perennial afters, perennial fun-flower, holy hocks,
French honevfuckles, wallflowers, and many others. 10.3
Where auricula plants are much valued, and where Drefs and
there are many of the finer varieties, they are common-
ly kept in pots. During mild weather any time this ’
month, it would be proper to give them fome fix fn earth.
Clear away all dead leaves from the plants, remove icme
of the old earth from the fides of the pot ah around, fo far
as you can do it without injuring the roots, and fill the
pots with freih earth prepared for the 'purpofe. See
September.
Auricula and polyanthus feed may be fown any time
this month, either in the open grounds or in pots.
When fown in pots or boxes they are more eafily moved
to proper fituations during different feafons. Sow them
in light rich earth, and cover them to the depth of
about a quarter of an inch. < he pots or boxes ihouid
be placed in a fituation iheltered from the north, and
expofed to the morning and mid-day fun, from which
they ought to be removed in April to a more ihady
place. They will be fit fer tranfplanting in the month
of June. See June. .
About the end of the month plant out the carnations Tranl^tj
which were raifed laft year by cuttings or layers,car
into pots or borders where they are to remain to produce
flowers the enfuing fummer. ^ 105
Any time this month you may tranfplant evergreen Evcrgrectis
trees, and ihrubs ; fuch as pines, firs, evergreen oaks,
hollies, yews, cyprefles, cedars, phillyreas, arbutufes,
laurels, lauruftinus, &c. I0f
The finer forts of tulips, hyacinths, anemones, ranun-Protean
culufes, &c. ihould be proteAcd during fevere weather, i>F>
as they begin to appear above ground. For the method
of flickering them, fee January.
Grafs walks and lawns ought to be kept clean, pokei
and rolled at leaft once a week if the weather permit
it. After being rolled with a wooden roller to take
off the worm-cafts, a heavy ftone or iron one ihould be
paffed over them to render them firm. T heir edges
ought likewife to be cut with an edging iron about the
'art HI* G A R D E
February, end of tlie month, "which will give them a neat ap-
Nurfery. pearance.
Gravel and grafs wralks may be made during this
xo8
arly
wers
:ced.
Falkland month: for the latter, fee January, and the former
Hgings, March.
Edgings of boxwood, thrift, dailies, thyme, byllbp,
gcc. may be planted this month. Boxwood forms the
neateft, moft durable, and moft eafily kept edging, and
if planted now it will fucceed very well. For the me¬
thod, fee October. Where any of the old boxwuod
edgings have become irregular, they ought to be taken
up and replanted.
Thrift is frequently employed as an edging, and well
kept makes a very neat one. The plants may be either
put in with the dibble fo dole as to touch, or at the
diftance of two or three inches from each other, or
planted as boxwood, fee October. Dailies are fome-
times ufed, and form a very pretty edging; they may
be planted in the fame manner as the thrift.
A great variety of flowers, fuch as hyacinths, jonquils,
and rofes, &c. may be placed in the hot-houfe, vinery,
or peach-houfe ; and when they have come into flower
they may be placed in a green-vhoufe, or in apartments
of a dwelling houfe.
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
Many things mentioned under the article work to
be done in the nurfery for January may likewife be done
this month j fuch as pruning young trees and Ihrubs,
digging between the rows, propagating by cuttings,
fuckers, and layers, &c. See January.
Such layers of laft year, as appear well rooted, fliould
be removed from the parent plant (or ftool), and plant¬
ed in rovrs of from one to twTo feet afunder, according
to the fize of the plant, and at the diftance of a foot or
foot and a half from each other in the row.
If feeds or ftones of apples, pears, cherries, and plums,
vrere not fown laft autumn to raii’e ftocks for budding
and ingrafting, they ftiould be fown about the begin¬
ning of this month. They fliould be fown in light foil,
and covered to about the depth of an inch. The plants
raifed from this fowing will be fit for tranfplanting in
the beginning of next winter or fpring. T he' feeds of
berries and nuts of flirubs and foreft trees may likewife
be fown any time this month in narroiv beds, and cover¬
ed in proportion to their fize, viz. the fmall feeds to the
depth of about half an inch, the larger to the depth of
an inch or an inch and a half, and fome of the nuts even
to a greater depth.
Trees and ftirubs may be removed from the feed-bed
or from where they Hand too thick, and planted out in
rows at proper diftances, or tranfplanted into the places
where they are to remain.
Young trees that were budded fuccefsfully laft fum-
mer ftiould be cut down to within about four inches of
the bud. See June and July.
Pears, plums, and cherries may be ingrafted towards
the end of the month, if the weather is mild : apples
likewife may be ingrafted at the fame time, or in the
courfe of the following month.
Grafting or engrafting, in gardening, is the taking
a (hoot from one tree, and inferting it into another, in
fuch a manner, that both may unite clofely and become
«ne tree.
109
iycrs
nf-
anted.
110
teds of
mbs, &c,
ATI,
in
1 d tranf-
mted.
112
|}cks
aded.
n3
nit trees
grafted.
N I N G. 427
By the ancient writers' on hufbandry and gardening February,
this operation is called incijion^ to diftinguifti it from ,
inoculation or budding, which they call infertion, II4
Grafting has been pradtifed from the moft remote anti- Hxftory of
quity, but its origin and invention are differently related engrafting,
by naturalifts. Theophraftus tells us, that a bird having
fwaliowed a fruit whole, eaft it forth into a cleft or ca¬
vity of a rotten tree, where, mixing with fome of the
putrefied parts of the tree, and being waftied with the
rains, it germinated, and produced within this tree a
tree of a different kind. This led the hufbandman to
certain refledtions, from W'hich afterwards arole the art
of engrafting.
Pliny gives a different account of the origin of graft¬
ing : he lays, a hufbandman wiftiing to make a paliifade
in his ground, that it might endure the longer, and
with a view to fill up and itrengthen the bottom of the
paliifade, wattled it with the twigs of ivy. The effedt
of this wTas, that the ftakes of the pallifades taking root,
became engrafted into the twigs, and produced large
trees, which fuggefted to the hufbandman the art of
engrafting.
The uie of grafting is to propagate any defirable forts
of fruit fo as to be certain of the variety : for as all
good varieties of fruit have been accidentally obtained
from feeds, fo the feeds of thefe, when fown, will many
of them degenerate, and produce fuch fruit as is not
worth cultivating; but when grafts are taken from fuch
trees as produce good fruit, thefe will never alter from
their kind, whatever be the flock or tree on which they
are grafted. Many have fuppofed that fruit undergoes
a change, by being engrafted j but this is not the cafe,
M. Du Hamel tried it on different trees, and for fear of
error repeated every experiment feveral times. He
grafted the peach on the almond, the plum on the apri¬
cot, the pear upon the apple, the quince on the white
thorn, one fpecies of plum on another, and the almond
and apricot on the peach. All thefe fucceeded alike *,
the fruit was never altered ; the leaves, the w ood, the
flowers, "were perfectly the fame with thofe of the tree
from which the grafts were taken.
Some authors have made mention of engrafting trees
of diftinct genera on one another ; fuch as the apple on
the oak, the elm, the mapple, and the plum. M. Du
Hamel tried a number of thefe experiments, none of
which proved fuccefsful. Engrafting feems never to
fucceed but when trees of the fame natural family are
grafted on one another. Some trees are fuppofed to
live longer, and grow more vigoroufly when engrafted
than when growing in a natural ftate. It is faid, that
this is the cafe with the peach, when engrafted on the
plum. But it is commonly alleged, that engrafted
trees do not live fo long as they wrould have done in
their natural ftate. The reafon why engrafted trees
are ftiort lived, perhaps proceeds from another caufe
than merely from the circumftance of being grafted,
viz. the age of the tree from which the feions were
originally taken. Ir^
The proper tools and other materials ufed in graft- Method of
ing, are, X. A ftrong knife for cutting off the heads performing
of the ftocks previous to the infertion of the graft; alfo lt‘
a fmall hand faw for occafional ufe in cutting off the
heads of large ftocks. 2. A common grafting knife or
fliarp pen knife for cutting and ftiaping the grafts rea¬
dy for infertion j alfo to flope and form the ftocks for
3 H 2 the
GARDENING.
bruary. the reception of the grafts. 3. A flat grafting chifel
urlery. ancj fXTlan mallet for cleaving large flocks, in cleft graft-
ing, for the reception of the graft. 4. A quantity of
new bafs firings for bandages for tying the grafted parts
clofe together, to fecure the grafts, and promote their
fpeedy union with the flock. And, 5. A quantity of
grafting clay for claying elofely round the grafts after
their infertion and binding, to defend the parts from
being dried by the fun and winds, for thefe parts ought
to be elofely furrounded with a coat of clay in fuch a
manner as effectually to guard them from all weathers,
which would prove injurious to the young grafts, and
prevent their junction with the flock.
For this purpofe fome argillaceous loam or pure clay
muft be procured, to which Ihould be added one-fourth
part of frefh horfe dung and a fmall portion of cut hay.
The whole muft be well moiftened with water, and
thoroughly beat with a flick after the manner of mor¬
tar.
The feions or grafts (which fhould be fhoots of laft
year) ought to be felefled and cut off fome time about
the beginning or middle of the month. Each kind
ought to be put up feparately in little bundles, which
fhould be inferted into the earth of a dry border, and
fhould be protected during fevere weather by a cover¬
ing of ftraw or fomething of that nature. The reafon
for taking them off at the time mentioned, is that their
growth may be checked, and that they may be prefer-
ved in a condition for grafting •, for were they to remain
on the trees, their buds would begin to fwell, and would
foon advance fo far as to be unfit for ufing with any
profpe£t of fuccefs. The flocks intended to be grafted,
muft, previous to the infertion of the graft, be cut
down •, thofe intended for dwarf trees, to be trained
on walls or efpaliers, muft be cut over five or fix
inches above the ground} thofe intended for ftand-
ards fhould be cut over at the height of five or fix
feet.
The flocks muft vary according to the kinds of fruit
to be grafted on them, and to the fize of the tree to be
produced. Apples are grafted on apple flocks raifed
from feed, cuttings, or layers ; for dwarfs, paradife pip¬
pin or Siberian crab flocks are ufed 5 for half dwarfs,
codlin flocks raifed from fuckers, cuttings or layers 5 and
for full ftandards, flocks raifed by fowing the feed of
erabs or any common apple. Pears are engrafted upon
pear flocks obtained from feed or fuckers, on quinces,
and on white thorn. When they are engrafted on
quince flocks, they become dwarf, and are fit for efpa¬
liers, &c.
Cherries are engrafted upon cherry flocks obtained
by fowing the ftones of red or black cherries, and plums
are engrafted upon plum flocks raifed from leed or fuck¬
ers (b).
There are different methods of grafting, termed
whip-grafting, cleft-grafting, crown-grafting, cheek-
grafting, fide-grafting, root-grafting, and grafting by
approach or inarching} but whip-grafting and cleft¬
grafting are the moft commonly ufed, and whip-grafting
moft of all.
Part HI
Whip-grafting being the moft expeditious and fuc- February.,
cefsful method of grafting, is the moft commonly prac- , Nurferr
tifed in all the nurferies ; it is always performed upon Il6
fmall flocks, from about the fize of a goofe-quill to halfwhip-
an inch or a little more or lefs in diameter, but the near-grafting,
er the flock and graft approach in fize, the better 5 and
is called whip-grafting, becaufe the grafts and flock
being nearly of a fize, are Hoped on one fide fo as to fit
each other, and tied together in the manner of whips or
joints of angling rods, &c. } and the method is as fol¬
lows. Having the feions or grafts, knife, bandages,
and clay ready, begin the work by cutting off the head
of the flock at fome fmooth part ; this done, cut one
fide Hoping upwards, about an inch and a half or near
two inches in length, and making a notch or fmall flit
near the upper part of the flope downwards, about half
an inch long, to receive the tongue of the feion ; then
prepare the feion, cutting it to five or fix inches in
length, forming the lovrer end alio in a floping manner,
fo as exadlly to fit the floped part of the flock, as if
cut from the fame place, that the bark of both may
join evenly in every part, and make a flit fo as to form
a tongue to fit the flit made in the flope of the flock 5
then place the graft, inferting the tongue of it into the
flit of the flock, applying the parts as evenly and clofe
as poflible, and immediately tie the parts clofe together
with a firing of bafs, pafiing elofely feveral times round
the flock and graft; then clay the whole over near an
inch thick all round, from about half an inch or more
below the bottom of the graft, to an inch above the- top
of the flock, finiihing the w hole coat of clay in a kind
of oval form, clofing it effe&ually about the feion, fo
that neither air nor water may penetrate. The clay
muft be examined from time to time, for Ihould it crack
much, or fall off, a quantity of freih clay ought to be
applied immediately. This fort of grafting may alfo
be performed upon the young ftioots of any bearing tree,
if you wifti to alter the kind of fruit or to have more
kinds than one on the fame tree. By the middle or
latter end of May the graft will be well united with the
flock, as will be evident from the (hooting of the buds,
of the graft, when the clay fliould be removed 5 but the
bafs bandage (hould remain until the united parts feem
to fwell, and be too much confined, then the bandage
(hould be taken off entirely. _ uj
Cleft-grafting is fo called becaufe the flock being too Cleft-
large for whip-grafting, is cleft or flit down the middle graiting.
for the reception of the graft, and is performed in
flocks from one to tw'o inches diameter or upwards.
Firft, with a ftrong knife take off the head of the flock
with a floping cut about an inch and a half long, then
cleave the flock with a ftrong knife or chifel and mallet
acrofs the flope to the depth of about two inches, or
long enough to admit the graft, leaving the inftrument
in to keep the cleft open. Prepare the feion by cutting
it to fuch length as to leave four or five eyes, floping
the lorver part of it on each fide, wredge falhion, to the
length of an inch and a half cr two inches, making
one edge very thin, and leaving the other much thicker
with the bark on } then place it in the cleft at the back
(b) Stocks which are raifed from feed, generally grow more freely and vigoroufly than thofe raifed from cut
tings or layers, and on that account are called free flocks.
art III.
GARDENING.
429
irS
own-
fting.
Ebruary. part of the flock, with the thickeft edge outwards to the
Jurfcry. ,vJ10le depth of the Hope, taking care that the bark of
' the flock and graft join exadlly j when the knife or
chifel is removed, each fide of the cleft will prefs on the
graft and hold it fail. It murt then be bound Avith a
bafs bandage and clayed over as in av hip-grafting, leav¬
ing three or four of the eyes of the fcion uncovered.
If large flocks or branches are to be grafted in this
Avay, they mufl be cut horizontally and fmoothed, and
may be cleft quite acrofs, and a graft inferted on each
fide. More clefts indeed than one may be made, and
tivo grafts put in each. This method of grafting may
be performed on the branches or ftems of old trees, Avith
a vieiv to produce vigorous branches or change the kind
of fruit.
ToAvards the latter end of May or beginning of June
the junction of the graft Avith the flock will be eftec-
tually formed, Avhen the clay may be removed, and in
a fortnight aftenvards the bafs bandage may alfo be
taken away.
Crown-grafting is commonly practifed upon fuch
flocks as are too large to cleave, and is often perform¬
ed upon the large branches of apple and pear trees,
&.c. that already bear fruit, Avhen it is intended
to change the forts, or fupply the tree with a number
of new vigorous branches. It is termed crown¬
grafting, becaufe, after the flock or branch has been cut
over, feveral grafts are inferted all around betAvixt the
Avood and bark, lb as to produce a crown-like appear¬
ance j this kind of grafting ftiould not be performed
until March or early in April, for then the f'ap being in
motion renders the bark and wood of the flock much eaiier
to be feparated for the admiffion of the graft. The man¬
ner of performing this fort of graiting is as follows : firfl
cut off the head of the flock horizontally, and pare the
top fmooth •, then having the grafts, cut one fide of
each fiat, and fomewhat Hoping, an inch and a half,
forming a fort of flioulder at the top of the Hope to reft
upon the crown of the flock j after the bark of the
flock has been raifed by means of a wedge, fo as to ad¬
mit the fcion between the bark and the Avood, let the
fcion be thruft doAvn to the (boulder with its cut
fide next the wood of the flock : in this manner three,
four, or more grafts may be inferted into one flock or
branch. After the grafts have been inferted, let them
be tied tight, and let the clay be applied fo as to rife an
inch above the top of the flock, taking care to form it
fo as to prevent the admifiion of Avater, which Avould
injure the grafts. CroAvn-grafting may alfo be perform¬
ed by making feveral clefts in the croAvn of the flock,
and inferting the grafts into the clefts. The grafts
will be pretty well united ‘.vith the flock by the end of
May or beginning of June, when the clay and bandage
may be taken arvay. The trees graited by this me¬
thod Avill fucceed very Avell; but for the fir ft trvo or
three years the grafts are liable to be bloAvn out of the
flock by violent winds, to prevent Avhich, long flicks
muft be tied to the flock or branch, to which they may
be fixed.
Cheek-grafting is thus executed. Cut the head of
the flock off horizontally, and pare the top fmooth :
then cut one fide Hoping an inch and a half or tAvo
inches deep, and cut the lotver part of the graft Hoping
the fame length, making a fort of fhoulder at the top
of the Hoped part j it is then to be placed upon the
S
g?
, § Sting.
Hoped part of the flock, refling the flioulder upon the February.
croAvn of it; bind it with bafs, and finifli it Avith a co- , ~N, iaffcry',
vering of clay as in Avhip-grafting. I20
Side-grafting is done by inferting grafts into the fides Side-graft-
of the branches Avithout cutting them over, and may be ing.
praftifed upon trees to fill up any vacariey, or for the
purpofe of variety, to have feveral forts of apples, pears,
plums, &c. upon the fame tree. It is performed thus.
Fix upon fuch parts of the branches Avhere Avood is
wanted to furnilh the head or part of the tree 5 there
Hope off the bark and a little of the Avood, and cut the
lowrer end of the grafts to fit the part as near as pofli-
ble ; then join them to the branch and tie them Avith
bafs, and clay them over. I2I
Hoot-grafting. This is done by Avhip-grafting fcions Root-
upon pieces of the root of any tree of the fame genus, grafting,
and planting the root Avhere it is to remain j it will take
root, draAv nourilhment, and feed the graft. 122
Grafting by approach, or inarching, is preferred Avhen Inarching,
the flocks defigned to be grafted, and the tree from
Avhich the graft is intended to be taken, either groAv fo
near, or can be placed fo near together, that the branch
or graft may be made to approach the flock, AATithout
feparating it from the tree till after its union or jundlion
AATith the flock, fo that the branch or graft being bent
to the flock they together form a fort of arch, av hence
it is called grafting by approach, or inarching. It is
commonly pradtifed upon fuch trees as are Avith difficul¬
ty made to fucceed by any of the former Avays of graft¬
ing. When intended to propagate any kind of tree or
ftirub by this method of grafting j if the tree be hardy-
enough to groAV in the open ground, a proper quantity
of young plants for flocks muft be fet round it, and
when grown of a proper height, the Avork of inarching
muft be performed j if the branches of the tree you in¬
tend to take grafts from be too high for the flocks, in
that cafe the flocks planted in pots, muft be placed on
a flight ftage or fome fupport of that nature, of fuch a
height as to make them reach the branches. Inarching
is lometimes performed with the head of the flock cut .
off, fometimes it is allowed to remain 5 Avhen the head
of the flock is cut off, the Avork is more eafily perform¬
ed, and is generally more fuccefsful, becaufe the flock
having no top of its o'.vn to fupport, Avill tranfmit all
the nourifhment taken up by its roots into the graft}
Avhen the flocks are properly placed, make the branches
approach to them, and mark on the branches the places
where they Avdll moft eafily join to the flock, and in
thofe parts of each branch, pare arvay the bark and part
of the avooq two or three inches in length, and in the
fame manner pare the flock at the proper place j then
make a Hit upAvards in the branch fo as to form a fort of
tongue, and make a Hit dowmvards in the flock to ad¬
mit it 5 let the*parts be then joined, Hoping the tongue
of the graft into the Hit of the flock fo as to make the
Avhole join in an exadt manner ; then tie them clofe to¬
gether Avith bafs, and afterwards cover the Avhole Avith
a proper quantity of clay, as before diredled in the
other methods. After this, let a flout flake be fixed for the
fupport of each graft, to Avhich the flock and graft may
be fixed, to prevent their being disjoined by the Avind.
If this operation be performed in fpring, the graft and
flock Avill be united in four months, when the branch may¬
be feparated from the parent plant; this ftiould be done
cautioully and Avith a lharp knife, left the graft Ihould
be
+3°
February.
Nurfery.
123
A new me.
tliod.
124
Extreme
branch-
drafting.
\jr XX IV ih
be fhaken and loofened from tlie flock. If the head
of the flock were not removed previous to inarching,
it fhould now be cut off clofe to the infertion of the
graft, and all the old clay and bandages fhould be
taken away and replaced with new, which fhould be
allowed to remain a few weeks longer. If the graft
and flock do not feem perfe£lly united the firft autumn
after they have been inarched, they fhould be allowed
to Hand till next autumn : for were the branch to be
cut oft" from the parent plant before a complete union
was formed between it and the flock, the operation
would prove abortive.
An anonymous author has given, in a treatife pub-
lifhed at Hamburgh under the title Amanitates Horten-
fes Novce, a new method of grafting trees, fo as to have
very beautiful pyramids of fruit upon them, which will
exceed in flavour, beauty, and quantity, all that can
otherwife be produced. This he fays he had long
experienced, and gives the following method of doing
it. The trees are to be transplanted in autumn, and all
their branches cut off: early in the following fummer
the young fhoots are to be pulled off, and the buds arc
then to be engrafted into them in an inverted pofition.
This he fays, not only adds to the beauty of the pyra¬
mids, but alfo makes the branches more fruitful. Thefe
are to be clofely conneCled to the trunk, and are to be
faflened with the common ligature ; they are to be
placed circularly round the tree, three buds in each
circle, and thefe circles at fix inches diftance from each
other. The old trees may be grafted in this manner,
the fuccefs having been found very good in thofe of
twenty years Handing 5 but the moil eligible trees are
thofe which are young, vigorous, and full of juice, and
are not above an inch or two thick. When thefe young
trees are tranfplanted, they mull be fenced round with
pales to defend them from the violence of the wind.
The buds engrafted muft be fmall, that the wounds
made in the bark to receive them, not being very large,
may heal the fooner ; and if the buds do not fucceed,
which will be perceived in a fortnight, there muH be
others put in their place. The wound made to receive
thefe buds mufl be a Hraight cut, parallel to the hori¬
zon, and the piece of bark taken out, muft be dowm-
wards that the rain may not get in at the wound. In
the autumn of the fame year this will be a green flourifti-
ing pyramid, and the next fummer it will flower, and
ripen its fruit in autumn.
Mr Fairman, of Kent, gives an account of a method
of renewing decayed trees, by what he calls extreme
branch-grafting, which has been publilhed in the Me¬
moirs of the Society of Arts for 1802. It is addreffed
to the Secretary.
“ Sir,
“ From much converfation with Mr Bucknall, on the
idea of improving ftandard fruit trees, we could not but
remark that in apple orchards, even in fuch as are moft
valuable, fome were to be feen that were Hinted and
barren, which not only occaftoned a lofs in the produc¬
tion, but made a break in the rows, and fpoiled the
beauty and uniformity of the plantation.
“ To bring thefe trees into an equal Hate of bearing, February,
fize, and appearance, in a ftiort time, is an objeft of the Nurfm,
greateft importance in the fyftem of orcharding, and T—'1
alfo for the recovery of old barren trees, which are
fallen into decay, not fo much from age as from the
forts of their fruits being of the worn out, and deemed
nearly loft, varieties.
“ Having long entertained thefe thoughts, and been
by no means inattentive to the aceompliihment of the
defign, I attempted to change their fruits by a new
mode of engrafting, and am bold enough to affert that
I have moft fortunately fucceedcd in my experiments j
working, if I am to be allowed to fay it, from the er¬
rors of other pra&itioners, as alfo from thofe of my own
habits.
“ My name having feveral times appeared in the
Tranfaclions of the Society for the Encouragement of
Arts, &c. ; and having the honour of being a member
of that Society, I thought no pains or expence would
be too much for the completion of fo defirable an im¬
provement. Under thefe impreffions, and having many
trees of this defeription, I made an experiment on three
of them in March 1798, each being nearly a hundred
years old. They were not decayed in their bodies, and
but little in their branches. Two of thefe were golden
pippins, and the other was a golden rennet : each had
likewife been paft a bearing Hate for feveral years. I
alfo followed up the practice on many more the fucceed-
ing fpring, and that of the laft year, to the number of
forty at leaft, in my different plantations (c).
“ The attempt has gone fo far beyond my utmoft
expedlation, that I beg of you, Sir, to introduce the
fyftem to the fociety for their approbation j and I hope
it Avill deferve the honour of a place in their valuable
Tranfadlions.
“ I diredled the procefs to be condudled as follows:
cut out all the fpray wood, and make the tree a perfecl
Ikeleton, leaving all the healthy limbs ; then clean the
branches, and cut the top of each branch off, where it
would meafure from an inch to tv'o inches in diameter.
Some of the branches muft of courfe be taken off, where
it is a little larger, and fome fmaller, to preferve a head
or canopy of the tree 5 and it vdll be neceffary to take
out the branches which crofs others, and obferve the
arms are left to fork oft \ fo that no coniiderable open¬
ing is to be perceived when you Hand under the tree,
but that they may reprefent a uniform head. I muft
here remark to the pradlitioner, when he is preparing
the tree as I dire&ed, that he (hould leave the branches
fufficiently long to allow of two or three inches to be
taken off by the law, that all the fplintered parts may
be removed.
“ The trees being thus prepared, put in one dr two
grafts at the extremity of each branch ; and from this
circumftance I wi(h to have the method called exlvews
branch grafting. A cement, hereafter deferibed, muft
be ufed inftead of clay, and the grafts tied with bafs or
foft firing. As there was a confiderable quantity of
mofs on the bodies and branches of the trees, I ordered
my gardener to ferape it off, which is effectually done
when they are wet, by a flubbed birch broom. I then
ordered
{c) The average expence I calculated at 2s. 6d. each tree.
bruary.
, urfery.
irt III. A II 1}
ordered him to bruth them over with coarfe oil, which
invigorated the growth of the tree, acted as a manure
to the bark, and made it expand very evidently ; the
old cracks were foon, by this operation, rendered invi-
fible.
“ Ail wounds fhould be perfectly cleaned out, and the
medication applied, as defcribed in the Orchardiit, p. 14.
By the beginning of July the bandages were cut, and
the ilioots from the grafts ihortened, to prevent them
from blowing out. I muft here, too, obferve, that all
the llioots, or fuckers from the tree, muft enjoy the full
liberty (ft growth till the fucceeding fpring, when the
greater part muft be taken out, and few but the grafts
fuffered to remain, except on a branch where the
grafts have not taken •, in that cafe leave one or two of
the fuckers, which will take a graft the fecond year, and
make good the deficiency. This was the whole of the
proccfs (d).
“ By obferving what is here ftated, it will appear that
the tree remains nearly as large when the operation is
finiihed, as it was before the bufinefs began ; and this
is a moft eiTential circumftance, as no part of the form¬
er vegetation is loft, which is in health fit to continue
for forming the new tree. It is worthy of notice, that
when the vivifying rays of the fun have caufed the fap
to flow, thefe grafts, inducing the fluid through the pores
to every part of the tree, will occafion innumerable fuck¬
ers or feions to ftart through the bark, which, together
with the grafts, give fuch energy to vegetation, that, in
the courfe of the fummer, the tree null be actually
covered over by a thick foliage, which enforces and
quickens the due circulation of fap. Thefe, vrhen
combined, fully compel the roots to work for the general
benefit of the tree. 1
“ In thefe experiments, I judged it proper to make
choice of grafts from the forts of fruits which were the
moft luxuriant in their growth, or any new variety, as
deferibed in the 17th and j8th volumes of the Society’s
Tranfadtions, by which means a greater vigour was ex¬
cited ; and if this obfervation is attended to, the pradli-
tioner will clearly perceive, from the firft year’s growth,
that the grafts wrould foon ftarve the fuckers which
ftioot forth below them, if they were fuffered to remain.
With a view to accomplifh this grand object of im¬
provement, I gave much attention, as I have obferved
before, to the general practice of invigorating old trees 5
and I happily difeovered the error of the common mode
of engrafting but a fliort diftance from the trunk or
body. There the circumference of the wounds is as
large as to require feveral grafts, which cannot firmly
unite and clafp over the flumps, and confequently thefe
wounds lay a foundation for after decay. If that were
not the cafe, yet it fo reduces the fize of the tree, that
it could not recover its former ftate in many years, and
it is dubious if it ever would ; whereas, by the method
of extreme grafting, the tree will be larger in three or
four years, than before the operation was performed.
For all the large branches remaining, the tree has
nothing to make but fruit-bearing wood ; and from the
very beautiful verdure it foon acquires, and the fymme-
E N I N G. ~ 431
try of the tree, no argument is neceflary to enforce the February.
practice. Some of the trees, done in this way, yielded
each two bufhels of apples from the third year’s wood. Wo1‘ houfe.
Cement for Engrafting.
One pound of pitch,
One pound of rofin,
Half a pound of bees-wax,
A quarter of a pound of hog’s lard,
A quarter of a pound of turpentine ;
to be boiled up together, but not to be ufed till you can
bear your finoer in it.”
J O
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.
The fame care of the green-houfe is required during
this month which was recommended in January. If
fevere froft, or very wet weather prevails, the glaflfes
mu ft be kept clofe during the day to exclude the froft
aim damp, or flight fires may be had recourfc to for this
purpofe. I2-
In mild weather the glaffes muft be opened during Air to be
the day to admit air, and water muft be given to the ‘-dinitted.
plants regularly, though fparingly. Towards the end
of the month it will be proper to remove a little of the
earth from the furface and fidcs of the boxes or pots,
and to replace it with fome frefli compoft. If any of
the orange trees, myrtles, or plants of that nature,
havejjirregular heads, they may be cut fo as to caufe
them to throw out a number of new branches to fill up
any vacant places, or form an entirely new head. If
they require to be much, pruned, or to be cut over alto¬
gether, it would be proper to fhift them at the fame
time, i. e. to remove them from the box or pot in which
they have flood with the ball of earth about their roots,
part of which, together with any matted roots, ftiould
be pared off from the fides and bottom, and replaced in
the boxes and pots, with a proper addition of frefti
earth. Any of the plants which are to undergo this
operation, that are very fickly, ftiould have almoft the
whole of the earth removed from their roots, and ought,
for fome time after fluffing, to ftand in a bark-bed. I2f)
If the bark-bed in the pine ftove received no frefti p;Ke ftove.
tan or turning laft month, it fhould be examined as
early as convenient; and if the heat ftiould have at all
declined, it ought immediately to be turned or have an
addition of frelh tan, as directed laft month. See Ja¬
nuary.
If a lively heat be not kept up in the bark-bed now,
when the plants (hew flower, the fize of the future fruit
will be confiderably affected. A proper degree of
warmth, applied to the roots of the plants, will make
them grow vigoroufty and produce large fruit. The
heat of the air of the houfe muft be kept at a proper
temperature, by due attention to the fires every night
and morning, and even during the day in frofty wea¬
ther, or when cold winds prevail. The bark-bed, in
Avhich the fucceflion pine-apple plants grow, fhould be
examined ; and if the heat in it begins to decline, it
ought
(n) The fyftetn fucceeds’equally well on pear, as alfoon cherry trees, provided the medication is ufed to prevent;,
the cherry tree from gumming.
432
March.
Kitchen
Garden.
127
Kidney
beans to be
watered.
128
Cucumbers
fown.
G A R D E N 1 N
129
Sow full
crops.
130
Brocoli.
131
Sea cab¬
bage.
13a
Gcleworts.
133
Afparagus,
ought to be turned or receive an addition of frelh tan.
When the fun fhines bright, and the weather is mode¬
rate, air muft be given by opening fome of the glafles.
Water (hould be given regularly both to the pine apple
and other plants in the hot-houfe, but much Ihould not
be given at a time.
The kidney beans that were fown laft month Ihould
receive water frequently. If none were fown laft month,
fome of the early dwarf kinds may be fown now-
If no cucumbers were fown laft month in the hot-
houfe, fome may be fown now •, or, plants raifed in hot¬
beds may be introduced, and placed in any convenient
fituation near the glafs.
MARCH.
f
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
We need not here give a detailed account of the me¬
thods of performing many of the things mentioned under
this head, in the two preceding months, though moft of
them might be performed now with better proipedt of
fuccefs, as this is the principal month in the year for
fowing and planting full crops of the greater part of
kitchen-garden vegetables. We {hall, therefore, meie-
lv enumerate them. Make hot-beds. Sow cucumbers
and melons. Tranfplant and fow cauliflower. I rani-
plant and fow cabbage. Tranfplant and fow lettuce.
Sow fpinach, onions, leeks, radithes, carrots, parimps,
beets, beans, peas, turnips, celery, fmall ialad, pariley,
falfafy, and Hamburgh parfley. Plant ftiallot, garlic,
fcorzonera, and rockambole.
Some feed of the early purple and cauliflower broco¬
li {hould be fown, both about the beginning and towards
the end of the month, in a bed of rich earth m an open
fituation, to raife plants to be fit for the tao.e the fol¬
lowing autumn. For the fubfequent management, fee
April, May, June, and July. . .
The feeds of the fea czbbzge (crambe mantima) may
be fown any time this month, in narrow beds of light
earth, about four feet wide, for the convenience of
weeding. They may either be fown all over the lur-
face of the bed, tolerably thick, when they are to be
tranfplanted, or in drills a foot and a half or two feet
apart, where they are to remain. 1 hofe plants are per¬
ennial, and every year pufti up thick fucculent {hoots.
They {hould be covered fome time during the courie of
the winter, with dry earth, to the depth of a few inch¬
es, by which the young {hoots, as they come up m
fur in o', are blanched and become fit for ufe. I hey
{hould be cut as foon as they appear above ground, or
very foon after, in the manner of afparagus.
Sow brown and green cole, or bore cole. „
Any time in the courfe of the month, lome feeds of
brown and green cole (kale) may be fown in an open h-
tuation, for when they are {haded they are apt to grow
Up tall and weak. The plants raifed now will be fit for
planting out in fummer, and may be cut for ufe any
time from autumn to fpring.
About the beginning of this month afparagus le
mav be fown in narrow beds of good earth in an open
fituation. The feed may be fcattered regularly all over
the furface *>f the bed, raked in, and then receive a
fiio-ht covering of earth from the alleys, or in drills,
about an inch deep, at the diftance of fix inches from
G. Part III
The plants will appear above ground in March.
Kitchen
Garden.
*34
one another.  A A „
four or five weeks, when they ought to be kept clear of
weeds and watered occafionally during dry weather.
The plants raifed now will be fit for tranfplanting next
fpring into beds, where they are to remain and produce
crops, or into plots, to remain for a year or two till they
be fit for forcing. #
This a proper feafon for making plantations of at- Afparagus l
paragus, for which purpofe young plants of one or .two to be plant (
years old are commonly ufed. Ihey fucceed beft in a'u a ^
deep light foil, and in an expoied fituation. The
ground ihould be well manured, dug to the depth of
12 or 15 inches, and divided into beds of the breadth
of four feet and a half, in whish the afparagus may be
planted in roivs, Io or 12 inches apart, and about the
fame diftance from each other in the rows. I he ufual
mode of planting them is to ftretch a garden line along
the bed, and to form a drill with a ipade, to the depth
of about fix inches, in which the afparagus roots are
placed with their crowns or buds uppermoft.
A crop of onions may be fown in beds when it is an
objedt to make the moft of the ground.
The furface of afparagus beds ihould be loofened or drefled.
turned over with a fork, in the couide of this month.
The inftrument commonly made ufe of for this purpofe,
is a fork with three flat blunt prongs. Care muft be
taken not to dig too deep, left the tops of the a{para-
gus roots ftiould receive injury. Immediately after the
furfaces of the beds have been loofened, they {hould be
raked over 5 for if the raking were to be deferred for
fome time till the buds of the afparagus approach the
furface of the ground, they might be broken by the
teeth of the rake. Afparagus beds ftill continue to
produce good crops for 10 or 12 years, if properly ma¬
naged. They ought not to be cut till. the. third, or
fourth year after they have been planted in rich foils j
however, a few of the ftrongeft {hoots may be cut even
in the fecond, but it {hould be done fparingly. M hen
afparagus has advanced to the height oi three or four
inches above ground, it ftiould be collected lor the ta¬
ble •, but as the (hoots are commonly cut about three
inches under the furface of the ground, care muft be
taken not to injure the rifing buds (for feveral buds, rife
in fucceflion from the fame root), for this reafon, it is
commonly cut with an inftrument made on pur pole,
called zn afparagus hnife, which {hould be introduced
clofe by the fhoot to the requifite depth, and directed lo
as to cut it off obliquely. . . 136
Artichoke plants, that were earthed up during win- Artichoke
ter to protea them from froft, {hould now be exa-drefled,
mined-, and if their ftems appear to pufti up vigoroufly,^
the earth ought to be removed and levelled. T he toil
{hould likewife be loofened from the plants, and if ma¬
ny {hoots proceed from the fame root, they {hould all be
taken away except three of the ftrongeft. The redun¬
dant (hoots, if carefully detached from the mam roots,
may be employed to form new plantations ; the earth,
therefore, ftiould be fo far removed as to allow the.hand
to be introduced to flip them clofe to their m er-
tion
Plantations of young artichokes are made towards the planted-
end of this or in the courfe of next month, as loon, in¬
deed, as the offsets (the only way in which this plant
is propagated) can be procured. . For this purpoie
choofe a'plot of good ground, dig in a good quanti y
J
! larch,
itchen
arden.
? :-herbs
139
/ Ikir-
Jt HI.
of rotten dung, and plant the offsets with a dibble after
their tops and roots have been trimmed a little (if it ap-
 / pear neceffary), in rows about four feet and a half
^ aiunder, and at the diftance of from two to three feet in
the rows. A crop of fpinacb, lettuce, radiihes, &c.
may be got from the ground the hr ft year, without in¬
juring the artichokes. This plantation will produce
heads in September and October, and w ill continue to
produce plentiful crops for fix or feven years. When¬
ever artichokes are required late in the feafon, young
plantations ought to be formed every year, as it is from
them alone that heads may be cxpecled late in autumn;
for the old plantations generally produce them in June,
July, and Auguft. There are two forts, the large
globe, and the French or green oval artichoke 5 the for¬
mer is commonly preferred, on account of the fize of
the head and the quantity of eatable matter they af¬
ford.
Slips or cuttings of fage, rue, rofemary, hyffop,
gated, thyme, and favory, may be planted any time this month.
They ftiould be planted about fix inches apart, and to
the depth of nearly two-thirds of their length. By
next autumn they will be fit for tranfplanting.
Some leeds of Ikirrets may be fown in narrow beds,
in an open fituation, either in drills fix inches afunder,
or regularly over the furface of the bed. After the
plants have come above ground, they Humid be thinned
out to the diftance of about fix inches from one another,
and allowed to remain in the place where fown. This
plant is frequently propagated by offsets taken from old
roots, wrhich ftiould be planted at the diftance of fix or
eight inches from one another.
About the end of the month, if the weather be mild
and dry, a few early kidney-beans may be fown in a
well ilieltered fituation, at the foot of a w all, having a
fouth expofure. See April. But as thefe plants are
tender, they are liable to be injured by cold weather,
therefore a fmall quantity only ftiould be fown now.
About the middle or latter end of the month fome
cardoons may be fown for tranfplanting. For this pur-
pofe a piece of light ground Ihould be well dug, the
feed fown thinly, and raked in evenly 3 a few wrecks after
the plants have come up, they ftiould be thinned out
to the diftance of about fix inches from one another, to
allow them room to grow' till they are ftrong enough to
be planted out, which will be in June. See JUNE.
They may be fown likewife in rows five feet afunder,
and at the diftance of four feet from each other in the
row, and allowed to remain where fown. They are
biennial, grow to the height of three or four feet, and
are cultivated for the fake of the footftalks of their
leaves, which are blanched by being earthed up fome-
what in the manner of celery, on which account they
require a good deal of room.
This is a proper time to plant chives, a fmall fpccies
of onion, which is ufed in fpring as a fubftitute for
young onions. They grow in large tufts, which are
propagated by parting the roots into fmall tufts contain-
ing eight or ten bulbs, which may be olanted with the
dibble in beds or
GARDENING.
Viey
(.is,
£0:
140
;ey
141
car-
lS.
cl as.
[43
%altm
■fokes,
rows at the diftance of fix or eight
inches from one another.
You may now plant Jerufalem artichokes, a fpecies
of funflower (hehanthus tuberofa) the roots of which
fomewhat referable the potato, and are to be planted
VOL. IX. Part II.
433
March.
Kitchen
Garden.
144
much in the fame manner, to the depth of about four
inches, in rows three feet apart, and about half that
diftance from each other in the row. They are fit for
the table in October, and continue good all winter and
fpring.
A full crop of potatoes may be planted any time to- potatoes,
wards the end of this or in the courle of next month.
Cuttings of moderate-fized potatoes (of the variety in¬
tended to be planted), each containing one or two eyes
at leaft, may be put in with a blunt dibble, to the depth
of about four inches, in rows two feet apart, and at the
diftance of about a foot from each other in the row, or
in trenches or holes made with the fpade. In the fields
they are planted either with the dibble or in furrows
made by the plough. See Agriculture. They fuc-
ceed beft in light foil, which Ihould be well manured.
After they have come above ground, they ought to be
kept clear of wreeds, and have a quantity of earth
drawn up about their ftems. There are many varieties
of this vegetable, which are obtained from feed; the
principal are, early dwarf, champion, large round white,
oblong red and white kidney, common kidney, fmall
white kidney, round red, large round dark red, &c. 14$
Any time in the courfe of this month new planta- and mint,
tions of mint may be formed. This plant is propagat¬
ed by parting the roots or by cuttings of the young
ftalks •, the former is praftifed tins month, the latter in
next and following month. Procure a quantity of the
roots from an old plantation of mint j part and plant
them in rows fix inches afunder, and about the fame
diftance from each other in the row, either with the
dibble, or in drills about an inch deep, drawn by the
hoe. Thefe plants fucceed very well in any foil, but
prefer a moift one. The kinds commonly cultivated
are’ fpearmint, peppermint, orangemint, &c.
The leaves and flowers of Indian creffes are frequent- Sow India*
ly ufed for falads, and their feeds for pickling. The creffes,
feeds may be fown about the beginning of the month,
at the diftance of two or three inches from each other,
in drills, about an inch deep. If they are not fown
along fide of a hedge or other fupport, they may have
flicks placed befide them like peas after they have come
above ground. There are two kinds, the large, and
dwarf; the former is generally preferred.
Seeds of bafil, love apple (or tomatoes), and capficum, b.afi]I4^c.
may be fown any time this month. They are tender
annuals, and muft be fown in a hot-bed, to be after¬
wards planted out in the open ground in May ; they
muft be managed like other tender annuals. See Flower
Garden. Bafil is ufed in foups and falads, and muft be
fown in very dry earth, otherwife the feeds will rot.
Love apples are ufed in foups and for pickling. The
capficum, of which there is great variety, is ufed as a
pickle, and for feafoning. The principal kinds are
the long-podded, heart-fhaped, bell-fhaped, angular-pod¬
ded, round fhort-podded, cherry-fhaped, &c.
Sow cucumbers and melons, to be planted out under cucumbers
hand or bell-glaffes. and melons.
Some cucumber and melon feed may be form to¬
wards the end of this month, in any of the beds already
employed ; or one may be formed on purpofe to raife
plants to be reared under bell or hand-glaffes. Thofe
fown noiv will be fit for ridging out in the beginning of
May. See May.
3 I Sect.
1
G A IV D E N I N G.
planted,
*5T
protected
in flower,
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
All kinds of fruit trees mentioned under this head
laft month may be pruned now, though it ought to be
performed as near the beginning of the month u-> poi-
lible \ for if the weather has been mild during the pre¬
ceding month, many of the trees will have advanced
too far to be in a Hate proper for pruning. Figs, how¬
ever, on account of the late period at which they begin
to pufh, may be fafely pruned; indeed this is the belt
feafon for pruning them. _ . .
Fruit trees may Hill be planted, though the earlier In.
the month the better ; for if mild weather prevails, the
buds of the trees will have advanced to far before toe
end of the month, as to render tranfplanting lets one.
For the method, fee October. 1 ne duration of the
planting feafon depends more on the mildnefs and fe-
verity of the weather than the time of the year.
When apricot, nectarine, and peach trees are in
flower, they Ihould be protected during froft with large
garden-mats fixed to the top of the walls by hooks, and
fattened at the bottom to prevent them from being agi¬
tated by the wind io as to dalh off the bloffoms. i heie
mats mutt be removed during the mildeft part of the
day, unlefs when the weather is very fevere, and without
funlhine. Inftead of mats, old fiih-nets doubled may be
ufed for this purpofe, and need not be removed during
the day ; a number of fmail branches of evergreens
(well clad with leaves) fixed among the branches of the
trees in flower, will alio afford flicker to the blofibm and
letting fruit.
Drefs rtrawberry beds, if not done laft month. See
February.
Fruit trees on hot walls, in peach, cherry, and. vme-
houfes, mutt be duly attended to, mutt receive air and
water regularly, and have the fires put on every even¬
ing and cold morning.
Sect. III. Flower Garden and Pleafure Ground.
If any early annuals, fueh as balfams, cockscombs,
&c. were fown laft month, they will be fit for planting
out into fmall pots or a hot-bed prepared for the pur¬
pofe. This hot-bed fliould be raifed to the height of
two feet 5 and when the violent heat has fubfided, co¬
vered over to the depth of fix inches with rich dry
earth. The plants may be put in at the diftance of
three or four inches from one another, or rather in
fmall pots, becaufe from thefe they can be more eafily
removed into larger ones at a fubfequent period. Due
attention mull be paid to give them water and air when
requifite ; and linings of frefh dung muft be applied to
the bed whenever the heat begins to decline. If pro¬
perly taken care of, they will be fit for final tranfplanta-
tion in May or June.
If no tender annuals were fown in February, fome
may be fown any time this month.
Sow lefs tender or half-hardy annuals, fuch as China
after, Indian pink, capficum, French and African mari¬
gold, chryfanthemum, tree and purple amaranthus, and
Chinefe hollyhocks.
Sow fender Form a flight hot-bed any time this month, which
and hafdy need not be raifed higher than two feet, and earth it
annuals. oyer to depth of about fix inches,, The feed may
15a
and forced
153
Tranfplant
early an¬
nuals.
*54
March.
N urlery.
DS
anase-
^Part HI.
be fown m narrow drills, at the diftance of - 0 or
three inches from one another, and each kind, leparate- ^
ly oj- m pots, plunged in the earth of t;ie oed. After
the plants have come up, they will require plenty of free
air and moderate watering-, and when they have acquired
the height of two or three inches, they muft be gradually
hardened to bear the open air, by taking the lights en¬
tirely off in mild warm days, Inftead of hot-bed fiamcs
and lights, oil-paper frames, or hand-glatTes, may be
made ufe of. The plants railed no.w will be fit for
tranfplanting into the flower border in May. If hardy
annuals were not fown laft month, they may be fown
any time during the prelent. -
Cuttings of double chryfanthemums which were plant- Mai 0 _
ed lait autumn in pots or boxes, ibould be planted out incut of ^
into pots or flower borders if mild weather prevails. ^}bamhc-
Auricula plants in pots Ihould be protected from ram auriculas
and froft, and fliould Hill be kept covered with hooped
arches, over which mats may be occafionally thrown,
for Ihould they be expofed, to much rain or fevere
weather now when their flower-ftalks begin to advance,
the future bloom might be injured. Keep the pots
clear of weeds, and give them a little water in. dry
weather, or ex pole them to a gentle Ihower. if the
pots received no frefli earth laft month, let them receive
fome now. 1 156
Let the hoops mentioned the tivo preceding montus hyacinth*,
ftiil continue over the beds of tulips, hyacinths, ranun- See.
cuius, &c. for if fevere weather occurs, the beds muft
be protected by a covering of mats, as already mention¬
ed/ See January. When the ftalks of hyacinths,
particularly double ones, have advanced aimoft to their
full height, they are apt to be borne down by the weight
of their own flowers, therefore a neat fmall flick ought
to be fixed in the. ground clofe to every plant, to which
the flowerftalks Ihould be fattened by a piece of bafs or
other foft ligature.   157
Ranunculufes and anemones may ftiil be planted \ they ranunculus,
will fuccced the early ones, and flower in June andamUne-
Towards the end of the month, feeds of biennial, and Sow
perennial flowers may be fown, fuel) as carnations, nials, &c.
pinks, fweetwilliams, wallflowers, and flock julyflowers
of all forts, alfo rofe campion, catchfly, fcarlet lychnis,
columbines, Greek valerian, polyanthus, auriculas, foa-
bioufes, and Canterbury bells -, like wife hollyhocks,
French houeyfuckles, rockets, honefty or iatin flower,,
tree primrofe, fhrubby mallow, broad-leaved campanula,
foxglove, fnapdragon or frogfmouth, &c. .
Biennial and perennial plants may likewife be trani-
planted at this feafon. 150
Trees and flirubs, both deciduous and evergreen, may plant tree*
ftill be planted but that work ihoufo be finithed before and flirubs.
the end of the month.
Sect. IV. Nurfenj.
160
Fruit trees, elms, &c. may be engrafted ; and the Ingres
{hoots of trees engrafted laft year, fliould be fo fliort-of
ened about the time their buds begin to iwell, as to leave tl.ees
four or five buds, which will pulh out branches to form ded laft
a head. The {hoots of laft year’s growth of trees bud- year,
ded the preceding fummer lliould likewife be {hortene ,
and the heads of trees budded laft fummer foould be
cut oft' about four inches above the bud, wluc wi
cauls
Part III.
G A R D
March.
Nurfery.
162
Propagate
by c
caufe it to pufh out vigoroufly. The part of the ftotk
^ which is left will ferve as a fupport, to which the your.g
branch may be fixed in the courle of the fummer, to pre-
161 vent it from being blown out by the wind.
Sow feeds of Seeds of hardy trees and flirubs may be fown
trees, &.c. any time this month, in beds three or four feet wide,
which fiiould be well dug, and thoroughly pul verified.
.1 he feed may be fown either regularly over the furface
ol the bed or in drills, and covered in proportion to
their fize 5 the acorns and other large feeds to the depth
of from an inch and a half to two inches, and the
fmaller ones from about half an inch to an inch. Some
of the more delicate fhrubs, fuch as the arbutus, &c.
may be fown in pots or boxes, by which means they
will be more eafily protected from the feverity of the
weather in winter.
Moff kinds of trees and flirubs may be propagated by
cuttings, cuttings this month, particularly vines.
The vine cuttings muft be fhoots of laft year’s growth,
about ten or twelve inches long, and each furnifhed with
three buds. If cut from the vines during the winter,
before the fap begins to rife, and preferved in dry earth,
they will fucceed the better. Some leave about an inch
of the former year’s wood attached to each cutting, but
this is unneceffary. Ihey may be planted in rows a
foot and a half afunder, and at the diftance of eight or
ten inches from each other in rovrs, and fo deep as to
leave only their uppermoft bud above ground 5 they
fliould afterwards be occafionally watered, and kept
clear of weeds. I hough cuttings of vines may be raifed
in the open air, much better plarjts may be obtained by
ftriking them in a hot-bed or tan-pit in a hot-houfe.
At pruning feafon feledt feme well-ripened {hoots, cut
them into pieces of a convenient length, and infert them
a little way into pots filled with dry earth, where they
may remain till wanted for planting. Protect them in
fevere, but in mild weather, expofe them to the free air.
About the beginning of this month, if there is no room
in the hot-beds already made, prepare one on purpofe,
which may be formed and earthed over exactly like a
feed-bed for melons. See January. Fill a number
of pots, about four inches deep, correfponding to the
cuttings you mean to plant, with light rich earth. Take
the cuttings you have preferved during the winter; feleft
the roundeft and fullefl buds ; cut the branch about a
quarter of .an inch above, and about three inches below
the bud, w itji a fiiarp knife, fo as to make a fmooth cut,
and infert each clofe by the fide of the pot, fo deep
that the bud may be covered about a quarter of an inch
by. the earth of the pot; for it is alleged, that a cutting
ftnkes with greater freedom when placed clofe to the
fide than in. the middle of the pot. When plants are
raifed in this manner from a fingle bud, they feem as if
reared from feed. As foon as the cuttings are planted,
plunge the pots into the earth of the bed, give them a
gentle watering, and put on the glaffes. Attention
muft be paid to the bed, to fee that the heat be not too
ftrong, for a moderate bottom heat is all that is necef-
fary. Air ftiould be freely admitted during the day,
and even during the night, in mild weather; but when
the weather is cold, the beds fhould be covered with
mats during the night, to proteft them from froft. The
cuttings ftiould. likewife be {haded when the fun ftiines
very bright, with mats,- and ftiould receive occafional
"watering. When the plants are about fix or eight
E N I N C.
inches high, they will require to be {Lifted into larger
pots, which muft be done cautioufly for fear of injurfno-
their roots. Take pots of about fix inches deep, and
about the fame width ; put a little good earth into the
bottom of each, and turn the cutting out of the fmall
pot into it with the' ball of earth as entire as poftible,
and fill it up with earth. The frames of the beds
fhould be railed in proportion as the plants increafe in
height, and the heat of the bed renewed by linings of
frefti dung when on the decline. Support the fhoots
when they are about ten or twelve inches high, and
pinch oft. the tendrils and lateral {hoots as foon°as they
anpear. They, will be fit for planting out in the end of
June or beginning of July.
When dry weather prevails, give gentle waterings Water
to {cedling trees and ftirubs, and keep them free from feedling
weeds.
411
April.
Kitchen
Garden.
Kb?
Sect. V. Grcen-houfe ami Hot-houfe.
1 HE plants in the green-houfe fhould receive air Air to\e
freely, unlefs during wet or frofty weather, and more heely ad-
frequent and plentiful waterings than in the two former mitteih
months. Dead branches or decayed leaves fhould be
removed, and any of the larger leaved plants that ap¬
pear foul , fhould have their leaves cleaned with a wet
fponge. J hofe alfo which require ftiifting or pruning
may be managed as directed laft month. ’ Sow feeds
and plant cuttings of green-houfe plants ; for which
purpofe a hot-bed or tan-pit of a hot-houfe will be ne-
ceflary at this feafon.
Pine apple plants will require a good deal of warmth, Treatment
particularly m the tan-pit; as their fruit will now be of pine
confiderably advanced, they muft therefore be kept in a aPP!es"
vigorous ft ate of growth, to fecure large fruit. If the
heat of the tan-bed be not very great," at leaft one-third
of new tan. ought to be added. After the tan has been
procured, it. ought, to be fpread out and dried a little,
and then laid up in a heap, in fome {bed adjacent to
the hot-houfe, till it begin to ferment. The plants
ftiould then be taken from the tan-bed, and a quantity
of the decayed tan removed from its furface and fides,
to. make .room for the new, which muft be thorough]v
mixed With the old': and as this operation ought to be
completed in the courfe of one day, a fuftieient number
of hands ftiould be employed to effeft it. Both pine
apples and other plants in the hot-houfe ftiould be re-
gulaily watered, and have frefti air admitted in bright
calm days, from about two hours before till two or three
after noon.
APRIL.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
If the heat begin to decline in the cucumber and Manage-
melon beds, they ftiould receive linings as diredted in men*: °f cu»
the former months ; for thefe plants will not yield finecumbers
fruit, or a plentiful crop, if the beds are deftitute of a and mclons<
proper heat. Air muft be admitted every day, and a
moderate watering given every four or five days, par-
ticulaily to cucumbers; but melons ftiould receive it fpa-
ringly, efpecially when their fruits are fetting, as much
water at th < time would prove injurious, and make the
fruit drop off. Keep the plants clear of all decayed
3 I 2 leaves
i^7
Plant
lettuce,
leaves and decayed male flowers
fo bright as to caufe the leaves of cucumbers and melons
to flag, it will be proper to fhade them for two or three
hoursf'during its greateft heat, with a thin mat or a
little loofe hay, ilrewed thinly over the glaffes.
Make hot-beds on which to ridge out cucumbers or
melons under hand glades or oiled paper frames. See
May> , . . ,
Sow fome cabbage, Cilicia, imperial, and large ad¬
mirable cabbage lettuces any time this month 5 indeed,
fome ought to be fown about the beginning, middle,
and towards the end of the month, to fecure a regular
fucceffion. Should the lettuces that were fown laft
month or in February Hand too thick, they may be
thinned out and tranfplanted at the diftance of about ten
inches from each other, and watered occafionally till
they take root.
Some early kidney beans, viz. the Batterfea, fpeckled,
dun-coloured, and Canterbury dwarfs, may be planted
towards the end of the month, in a well-lheltered fitua-
tion, expofed to the fouth, in drills two feet or two feet
and’a half afunder, and about two inches from each
other in the drills. The tall running kinds ftiould not
be planted till next month.
Some of the cabbage and favoy plants, which were
fown in February and March, fhould be thinned and
tranfplanted, when their leaves are about two inches
broad, into beds, to gain ftrength before their final tranf-
plantation j and tliofe which have flood the winter may
be planted out for good.
Cauliflower plants under bell or hand glalfes fhould
have fome earth drawn up about their flems, and fliould
be expofed to the open air during the day in good
weather. Thofe fown laft month fhould be planted
out into beds in the open air or into flight hot-beds, to
forward their growth. Some of the ftrongeft of the
plants raifed in the early part of fpring may be planted
out at the end of the month, at the diftance of two
or two feet and a half each way from one another,
and fhould be occafionally watered till they are well
rooted.
Young plants of brocoli, which were fown laft month,
may be planted out at the diftance of two or three
inches from one another, to acquire ftrength for final
tranfplantation } and fome feed of the early purple, late
purple, and cauliflower brocoli, may be fown to raife
plants for tranfplanting in June. Some plants of laft
year’s fowing, which produced heads this fpring,. fhould
be allowed to remain for feed, which will ripen in
Auguft.
Sfxt. U. Fruit Garden.
Transplant In late feafons, pear, plum, and cherry trees may ftill
and prune, p,e planted, and even apricot, peach, and neftarine 5 but
it fhould be done as early in the month as poflible, for
if any of thefe have advanced much in growth before
they are tranfplauted, they will not pufh freely, in the
courfe of the fummer, and will be liable to be injured
by drought. Where pruning has been neglefted, it
may ftill be done, but the fooner the better, for many
fruit trees will now be in flower.
, *73 Fruit trees in flower fhould ftill be protedled in cold
fruftrS? weather. See March. All ill-placed fhoots fhould
GARDENING. Part III.
When the fun fliines be rubbed off, and the young fruit on apricot trees where April.
Fruit
Garden.
16S
kidney
keans.
1651
Tranfplant
cabbages,
&c.
170
saifli-
fiowers,
171
*rocoli.
fet too thick ihould be thinned.
Look over the vines trained on walls about the end ^ 
of the month, and rub off the young fhoots which pro- 1?4
ceed from the old wood, unlefs they happen tobe fituated Drefs vines,
where a fupply of young wood is wanted } likewiie where
two fliools proceed from the fame eye on branches
of laft year’s growth, let the weakeft be rubbed off.
Stakes fhould be placed befide the vines in the vine¬
yard, to which they fhould be tied, and the ground
between the rows fhould be kept perfectly free from
weeds. _ . 175
The vine was introduced by the Romans into Britain, Hiftory of
and appears formerly to have been very common. From the vine,
the name of vineyard yet adheringAo the ruinous fites
of our caftles and monafteries, there icem to have been
few in the country but what had a vineyard. The
county of Gloucefter is particularly commended by
Malrnfbury in the twelfth century, as excelling all the
reft of the kingdom in the number and goodnefs of its
vineyards. In the earlier periods of our hiftory the ills
of Fly was exprefsly denominated the IJie of Vines by
the Normans. Vineyards are frequently noticed in the
deferiptive accounts of Doomfday •, and thofe of Eng¬
land are even mentioned by Bede as early as the com¬
mencement of the eighth century.
Doomfday book exhibits to us a particular proof that
wine was made in England during the period preceding
the conqueft. And after the conqueft, the bifliop of
Ely appears to have received at leaft three or four tuns
annually, as tithes from the produce of the vineyards
in his diocefe, and to have made frequent refervations
in his leafes of a certain quantity of wine for rent. Dr
Thomas, the late dean of Ely, gives the following ex¬
tracts from the archives of that church.
L-
2
10
Exitus vineti
Ditto vineee - "
Ten bufhels of grapes from the vineyard o
Seven dolia mufti from the vineyard, 1 2th
Edward II. - " *5
12
7
3i
6
1 12
7
'2
16
Wine fold for
Verjuice
One dolium and one pipe filled with new
wine, and fuppofed at Ely. lor wine
out of this vineyard
For verjuice from thence.
No wine but verjuice made, 9th Edward IV.
From thefe extraas it appears that Ely grapes would
fometimes ripen, and the convent made wine of them j
and fometimes not, and then they converted them in¬
to verjuice. Maddocks in his hiftory of the Exche¬
quer. i. 364. fays that the (heriffs of Northampton-
fliire and Leicefterftnre, were allowed their account,
for the livery of the king’s vinedreffer at Rockingham,
and for neceffaries for the vineyard. A piece of land,
in London, now forming Eaft Smithfield and fome adjoin¬
ing ftreeis, was withheld from the religious houfe within
Aldgate by four fucceflive conftables of the R ower m
the reigns of Rufus, Henry, and Stephen, and made by
them into a vineyard, to their great emolument. In the
old accounts of re&orial and vicarial revenues, and m
the old regifters of ecclefiaftical fuits concerning them,
inF*
Part in. gaud;
Anril. the tithe of wine is an article that frequently occurs in
ImU Kent, Surry, and other counties. And the wines of
, ar^ cn' , Gloucefterfhire within a century after the conqueft were
little inferior to the French in fweetnefs. It is alleged
that a black grape very fimilar to the black mufcadine
was introduced from Gaul into Britain, about the
middle of the third century. To thefe proofs of the
antiquity of vineyards in Britain, we fhall add the
following account of the vineyard at Pains-hill, Surry,
(the molt extenfive one at prefent in England), given
by the original proprietor, the honourable Charles
Hamilton, to Sir Edward Barry, and publifhed in his
Treatife on Wines, p. 468.
“ The vineyard at Pains-hill is lituated on the
fouth lide of a gentle hill, the foil a gravelly fand : it
is planted entirely with two kinds of Burgundy grapes,
the Auvernat, which is the molt delicate, but the
tendered ; and the Miller grape, commonly called the
black clufter, which is more hardy. The firlt year
I attempted to make red wine in the ufual way, by
treading the grapes, then letting them ferment in a
vat, till all the hulks and impurities formed a thick
emit at the top : the boiling ceafed, and clear wine
■was drawn off from the bottom. This effay did not
anfwer j the wine wras fo very harlh and auftere, that
I defpaired of ever making red wine fit to drink 5
but through that harlhnefs I perceived a Havour fome-
thing like that of fome fmall French white wines,
which made me hope I Ihould fucceed better with
white wine. That experiment fucceeded far beyond
my moll fanguine expeftation j for the very firft year
I made white wine, it nearly refembled the Havour
of Champagne ; and in two or three years more, as
the vines grew ftronger, to my great amazement my
wine had a finer flavour than the bell Champagne I
ever tailed. The firlt running w7as as clear as fpirits 5
the fecond was oeil de perdrix ; and both of them fpark-
led and creamed in the glafs like Champagne. It
would be endlefs to mention how many great judges
of wine were deceived by my wine, and thought it
fuperior to any Champagne they ever drank •, but fuch
is the prejudice of iholl people againlt any thing of
Englilh growth, I generally found it moll prudent
not to declare where it grew, till after they had paf-
fed their verdidl upon it. The furell proof I can
give of its excellence is, that I have fold it to wine
merchants for fifty guineas a hoglhead ; and one wine
merchant to whom I fold five hundred pounds worth
at one time affured me, he fold fome of the bell of
it from ys. 6d. to 10s. 6d. per bottle. After many
years experience, the bell method I found of making
and managing it was this : I let the grapes hang till
they had got all the maturity the feafon would give
them •, then they were carefully cut off with feiffars,
and brought home to the wine barn, in fmall quan¬
tities, to prevent their heating, or prefling one another j
then they were all picked off the ftalks, and all the
mouldy or green ones were difearded, before they
were put upon the prefs 5 where they were all pref-
fed in a few hours after they were gathered : much
would run from them, before the prefs fqueezed
them, from their own weight one upon another. This
running was as clear as water, and fweet as fvrup 5
and all this of the firit prefling, and part of the
l N I N G. 437
fecond continued white ; the other prefllngs grew red- April,
dilh, and were not mixed with- the bell. As fall as fruit
the wine run from the prefs into a large receiver, it Garden. ^
tvas put into the hoglheads, and clofely bunged up.
In a few hours one would hear the fermentation be¬
gin, which would foon buril the calks, if not guard¬
ed againft, by hooping them llrongly with iron, and
fecuring them in llrong wooden frames, and the heads
Avith avedges. In the height of fermentation, I have
frequently feen the Avine oozing through the pores of
the Haves. The hoglheads Avere left ail the depth of
Avinter in the cold barn, to reap the benefit of the trolls.
When the fermentation Avas over, Avhich Avas eafily dif-
covered by the ceffation of noife and oozing, but to
be more certain, by pegging the calk, Avhen it Avould
be quite clear, then it was racked off into clean hogf-
heads, and carried to the vaults, before any warmth
of weather could raife a fecond fermentation. In
March, the hoglheads Avere examined : if any Avere not
quite fine, they Avere fined doAvn Avith common filh glue
in the ufual manner 5 thofe that Avere fine of themfelves
Avere not fined doAvn, and all Avere bottled about the
end of March ; and in about fix Aveeks more Avould be
in perfecl order for drinking, and AA'ould be in their
prime for about one year; but the fecond year the fla¬
vour and fAveetnefs Avould abate, and Avould gradually-
decline, till at lall it loll all flavour and fAveetnefs ; and
fome that I kept fixteen years became fo like old hock,
that it might pafs for fuch to one ay ho Avas not a perfedt
connoiffeur. The only art I ever ufed to it, Avas put¬
ting three pounds of Avhite fugarcandy to fome of the
hogfheads, when the fine Avas firlt tunned from the
prefs, in order to conform to a rage that prevailed, to
drink none but very fAveet Champagne. I am convin¬
ced much good Avine might be made in many parts of
the fouth of England. Many parts are fouth of Pains-
hill ; many foils may be yet fitter for it; and many
fituations mult be fo: for mine Avas much expofed to .
the fouth-Aveil wind (the Avorlt of all for vines), and
the declivity Avas rather too Iteep ; yet Avith thefe dif-
advantages it fucceeded many years. Indeed the un¬
certainty of our climate is againlt it, and many fine
crops have been fpoiled by May frolts and Avet fum-
mers; but one good year balances many difappoint-
ments.”
In a differtation on the groAvth of Avine in England
by F. X. Vifper, printed at Bath 1786, there is a method
of training vines along the furface of the ground pro-
pofed, which feems Avell adapted to the northerly cli¬
mate of Britain, for Avhich the Rev. M. L. Broeg ob¬
tained a patent. Mr Vifper acknoAvledges that he took
the firlt hint from the folloAving paffage, from Lord
Chancellor Bacon : “ The loAvnefs of the fruit boughs
makes the fruit greater, and caufes it to ripen better; for
we always fee in apricots, peaches, and mello-cottens;
upon a Avail, the largell fruit is toAvards the bottom ;
and in France, the grapes that make the Avine groAV
upon Ioav vines bound to fmall Hakes, Avhile the raifed
vines in arbours make verjuice.” He adds “ It is re¬
ported, that in fome places vines are fuffered to groAV
like herbs, fpreading upon the ground, and the grapes
of thefe vines are very large ; it were proper to try
Avhether plants ufually fuflained by props, Avill not bear
large leaves and fruit if laid along the ground.”
5
Sect, .
43s
April.
Flovvcr
Garden, or
Pleafure
Ground,
See.
iy6
Sow and
tranfplant
annuals.
177
Plant ever¬
greens.
17S
Walks
dreffed.
GARDENING.
Sect. III. T/u Flower Garden, or Pleafure Ground.
Sow and tranfplant tender annuals. See February
and March. Proteft hyacinths, ranunculuie^, and
anemones, planted in beds, from heavy rain and froft, as
direfted in January and February ; likewife, when they
are in dower, from very bright funIhine, from about two
hours before till two or three after noon j but in_ this
cafe the covering lliould be raifed a con.iderabiC height,
to admit air, and allow them to be viewed.
Plant tuberofes in a hot-bed or hot-houfe, and give
them but little water till they have come above
ground. . , ,
Evergreen (limbs and trees may dill be planted, but
the earlier in the month the better.
Grafs walks and lawns (hould be poled, rolled, and
mown. Gravel walks may be broken up and turned.
May.
Kitchen
Garden.
Tan III
and the plants then put into pots filled entirely with
frefli earth.
After the plants have been thus (liifted, they {hould
have a moderate quantity of water given them frequent¬
ly, which will promote their growth. The young pine
apple plants which were raifed from fuckers or crowns
lait fcafon diould likewife be (bided into larger pots, if
their roots appear to have filled tbofe in which they have
dood during the winter : if healthy, they diould be
turned out of the pots with the ball of earth entire } if
otherwife, they mud be treated like the fuccedion plants
as above. - ^
This is a proper feafon for propagating hot-houfe Propagate
plants by cuttings, layers, &c. or for (owing their feeds.
Cuttings of green-houfe plants may 1 ikewiie be ilruck
m the bark bed of the hot-houfe, and kept ihere till fit
for tranfplanting.
MAY.
183
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
Examine Look over newly engrafted trees, and fee if the clay
newly en- ]-eepS cl0fe about the grafts, as it is apt to crack and fall
grafted . wjien you p1Kl it any way defedive fo as to admit
treCS‘ the air and rain to the graft, then remove it and apply
fre(h clay in its dead. ' All fhoots which rife from the
dalk below the graft mud be taken off whenever they
are produced •, for if permitted to remain, they would
rob the graft of nouridiment, and prevent it (hooting
tg0 freely.
Thofe bud- Trees that were budded lad year, will now begin to
ded laft pu{h out their fird (hoots. Should they be infeded with
>ear' infeas, fo as to caufe any of their leaves to curl, thefe
fhould’be picked off, and pains taken to deffroy the ver¬
min. Shoots that proceed from the flock under the bud
181 mud be rubbed off as foon as they appear.
And tranf- The fowing and tranfplanting of young trees and
plant young flirubg frdm the feed-bed, or where they fland too thick,
GneS‘ diould be finithed early in the month, and if very dry
weather prevail, water {hould be given to feed-beds, cut¬
tings, and lately tranfplanted trees and (hrubs.
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.
Air may be admitted, and water given more freely
than in the former months, becaufe the plants will be¬
gin now to advance in growth j but in general the ma¬
nagement mud be nearly the fame as recommended lad
182 month. , . , ,
Itequifite proper degree of warmth, both in the bark bed
heatfor and in the air of the hot-houfe, is requifite for fruiting
pine apples. . plants. Water may be more frequently
-riven, and air admitted more freely, becaufe the weather
will be milder 5 and in other refpeefs they mud be
managed as diretfed in March. The fuccedion pine
apple plants, or fuch as are to fruit next year diould
be diifted into larger pots, (viz. 24s.) the lize com¬
monly made ufe of. When the plants are healthy,
they diould be turned out of the pots with the ball of
earth about their roots as entire as poffible, and put
them into larger ones with an additional quantity of
frefli earth •, but {hould the plants be flckly, infeded
with infefts, or appear to have bad roots, the whole
of the earth {hould be diaken off, and the roots trim¬
med, a few of the under leaves dripped off the flem,
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
. 184
Melons require attention, particularly when their Treatment
fruit are fetting. The heat of the hot-beds mud be of melons,
kept up by proper linings •, water mud be given
moderately, and air admitted regularly. In warm
weather when the fun diines bright, the plants diould
be (haded from its rays for an hour or two about
mid day, by a covering of mats or fometbing of that
nature. A piece of tile or flate diould be placed un¬
der each fruit after it is fet, to prevent it from coming
into contaft with the moid earth of the bed, which
■would injure it, and caufe it to drop oft. Ridges may
be formed for the reception of the melon and cucum¬
ber plants, which were fewn laft or preceding month,
to be raifed under band or bell glaffes. 1 hefe rid¬
ges {hould be about four feet wide, and are to be
conftrufted in the fame manner as hot-beds. See Ja¬
nuary. The dung (hould be railed to the height ot
two feet and a half, and covered with fix or eight inches
of rich light earth, and may be made either in trenches
about a foot deep or on the furface of the ground.
WTen more than one ridge is to be ccnftrucied, they
{hould be placed parallel to one another at the dif-
tance of about four feet, which interval (hould af¬
terwards be filled up with frefli horfe dung when the ,
heat in the ridges begins to decline $ this will both
revive the heat, and when earthed over, will aftord
room to extend the advancing runners cf the piants.
As foon as the ridges are earthed over, the hand or
bell glaffes may be put on along the middle of the bed,
at the diftance of four feet, when intended for melons,
and three feet when for cucumbers ; and the following
day, or as foon after as the earth under the glafl'es has
become warm, a hole {hould be made under each, into
which two melon or three cucumber plants are to be put
rvitli the ball of earth about their roots; the earth {hould
then be well clofed about the ball and ftem of the plant,
a little water given, and the glaffes put on. Shade
them for a day or two, and give air during the day
by raifing the glaffes. When the plants have filled
the glaffes, the runners muff be trained out from unde r
them, but this {hould not take place till the end of
the month, or fome time in June. Oil.paper frames
are fometimes ufed for covering the ridges. J neie
frames
Part IIL
i8s
Plant kid¬
ney beans.
186
rapficum,
8tc. planted
out.
lS7
Sow fpi-
nach.
188
Weed and
thin crops.
18?
Plant out
cabbages,
&c.
frames are made of thin flips of wood covered with
paper, rendered tranfparent and water proof by means
of oil. Melons reared in this way wall produce plen¬
tifully in Auguil and September, and cucumbers from
the middle ot June, till the cold weather in autumn
fet in. If no cucumber plants were railed in March
or April for this purpofe, fome feeds may be fown in
the ridges. Some may likewi'e be fown about the end
of the month in the open ground, to produce a crop
for pickling; but fhould cold weather prevail at that
time, it fhould be deferred till June. Gourds and
pumpkins may be fown in the open ground in a warm
lit nation, or in a hot-bed, to be afterwards tranfplant-
ed.
A'full crop of kidney beans may be planted both of
the dwarf and tall running forts : the former, viz.
black fpeckled, Batterfea and Canterbury white, ihould
be planted in drills about an inch deep, and two feet
and a half afunder, at the diltance of two or three
inches from each other ; the latter, viz. the fcarlet and
large Dutch white, fhould be fown in drills, about an
inch and a half deep, and three feet and a half or four
afunder. Thefe running kinds mult have tall flicks,
or fome fupport of that nature.
The capficum and love apples which v'ere raifed laft
or the preceding month in hot-beds, may be planted out
into well fheltered fituations expofed to the fouth.
Some fpinach plants, both of the fmooth and prickly
feeded, fhould be allowed to run up for feed 5 and fome
of the different kinds of radifhes fhould be tranfplanted
for the fame purpofe.
The different crops fhould be kept clear of weeds,
and thinned with the hoe. Turnips may be left at the
diftance of feven or eight inches from each other j car¬
rots, fix or eight 5 parfnips, eight to ten or twelve ;
onions, four or five ; Hamburgh parfley, fcorzonera,
and faifafy, fix or feven ; and cardoons, five or fix ;
that they may acquire ftrength for final tranfplantation.
Plant out cabbages, favoys, cauliflower, brocoli, and
bore cole. *
GARDENING.
Sect. III. I lie t lower Garden, or Pleafure Ground. Garden1
439
June.
Kitchen
Tender annuals fiiould be tranfplanted into newly j,,2
formed hot-beds, when they are Aviihed to flower early Trarfplant
and in full perfection, particularly balfams and cockf- tender an-
combs. nuals into
Let the auricula plants in pots, which arc paft flower, 1 ^1 ’
be placed in tome fituation where they may enjoy Treatment
fome free air and the fun till about ten o’clock in the auricu-
morning. las.
Some wallflower and flock gilliflower feed may be gow\v^jj
fown about the beginning of the month ; cuttings alfoflower, &c.
or double wall-flowers and flocks may be planted under
bell and hand glalfes, or in a fliady border. jp-
Perennial and biennial plants that were fown laft Tranlplant
March, will be fit lor tranfplanting about the end of‘^ennia^s>
the month into oeds, where they may remain to acquire ^'c'
llrenoth
o
Sect. IV. Nurfery*
196
Towards the end of the month, the clay fhould be Newly
removed from newly grafted trees, and the bandages grafted
loofened, beeaufe they might check the growth of thetrees'
grafts, which will now fhoot freely • and all buds under
the graft fhould be carefully removed.
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.
A.BOUT the end of the month, if the weather fhould f0 pe
be favourable, the greater part of the plants may be removed
removed from the green -houfe, and placed in fome well- into open
fheltered fituation in the open air. J he plants in the air'
hot-houfe fhould receive water and air freely, particu¬
larly in bright weather.
JUNE.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
190
Wall-trees
trained.
191
Examine
vines.
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
As wall trees will now have made vigorous fhoots, a
fufficient quantity of the heft placed lateral, and all the
terminal ones, fhould be trained to the Avail, and all
foreright, ill placed, fuperfiuous, and very luxuriant
fhoots, fhould be removed. None of the young branches
fhould be fliortened, unlefs where a fupply of new Avood
is wanted to fill up fome vacant fpace. When the fruit
itands too thick on Avail trees, they fhould be thinned.
When Avail trees are infefled with infects, means fhould
be made ufe of to deftroy them ; the curled leaves
fhould be picked off with a view to check their propa¬
gation : tobacco dull may be fometimes employed with
advantage •, but Avater fprinkled plentifully over the
branches Avith an engine conftrudted on purpofe, is the
mod efficacious remedy.
Let vines both on AAralls and in Anneyards be looked
over; and let all fuperfluous branches, which proceed
from the old Avood or lateral ffioots, which are pufhed
out by the young branches, be rubbed off 5 indeed this
tcuft be done conffantly during the fummer.
The fame care of cucumbers and melons Avhich AvasMei^
recommended for laft month, is neceffary noAV ; the cu- See.0**"
cumbers foAvn in the open ground laft month fhould
be thinned, Avlien they begin to pufh out their firft
rough leaves, and a feAV more feeds may be fown for the
fame purpofe, but the earlier in the month the better.
Tranfplant celery for blanching. For this purpofe,
form trenches, about a fpade deep and three feet apart •
lay the earth Avhich comes out of the trenches regular¬
ly along each fide ; lay into each trench fome well rot¬
ten dung, and dig it in : put the plants in a row along
the middle of the trench at the diftance of four or five
inches from one another. About a month or fix weeks
after they have been planted, Avhen they have acquired
the height of fix or eight inches, a quantity of earth
ffiould be laid about their Items, to blanch them and
prepare them for the table j this fhould be done during
dry weather, and repeated once a fortnight, or according
as the plants advance in growth, till they are blanched
to the height of a foot or fifteen inches. The earlier
foAvn celery Avill be fit for tranfplanting about the be¬
ginning of the month ; the later fown, about the end..
About the latter end of the month tranfplant endive
for.-
June.
Fruit
Garden,
&.C.
199
Endive
blanched.
200
Cauliflow¬
ers, See.
planted
out.
201
Sow tur¬
nips.
2C2
Plant out
leeks,
203
and pot¬
herbs.
GARDENING,
Part III.
for blanching ; which fhould be planted out in rows, a
foot apart, and at the fame diftance from one another
in the row. Some endive feed fhould be fown for a
principal crop ; the green curled is commonly fown for
this purpofe, becaufe it is leait apt to be injured by rain
or cold.
The cauliflower, brocoli, and bore-cole plants which
were fown lait month, fhould be planted out at the
diftance of about three inches from one another, into
beds where they may remain, to acquire ftrength to fit
them for final transplantation in July. Some of the
early cauliflower plants, which have formed good heads,
fhould be allowed to itand for feed, which will ripen in
September.
About the middle of this month is the beft feafon
for fowing a principal crop of turnips } the different
kinds commonly fown, are the yellow, white Dutch,
round white, ft one-turnip, Swedifh, black Ruffian, fmall
French round. The large white Norfolk, green topped,
and red-topped, are chiefly ufed for field culture.
Plant out leeks in rows nine inches afunder, and
about fix inches from one another in the row ; it is
an ufual practice to trim off the extremities of their
leaves and of their roots before they are planted.
Plant out pot-herbs, fuch as thyme, favory, fweet-
marjoram and hyffop 5 likewife angelica, marygolds,
clary, &c. A rainy or dull day fhould be chofen, and
the plants put in at the diftance of fix inches from one
another •, occafional watering will be neceffary, till they
have taken root. Cuttings or flips of lage, hyffop, rue,
rofemary, lavender, &c. may be planted in a fhady fitu-
ation, and occafionally watered.
or four inches apart, or more clofely together, and co-
vered with bell or hand glaffes. Garden.
Propagate carnations, pinks,and double fweet-willrams,    ,
by layers. Select young fhoots about five or fix inches 207
long for this purpofe-, ftripoff the leaves from the lower Carnations,
part of the ftalks, and trim off the tops of thofe placed Scc-
at its extremity $ make a flanting cut with a fharp kniie
on the under part of the ftalk, which fhould commence
at a joint near the middle of the fhoot, and extend up¬
wards almoft half way to the next make a hole in the
earth about an inch or an inch and a half deep, im¬
mediately under the fhoot, for its reception -, fix it down
with a fmall hooked flick, and cover it with earth, except
an inch or two at its extremity. A little water fhould
be given in dry w-eather, w'hich will make the la} ers
fir ike root more readily. Pinks and carnations may
likewife be propagated by cutting^or pipings. Thefe
pipings are formed of the extremities of the young
fhoots, taken off immediately under the third joint,
which fhould be inferted into light earth almoft to their
tops, (the extremities of their leaves being previoufiy
trimmed off). They fhould receive a little water to
make the earth fettle clofely about them, and fhould be
covered with a bell or hand glafs. The earth is fome-
times rendered quite wret, and reduced to a ftate refem-
bling mortar, before the pipings are introduced.
About the end of the month hedges ftiould receive
their firft clipping.
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
20S
About the end of the month you may inoculate Fr it-trees
peaches, neftarines, apricots, and rofes: for the method, inoculated.
SECT. II. Fruit Garden.
Wall trees, and vines in the vineyard, require the
fame attention this month that was recommended laft.
strawberry When plantations of ftrawberries are wanted, the young
plants pro- plants that are produced at the joints of the runners,
pared, that are furnifhed with good roots, fhould be taken up
about the end of this month, and planted in a fhady
border at the diftance of about fix inches from one
another; by September they will be fit to be planted
out at the diftance of a foot or fifteen inches from each
other.
Sect. III. Flovoer Garden, or Pleafure Ground.
The roots of hyacinths, jonquils, ranunculufes, &c.
roots°&c. fhould be taken up after their ftalks begin to decay,
taken up. dried and preferved till planting feafon ; the roots of
narcifliis, crocus, fnow-drop, &c. may likewife be taken
up and feparated, and either planted again immediately
or kept till autumn.
Take up alfo autumnal flowering bulbs, fuch as
colchicum, autumnal crocufes and narciffus, Guernfey
and belladona lilies, cyclamens, &c.; take off the oft-
fets, and plant them again immediately, or keep them
till next month.
106 Perennial plants, fuch as double fcarlet lychnis,
^eremuaf double rocket, &c. may be propagated by cuttings of
piams.ld their ftalks each cutting fhould confift of three or four
joints, two of which, (or more than one half the length
of the cutting), fhould be inferted into the ground •,
they may be either planted into a fhady border, three
fee July.
If any of the trees that were budded laft fummer, or
engrafted laft fpring, have made very vigorous fhoots,
flakes fhould be fixed into the ground clofe to the
flocks, to which both the flocks and fhoots muft be
fixed.
Propagate both deciduous and evergreen fhrubs by
layers, particularly fuch as do not pufh out roots freely
except from the new wrood.
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houje.
209
If the green-houfe plants were not placed in the open .exotics
air laft month, on account of the coldnefs of the wrea- propagate
ther, they mav be fafely trailed out now. 1 hefe plants
may be propagated this month by cuttings, layers, in¬
arching, & c.
Hot-houfe plants may likewife be propagated now,
and fhould receive a plentiful allowance of air and wa¬
ter -, pine apple plants which are approaching to matu¬
rity fliould be fparingly watered, becaufe too much wa¬
ter would injure the flavour of the fruit.
JULY.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
210
Plant out cabbages, favoys, brocoli, bore-cole, endive Cabbages,
and celery for the methods fee the former months. See planted
Sow fome brocoli feed about the beginning of theout-
month. Sow fome endive feed for a winter crop ", tne
oreen curled endive is the beft for this purpofe, but
G fotne
, July- W-.rHUe and Batavian may likewife be Town. Some
G^n kidne?-beam> °f the dwarf kind, ihould be fown for a
&.c. late crop. Some turnip-rooted or Spanith radith may
'   > be and managed exadly like turnip : there are
two kina>, the blacK and the white j both of which are
2II very hardy, and Hand the winter well.
Late crops . Some peas and beans may be fbwn when a late crop
[II of peas. is w'anted. 1
As artichokes now advance to maturity, thofe who
prefer one large head to two or three fmaller ones,
ought to cut oil all the lateral heads from the ftalks,
before they exceed the lize of a hen’s egg j which will
promote the growth of the principal head. It is a
common practice to break down the ftalks of artichokes
near the ground, as foon as their heads have been cut
for the taolc, to make them puih more vigorbufly from
the root. °
If the ftalks of onions, ga/lick, and fliallot, begin to
decay, which is iometirhes the cafe about the end of
this month, they ftiould be pulled up and dried. See
August.
212
Fruit prc-
te&ed.
Plan, out
mnuais.
214
Vnd auri-
ulas, &.c.
Sect II, Fruit Garden.
As fruits advance to maturity, wall trees ftiould be
preteritd from birds by nets 5 and means ftiould be ta¬
ken to deilroy fnails, walps, and other inferis.
Sect. III. Flower Garden, or Fleafure Ground.
Some tender annuals may be planted out into the
flower borders in the open air.
Seedling auriculas and polyanthirfes may be planted
out, into aborder not expofedfo the mid-day fun, at the
diltance of two inches from one another, and watered
oecaiionally.
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
Inoculate apricots, peaches, neriarines, plums, and
pears j the frft four are commonly inoculated on plum
Itocks the laft on pear or quince flocks. Inoculating
or budding, as it is termed, may be performed on many
ot icr trees, and ftirubs 5 the method of performing it is
as follows. °
bculatum. knIfe’ refembles a penknife
vnh a flat handle, make a horizontal cut at feme
imddth part quite through the bark of the flock, from
the middle of which make a perpendicular cut down¬
wards, about two inches in length, fo as to form a fi
gure refembling the letter T. Take a young (hoot of
the tree, with which you intend to inoculaie, cut off
the leaves from its lower extremity, leaving a fmall hart
of the footftalk of each ; then, about an inch under the
loWeft bud, make a crofs cut in the (hoot alnioft half¬
way through, with the knife llanting upwards, and
With a dean cut, bring it out about half ah inth above
the bud, detaching part both of the wood and bark
containing the bud. Separate the fmall piece of the
wood which was taken off along with the bud, from
the banc, which is readily done with your knife, pla¬
cing the point of it between the bark and wood at one
end 5 then examine the infide of the bark, to fee if the
^ the-bUd bC k'ft 5 f°r if there aPF'ars a
Voft lk p'TlI s°ne Wlth the wood, and the bud
215
tethod of
441
becomes ufelefs j but if no hole appears, ttie bud is good’, July,
and may be inferted into the flock, by railing the bark Grceu-
with the hand of the budding knife on each fide of Houre and
the perpendicular cut, immediately under the crofs cut. Hot~^oufc;
It the piece or bark which contains the bud be too Ion ■
for the incifioii made in the flock, it ftiould be reduced
to a proper length with the knife, and introduced be¬
tween the bark and’wood of the flock, and placed fo as
to make the bud project through the perpendicular cut.
Haying lixed the bud, and placed the bark of the flock
clofely above it, put a bandage of mat, which fhould
be previouily fteeped in water to increafe its tenacity,
round the flock, which fhould extend from a little be¬
low to a little above the iheifion j taking care that
none of the folds of the bandage cover the bud.
In three weeks or a month after the inoculation has
been performed, the buds will have united with the
flock, which is difcoverable by the bud appearing
plump ■ the bandages fhould then be removed : were
they to" remain, they would cramp the buds and injure
them. The ineifons fhould be made in the flecks
about fix inches above ground, when dwarf trees are
wanted j and at the height of fix feet, when flandards'
aie to oe inoculated : the buds remain dormant, and re¬
quire no further attention till next fpring • w hen they
begin to pufh out, the heads of the ftalks ftiould be
cut off.
ScTdling pines, where they Hand too thick in the Seedling
feed-oed, may be tranfplanted j but great care muft be P‘nes tranf-
taken to water them and fliade them from the fun. planted.
Sect. V. Green Floufc and Hot Houfe.
Greenhouse plants require a plentiful funply of v a- 217
ter at this feafon. If the fruit have let too thick on ^
orange of lemon trees, Urey fhould be thinned, otlrer-orangesi
wife they will not acquire a proper fize. 218
As many of the pines will ripen their fruit in the FroPaSate
courfe of this month, it is a proper time to begin topine apptc^
propagate theie plains, which is done by planting the
crovvns that are produced at the top of the fruit, and
the fuckers, which proceed from the root of the plants
aoout the time the fruit is ripe, or foon after they are
cut. J
produce xruit m two years, and then decay. Kach fruit
is furmbunted by at leaft one croivn, which frequently
has a number of oftsdts at its bafe j and each plant, after
it has produced fruit, throws out from its root one or
more fuckers before it decays.. The crowns, when
they are feparated from the fruit, muft lie five or fix
days in fume dry place, till the part which was attach¬
ed to the fruit is completely dried, before they are fit
for planting, i he kickers which proceed from the root
of ^the piant fhould be taken off, when they have ac~
quired the length of five or fix inches, and when their
lower extremity has become brown ; they muft likewife
lie in fomc dry fituation for a few days, till the part by
which they were conneried with the root of the parent
plant be thoroughly dried. Put each crown or fucker
into a fro all pot, filled with light rich earth, and plunge
them, m the bark-bed of a hot-houfe, or in a hot-bed
made on purpofe.
WTrme{w d<fr1^ Pinf aPPles.in water is given by Method of
Wilaam Paftard, Elq. of Devonlhire, in the 67th vo-raifing pines
3 lumein watfr*
U2
July.
Green-
houfe ;ind
Hot-houfe.
CARD
lutne of tlic Philofoplncal T ranfaclions. His account
of this method is as follows :
“ In the front part of the houfe, and indeed any¬
where in the loweft parts of it, the pine-apple plants
will not thrive well in rvater. I he way in which I
treat them is as follows :—I place a Ihelf near the high-
eft part of the back wall, fo that the pine apples may
ftand without abfolutely touching, but as near it as can
be ; on this Ihelf I place pans full of water, about feven
or eight inches deep } and in thefe pans I put the pine¬
apple plants, growing in the fame pots of earth as they
are generally planted in, to be plunged into the baiic-
bed in the common way j that is, I put the pot of
earth, with the pine plant in it, in the pan full of Ava-
ter, and as the water decreafes I conftantly fill up the
pan. I place either plants in fruit, or young plants,
as foon as they are well rooted, in thefe pans of water,
and find they thrive equally Avell: the fruit reared this
Avay is always much larger, as Avell as better favoured,
than Avhen ripened in the bark-bed. I have more than
once put only the plants themfelves without any earth,
I mean after they had roots, into thefe pans of water,
Avith only water fufficient to keep the roots always co¬
vered, and found them flourilh beyond expedation. In
my houfe the ihelf I mention is fupported by irons from
the top 5 and there is an intervening fpace of about i o
inches betAveen the back Avail and the (helf. A neigh¬
bour of mine has placed a leaden ciftern upon the top
of the back flue, in Avhich, as it is in contad with the
flue, the Avater is ahvays Avarm Avhen there is fire in the
houfe, and finds his fruit excellent and large. My
fhelf does not touch the back flue, but is about a foot
ENIN G.
Part III*
I. The bromelia ananas, of Avhich there are fix va- Augeft.
rieties : i. Ovatus, or oval-ihaped pine apple. 2. P//-
ramidalis (pyramidal), or fugar-loaf pine. 3. Glaber,
with fmooth leaves. .4. Luc id us, with filming green 22o
leaves. 5. Serotinus, with a yellowiih-coloured rieflr.Varieties
6. Viridis, or green pine apple. ' 01 ^ Pnft
The firft fort of ananas is the moft common in Europe •/ P1)
but the fecond fort is much preferable to ji, the Iruit of
this being larger and much better flavoured : the juice
of this fort is not fo aftringent as that of the firft ; fo
that this fruit may be eaten in greater quantity, Avith „
lefs danger. This fort frequently produces fuckers im¬
mediately under the fruit, Avhereby it may be increafed
much better than the common iort *, fo that in a lew
years it may be the beft common fort in Britain.
The third fort is preferved for curiofity by Avay of
variety j but the fruit is not Avorth any thing.
The fort Avith very fmooth green leaves, Avas railed
from feeds taken out of a rotten fruit, Avhich came from
the Weft Indies to the late Henry Heathcote, Efq.
from Avhom Mr Miller received one plant, Avhieh pro¬
duced large fruit: this is what the people of America
call the king pine.
above it •, and, confequently, the Avater is only Avarmed
AUGUST.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
by the air in the houfe. Both thefe methods do well.
The way I account for this fuccefs is, that tne Avarm
air, ahvays afcending to the part Avhere the fhelf is pla¬
ced, as being the higheft part of the houfe, keeps it
much hotter than in any other part. The temperature
at that place is, I believe, feldom lefs than Avhat is in¬
dicated bv the 730 of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and
Avhen the* fun fiiines it is often above ioo° : tire Avater
the plants groAV in feems to enable them to bear the
greateft heat, if fufficient air be alloAved 5 and I often
fee the roots of plants groAving out of the holes in the
bottom of the pot of earth, and (hooting vigoroufly in
the Avater.
“ My hot-houfe, the dimenfions of which it may be
proper to knorv, is 60 feet long, and 11 feet wide, the
flues included ; fix feet high in the front, and 11 feet at
the back of the infide of the houfe. It is Avarmed by
two fires. A leaden trough or ciftern on the top of the
back flue is preferable to my ihelf 5 as in it the pine plants
groAV much fafter in the wflnter, the Avater being always
warmed by the flue. Of this I have feen great bene¬
fits thefe laft tAVo months in my neighbourhood.
“ It is not foreign to this purpofe to mention, that as
a perfon Avas moving a large pine plant from the hot-bed
in my houfe laft fummer, Avhich plant was juft fheAving
fruit, by fome accident he broke off the plant juft above
the earth in Avhich it grerv, and there Avas no root Avhat-
ever left to it. By Avay of experiment, I took the
plant, and fixed it upright in a pan of water, Avithout
any earth Avhatever, in the flielf 5 it there foon threw
.out roots, and bore a pine apple that Aveighed upAvards
of tAvo pounds.”
Sow fome prickly-feeded, or triangular-leaved fpi-Sow winter
nach, for a winter* and fpring crop; for though the^op^of
round-feeded produces larger and more fucculent leaves,
the prickly-feeded is to Oe preferred now, bccaufe it is
by much the hardier of the Iavo. Alter the plants have
o-ot their firft leaves about an inch broad, they ffiouid
be thinned to the diftance of four inches from one ano¬
ther, and kept free trom Aveeds. 222
Soav fome cabbage feed both of the early and late Cabbage,
kinds, to produce plants for next year. . _
Soav fome onions, to be ufed when young in winter Onions,
or fpring, or to produce a crop of early. onions this
fummer. The Strafburg or any other kind may be
{own now, but the Welih onion is very hardy, and
Hands the winter well j for though their tops ffiouid be
deftroyed by the feverity of the Aveather, they will puffi
up again from the root in the fprmg : this onion, horv-
ever, does not produce bulbs. _ 224
ToAvards the end of the month fow fome cauliflower Cauliflower,
feed to produce plants for an early crop next fummer,
which may be protedled during the winter, either under
hot-bed frames, bell or hand-glaffes, or in a well-ffiel-
tered border expofed to the fouth. BetAveen the 18th
and 24th of this month is, perhaps, the beft time to
fow thefe feeds. The London gardeners, who fow
great quantities, are accuftomed to forv them on a par¬
ticular day, viz. the 21ft of this month. If they be
foAvn too early, they are apt to button, as the garden¬
ers term it, n e. run up to feed Avithout producing heads
of a proper fize •, and if they be fown too late, the
plants do not acquire fufficient ftrength, before aa inter,
to enable them to fupport the feverity of the weather. 225
Sow fome lettuce feed about the middle of the month, Lettuce,
both to fupply the table late in the autumn, or begin¬
ning of Avinter, and to plant out into Avell-ffieltered
borders, or under hot-bed frames, to ftand during aa in¬
ter.
Plant
Part TIL
Auffuft.
i-'rujt
Garden.
Plant out brocoll, favoys, bore-cole, and celery, for the
ufe of winter and fpring.
. v— - The cardoons which were planted in June fhould
226 have feme earth laid up to their items, to blanch them
Plant out and render them fit for the table. That this may be
bracoli, Stc. accompliihed the more eafily, tie up the leaves of each
plant, with a piece ot bafs mat or fmall itraw rope, and
apply fome earth clofe round the item, which earthing
muit be repeated at intervals, till it rife to the height of
two feet.
The principal crops of onions will be fit for taking up
in the courfe of this month. Choofe a dry day for
taking them up *, take ofl' the {talks within two or three
inches of the bulb ; fpread them in fome dry place, ex-
pofed to the funihine, for 10 or r2 days, that they may
be thoroughly dried.
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
Drcfs the Look over vines, figs, and other wall trees ; remove
vines, &.C. all foreright and fuperfiuous branches, and nail the
others clofe into the wall, that the rays of the fun may
have free aceefs to the fruit.
Vines in the vineyard lik'ewife (hould be fixed to the
flakes, and cleared of all fuperlluous flioots.
GARDENING.
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hut-houfe.
443
September.
Kitchen
Gaiden.
227
Time of
taking up
onions.
229
Propagate
fibroin-
rooted
perennials.
Treatment
of auriculas
231
and car¬
nations.
232
Sow bul¬
bous root¬
ed plants.
233
vhp hedges.
Sect. III. Flower Garden, or Pleaj'ure Ground.
_ About the end of the month, you may propagate by
flips, fibrous rooted perennial plants, fuch as double rofe
campion, catchfly, double fcarlet lychnis, double rocket,
double ragged robin, bachelors button, gentianella, poly-
anthufes, auriculas, double daifies, &c. As thefe plants
frequently grow in tufts, they may be taken up and di¬
vided, taking care that every flip be provided with fome
roots. »
Auricula plants in pots fhould receive frefh earth.
Auricula and polyanthus feed may be fown any time
this month, but will not come up till fpring.
Layers of carnations, double fweetwilliams, and pinks,
that are properly rooted, may be feparated from the
parent plant, and planted into borders or pots. Cut¬
tings and pipings of pinks and carnations, may be planted
out into beds or borders.
Towards the end of the month the feeds of bulbous-
rooted flowers, fuch as tulips, hyacinths, narciffus, iris,
crocus, fritillaria, crown imperial, lilies, and fnowdrops j
likewife, the feeds of anemone, ranunculus, and cycla¬
men, may be fown in beds or boxes, to obtain new va¬
rieties. They mull be protected during winter from the
froft 5 and when they appear above ground in fpring,
they muft be kept clear of weeds.
Plant out feedling biennials and perennials
About the end of this month hedges fhould receive
their fecond clipping.
P *34
Examine
ihe budded
Uees.
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
_ Budding may flill be performed about the begin¬
ning of the month, and thofe trees which were budded
three weeks or a month ago, (hould be examined. If the
buds remain plump and frefh, there is reafon to believe
that they have fucceeded ; in that cafe the bandages
nauil bs loofened.
Green-house plants, in the open air, mull be ma¬
naged as already directed.
The plants in the hot-houfe muft receive a plentiful
allowance of air and water.
Succeflion pine-apple plants, that are to produce fruit
next year, fhould be fhifted into larger pots, viz. twenty-
fours or fixteens, about the beginning of the month.
The plants fliould be turned out of the old pots and
placed in the new ones, a quantity of light rich earth
being previoufly put into the bottom of each. Each pot
fliould then be filled with fome of the fame earth, water¬
ed, and plunged into the tan, which, at the fame time,
fhould be turned over and receive an addition of about
one-third of frefh tan.
SEPTEMBER.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
Plant fome brown Dutch, cos, and common cab-Plant out :
bage lettuce, in a well-fheltered fituation, expofed to the letuice.
mid-day fun, to be covered with hot-bed frames and
glafles, which fhould not be put over them till fome
time next month.
Plant out from the feed-bed the cauliflowers that Caufi-6
were fown lafl month, into well-fheltered borders, at flowers,
the diftance of three or four inches from one another,
taking care not to plant them fo deep as to cover their
hearts with earth. Thefe plants may be either planted
out again next month under garden frames, bell or hand-
glaffes, to Hand, during the winter, or may remain where
planted.
Plant brocoli, favoys, bore-cole, celery, and endive. Brocolg&c,
Earth up celery and cardoons.
lie up the leaves of endive with a piece of bafs mat
or fomething of that nature, to blanch them, and pre¬
pare them for the table. 2,s
Mufhroom beds may be formed any time this month. Preparation
as fpawn will very eafily be procured during Aup-uft,ofn‘ufll-
September, or O&ober. The fpawn has the appear-room beds‘ '
ance of a white mould fliooting out in firings, which
Avhen bruifed, fmells like mufhrooms.. It may be ob¬
tained either from old mufhroom beds, old hot-beds or
dung hills that are principally compofed of horfe dung,
and from paflure fields, indeed in any place where
horfe or fheep’s dung has lain for fome time undiflurbed
and not expofed to much moiflure \ and may be pre-^
ferved for a confiderable length of time, in a proper (late
for ufing. If fpawn is not otherwife to be procure d,
fome may be produced by laying, a quantity of horfe-
dung and rich earth in alternate layers, and o-
vered with draw to exclude the rain and air; for (he.
more thefe are excluded, the fooner the fpawn will ap¬
pear, which commonly happens in about two mont hs
after the dung and earth have been laid together.
Mufhroom beds fliould be formed of dung that has been
fpread out for fome time, without having been ferment¬
ed, and may be made two or three feet broad, and of
any length. A flratUm of dung about a foot thick,
fliould be laid firft, which fhould be covered with,,
rich earth to the depth of about four inches, then ano-
3 K 2 ther.
44* CARD
September, ther ftratum of dung about ten inches thick, which
Garden ^lou^ covered like the former ; a third ftratum of
dung may be laid and covered with earth like the two
former. The whole ftiould be made to grow narrower
as it advances in height, and formed into a ridge re-
fembling the roof of a houle. When the bed is finilhed
it iliould be covered with ftraw, to exclude the rain,
and to prevent the bed from being dried by the fun or
wind, in which fituafion it ftiould remain eight or ten
days, when the bed will be in a proper temperature of
warmth to receive the fpawn. The fpawn Ihould be
placed in lumps four or five inches afunder, in the
lloping fides of the bed, and covered with a little rich
earth *, the whole muft then be covered with a thick
coat of ftraw. When thefe beds are made in fpring or
autumn, as the weal her in thofe months is temperate,
the fpawn will take foon, and the mulhrooms will ap¬
pear in about a month after the bed has been made j
but when thefe are made in winter, w'hen the weather
is cold, or even in fummer when the weather is very
hot, a much longer time will elapfe. ! he principal
thing to be attended to, in the management of thefe
beds, is to preferve them in a proper degree of moifture
and warmth. Therefore, when the weather is very
cold or very wTet, care muft be taken to apply a thick
covering of dry ftraw, and when the bed appears dry,
a gentle watering muft be given.
ENIN G.
Fart III.
?39
Fruit to be
expofed to
the fun.
340
Plant ftraw-
•berries.
241
I)ifferent
kinds of
ftraw-
teerrics.
Sect. III. Flower Garden, or Pleafure Ground. Khchen
Transplant and propagate fibious-rooted perennial (l‘ir
plants by flips. 242
Towards the end of the month, hyacinths, tulips, ui p- 6cc.
and other bulbs, may be planted. See October. planted.
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
M3
Transplant evergreens towards the end of theTmnpiant
month, fuch as Portugal laurels, lauruftinus, arbu-ar,li
o ’ o' gate tver-
tus, ckc. _ greens, &.c.
Both evergreens and deciduous trees and fttrubs may
be propagated by layers or cuttings about the end of
the month.
Sect. II. Fruit Garden?
Where any fruit, particularly grapes, are (haded
with leaves, pains ftibuld be taken to expofe them to
the rays of the fun, that they may acquire proper fla¬
vour, likewife when the clufters are entangled, they
ftiould be difengaged, that each may have the benefit
of the fun and air.
Strawberries may be planted any time this month
when the weather is ftiowery. If rain ftiould not fall to¬
wards the beginning of the month, the tranfplanting
ftrould be deferred, otherwife they muft be watered oc-
cafionally, for fome time after they are planted. If
any were planted into beds in June, they will be in ex¬
cellent condition for planting out now •, but if none
were planted out then, the beft rooted plants produced
at the joints of the runners, or offsets from the old
plants, Ihould be chofen, and planted at the diftance
of a foot or 15 inches from one another, either in beds,
about four feet wide, or in row's along the borders.
Moft kinds of ftrawberries fucceed beft in an open fitua-
tion, but the wood ftrawberry may be planted under the
(hade of trees or bufhes.
The principal kinds of ftrawberries, are, the fcarlet
or Virginian, white wood, green wood, red wood,
large white wood, hautboy, ftrawberry, large globe
hautboy, oblong hautboy, royal hautboy, green haut¬
boy, Chili ftrawberry, globe Chili, fugar-loaf Chili,
pine apple Chili, Bath Chili, Carolina Chili, white
Carolina Chili, Devonfhire Chili, Hoyal Chili, Dutch
Chili, Alpine or prolific, which produces fruit from
June to November, red Alpine, white Alpine, fcarlet Al¬
pine, pine-apple ftrawberry, red, white, and green.
About the end of the month, moft of the late pears
and apples will be fit for taking down, to be laid up
for keeping. See October.
244
into
the houfe.
245
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-Houfe.
About the end of the month, if the w'eather be Tender
cold, orange and lemon trees, and many of the ten- plants.
derer kinds of green-houfe plants, ftiould be removed
to the houfe.
About the end of this month or beginning of next, Tan-bed
the tan-bed in the hot-houfe ftiould be refreflied with a renewed,
quantity of new tan, one half or two-thirds according
as the old tan may be more or lefs decayed.
OCTOBER.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
Plant cut fome of the lettuces that were raifed in piant^out
Auguft, into a well Iheltered border, or into a hot-bed lettuces,
frame, to fupply the table during winter and fpring. 24?
Cauliflowers that were planted out lafl month from theCauli-
feed -bed, may now be planted under hot bed frames, at flowers un-
the diftance of about four inches from one another, orcie1'fra£neSt
under bell or hand glaffes. Four or five plants may be
put under each hand glafs, all of which (Ihould they
furvive the winter) may again be planted out in the
fpring, except one, or at moft two, of the ftrongeft,
which ftiould be allowed to remain and produce heads.
See February.
Propagate aromatic vegetables by flips, fuch as thyme,
mint, balm, fage, &c. _ _
Afparagus beds (hould receive their winter dreffing, j)rcfs afpa.
i. e. their ftalks ftiould be cut down, and the alleys be-ragus.
tween the beds ftiould be dug, and a little of the earth
from the alleys fpread over the furface of each bed.
Afparagus beds require fome dung once every two years,
which {hould be applied at this feafon. Before the
alleys are dug, a little well rotten dung ftiould be fpread
over the furface of the beds, dug in with a fork,-and
covered with a little of the earth from the alleys.
Where forced afparagus is required early in winter, a
hot-bed may be made any time this month. See
January.
Plant fome early Mazagan beans, and hotfpur peas,
about the end of the month, to ftand the winter, and
produce a crop early in fununer.
Sect. II. Fruit Garden.
249
Winter pears and apples fliould in general be ga-Gather
thered this month. Some will be fit to take down the winter ap"
beginning
Part III
CARD
*5°
Prune and
plant fruit
trees.
October, beginning of tlie montb, otliers will not be ready before
the middle or towards the end. To know when the
i fruits have had their full growth, fome of them Ihould
be tried in different parts of the tree, by turning them
gently upwards •, if they quit the tree eafily, it is a fign
of maturity, and time to gather them. But none of the
more delicate eating pears fhould be permitted to hang
longer on the trees than the middle of the month, ef-
pecially if the nights prove frofty ; for if they are once
touched with the froft, it will occafion many of them
to rot before they are fit for the table : and therefore,
in general, let neither apples nor pears remain longer
on the trees than the middle or the end of this month,
for they will not improve by hanging on the trees after
that time. The beft apples and pears which are in¬
tended for long keeping, fhould be taken down one by
one, on a dry day, and carefully put into bafkets, to
be carried to the fruitery, or place where they are to be
ftored up. The fruit themfelves fhould be dry when
taken down from the trees, therefore fhould not be ga¬
thered too early in the morning, before the dew on
their furface has evaporated. They fhould be laid in
a heap for ten days or a fortnight, that their watery
juices may tranfpire ; each fhould then be thoroughly
dried with a cloth, and laid on the fhelves of the
fruitery, or in boxes or hampers Well covered with dry
ftraw or hay.
About the end of the month, apricots, peaches, and
neflarines may be pruned. See January.
All forts of fruit trees may be planted, fuch as apri¬
cots, peaches, nectarines, plums, cherries, apples, pears,
quinces, vines, figs, mulberries, medlars, fervices, fil¬
berts, &c. The ground for this purpofe fhould be
trenched to the depth of one or two fpades, and fhould
be well manured. If the borders on which the fruit
trees are to be planted have not a fufficient depth of foil,
a quantity of good earth may be added. Peaches, nec¬
tarines, apricots, plums, and cherries, are commonly
planted at the diftance of about fifteen feet from one
another. Pears and apples when engrafted on dwarf
flocks may be planted about the fame diftance, but
thofe which are on free flocks, about eighteen or twenty
feet. Cherries and plums for ftandards fhould be planted
at the diftance of twenty or twenty-five feet from one
another. Apples and pears, on free flocks, fhould be
planted in rows, thirty or forty feet afunder, and at the
diftance of twenty-five or thirty feet from one another
in the row. Dwarf apples and pears, however, may be
planted at lefs than half that dillance.
The principal kinds of apricots are, the early mufea-
dine, Turkey, Bruffels, Roman, Breda, orange, Algiers,
royal, Moor-park, alberget, tranfparent, Dunmore, or
apricot peach, and Portugal.
The principal forts of peaches are, the red magdalen,
white magdalen, red nutmeg, white nutmeg, noblefs,
early Newington, old Newington, great French mig-
none, fmall mignone, admirable chancellor, Millet’s
mignone, incomparable, violet native, purple native,
Royal George, Montauban, teton de Venus, round
tranfparent, Catharine, and bloody peach.
The principal kinds of ncflarines are, early nut¬
meg, Newington, red, Roman, violet, mufk, golden,
fcarlet, Elruge, Temple, Murray, Brugnion, white
Italian.
The principal forts of plums are, the Primordan or
% 6
25l
ENIN G.
early white, Precoce or early black, early Morocco,
Orleans, green gage, la royale, damas dc Tour, damas
violette, white bonum magnum or egg plum, red bo-
num magnum or Imperial, Perdrigron white, Perdri-
gron violet, Monfieur plum, drap d’or, royal dauphin,
Fotheringham, azure native, or early blue gage, queen
mother, myrobalan, apricot plum, red, white, diapree,
Monfieur native, Roche carbon, Jaime native, grofle
queen Claude, petite queen Claude, imperiale violette
or blue imperial, petite mirabille, damas mufque, dia¬
pree noire, diaprle violette, imperitrice blanche or
white emprefs, imperitrice noire or late black, Spanifh
damas, damas of September, St Catharine, common
damfon, Bullace.
The principal kinds of cherries are, the early May,
May-duke, arch-duke, Harrifon’s duke, white heart,
black heart, bleeding heart, Adams’s crown heart,
Hertfordfhire heart, ox heart, Turkey, carnation, amber,
Kentifh or Flemifh, Portugal, morella, white croftian,
black coroun, fmall black guigne or geen, fmall red
guigne, fmallefl wild black of the wroods and hedges,
ditto red.
I he principal kinds of apples are, the common codlin, Apples,
Kentifh codlin, Dutch codlin, Margaret, golden pippin,
gold rennet, Holland pippin, Kentifh pippin, nonpareil,
royal ruflet, Wheeler’s ruifet, golden rufl'et, gray ruffet,
winter pearmain, fcarlet pearmain, Loan’s pearmain,
aromatic ruflet, pomme d’Appis, Newton pippin, Englilh
rennet, autumn rennet, winter queening, margille,
nonefuch, gray Leadington, Marget, tender rennet,
kitchen rennet, large white, Italian, Spanifh rennet,
Canada rennet, groffe rennet de Normandie, Fearns
pippin, white French rennet, duller pearmain, lemon
pippin, French pippin, winter greening, winter pippin,
Flanders pippin, white coflin, Kirton pippin, Ilona
pippin, courpendu or hanging body, courpendu red,
rambour fummer, rambour winter, rennet grife, French
rennet, cat’s head, leather-coat, ruffet of winter, pomme
de gelee, Siberian crab, American cherry crab, two
years apple hanging on the trees, if permitted, till the
fecond year.
The principal kinds of pears are, the green mifial, Pears! *
Catharine, jargonelle, cuiffe madame, Windfor chamon-
telle, creftane, echafterie, grafle blanquette, beure de
roi, white beure, winter beure, colraar, St Germain,
lent St Germain, Martinfee, grafle mufeat, autumn
mufeat, orange bergamot, Hambden’s, bergamot, red
beure, golden beure, brown beure, great rouijelot, petit
rouflelet, Holland bergamot, verte longue, winter bon-
chretien, fummer ditto, Spanifh ditto, Meflieur Jean,
Green fugar, la marquis, fwan egg, virgleufe, Portugal,
gray goodwife, citron de carmes, ambrette, royal
d hrver, St IVXicnael, Louife bonne, fummer orange,
winter orange, Swifs bergamot, devionett.
Baking pears. Large black pear of Worcefter, Par-
kinfon’s warden, Uvedale St Germain, Cadillac. The
principal kinds of quinces are the Portugal, apple quince,
pear quince. The principal kinds of mulberries are
the common black, white, red, medlars, Dutch, Not¬
tingham or Englifh. Services. Common wild fervice,
bervey, fweet fervice or ferb, apple-fhaped, pear-fhaped,
berry-fliaped.
I he principal forts of figs are, the common blue, Figs,
early long blue, early white, large white, large Genoa,
Brunfwick, Marfeilles, Cyprian, brown Ifchia, brown
Malta,
*53
GARDENING.
Malts. Filberts. Large red fkiuned filbert, white
fkinned, comirion hazel nut, Barcelona nut, cob nut,
clufter nut, Byzantine nut.
Goofeberries, currants, and rafpberries, may likew ife
be planted about the end of this month. See Ja-
Sixt. II. Tiitii Garden.
NUARY.
-54
Bulbous
roots plant¬
ed..
255
Sow Hone
fruit, Sec.
156
Blanch en¬
dive, See.
Sect. III. Flower Garden, or Plea/ure Ground.
Bulbous-rooted plants, fuch as tulips, hyacinths,
narclffus, jonquils, crocus, dens-canis, crown imperial,
fvvord lily, ixia, Pcrfian and Englifir iris, ranunculus,
and anemone, may be planted any time this month,
either in beds by themfelves, or in fiower borders, to¬
gether with other flowers •, but the finer forts of tulip,
hyacinths, ranunculus, and anemone, are commonly
planted in beds, fix or eight inches diilant, and two or
three deep.
Plant out deciduous and evergreen trees and fhrubs.
The method of planting all thefe is to open a circular
hole, wide enough to receive the roots, and about a
fpade deep, more or lefs, according to the length of the
roots.
Thorn and other hedges may be planted towards the
end of this month, or any time in the courfe of the
next.
Sect. IV. Nurfery.
Sow haws, holly berries, hips, barberries, yew-berries,
acorns, beech-mails, maple and aih-feed, cherry and
plum flones, in a bed about four feet wide. It is a
common practice to keep haws and hips, in heaps cover¬
ed over with earth for twelve months ; for thofe which
are fown without this preparation frequently lie a whole
year in the feed-bed without coming above ground.
Plant cuttings of laurels and evergreens.
Sect. V. Green-houfe and Hot-houfe.
The hardier kinds of green-houfe plants ihould be all
removed into the green-houfe, when they ihould have
plenty of air, except in very cold or wet weather.
The fucceflion pine-apple plants ihould be removed
into the fruiting houfe, which fliould previoufly receive
a quantity of new tan, as direfted lafl: month. The
younger fucceffion plants likewife thould be moved into
the place of thofe that have been transferred into the
fruiting houfe, air fliould be given freely in mild weather,
and water very moderately.
NOVEMBER.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden.
Tie up endive for blanching, continue to earth-up
cardoons, and drefs the plantations of artichokes, i. e.
cut down their larger leaves, and lay fome earth about
the plants, to protect them during winter.
Carrots and parfneps may be taken up, and preferred
in fand during the winter.
Some more peas and beans may be fown to fucceed
thofe that were fown lafl. month, or to fupply their
place if they fliould be cut off by the feverity of the
weather.
Part HI.
I\ ovember.
Fruit
Garden.
The beff time for pruning vines is immediately after 2_7
the fall of the leaf, becaufe the greateft poflible time in Prune vines,
that way is allowed for healing the wounds. Vines
that are cut about the time of the rife of the fap in the
fpring, are apt to bleed profufely 5 this happens fome-
times even to thofe that are pruned in the courie of the
winter. It is a common error, in pruning vines, to allow
the branches to grow too clofe together, particularly
in thofe varieties which grow1 vigoroufly, and have very
large leaves \ for, in fummer, when the leaves are fully
expanded, they are fo much crowded together as to ex¬
clude the rays of the fun from the fruit. When pruning
is properly performed, the young branches ILould be
left at the diftance of from one foot or two feet, and
even upwards, from one another j but this in a great
meafure muft be regulated by the fize of their leaves.
The Syrian grape has leaves about a foot and a half
broad, with foot-flalks fix inches long. The black
Hamburgh has leaves twelve or thirteen inches
broad, with foot-ftaiks feven inches long. 1 he black
clufter on the contrary has leaves five inches broad, with
foot-ftalks three inches long. Blue frontignac and claret
grape have leaves fix inches broad, 'wuh foot-ftalks about
four inches long- When vines are weakly, each fhoot
ftiould be ftiortened fo as to leave only three or four
eyes \ when they are moderately vigorous, each fliould
be left about a foot long. When very vigorous, fome
of the (hoots may be left three or four feet long or
more ; the (hoots of vines, however, that are trained to
the rafters of a vinery or pine-ftove may be left eighteen
or twenty feet long. It has been obferved, that both
the largeft grapes and fineft clufters are produced on
(hoots of a confiderable length. When vines have been
allorved to run into confufion, much time and pains are
requifite to reduce them to regularity \ but w hen they
have been trained regularly from the beginning, pruning
is eafily and expedilioufly performed. 2i.8
If the following diredtions for tiaining vines in aDire^;ons
vinery be obferved, they will eafily be kept in order, for training
and plentiful crops of good fruit may be exptdled. vines.
Vines may be planted both on the back wall and
front of a vinery \ thofe on the back wall fl.ould be
planted from fix to twelve feet afunder, according to the
vigour of growth of the particular fort, and in fuch a
pofition that the two uppermoft buds may point eaft and
weft 5 thofe on the front ftiould be planted (o as one
may be trained to each rafter. Vv hen the vines begin
to grow, all the buds except the two uppermoft muft
be rubbed oft from thofe on the back wall, and all ex¬
cept the uppermoft from thofe on the front wall. If any
of the plants (hew fruit the firft year, the clufters (hould
be rubbed off, as well as the tendrils and lateral (hoots,
and the principal (hoots (hould be trained regularly to
the trellis as they advance in growth. Fires (hould be
put in the vinery during the fpring, to encourage an
early growth in the vines, that they may have full time
to ripen their wrood. In the month of June the glades
may be taken off altogether, but (hould be put on again
in September, and continued till the fall of the leaf,
when the vines (hould be pruned. I he twm (hoots
which each vine on the back wall was permitted to
pufli, fliould be cut down to their third or fourth bud,
according
Part III.
November, according as either of them appears fullelt and ftrongelt,
Garden then bent down as near as pofii'ole to a horizontal
. , pofition, forming a figure refembling the letter T.
1 lants in iront that are trained to the rafters, fhould
be cut down aim oil to the bottom, and no more left
than is merely fudicient to train them to the rafter.
Only two (hoots fhould again be permitted to grow on
each plant on the back wall, and one on thole of the
front, and thefe may be allowed to run the whole height
of the houfe before they are flopped. After the vine
.(hoots are flopped (which is done by pinching off their
tops), they will in general pulh out laterals at three or
four eyes, on the upper part of the (hoot. Thefe late¬
rals (hould not entirely be taken off, as it would caufe
more eyes lower upon the (hoots to puff out. It would
therefore be prudent to permit the firff laterals to grow
twelve or fourteen inches, and then to pinch off their
tops. J'hefe laterals, in their turn, will puff out fecon-
dnry laterals, which flioidd be pinched off at the feeond
or third joint, and in to at way the fap may be diverted
till the end of the feafon.
The (hoots of the plants on the back wall muft be
brought down to a horizontal pofition, and cut fo that
the branches of each plant may reach within a foot
of the other. If all the vines on the rafters have puflied
vigoroufly, it will be proper to prune every other plant
down to three or four eyes, and the reft to from twenty
to twenty-five eyes each, the latter being intended to
produce fruit, and the former to make bearing wood
againft another year. When the vines begin to puff
in the fpring of the third year, the (hoots of thofe on the
back v. ad ffould not be allowed to (land nearer one
anorher than a foot or fifteen inches, all the intermediate
buds being carefully rubbed off. The (hoots ought to
be trained up perpendicularly, and however vigorous
they may be, no more than one duller fhould be allow¬
ed to remain on any of them : all of them may run up
to the height of five or fix feet before they are flopped.
I he (hoots on the rafters, that were pruned to twenty
or twenty-five eyes each, will probably puff at all of
them j but not more than five or feven'(hoots ffould be
permitted to remain, even on the ftrongeft ; viz. a
leading (hoot, and two or three on each fide. Care
being taken to leave one (hoot as near the bottom as
poflible, as. the whole branch will require to be pruned
down to this ffoot next winter. Only one (hoot ffould
be left upon thofe vines that were pruned down to three
or four eyes, at every other rafter ; and this muft be
trained up the rafter as in the preceding year. At
next pruning feafon all the (hoots proceeding from the
horizontal branches of the vines in the back wall ffould
be pruned down to three or four eves. The vines on
the front which produced fruit ffould be pruned to their
lowed ffoot, which ffould be ftiortened, fo as to leave
four or five eyes. Thofe at every other rafter which
were ffortened the preceding year, and which were
allowed to puff one ffoot, ffould now be pruned like
the bearers of the former year ; i. e. twenty or twenty-
five eyes ffould be left on each. In the following and
aft fucceeding feafons, thefe vines, on the front will re¬
quire a fimilar management, with this difference, that,
gardening.
447
as they acquire more ftrength, they may be permitted to November,
puih .more (hoots, and more clutters may be allowed to Flower
remain on each (hoot; for, as the vines advance in age,
they will certainly be enabled to produce every year for
a certain period, a larger crop of fruit. The fpurs of
the vines on the back-wall, i. e. the (hoots that were
(hortened to three or four eyes, (hould be allowed to pulh
up one (hoot : thele (hoots at next pruning feafon muft
be cut fo as to leave a long one, viz. about four feet,
and a (hurt one, alternately. The long ones ffould be
allowed to pufti five (hoots (all the other buds being
rubbed off), the four lateral of which (hould be ciU
down to two or three eyes each, at next pruning feafon,
and. the terminal one (hould be left about a foot and a
halt long. I he (hort (hoots between the long ones muft
conftantly be pruned down to two or three eyes each,
order to keep up a proper fucceflion of bottom wood.
I he pruning following feafon muft be the fame, with
this difference, that the upright (hoots, as they have
acquired a foot and a half additional length, may be
allowed to pufti feven (hoots inftead of five.
I he principal kinds of vines (e) are, * the white Different
rr*U .ca." Alexandria, * black damafeus, * golden binds of
galhcian, *f white frontinac, *f grilly frontinac, *f black
or purple frontinac, -f J blue or violet frontinac, -f j Fed
frontinac, *f white fweet water, *f black Hamburgh,
f red Hamburgh, or Gibraltar grape, * white Ham-
bi.rgh, malvoife or blue tokay, *j- genuine tokay,
' f (lame-coloured tokay, f | brick grape, *f white muf-
cadine or chafielas, *-f- royal mulcadine or d’arboyce,
*f Malmfey grape, *f claret grape, * Syrian, f j: Btir-
gundy or Munier grape, +£ fmail black duller, f large
blak.k cl after, pearly black July grape or morillon,
noir natif, f white parfiey-leaved.
Goofeberries and currants may be pruned any time Frun^°,c
from the fall of the leaf, till their buds begin to grow bSanT
m toe ipnng.. If thefe butties be not wrell pruned, thecurrants-
fruit .will neither be large nor well-flavoured. The
principal thing to be attended to is, to keep them open;
for they are very apt to become over-crowded with
branches : all fuckers therefore which arife from the
root, or (hoots which proceed from the main ftem,
ffouid be removed, beoaufe they would only create con-
fufion, by growing up into the heart of the buff.
. v i.en Lift fiiiumer’s (hoots ftand too thick, on the main
branches, which is frequently the cafe, particularly
with goofeberries, they ftiould be thinned, and few
either of them or of the main branches (hould be ffort-
e.ned, becaufe the more they are (hortened the more
liable they are to run to wood. They who make ufe
of gardrti-ffears, for fake of expedition, which is too
frequently the cafe, may fave time, and make neat-look¬
ing buffes, but will be difappointed with refpett to the
quantity and quality of their fruit.
Sect. III. F/ower Garden, or P leaf are Ground.
Fibrous-rooted perennial plants may dill be plant¬
ed ; likewife bulbous-rooted plants, fuch as tulips hya¬
cinths, &c. ’
Shrubs and ornamental or foreft trees may be trans¬
planted
commoimwalL markRd # ^ ^ & hot'lloufe 5 tllofe marked t are for a vi»ei7 5 and thofe marked t are for a
44?
G A R D E N I N G.
Part III.
December
Kitchen
Garden.
261
Gonft ruc¬
tion of
green-
houfes.
planted now or any time during the winter when the
weather is open.
Sect. IV. The Nurfenj.
Transplant young trees and fhrubs, and preteft
tender feedlings during tevere weather.
Sect. V. Green HouJ'e and Hot-Iiouje.
The plants in the green-houfe fhould have air during
the day, whenever the weather will permit, and Ihoula
receive but little water. The plants in the hot-houie
Ihould likewife receive air during the day in favourable
weather, and fires muft be put on every evening, but
feldom need to be continued during the day, except the
weather is very fevere.
DECEMBER.
Sect. I. Kitchen Garden,
The cauliflower plants and lettuces planted under
hot-bed frames, or under bell or hand-glaffes, fnould be
expofed to the air during the mild days, and protected
during fevere weather with a covering of mats or ftraw.
dry weather celery and cardoons ihould be earthed
up, and endive tied up for blanching.
In this month there is nothing to be done either in
the fruit garden, nurfery, green-houle, or het-houfe, that
has not already been taken notice of in the preceding
months.
El ERE we {hall add feme obfervations on the con-
ftrudtion of green-houfes and hot-houfes.
A green-houle eonilructed for the protection of fiich
vegetables as cannot Hand in the open air during rv in¬
ter, may vary in form and dimenlions according to. the
fancy of the proprietor, and the number of plants it is
intended to contain. When the front only is of glals,
which formerly was the only, and even ftill is the pre¬
valent, mode of con ft rued in g green-houfes, the pillars
between the falhes ought to be as marrow as the weight
they have to fupport will admit of, and formed 10 as to
give the leaft poflible obftruction to the light ■, they
may be either of ftone, brick, wood, or call iron. 1 .ic
height of the fafties ftiould equal if not exceed the
width of the houfe, that a fufticient quantity of light
may be thrown on the plants which ftand near the back
wall, otherwife they will lofe colour, become unhealthy
and deformed •, for not only the colour, but the vigour,
and even the form of vegetables, depends on. the light.
When one half or the whole of the roof is of glafs,
which ought to be the cafe, there is no neceffity for
attending to the proportion the height ought to bear
to the width of the houfe. i he ends of the houie
fhould alfo be of glafs, unlefs when it is connected with
a feries of other buildings. The pots containing the
plants are commonly fet on benches, which gradually
increafe in height as they recede from the front ■, how¬
ever, when the roof is of glafs, the arrangement may be
different. Every green-houfe ought to be furniftied
with flues •, for though many rvinters may occur in
which the application of fire heat may not be neeeffary,
yet, fueh iutenfe frofts at times prevail as would infalli¬
bly kill a great many of the plants: external coverings, e or. ft rue-
it is true, are frequently made ufe of as a protection !/on of
againft the feverity of the weather, but they do M
anfwer the purpofe equally well, for when the frott con- E- 1
tinues long they cannot be applied day and night with¬
out doing injury, by excluding air and light j the ap¬
plication of fire-heat is like wile neceffary tor baniftiing
the damp, which very much injures and frequently de-
itroys the plants, during long-continued, dull, rainy
weather. The flues in green-houfes are frequently con¬
fined to the back wall, but they ought to pais in
front of the houfe likewife, becauie the plants lituated
there are moft liable to be injured by the feverity of
the weather.
" As fires are feldom required, and thofe but very
flight ones, merely to banith froft and damp, it will
not be neeeffary from economical motives to conitruft
the flues fo as to throw off the greateft poflible quantity
of heat •, they may therefore be concealed, that they may
not affedt the appearance of the houfe.
Hot-houfes lor rearing plants which grow in warmer
climates, or for forcing at an early period fuch vege¬
tables as grow in the open air, vary conhderably accord¬
ing to the different purpofes lor which they are intend¬
ed. ill, Conicrvatories, or dry itoves, fo called becaufe
they arc eonftrudled without pits for containing tanners
bark, oak leaves, or other fermentable fubitanees, and
in which the plants grow in the earth which lorms the
floor of the houfe, and not in pots. Thefe are common¬
ly of a confiderable width and height, and are either
covered entirely, or at leaft on the front, roof, ana ends,
with glafs. 2diy, Hot-houfes for rearing exotic plants,
furnilhed with a pit containing tanners bark, oak leaves,
heated fand, &c. in which pots containing the plants
are plunged : thefe likewife are of confiderable breadth
and height, and have their front, roof, and ends, cover¬
ed with glafs. 3dly, Pine-houfes, which are furniihed
with a pit, as above: thefe are low, the roof being with¬
in a few feet of the furface ol the pit, that the pine
plants may be as near the light as poffible, and the roof
and part of the front only need be of glafs.
Vine-houfes are commonly conftrudied without pits,
and are generally about 12 or 14 feet high, fometiiv.es
very narrow, at other times of confiderable breadth ^
the’former anfwer belt for forcing at a very early period,
and in both houfes the vines are commonly trained both
to the back and front.
Peach-houfes are almoft always conftructed without
pits, are of a moderate height, and vary in breadth.
The peaches are trained either to the front or tack, or
to both 5 and fometimes they arc planted in the middle
of the houfe, and allowed to grow like ftandard fruit
trees, in which cafe the houfe Ihculd be capacious..
Cherry and fig-houfes are conftructed nearly in the
fame way as peach-houfes. I he flues for warming all
thefe ought to pafs round the front as well as the. back
of the houfe, and ought to have as much of their fur-
face expofed as poffible j for the more ot the fuitace of
the flue comes in contact with the air of the houfe, the
more readily the houfe- will be warmed . therefore they
ought not to be built in contact with the front or back
walls when that can be avoided, but ought to be lup-
ported on pillars of brick to keep them from refting on
the ground. .
The furnaces for containing the fuel are placed lome-
times. -
  —
Part III.
Conltmc- times in front, fometimes at the end, bat mod frequent-
Grren- ^ behind the hoafe. They ought to be fituated fo far
houfes, &c. ! ‘ie level the flue, as is neceifary to caufe a
fij-ncient draught 5 if this be not attended to, the fmoke
ivill not pafs through the flues to warm the houfes, but
escape feme other way. When the furnaces are about
18 inches high (a common fize), they ought to be
placed about two feet below the level of the flue, that
the heated air may have an afeent of about fix or eight
inches, vvxiicn will be luthcient to give the requiiite
draught.
When the hot-houfe is of confiderable extent, it is
better to employ feveral moderate, tha 1 a fmaller num¬
ber of drong fires, for violent fires are apt to crack tjie
flues, in which cafe the fmoke efcapes into the houfe,
and injures the plants. Some are partial to large fires^
fioni an idea that they confume lefs fuel in proportion ^
but this is a mifiake, for two moderate fires are found
to heat the fame extent of hot-houfe to an equal de¬
gree, and more equably, with a lels expenditure of
fuel than one large one. One moderate fire will be
lufiicient for an extent of 500 or 600 fquare feet of
gvcUq out if the houfe is protected with coverings du-
G A R BENIN G.
449
ring the night, it will be fufficient for 700 or 800- Conftruc-
thus the number of fquare feet of glafs being known tioncf
the requifite number of fires may He eafily afeertained!, Preen' .
1 lie fires employed for warming hot-houfes may at the c'"'
fame time be converted to other ufeful purpofes. At
X)filing m Nortiiamptonfliire, the feat of Lord John
Cavendifli, the furnaces are confiruded to burn lime at
the fame time that they heat the hot-houfe. One fur¬
nace can burn four bufhels of lime, and confume about
three-fourths of a hundred weight of coal, when lighted
only at night and in tfie morning.
Hot-houfes are femetimes proteded during the ivin-
ter nights by external coverings of wood or canvas,
&c. This renders lefs fire necefiary 5 but the faving in
point of fuel is more than overbalanced by the origfnal
expence of the covering, by the trouble of taking it off
and putting it on morning and evening, and by the
quantity of glafs broken, particularly when the cover-
ing. is made of canvafs, which is apt to be dafhed
again 11; the glafs by the wind. When light coverings
of cloth are applied internally they are not liable to the
laft-mentioned objedion, but there are few hot-houfe
where they can be fo applied.
INDEX TO PART III.
Annuals, when fown, Na5i, 76,
a / I01’
App/e trees, when pruned,
Apples, when gathered,
different kinds of,
Apricots, different kinds of,
Artichokes, ivhen earthed up,
when dreffed and planted,
_ Jerufalem, when planted,
Afparagus, how fown and managed,
beds dreffed,
B.
Beans, when fown,
when earthed up,
early kidney,
full crop of,
Blanch endive.
Bulbous roots, how proteded in beds,
when planted,
when taken up,
100,
I54
38
249
250
31
T36,
J37
M3
M3
-M5
248
23
30
66
i85
29
49
jo
205
C.
Cabbages, when planted,
when tranfplanted,
Lar(loons, when fown,
Carrots, when fown,
uuliflower, when to examine,
raifed in a hot-bed,
^!enL early crop, how raifed,
leLry trees, when pruned,
Vol. IX. Part II.
18,
26
27
M1
44
* 25
69, 170,
224, 236
73
39
Cherry trees, different kinds of, N° 250
Crops, full, for the kitchen garden, 129
Cucumbers, early, how raifed, 67, 91
E.
Engrafting of fruit trees, when per¬
formed
hiftory of,
method of performing,
different kinds of, 1x6 
II3
1M
II5
124
97
253
48
52
F.
Elgs, method of pruning,
different kinds of,
Flowers, how proteded in pots,
forced in hot houfes,
Fruit trees, how to force the growth
°f, 46, 99
pruning of, 9g
engrafting of, 113
planting, 156
proteding the flower, 151, 173
G.
Garden, kitchen,
Garlic, when planted,
Grapes, different kinds of,
Green-houfes, conftrudion of,
H.
Hot-houfes, conftrudion of,
Hot-beds, method of preparing,
I.
Inarching of fruit trees,
Inoculation of fruit trees,
86
259
260
260
32
122
2M
Lawns, drefling of,
I^eeks, how railed,
Lettuce, when fown,
L.
N° 54, 106
83
24, 79, 167
M,
Melon feeds, when fown,
topping,
impregnation of,
obfervations on,
treatment of,
Mujhroom-beds, how to manage,
preparation of,
N.
Neclarincs, when pruned,
different kinds of,
Nurfenj,
o*
Onions, how raifed,
early crop of,
time of taking up,
P.
Farjley, when fown,
Feach trees, when pruned,
different kinds of,
reafe, when fown,
late crop of,
Pear trees, when pruned,
different kinds of,
Pine apples, management of,
ftove for,
heat for,
how propagated,
3 L
33> 9fo 92,
93
94
184, 19&
32
238
40
250
59
83
223
227
21, 84
40
250
22
2ir
38
252
65
126
182
218
Nc
45°
Pine apples, raifed in water,
varieties of,
Plum trees, when pruned,
different kinds of,
Potatoes, early, when planted,
full crop of,
Pot-herbs, when fown,
planted out,
R. •
Padifies, when fown,
horfe, how propagated,
Rafpberries, when pruned and planted, 43
si.
Salad, fmall, 25
219
220
39
250
36
144
85
203
17
89
G A It 13 ENIN G.
Seedlings, ^ 00
Shrubs, how managed, 53
Spinach, when fown, 19
winter crop of, 221
Strawberries, forcing of the growth
of, 47
time and mode of dref-
fxng, 9'S
plantations of, made, 204,
240
different kinds of,
T.
Trees, roots of, how protected,
time proper for planting,
241
45
44
Trees, propagated by layers,
cuttings,
fuckers,
air cautioufly admitted to,
Turnips, full crop of,
Vines, how propagated
dreifed,
hiftory of,
Index.
N° 6t
62
63
64
201
162
174
175
pruning and training of, 257, 258
W
Walks, grafs and gravel, drefiing of, 107
G A II
©ardincr GARDINER, STEPHEN, bifhop of Wincheder,
II and lord chancellor of England, born at Bury St Ed-
Garizim. j : Suffolk, was natural fon to Richard Woodville,
anu ioru  ,   - ■>
munds in Suffolk, was natural fon to Richard V\ oodville,
brother to Queen Elizabeth wife to Edward IV. was
learned m the canon and civil laws, and in divinity. He
figned the divorce of Henry VIII. from Katharine of
Spain 5 abjured the pope’s fupremacy 5 and wrote De
vera et falfa obedientia, in behalf of the king •, yet m
Edward’s reign he oppofed the reformation, and was
punithed with imprifonment 5 but Queen Mary coming
to the throne, the enlarged him. He drew up the ar¬
ticles of marriage between the queen and Philip ot
Spain, which were very advantageous to England. He
was violent againft the reformers •, but on his death-bed
was diffatisfied with his life, and often repeated thefe
words : Erravi cum Petro, fed non fievi cum Peiro. He
died in 1555.
GARGARISM (from ycife^a, “ to warn the
mouth *,”) a gargle. Its ufe is for waffling the mouth
and throat with, when inflammations, ulcerations, &c.
are there. A fmall quantity may be taken into the
mouth, and moved brilkly about, and then fpit out •,
or if the patient cannot do this to any advantage, the
liquor may be injected by a fyringe. W hen gargles are
required, their ufe ftiould be more frequently repeated
than is done in common praftice.
GARGET, a difeafe of cattle, confiding in a fwel-
ling of the throat and the neighbouring parts ; to pre¬
vent which bleeding in the fpring is recommended. _
GARGIL, a diftemper in geefe, which by flopping
the head frequently proves mortal. Three or four
cloves of garlic, beaten in a mortar with fweet butter,
and made into little balls, and given the creature fall¬
ing, are the ordinary cure.
GARIDELL A, a genus of plants belonging to the
decandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 26th order, Multijiliquce. See Botany
Index. m ‘
GABIZIM, Gi?rizim, or Gerifim, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a mountain of Samana, at the foot of which
flood Sichem *, fo near, that Jotham could be heard by
the Sichemites from its top, (Judges, ix. 7.). lamous
for the temple built on it by Sanballet, in favour of his
G A H
fon in-law Manaffeh, by the permiflion of Alexander
the Great, and 200 years after deftroyed by John Hyr-
canus, fon of Simon, the lourth in fucceliion 01 the A -
moneans (Jofephus). „ , , , a
GARLAND, a fort of chaplet made of flowers,
feathers, and fometimes precious Hones, worn on the
head in manner of a crown.—-The word is formed o.:
the French guirlande, and that of the barbarous Latm
ear lan da, or Italian ghirlanda. Menage traces its ori¬
gin from gyrus through gyrulus, to gyrulare, gyrlan-
dum, ghirlandum ; and at length ghirlanda and
lande ; fo that guirlande and garland are defeended m
the fixth or feventh degree from Hicks rejects
this derivation, and brings the word from gardtl haniLr,
which in the northern languages lignity a nojegay artj ul-
lu wrought with the hand. .
Garland alfo denotes ornaments of flowers, fruits,
and leaves, intermixed*, anciently much ufed; at _tl:e
gates of temples, where feafts and foleran rejoicings
were held ; or at any other place where marks of pub¬
lic joy or gaiety were required, as at triumphal arches,
tournaments, &c.
GARLIC. See Allium, Botany Index.
G ARMENT, that wherewith any per Ion is clothed.
See Dress and Habit.
GARNET, in Natural HiJlonj, a very beautiful gem,
of a red colour, with an admixture of blue. See Mi¬
neralogy Index. . . . -
When pure and free from blermlhes, it is little inte¬
rior in appearance to the oriental ruby, though omy ot
a middle degree of hardnefs between the fapphire and
common cryftal. It is found of various fizes, from that
of a pin’s head to an inch in diameter.
Among lapidaries and jewellers, genuine garnets
are known by different names according to their dif¬
ferent degrees of colour. 1. I hegarnet, imp} o
called, is the fiheft and moft valuable kind, being of a
verv deep blood-red with a faint admixture of blue.
2 The rock-ruby *, a name very improperly given to
the garnet when it is of a very flrong but not deep red,
and has a fairer call of the blue j _ this is a very beauti¬
ful gem. 3.
yet brighter
L Cl vaiL ' X   / # A r
The forane or ferain garnet 5 that ot a
red, approaching to the colour of native
GAR
[ 45
Garrick.
®arret cinnabar, with a faint blue tinge. 4. The almandine,
a garnet only a little paler than that called the rock-
l ruby.
G ARNE T Colour. See Colouring of GLASS.
To imitate GARNETS, The making the counterfeit
garnet in paitc is done as follows.—Take prepared cry-
llal two ounces, common red-lead fix ounces, manga-
nefe 16 grains, zaffre three grains j mix all well, put
them into a crucible, cover it with lute, and ‘fet it in
a potter’s kiln for 24 hours. Or take cryftal two oun¬
ces, minium five ounces and a half, manganefe 15
grains, zafFre four grains : mix them well together; and
let all be baked, in a pot well luted, in a potter’s kiln,
24 hours.
OARONNE, a large river of France, which has its
fource in the Pyrenean mountains, runs north-weft by
the city-of Thouloufe, divides the provinces of Guienne
and Gafcony, and, viiiting the city of Bourdeaux, falls
into the bay of Bifcay, about 60 miles below that
city. It has alfo a communication with the Mediter¬
ranean, by means of the royal canal of Louis XIV.
The tide flows up this river 20 miles above Bour¬
deaux.
GARRICK, David, Efq. the great Rofcius of his
age and country, who for nearly 40 years ihone the
brighteft luminary in the hemifphere of the ftage, -was
born at the Angel Inn at Hereford, in the year I'yib.
His father, Captain Peter Garrick, was a French refu¬
gee, and had a troop of horfe which were then quar¬
tered in that city. This rank he maintained in the ar¬
my for feveral years, and had a majority at the time of
his death 5 that event, however, prevented him from
ever enjoying it. Mr Garrick received the firft rudi¬
ments of his education at the "free-fchcol at Litchfield 5
which he afterwards completed at Rochefter, under
the celebrated Mr Colfon, fince mathematical profeflbr
at Cambridge. Dr Johnfon and he were fellow-ftu-
dents at the fame fchool ; and it is a curious fa£t, that
thefe two celebrated geniufes came up to London in the
fame coach, with the intention of puftiing themfelves
into aflive life. On the 9th of March 1736, he was
entered at the honourable fociety of Lincoln’s Inn.
The ttudy of the law, however, he foon quitted •, and
followed for feme time the employment of a wine mer¬
chant : but that too difgufting him, he gave way at laft
to the irrefiftible bias of his mind, and joined a travel¬
ling company of comedians at Ipfwich in Suffolk, where
he went by the name of Lyddle. Having in this poor
fchool of Apollo got fome acquaintance with the thea¬
tric art, he burft at once upon the world, in the year
1740-1, in all the luftre of perfedtiou, at the little
theatre in Goodman’s Fields, then under the diredlion
of Henry Giffard.
The charafter he firft performed was Richard III.
in which, like the fun burfting from behind a cloud,
he difplayed in the earlieft dawn even more than
meridian brightnefs. His excellence dazzled and afto-
nifhed every one ; and the feeing a young man, in no
more than his 24th year, and a novice in reality to
the ftage, reaching at one Angle ftep to that height of
perfection which maturity of years and long practical
experience had not been able to beftow on the moft
capital performers of the Englilh ftage, was a pheno¬
menon that could not but become the objedt of uni-
verfal fpeculation and of as univerfal admiration. The
1 ] GAR
theatres at the weft end of the town were deferted \ Grrrck.
Goodman’s Fields, from being the rendezvous of citi- —v~~
zens and citizens wives alone, became the iclort of all
ranks of men •, and Mr Garrick continued to aft till
the clofe of the lealbn.
Having very advantageous terms offered him for the
performing in Dublin during fome part of the fummer
(1741), he went over thither, where he found the
fame ;uft homage paid to his merit which he had re¬
ceived from his own countrymen. To the fervice of
the latter, however, he efteemed himfelf more imme¬
diately bound ; and therefore in the enfuing winter,
engaged himfelf to Mr Fleetwood, then manager of
Drury Lane ; in which theatre he continued till the
year 1743, when he again went over to Ireland, and
continued there the whole feafon, joint manager with
Mr Sheridan in the direftion and profits of the theatre
royal in Smock Alley. From thence he returned to
England, and was engaged for the feafon of 1746 with
Mr Rich at Covent Garden. This was his laft per¬
formance as a hired after : for in the clofe of that fea>-
fon, Mr Fleetwood’s patent for the management of Dru¬
ry Lane being expired, and that gentleman having no
inclination further to purfue a defign by which, from his
want of acquaintance with the proper conduft of it, or
fome other cauie, he had confiderably impaired his for¬
tune ; Mr Garrick, in conjunftion with Mr Lacy, pur-
chafed the property of that theatre, together with the
renovation of the patent-, and in the winter of 1747,
opened it with the greateft part of Mr Fleetwood’s com-
pany, and with the great additional ftrength of Mr
Barry, Mrs Pritchard, and Mrs Cibber, from Covent
Garden.
Were we to trace Mr Garrick through the feveral
occurrences of his life,—a life fo aftive, fo bufy, and 10
full of occurrences as his, we fhould fwell this account
to many pages. Suffice it to fay, he continued in the
unmolefted enjoyment of his fame and unrivalled ex¬
cellence to the moment of his retirement. His univer-
faiity of excellence was never once attacked by compe¬
tition. Tragedy, comedy, and farce, the lover and
the hero, the jealous hufoand who fufpefts his wife
without caufe, and the thoughtlefs lively rake who at¬
tacks her without defign, were all alike his own. Rage
and ridicule, doubt and defpair, tranfport anti tender-
nefs, compaffion and contempt 5 love, jealoufy, fear,
fury, and fimplicity ; all took in turn pufleffion of his
features, wffiile each of them in turn appeared to be
the foie poffeffor of Ins heart. In the feveral charac¬
ters of Lear and Hamlet, Richard, Dorilas, Romeo,
and Lufignane -, in his Ranger, Bayes, Drugger, Kite-
ly, Brute, and Benedift, you law the mufcular con¬
formations that your ideas attached to them all. In
fhort, Nature, the miftrefs from whom alone this great
performer borrowed all his leffons, being in herfelf in-
exhauftible, this her darling fon, marked out for her
trueft reprefentative, found an unlimited fcope for
change and diverfity in his manner of copying from
her various produftions. There is one part of theatri¬
cal c«nduft which ought unqueftionably to be recorded
to Mr Garrick’s honour, fince the caufe of virtue and
morality, and the formation of public manners, are
confiderably dependent upon it ; and that is, the zeal
with which he aimed to banifti from the ftage all thofe
plays which carry with them an immoral tendency,
3 E 2 and
-
R
quuciucu, ... « n-    , and growing into Garrick
years, he thought proper to feek the vale of life, to c J[en
enjoy that dignified and honourable eafe which was t ^.—
compatible with his public fituation, and which he had
fo well earned by the activity and the merits of his dra¬
matic reign. But very (hurt indeed was the period al¬
lotted to him for this precious enjoyment : for on the
2oth of January 1779, he departed this life*, leaving no
one rival in excellence upon earth to compenfate lor
his lofs, or a hope of our ever meeting with his like
again.
GARRISON, in the art of war, a body of forces,
difpofed in a fortrefs, to defend it againft the enemy,
or to keep the inhabitants in fubjeclion 5 or even to be
fublifted during the winter feafon : hence garrifon and
winter quarters are iometimes ufed indifferently for tin
fame thing; and fometimes they denote different tidings.
In the latter cafe, a garrifon is a place wherein forces
are maintained to feeure it, and where they keep regular
guard, as a frontier town, a citadel, callle, tower, &c.
The carrifon Ihould be always ftronger than the town!-
O
men. T
Du Cange derives the word from the corrupt Tatm
qarnifio, which the latter writers ufe to fignify all man- _
ner of munition, arms, visuals, &c. neceffary for the
defence of a place, and fuftaining of a fiege.
Winter quarters fignify a place where a number of
G A R [ 452 1 ° A
and to prone from tTiofe which do nof abfolutely, on the qmrement nf a fplcnd.d fmt.me,
> whole, promote the intcrefts of vice, fuch feenes of
licentioufnefs and liberty, as a redundancy of wit and
too great livelinefs of imagination have induced tome
of our comic writers to indulge themfelves m, and to
which the fympathetic difpofition of our age of gallantly
and intrigue has given fanaion. The purity of the
Eimlifli ftage has certainly been much more fully efta-
blifhod during the adminiftration of this theatrical
minifter, than it had ever been during preceding
managements, hie feems to have earned his modelt,
moralt chafte, and pious principles with him into the
very management of the theatre itfelf, and refeued per¬
formers from that obloquy which had attached to the
nrofeflion. Of thofe who were accounted blackguards,
unworthy the affoeiation of the world,' he made gentle¬
men, united them with fociety, and introduced them
to all the domeftic comforts of life. '1 he theatre was
no longer dleetned the receptacle of all vice ; znd the
moral, the ferious, the religious part of mankind, did
not hefitate to partake of the rational entertainment of
a play, and pafs a cheerful evening undifgufted with the
licentioufnefs, and uncorrupted by the immorality, of
the exhibition. , , , •
Notwithftanding the numberlefs and laborious avo¬
cations attendant on his profefiion as an aflor, and his
Ration as a manager-, yet Rill his afhve genius pas
perpetually burfling forth in various httie productions
in the dramatic and poetical way, whofe merit cannot
but make us regret bis want of time for tire purfuance
of more extenfive and important works. It is certain
that his merit as an author is not of the firfl magni¬
tude : but bis great knowledge of men and manners, of
Ram; effedf, and his happy turn for lively and Ankmg
fatfre, made him generally fuccefsful j and his pro-
lomies and epilogues in particular, which are almoit in¬
numerable, poffefs fuch a degree of happmefs, both m
the conception and execution, as to Rand unequalled.
His ode on the death of Mr Pelham ran through four
editions in lefs than fix weeks. His Ode on Shake-
fpeare is a mafierly piece of poetry *, and when deliver¬
ed by himfelf, was a mofl capital exhibition. His al¬
terations of Shakefpeare and other authors have been
at times fuccefsful, and at times exploded. The exclu-
fion of the gravediggers feene from Hamlet will never
be forgotten to him by the inhaoitants of the gallery
at Drury. Though neceffary to the chaflenefs of the
feene, they cannot bear to lofe fo much true fierling
wit and humour 5 and it muff be owned, that exube¬
rances of that kind, though they hurt the uniformity,
yet increafe the luxuriance of the tree. Among his
alterations the following are part : Every Man m ms
Humour, altered from Ben Johnfon Romeo and Ju¬
liet, Winter’s Tale, Catherine and Petruehio, Cymbe-
line’, Hamlet, &c. altered and made up from Shake¬
fpeare Gamefiers, a comedy, from Shirley *, Ifabella,
from Southerne. To thefe we add, as original pro-
du£lions, The Farmer’s Return, and Linco’s '1 ravels,
interludes-, Guardian, Lethe, Lying Valet, Mifs in
her Teens, Male Coquet, Irifli Widow, and other co¬
medies in two aas -, Enchanter, a mufical entertain¬
ment -, Lilliput: the Chriftmas Tale is aferibed to him,
and many others.
We now bring him to the period of his retirement
m the faring of 1776; when, full of fame, with the ac-
forces are laid up in the winter icafon, without keeping
the regular guard.
GARSTANG, a town in Lancafinre, 227 miles
from London. It is near a mile in length, hut built-in
a very irregular manner, with dirty flreets, and very in¬
different houfes. The population amounts to 731 per-
fons. The church is a flately Gothic firufture. By the
late inland navigation, it has communication with the
rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Se¬
vern, Humber, Thames, Avon, &c. which navigation,
includinp- its windings, extends above 500 miles, m toe
countiesSof Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Wcflmore-
land, CheRer, &c. W. Long. 2. 42. N. Lat. 53. 52.
GARTER, a ligature for tying up the flocking; but
particularly ufed for the badge of a noble order of
knights, hence denominated the
Order of the GJRTER, a military order of knighthood,
the mofl noble and ancient of any lay order in the
world, inflituted by Edward III. The knights com¬
panions are generally princes and peers ; and the king
of England is the fovereign or chief of the order. 1 he
number of knights was originally 26 j but fix were
added in 1 786, on account of the increafe of the royal
family. They are a college or corporation, having a
oreat and little feal. .
Their officers arc a prelate, chancellor, regifler, kmg-
at-arms, and uffier of the black rod. They have alfo
a dean, with 1 2 canons and petty canons, vergers, and
26 penfioners or poor knights. The prelate is the-
head This office is vefled in the biffiop of Vmchcfter,
and has ever been fo. Next to the prelate is the chan¬
cellor • which office is vefled in the biffiop of Salrfbury,
who keeps the feals, &c. The next is the regifler,
who by his oath is to enter upon the regiftry, the Icru-
tinies, ele&ions, penalties, and other a&s of the order,
with all fidelity : The dean of Windfor is always regfl-
ter gv oficio. The fourth officer is Garter and kmg-
at-arms, being two diftimfl offices united m one perion.
’ 0 Garter
GAR [ 453 ] GAR
Garter. Garter carries the rod and feeptre at the feaft of St
—v—George, the protector of this order, when the fovereign
is preient. He nolilies the elettions of new knights,
attends the folemnity of their inftallations, carries the
garter to foreign princes, &c. He is the principal offi ¬
cer within the college of arras, and chief of the heralds.
See KlNG-at-Arms,.
All theie officers except the prelate have fees and
penfions. The college of the order is leated in the
cattle of Windfor, within the chapel of St George, and
the charter houfe, eredted by the founder for that pur-
pofe. The habit and enfign of the order are, a garter,
mantle, cape, george, and collar. The three firit were
affigned the knights companions by the founder ; and,
the george and collar by Henry VIII.
The garter challenges pre-eminence over all the
other parts of the drefs, by reafon that from it the noble
order is denominated ; that it is the firlf part of the ha¬
bit prefented to foreign princes and abfent knights,
who, and all other knights-eledf, are therewith firit a-
dorned 5 and it is of fo great honour and grandeur,
that by the bare inveftiture with this noble enfign, the
knights are efteemed companions of the greateft mili¬
tary order in the world. It is worn on the left leg
between the knee and calf, and is enamelled with this
motto, Honi soit oui mal y pense ; i. e. Shame to
him that thinks evil hereof: The meaning of which
is, that King Edward having laid claim to the king¬
dom of France, retorted ihame and defiance upon him
that fhould dare to think amifs of the juft enterprife he
had undertaken, for recovering his lawful right to that
crown} and that the bravery of thofe knights whom
he had elefted into this order, was fuch as would enable
him to maintain the quarrel againft thofe that thought
ill of it.
The mantle is the chief of thefe veftments made ufe
of upon all folemn occafions. The colour of the man¬
tle is by the ftatutes appointed to be blue. The length
of the train of the mantle only diftinguiffies the fove¬
reign from the knights companions. To the collar of
the mantle is fixed a pair of long firings, anciently
woven with blue filk only, but now twifted round, and
made of Venice gold and filk, of the colour of the
robes, with knobs or buttons, and taffels at the end.
The left fhoulder of the mantle lias from the inftitu-
tion been adorned with a large garter, with the device
Honi soit, &c. Within this is the crofs of the or¬
der, which was ordained to be worn at all times by
King Charles I. At length the liar was introdu¬
ced, being a fort of crofs irradiated with beams of
filver.
The collar is appointed to be compofed of pieces of
gold in fafliion of garters, the ground enamelled blue,
and the motto gold.
When the knights wear not their robes, they are to
have a filver ftar on the left fide ; and they commonly
bear the picture of St George, enamelled on gold, and
befet with diamonds, at the end of a blue ribbon, crof-
fing the body from the left fhoulder. They are not to
appear abroad without the garter, on penalty of 6s. 8d.
paid to the regifter.
The manner of elefling a knight companion into
this moft noble order, and the ceremonies of invefti¬
ture, are as follow. When the fovereign defigns to
eledl a companion of the Garter, the chancellor belong¬
ing to this order draws up the letters, which, paffing Garter,
both under the fovereign’s lign manual and fignet of the ^ “
order, are fent to the perfon by Garter principal king
at arms; and are in this manner, or to the fame eft'ecl :
“ We, with the companions of our molt noble order
of the Garter, affembled in chapter, holden this prefent
day at our caftle at Windfor, confidering the virtuous
fidelity you have fhown, and the honourable exploits
you have done in our fervice, by vindicating and main¬
taining our right, &c. have cledled or choi'en you one.
of the companions of our order. Therefore, we re¬
quire you to make your fpeedy repair unto us, to receive
the enfigns thereof, and be ready for your inftallation
upon the — day of this prefent month, &c.”
The garter, which is of blue velvet bordered with
fine gold wire, having commonly the letters of the
motto of the fame, is, at the time of election, buckled
upon the left leg, by two of the fenior companions,
who receive it from the fovereign, to whom it was
prefented upon a velvet cuftuon, by Garter king at.
arms, with the ufual reverence, whilft the chancellor
reads the following admonition, en oined by the fta¬
tutes : “ To the honour of God omnipotent, and in
memorial of the bleifed martyr St George, tie about
thy leg, for thy renown, this noble garter 5 wear it as
the fymbol of the moll iliuftrious order, never to be
forgotten or laid afide j that thereby thou mayeft be
admoniihed to be courageous } and having undertaken
a juft war, in which thou lhalt be engaged, thou
mayeft ftand firm, valiantly fight,and fuccefsfully con¬
quer.” The princely garter being then buckled on, and
the word of its fignificatien pronounced, the knight eledi
is brought before the fovertign, who puts about his
neck, kneeling, a dark blue ribbon, whereunto is ap¬
pendant, wrought in gold within the garter, the image
of St George on horfeback, with his fword drawn,
encountering with the dragon. In the mean time, the
chancellor reads the following admonition : “ Wear
this ribbon about thy neck, adorned with the image of
the blefied martyr and foldier of Chrift, St George,
by whofe imitation provoked, thou mayeft fo overpafs
both prolperous and adverfe adventures, that having
ftoutly vanquiihed thy enemies both of body and foul,
thou mayeft not only receive the praife of tins tran-
fient combat, buE*be crow ned with the palm of eternal
vidlory.” Then the knight eledlcd kiffes the fovereign’s
hand 5 thanks his majefty for the great honour done him ;
rifes up, and falutes all the companions feverally, who
return their congratulations. See a reprefentation of
the above infignia, among others, on the plate belong¬
ing to Orders of KNIGHTHOOD.
Since the inftitution of this order, there have been
eight emperors and twenty-eight kings, befides nu¬
merous fovereign princes enrolled as companions there¬
of. Its origin is fomewhat differently related. The
common account is, that the countefs of Salifhury
at a ball happening to drop her garter, the king took
it up and prefented it to her with thefe words, ‘ Ho¬
ni foil qui ?nal y penfe; i. e. Evil to him that evil
thinks. This accident, it is laid, gave rife to the order
and the motto 5 it being the fpirit of the times to mix
love and Avar together : but as in the original ftatutes
of this order there is not the kail conjecture to coun¬
tenance fuch a feminine inftitution, credit cannot be
given to this tradition. Camden, Fern, &c. take it
ta
■ti after,
Garth.
G .A ft L 454 3
to have been inftituted on occalion of the viaory ob- at London m 1693.
tamed-by Edward over the French at the battle of
CrefTy; that prince, fay fome hiftonans, ordered his
garter to be difplayed, as a fignal of battle : m com¬
memoration whereof, he made a garter the pnncipa
ornament of the order, eroded m memory ox this %nal
vidory, and a fymbol of the mdifloluble union ot the
kniT appears from Raftel’s Chronicle, lib vi. quoted by
Granger in the fupplement to his Biographical Hiitory
that this order was devifed by Richard I. at the fiege o
the city of Acre, when he eaufed twenty-fix kmghts,
rvho firmly Hood by him, to wear thongs of blue leather
about their legs, and that it was perfeded 111 the nine¬
teenth year of Edward HE
In I r ri, Edward VI. made fome alterations in the
ritual of this order: that prince compofed it in La¬
tin, the original whereof is fhll extant 10 his own
hand writing. He there ordained, that the order
Ed no longer be called the order of St George but
that of the Garter •, and, mftead of the george, hung
at the collar, he fubftituted a cavalier, bearing a book
on the point of his fword, with the ^ord^^o gra¬
ven on the fword, and verbum Dei on the book . with
a buckle in the left hand, and the word files thereon.
GAH TER, principal King at Anns. I his office was in-
ilituted by Henry V. , A
Garter, and principal king at arms, are two diftind
offices united in one perfon : Garter’s employment is to
attend the fervice of the order of the garter j for which
he is allowed a mantle and badge, a houfe in \A mdlor
caflle and penfions both from the fovereign and
knights, and laftlv, fees. He alfo carries the rod and
fceptre at every feaft of St George, when the fovereign
is prefent, and notifies the ekaion of fuch as are new
chofen; attends the folemmty of their mftallations,
takes care of placing their arms over their feats-,
and carries the garter to foreign kings and princes,
for which fervices it has been ufual to join him in com-
miffion with fome peer, or other perfon of diitinc-
tl0Garter’s oath relates only to fervices being performed
within the order, and is taken in chapter before the fo¬
vereign knights. His oath, as king at arms, is taken
before the earl marffial.
Garter is alfo a term in heraldry, figmfying the
moiety or half of a bend. r t- i j r
GARTH is ufed in fome parts of England for a
little backfide or clofe. It is an ancient Britilh word.
Gardd, in that language, fignifies garden, and is pro¬
nounced and written garth. This word is alfo ufed for a
dtini or woctr, i r i
GARTH is ufed in our ftatutes for thole 'who
catch nfh by means of fish garths, or wears. By fiatute
it is ordained, that no fiffier, nor garth men ffiall ufe
anv nets or engines to deftroy the fry offifh, &c.
• jp-c n. cap. (j. The word is fuppofed by lome to
be derived from the Scotch word gart, which fignifies
forced or compelled; becaufe fiffi are forced by the wear
to pafs in a loop, where they are taken.
Garth, Vr Samuel, an excellent Englith poet and
nhyfician, ’was defeended from a good family in York¬
shire. He was admitted into the college of phyncians
GAR
    . He at that time zealoufiy promo- Garth.
ted and encouraged the erecting of the difpenfary for Gai'»inua- ,
the relief of the lick poor, by giving them advice gra-
tis, and medicines at low rates. T his work of charity
having expofed him and many other phyiicians to the
envy and refentment of ieveral perfons of the fame fa¬
culty as well as apothecaries, he ridiculed them, with
a peculiar fpirit and vivacity, in a poem called the
Difpenfary, in fix cantos, higlily efteemed. He was
one of the molt eminent members of the famous fc-
ciety called the Kit Kat Club, which confifted of
noblemen and gentlemen diitinguiffied by their excel¬
lent parts and affection to the houfe of Hanover.
Upon the acceflion of George I. he. was knighted,
and made phyfician in ordinary to his majefty, and
phyfician general to the army-. Nor were thefe more
than juft rewards even of his phyfical merit. He had
gone through the office of cenfor of the college in
1702 and had practifed always with great reputation,
and a ftrift regard to the honour and intereft of the.
faculty, never, Hooping to proftitute the dignity, of
his profeffion, through mean and fordid views of felf-
intereft, to any, even the moft popular and wealthy
apothecaries. In a fteady adherence to this noble
principle, he concurred with the much celebrated Dr
Radcliffe, with whom he ivas alfo often joined in phy¬
fical confuitations. He had . a very extenfive pra&ice,
but Avas very moderate in his vieAVS of advancing his
own fortune j his humanity and good nature inclin¬
ing him more to make ufe of the great intereft lie had
Avith perfons in poAver, for the fupport and encourage¬
ment of other men of letters. He chofe to live Avith
the great in that degree of independency and freedom
which became a man poffeffed of a fuperior genius,
whereof he Avas daily giving frefti proofs to. the pub¬
lic. One of his laft performances in polite letters,
Avas bis tranflation of the whole fourteenth book, and
the ftory of Cinnus in the fifteenth book, of Ovid’s Me-
tamorphofes. Thefe, together Avith an Englifh Arer-
fion of the reft, were publilhed in 1717 5 and he has
prefixed an excellent preface to the ay hole, w herein
he not only gives an idea of the Avork, and points out
its principal beauties, but ftioAvs the ufes of the poem,
and Hoav it may be read to moft profit. I he diftem-
per Avhich feized him the enfuing year, and ended not
but with his life, caufed a general concern } Avlneli
Avas particularly teftified by Lord LanfdoAvne, a brothel
poet, though of a different party, in fome admirable
verfes Avritten on the occafion. He died, after,a ffiort
illnefs, which he bore with great patience, in January
I7I9* ,
GARUMNA, or Garonne, a noble and navigable
river of Gaul, which, rifing from the Pyrenees, former¬
ly bounded Aquitain on the north (Ciefar) but by tue
view regulation of Auguftus divided it in the middle,
emptying itfelf to the north of Burdegala,. in the
Aquitanic ocean. Mela obferves concerning it, that
unlefs it is fwelled by Avinter rains, or the melting
of the fnoAV, it is for a great part of the year iboaly
and fcarcely navigable but when increafed by the
meeting tide, Avhereby its wafers are impelled, it is fome-
what fuller and the farther the river advance-, it
is broader, till at length it refembles a large frith or
arm of the fea, not only bearing large veffels, but a.-
GAS [4
To fwelling like a raging fea, toffes them extremely,
efpecially if the direction of the wind be one way and
that of the current another.
GAS, in ChcmiJInj, a general name for all perma¬
nently elaitic fluids, which are obtained by chemical
procelTes, as (vzotic gas, muriatic acid gas, nitrous gas.
See Chemistry Index. It is derived from the German
gafcht or gaji, fignifying an eruption of wind, or the
ebultiiion attending the expuliion of elaitic fluids from
jubilances in a llate of fermentation or effervefcence.
It was fir if employed by Van Helmont.
GASCOIGNE, Sir William, chief juftice of the
court of king’s bench under K- nry IV. A molt
learned and upright judge : who being inful ted on the
bench by the prince of Wales, afterwards Henry V.
with equal intrepidity ana coolnefs committed the prince
to prifon; and by this feafonable fortitude laid the
foundation of the future glory of that great monarch,
who trom this event dated his reformation from the
licentioufnefs of his youth. It is not well authenticated
that the prince ftruck Sir William, as recorded by
Shakclpcare 3 but all authors agree, that he interrupted
the courfe of juftice to fereen a lewd fervant. Sir
William died in 1413.
Gascoigne, George, an Englith poet of fome fame
in the early part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was
born at W althamflow in EiTex, of an ancient iainily,
and educated at both univerfities, but principally at
Cambridge. From thence he removed to Gray’s Inn,
and commenced ftudent of the law j but having a ge¬
nius too volatile for that ftudy, he travelled abroad, and
for fome time ferved in the army in the Low Countries.
He afterwards went to hranee j where he became ena¬
moured of a Seottifli lady, and married her. Being
at length, fays Wood, weary of thofe vanities, he re¬
turned to England } and fettled once more in Gray’s
Inn, where he wrote mod of his dramatic and other
poems. The latter part of his life he fpent in his na¬
tive village of Walthamftow, where he died in the year
15750 He had the character of a polite gentleman,
an eloquent and witty companion, et vir inter poetas fui
fecuh prajlantiffimus. His plays, lirft printed feparately,
were afterwards, with feveral other poems, &c. re¬
printed in ttvo volumes 4I0} the firil volume in levy,
the fecond in 1587.
GASCOIN, or Gascoign, denotes the hinder thigh
of a horfe, which begins at the Hide, and reaches to the
ply or bending of the ham.
GASCONADE, a boaif or vaunt of fomething
very improbable. The term has its rife from the Gal-
cons, or people of Gafcony in France, who it feems
have been diftinguithed for bragging and rhodomon-
tade.
GASCON 1, the mod fouth-wed province of France,
is bounded by Guienne on the north, by Languedoc
on the ead, by the Pyrenees which feparate it from
Spain on the fouth, and by the bay of Bifcay on the
wed. It had its name from the ancient inhabitants,
called Gafcones, or Vafcones ; by the moderns Bafques,
or Vufques. After _thefe were fubdued by the Franks,
they had for fome time dukes of their own, who were
fubjecl to the dukes of Aquitaine ; ,but both were at
laii difpoffeflTed by the kings of France. The country
produces corn, wine, fruits, &c. The inhabitants are
tinted for a corrupt pronunciation; and their tendency
6
55 1 GAS
to exaggerate their own exploits, lias rendered Gafconade
a proverbial expretiion.
GASSENDI, Peter, one of the mod celebrated
philofophers France has produced, was born at Chan-
terfier, about three miles from Digne in Provence, in
1592. When a child, he took particular delight in
gazing at the moon and liars as often as they appeared
in clear unclouded weather. This pleafure frequently
drew him into bye places, in order to fead ids eye
freely and undidurbed 5 by which means ids parents,
had him often to ieek, not without many anxious fears
and apprehenfions. 1 hey therefore put him to fchool
at Digne ; where, in a ihort time, he made inch an
extraordinary progrcfs in learning, that fbme perlons,
who had feen fpecimens of his genius, refolved to have
him removed to Aix, in order to dudy piuiofephy
under Fefay, a learned minor friar. This propofal
was fo difagreeable to his dither, who intended to breed
him up in hL own way to country budneis, as being
more profitable than that of a fcholar, that he would
content to it only upon condition that he fhould return
home in two years at fartheif. Accordingly young
Gaiiendi, at the end of the appointed time, repaired
to Chanterficr ; but he had not been long there when
he tvas invited to be profedor of rhetoric at Digne, be¬
fore he Avas quite 16 years of age 5 and he had been
eng3gcd in that office but three years, when his madcr
Fday dying, he was made profdibr in his room at Aix.
W hen he had been there a few years, he compofcd his
Paradoxical Exercitations 5 which, coming to the hands
of Nicholas Peirefc, that great patron of learning
joined Avith Joicph Walter prior of Valette in promot¬
ing him j and he having entered into holy orders, Avas
fird made canon of church of Digne and doctor of
divinity, and then obtained the wardenthip or redor-
tlnp of that church. GalTendi’s fondnefs for adronomv
grew up Avith his years ; and his reputation daily in,
creating, lie Avas in 1645 appointed royal profeflbr of
mathematics at Paris. JLlus inditution being chiefly
defigned for adronomy, our author read lectures on
that fcience to a crowded audience. HoAvever, he
did not hold this place long ; for a dangerous cough
and inflammation of the lungs obliged him, in 1647,
to return to Digne for the benefit of his native air.—!
Gaflendi wrote againd the metaphyfical meditations of
Defcartes ; and divided Avith that great man the phi¬
lofophers of his time, almod all of Avhom were Carte-
fians or Gaffendians. He joined to his knowledcre of
philofophy and the mathematics an acquaintance Avith
the languages and a profound erudition. He Avrote,
1. Three volumes on Epicurus’s Philofophy ; and fix
others, Avhich contain his oavh philofophy. 2. Adro-
nomieal Works. 3. The Lives of Nicholas de Peirefc,
Epicurus, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Puerbachius, and
Regiomontanus.. 4. Epidles, and other trealifes. All
his works were collected together, and printed at Lyons
in 1658, in fix volumes folio. He died at Paris in
1658, aged 63.
GASTEKOSTEUS, the Stickleback, a genus of
tithes belonging to the order of thoracici. See Ichthy¬
ology, Index.
GAST-HOUND. See GA'ZE Hound.
GASTRIC, in general, fomething belonging to the
domach.
GASTRIC Juice, a thin pellucid liquor, Avhich diftils-
from:
GAT
[ 456 ]
G A T
Galiric from certain glands In the ftomaeh, for the dilution,
• II &c. of the food. See Anatomy.
Gatc- GASTROCNEMIUS, \n Anatomy. Sec Anato-
v ' my, Table of the Mufcles.
GASTROMANCY, or Gastromantia, a kind
of divination praftifed among the ancients by moans of
•words coming or fceming to come out of the beliy.
The word is Greek, compoled ot
belln. and divination. # , , , , 1
There is another kind of divination, cat.ed by the
fame name gajlromancij, which is performed by means
of glaffes or other round tranfparent veifels, withm
which certain figures appear by magic art It is thus
called, becaufe the figures appear as in the belly oi the
veflels. r
GASTRORAPHY, in Surgery, the opera.ion ot
fewing up wounds of the abdomen. See Surgery.
GASTROTOMY (of yas-Dg, and l cutf thQ
' operation of cutting open the belly •, otherwife called
the Cctfarean feRion. See Midwifery. .
GAT AKER, Thomas, a learned critic and divine,
was born at London in 1574, and ftudied at St John’s
college, Cambridge. He was afterwards chofen preach¬
er at Lincoln’s Inn •, which he quitted in 1611, for the
Teclory of Rotherhithe in Surry. In i620, hemade
a tour through the Low Countries; and m 1624,
nublilhed at London a book, entitled, rranmbftantiation
declared by the confeffion of the Popilh Writers to
have no neceffary foundation in Gods Word he
wrote likewife a defence of this difcourfe. in 1642,
he was appointed one of the affembly of divines, and
was engaged with them in writing annotations upon
the Bible. He died in July 1654, m the 80th year
of his age. Befides the above works, he pubhihed,
1. A Differtation upon the Style of the New Lefta-
ment. 2. De Nomine Tetragrammata. 3. DeViph-
thongis, five Bivocalibus. 4. An Edition and Tranlla-
tion of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus s Meditations,
r A Colleftion of Sermons, in folio ; and many other
works. His piety and charity were very exemplary j
and his modefty fo great, that he declined all ec-
clefiaftical dignity and court preferments. H1S e^‘
tenfive learning was admired by Salmafius and other
great mon abroad •, his houfe was a private femmary
for youno" gentlemen of this nation, and many fo¬
reigners reforted to him to receive advice in their
ftudies. . , ...
GATE, in Architecture, a large door, leading or
giving entrance into a city, town, caftle, palace, or
other confiderable building. See Architecture.
Thebes, in Egypt, was anciently known by the ap¬
pellation with a hundred gates. In ancient Rome there
was a triumphal gate, porta triumphalis. In modern
Rome there is the jubilee gate, which is only opened m
the year of a grand jubilee.
The gates of London were many of them con¬
verted into gaols or prifons, as Ludgate, Newgate,
&o. but they are now removed. The leffer .or
by-p-ates are called pferns. Gates, through which
coaches, &c. are to pafs, fhould not be lefs than 7
feet broad, nor more than 125 the height to be I i the
breadth. „ , • -r* 1
Gate, or G\IT, in the manege, called in French
train, is ufed for the going or pace of a horfe.
Gate, in a military fenfe, is made of ftrong planks,
with iron bars, to oppofe an enemy. .They are gene¬
rally made in the middle of the curtain, from whence
they are feen, and defended by the two flanks of the
baftions. They ftiould be covered with a good rave¬
lin, that they may not be feen or enfiladed by the
enemy. Thefe gates, belonging to a fortified place,
are paffages through the rampart, which may be (hut
and opened by means of doors and a portcullis. 1 hey
are either private or public.
Private gates are thofe paffages by which the troops
can go out of the town unfeen by the enemy, when
they ^afs to and from the relief of the duty, in the
outworks, or from any other cccafion which is to be
concealed from the befiegers. .
Public gates are thole paffages through the midale
of fuch curtains, to which the great roads of public
ways lead. The dimenlions of thefe are ufually about
13 or 14 feet high, and 9 or 10 feet wide, continued
through the rampart, with proper receffes for foot
paffengers to Hand in out of the way of wheel car-
riaoes.
Gates of Bell. This ex predion is ufed in Scripture,
to denote figuratively either the grave or the powers of
darknefs, i. e. the devil and his angels.
The Mahometans ufe the expreffion literally, and
1 11 1 r  tlic.t'
fuppofe that hell has feven gates. The fir ft is that
where Muffulmans, who incur the guilt of fin, wiL be
tormented. The fecond is for the Chriftians. ihe
third is for the Jews. The fourth is for tne Sabians.
The fifth for the Magians or worftiippers of fire. The
fixth for Pagans and idolaters. And the leventh for
hypocrites, who make an outward ihow of religion, but
have none. r ^ .
GATESHEAD, in the county of Durham,, is as
it were the fuburbs of Newcaftle, though it lies in an¬
other county, being divided by the river T yne j ov er
which there is a fine ftone bridge, with an iron gate in
the middle, having the arms of Durham on one iiae,
and thofe of Newcaftle on the other, which is the boun¬
dary between the biihopric and Northumberland. The
church is a fine building, with a very high tower, which
is feen at a great diftance •, and in the church-yard.are
feveral ancient monuments. Few traces of its ancient
monaftery remain, except a ftone gateway. The popu¬
lation in 1801 amounted to 8597.
GATH, or Geth, in Ancient Geography, a cele¬
brated citv of the Philiftines, and one of their five
principalities. It is famous for having, given birth.to
Goliath. David made a conqueft of. it m the begin¬
ning of his reign over all Ifrael} and it continued lu -
ieft to the kings his fucceffors till the declenfion. and
decay of the kingdom of Judah. . Rehoboam rebuilt or
fortified it} King Uzziah retook it, and Hezekiah once
more reduced it under his fubjeftion.. .
Gath flood about five or fix miles from J amnia,
about 14 fouth of Joppa, and 32 weft of Jerufalem
Hence fome authors (among whom is f. Galmetj
have committed an egregious miftake in making Gath
the moft fouthern, and Ekron the moft northern, of
the Philiftine cities ; as if thefe two had been the two
boundaries of their dominions, whereas thefe two ci¬
ties are not above five miles afunder j and Gaza is t ic.
laft of the five fatrapies fouth. And Jofephus (in the
place already quoted) expreffes himfdf pkinly enough,
when he fays, that Hezekiah took all the Philiftme
G A U [ 4S7 1 G A U
Gath cities from Gaza to Gath •, there being many more
ll cities of that name, which humifies in the Hebrew a
LJ wine prep. Several other cities of the name of Geth
or Gath are mentioned in Eufebius and St Jerome,
vhofe fituation, according to thofe authors, plainly
fiiows them to have been different places from this, and
from each other ; befides thofe which had an adjunct
to diftinguilh them.
This city recovered its liberty and luilre in the time
of the prophets Amos and Micah $ but was’afterwards
demoliihed by Hazael king of Syria, after which it be¬
came of but little confideration till the time of the holy
war, when Folk king of Jerufalem built a caftle on its
ruins.
GATH Opher. GATH EpPer, or Gat/i, in the canton of
Opher, in Galilee, was the birth place of the prophet
Jonah. Jofliua makes this city to be part of the tribe
of Zebulun 5 and St Jerome, in his preface upon Jo¬
nah, fays, that it was two miles from Sephoris, other-
wife called Diocrtfarea.
GATH Rimwon^ a city belonging to the tribe of Dan.
St Jerome places it ten miles from Diofpolis on the
way from Eleutheropolis. It was given to the Levites
of Kohath’s fam’ly.
Gath Rimmon, was alfo a city in the half tribe of
Manaffeh, on this fide Jordan, and was alfo given for a
place of abode to the Levites of Kohath’s family.
Gath Rimmon, was likewife a city in the tribe of
Ephraim, given to the Kohathites.
GAl'TON, a village in the county of Surry, 19
miles fouth from London. It lies under the fide of a
hill going to Reygate ; and is fuppofed to have been
known to the Romans, by reafon of their coins and
other antiquities that have been found here. It is a
borough by prefeription $ and has fent members to
parliament ever fince the 29th of Henry VI. It was
formerly a large town ; but is now a mean village,
with a fmall church, and without either fair or market.
It fends tw-o members to parliament. The population
in 1801 amounted to 11 2.
GAUBIUS, JeromE-David, M. D. profeffor of
medicine at Leyden, and afterwards fellow of the Roy¬
al Society of London, was born at Heidelberg in the
year 1705. From the Jefuits he received the rudi¬
ments of his education, and was much efteemed by them
on account of his abilities; but his father afterwards
fent him to the orphan houfe of Halle, leit he ihould
be obliged to abjure his religion. The nature of the
difeipline, however, he here found to be much too fe-
vere, which induced him to requeft his father to re¬
move him from it, which was accordingly complied
'with. His teacher at this hofpital attributing the dif
like of young Gaubius to the want of genius, urged
him to give his fun fome mechanical employment j but
the father thought proper to indulge his ardent defire
after knowledge, and accordingly lent him to Amfter-
dam to fiudy under his uncle John, who w as an eminent
phyfician. After profecuting his medical fiudies for
fome time at Hordwyk, he refolved to vifii Leyden,
where the immortal Boerhaave was an eminent profef¬
for, and whofe penetrating eye foon difeovered that
Gaubius was poflelfed of talents above mediocrity. He
honoured him with unlimited accefs to his houfe. de
lighted in imparting initru&ion to him, and gradually
forwarded the cultivation of his mind. He took the
Vol. IX. Part II,
degree of do£lor at the age of 20, after a difputatlon on Gaubiuj,
tlie nature of tolids, containing an abftradtof the fyftem Gtaudenr.
which he himfelf followed through life. "u
He travelled through various parts of Europe, and
when lie returned to Heidelberg by the way of Straf-
burgh, he w-as appointed city-phyfician at Deventer in
the province of Overyilel j but he foon after removed
to Amfterdam. Boerhaave never loft fight of his fa¬
vourite pupil j fur when the infirmities of old age and
indefatigable labour made him anxious to refign his
chair, Gaubius on his recommendation was appointed
to fucceed him. He pubblhed his Inftrudtiwns for writ*
, ing Recipes in the year 1738, by which he acquired
great and juftly merited approbation, as he reduced the
art from a mere mechanical to a fcientific fprm. His
Principles of Nofology is perhaps his moft mafterly per¬
formance, as it evinced that he vvas highly worthy of
fuch a preceptor. His next publication, w hich appear¬
ed in 1771, was his “ Adverfaria varii Argumenti,” a
work which was particularly interefting to chemifts $
and his oration on the 200th anniverfary of the acade¬
my of Leyden attrafted confiderable notice, as in it
he traced out, with his accuftomed acumen, the chief
epochs of the arts and fciences in Holland.
He was likewife the author of numerous and valuable
papers in the Tranladtions of the Society of Haerlem,
and was editor of many excellent performances, among
which we may rank Cramer’s Elementa artis docimajlicev;
Albmux de prefagienda vita et morte, and Swammer¬
dam’s Book of Nature, which he partly tranflated. His
literary merit fpread his fame fofar beyond the bounds
of his native country, that pupils repaired to Leyden
from every quarter of Europe. In addition to his
widely extended reputation, he was blefftd with the en¬
joyment of good health till he was 70 years of age, and
died on the 29th of November 1780, in his leventy-
fifth year.
One work of his, entitled “ Inftitutiones Pathologic^
Medicinalis,” was deemed fo valuable by Profeiibr
Ackerman, and of fuch lingular advantage in acade¬
mical leisures, that he gave the world a fourth edition
of it, publiflied at Nuremberg in 1787.
GAUDEN, Dr Joseph, ion of John Gauden vicar
of Mayfield in Efftx, was born theie in 1605. At
the commencement of the civil war, he was chaplain to
Robert earl of Warwic k 5 who taking part with the
parliament againft the king, was followed by his chap¬
lain. Upon the eftablilhuic-nt of tl e Prefbyterian mo¬
del of church government, he complied with the ruling
powers, and was nominated one of the affembly of di¬
vines who met at Weftminfter in 1643, and took the
covenant *, yet having offered fome fcruples and objec
tions to it, his name was afterwards firuck out of the
lift. Nor did he efpoufe the parliament caufe any
longer than they adhered to their firft avowed princi¬
ples of reforming only, initead of deftroying, mo-
narchy and epifcopacy. In this fpirit he was one of
thofe divines who figned a proteftation to the army
againft the violent proceedings that afft&ed the life of
the king : and a few days after his execution publifhed
the fam >us E<x»v BcemAixu, Portraiture of Pis Sacred
Mojejiy in his Solitude and Sufferings; which ran through
50 editions m the courfe of a year. Upon the return
of Charles II. he was promoted to the lee of Exeter ;
and ur 1C62 was removed to Woreefter, much to hij
3 ^ regret,
Gauden
t!
Gavelet.
G A V [ 458
regret havinsr flattered himfelf with the hopes of a
1   - _ .11  At
]
tranflation to Winchefter ; and his death happened the
fame year. He wrote many controverfial pieces fuited
to the circumttances of the tiroes, and to his own views
from them. The Eihn Bafiitke above-mentioned he
publiihed as the king’s private meditations : though on
this point there has been a long controverfy. After
the bilhop’s death, his widow, in a letter to one of her
fons, calls it The Jewel; and faid, her hufband had
hoped to make a fortune by it; and that (he had a
letter of a very great man’s, which would clear up that
he writ it. This affertion, as the earl of Clarendon
had predifted, was eagerly efpoufed by the anti-royal,
ills, in the view of difparaging Charles I. _ But it has
been obferved, that Gauden had too luxuriant an ima¬
gination, which betrayed him into a ranknefs of ftyle
in the Aliatic way ; and from thence, as Biftiop Bur¬
net argues with others, it may be certainly concluded,
that not he, but the king himfelf, was the true author
of the EiKm ; in which there is a noblenefs and
juftnefs of thought, with a greatnefs of ftyle, that made
it be looked on as the beft written book in the Enghlh
language.
GAVEL, or Gabel, among builders. See Gabel.
Gavel, in Law, tribute, toll, cuftom, or yearly re¬
venue •, of which we had in old time feveral kinds.
See Gabel. . ,
GAVEL Kind, a tenure or cuftom belonging to lands
in the county of Kent. The word is faid by Lambard
to be compounded of three Saxon words, gyje, eal, kyn,
“ omnibus cognationeproximisdata:'1 Verftegan calls it
gavelkind, quafi “ give all kind,” that is, to each child
his part: and Taylor, in his hiftory ofde¬
rives it from the Britifh^tft'A', that is, a hold or tenure,
and canned, generatio wcsX. famiiia and. fo gavel can¬
ned might fignify tenura generatioms.—It is univerfally
known what ftruggles the Kentifli men made to pre-
ferve their ancient liberties, and w'ith how much fuc-
cefs thofe ftruggles were attended. And as it is prin¬
cipally here that we meet with the cuftom of gavel¬
kind (though it was and is to be found in fome other
parts of the kingdom), we may fairly conclude, that
this was a part of thefe liberties : agreeable to Mr Sel-
den’s opinion, that gavelkind, before the Norman con-
queft, was the general cuftom of the realm.^ The dif-
tinguiftied properties of this tenure are various : fome
of the principal are thefe: 1. The tenant is of age
fufficient to alienate his eftate by feoffment, at the age
of 15. 2. The eftate does not efcheat in cafe of an
attainder and execution for felony } their maxim being,
“ the father to the bough, the fon to the plough.”
3. In moft places he had the power of devifing lands by
will, before the ftatute for that purpofe was made.
4. The lands defcend, not to the eldeft, youngeft,.or
any one fon only, but to all the fons together \ which
was indeed anciently the moft ufual courfe of defcent,
all over England, though in particular places particu¬
lar cuftoms prevailed.
GAVELET, in Law, an ancient and fpemal ceffa-
vit ufed in Kent, where the cuftom of gavelkind con¬
tinues, by which the tenant, if he withdraws his rent and
fervices due to the lord, forfeits his land and tenements.
The procefs of the gavelet is thus. The lord is firft
to feek by the fteward of his court, from three weeks
to three weeks, to find fome diftrefs upon the tene-
Gauging-
Rod.
G A U
ment, till the fourth court j and if at that time he Gavelet
find none, at this fourth court it is awarded, that he
take the tenement in his hand in name of. a diftreis,
and keep it a year and a day without manuring •, with- _
in which time, if the tenant pay his arrears, and make
reafonable amends for the withholding, he (hall have
and enjoy his tenement as before : if he come not be¬
fore the year and day be part, the lord is to go to the
next county court with witneffes of what had paffed
at his own court, and pronounce there his procefs, to
have further witneffes ; and then by the award of his
own court, he {hall enter and manure the tenement as
his own : fo that if the tenant defired afterwards to
have and hold it as before, he muft agree with the
lord ; according to this old faying : “ Has he not fince
any thing given, or any thing paid, then let him pay
five pound for his were, e’er he become healder again.”
Other copies have the firft part with lome variation }-
“ Let him nine times pay, and nine times repay.”.
GaVELET, in London, is a writ ufed in the huftings,
given to lords of rents in the city of London. Here
the parties, tenant and demandant, appear by fare
facias, to {how caufe why the one. ftiould not have his
tenement again on payment of his rent, or the other-,
recover the lands on default thereof.
GAUGAMELA, in Ancient Geography, a village,
of Aturia, lying between the rivers Lycus and Tigris ;
famous for Alexander’s viftory over Darius. It is faid
to have been allowed to Darius Hyftalpes for the
maintenance of a camel; and hence the name. It was
not far from a more confiderable place called Arbeta ;
whence the latter gave the name to the vi&ory. See
Arbela. „ , c
GAUGE-POINT of a folid meafure, the diameter ot
a circle whofe area is equal to the {olid content of the
fame meafure.
GAUGER, a king’s officer, who is appointed to
examine all tons, pipes, hogftieads, and barrels, of wine»
beer, ale, oil, honey, &c. and give them a market
allowance, before they are fold in any place within the,
extent of his office.
GAUGING. See Geometry.
GAUGING-Rod, an inftrument ufed in gauging ore
meafuring the contents of any veffel. That .dually
employed is the four-foot gauging rod. It is com¬
monly made of box, and confifts of four rules, each a
foot long and about three-eighths of an inch {quare,
joined together by three brafs joints by which means
the rod is rendered four feet long when the four rules
are quite opened, and but one foot when they are all plate
folded together. On the firft face of this rod, mark- CCXXVIII
ed 4, are piaced two diagonal lines :. one for beer and_
the other for wine: by means of which the content or
any common veffel in beer or wine gallons may be rea¬
dily found, by putting the rod in at the bung hole of
the veffel till it meets the interfeaion of the head ot
the veffel with the ftaves oppofite to the bung hole.
For diftinction of this line, there is written thereon,
beer and wine gallons. On the fecond face, 5> aie a
line of inches and the gauge-line j which is a line ex¬
prefling the areas of circles, whofe diameters are the
correfpondent inches in ale gallons. At the beginning
is written, ale area. On the third face, 6, are three
feales of lines } the firft, at the end of which is written
%/W, is for finding how many gallons there are m
G A U [ 459 ] G A U
Gau,£;in?- a liogfliead when it is not full, lying with its axis pa-
Rod. rallel to the horizon. The fecund line, at the end of
which is written B. L. fignifying a butt lying is for the
fame ufe as that for the hogthead. The third line is
to find how much liquor is wanting to fill up a butt
when it is Handing : at the end of it is written B. S.
fignifying a butt Jlanding. In the half of the fourth
face of the gauging rod, 7, there are the three feales of
lines, to find the wants in a firkin, kilderkin, and bar¬
rel, lying with their areas parallel to the horizon.
They are diftinguiihed by letters F. K. B. fignifying a
Jirkin, kilderkin, and barrel.
Ufe of the diagonal lines on this rod. To find the
content of a veifel in beer or wine gallons, put the
brafed end of the gauging rod into the bung hole of
the calk, with the diagonal lines upwards, and thruft
this brafed end to the meeting of the head and Haves ;
then with chalk make a mark at the middle of the
bung hole of the veflfel, and alfo on the diagonal lines
of the rod, right againtl, over one another, when the
brafed end is thruH home to the head and Haves : then
turn the gauging rod to the other end of the veflel,
and thrufl the brafed end home to the end, as before.
Lafily, See if the mark made on the gauging rod come
even with the mark made on the bung hole, when the
rod was thruH to the other end 5 which if it be, the
mark made on the diagonal lines will, on the fame
lines, (how the whole content of the calk in beer or
wine gallons.
If the mark made on the bung hole be not right
againH that made on the rod when you put it the
ether way, then right againfl the mark made on the
bung hole make another on the diagonal line ; and the
divifion on the diagonal line between the two chalks
will (how the velfel’s whole contents in beer or wine
gallons. Thus, e. gr. if the diagonal line of the veffel
be 28 inches four tenths, its contents in beer gallons
will be near 51, and in wine gallons 62.
If a veffel be open, as a half barrel, tun, or copper,
and the meafure from the middle of one fide to the
head and Haves be 38 inches, the diagonal line gives
122 beer gallons; half of which, viz. 61, is the con¬
tent of the open half tub.
If you have a large veffel, as a tun or copper, and
the diagonal line taken by a long rule proves 70 inches ;
the content of that veffel may be found thus: Every
inch at the beginning end of the diagonal line calf ten
inches. Thus ten inches becomes 100 inches; and
every ten*h of a gallon call too gallons ; and every
whole gallon.call 1000 gallons.
Example. At 44.8 inches on the diagonal beer
line is 200 gallons; fo that 4 inches 48 parts, now
called 44 inches 8 tenths, is juH two-tenths of a gallon,
now.called 200 gallons ; fo alfo if the diagonal line be
76 inches and 7-tenths, a clofe calk of fueh diagonal
will hold 1000 beer gallons: but an open calk but half
fo much, viz. coo beer gallons.
Ufe of the Gauge Line. To find the content of any
cylindrical veffel in ale gallons; feek the diameter of
the veffel in inches, and juH againH it on the gauge
line is the quantity of ale gallons contained in one inch
deep this multiplied by the length of the cylinder
will give its content in ale gallons.
For example, luppofe the length of the veffel 32.06,
3r.d the diameter of its bafe 25 inches ; to find what
is the content in ale gallons ? Right againH f ^ inches Gaug’ng-
on the gauge line is one gallon and .745 of a gallon ; Roci’
which multiplied by 32.06, the length, gives 55.9447 ,
gallons for the content or the veffel. " ’r~~”
I he bung diameter of a hoglhead being 25 inches,
the head diameter 22 inches, and the length 32.06
inches; to find the quantity of ale gallons contained in
it ?—Seek 25, the bung diameter, on the line of inches,
and right againH it on the gauge line you will find
*•745 : ta^e one-third of it which is .580, and fet it
uown twice; feek 22 inches in the head diameter, and
againH it you will find on the gauge line 1.356 ; one-
third of which added to twice .580 gives 1.6096 ;
which multiplied by the length 32.06, theprodua will
be 51.603776, the content in ale gallons. Note, this
operation luppofes, that the aforefaid hoglhead is in
the figure of the middle fruflum of a fpheroid.
I he uie of the lines on the two other faces of the
rod is very eafy ; you need only put it downright into
the bung hole (if the vefitl you defire to know the
quantity of ale gallons contained therein be lying) to
the oppofite Haves ; and then where the lurface of the
liquor cuts any one of the lines appropriated to that
veffel, will be the number of gallons contained in that
veffel.
GAUL, the name given by the Romans to the coun¬
try that now forms, the kingdom of France.—The ori¬
ginal inhabitants were defeended from the Celtes or
Gomerians, by whom the greatett part of Europe was
peopled ; the name of Galh, or Gauls, being probably
given them long after their fettlement in that country.
See Gallia.
I he ancient hiflory of the Gauls is entirely wrapped
up in obfeurity and darknefs ; all we know concerning
them for a long time is, that they multiplied fo fafl,
that their country being unable to contain them, they
poured forth in vafl multitudes into other countries,
which they generally fubdued, and fettled themfelves
in. It often happened, however, that thel'e colonies
were fo molefted by their neighbours, that they were
obliged to fend for affiHance to their native country.
This was always very eafily obtained. The Gauls were
upon every occafion, ready to fend forth great numbers
of new adventurers ; and as thefe fpread defolation
wherever they came, the very name of Gauls proved x
terrible to molt of the neighbouring nations.—The Account af
earlieH excurfion of thefe people, of which we have any ^ G:iu!4k
diflina account, was into Italy, under a famed leader, ■ncmTfioj’s
named Bellovefus, about 622 years before Chriff. int0Ital,r*
croffed the Rhone and the Alps, till then unattempted ;
defeated the Hetrurians; and Hazed upon that part of
their country, fince known by the names of Lombardy
and Piedmont.—Thefecond grand expedition was made
by the Coenomani, a people dwelling between the rivers
Seine and Loire, under a general named E/itonis. rL hey
fettled in thofe parts of Italy, now known by the
names of Brefciano, the Cremoneje, the Mantuan. Car-
niola, and the Venetian.—In a third excurfion, two
other Gaulifli nations fettled on both fides of the river
Po; and in a fourth, the Boii and Lingones fettled in
the country between Ravenna and Bologna. The time
of thefe three lafi expeditions is uncertain.
The third expedition of the GauF was more remark¬
able than any of the former, and happened about 20®
years after that of Bellovtfus. The Stnones fettled
3 M 2 between
G A U
[ 460 ]
G A U
Gaul, between Pans and Meaux, were invited into Italy by a
 Hetrurian lord, and fettled themfelves in Umbria.
Brennus their king laid liege to Clufium, a city in al¬
liance with Rome 5 and this produced a war with the
Romans, in which the latter were at iirft defeated, and
their city taken and burnt j but at length the whole
army was cut off by Camillus, infomuch, that not a
Angle perfon efcaped.
Some other expeditions the Gauls undertook again!!
the Romans: in which, though they always proved un~
fuccefsful, by reafon of their want of military difci-
pline $ yet their fiercenefs and courage made them fo
formidable to the republic, that, on the firit news of
their march, extraordinary levies of troops were made,
facrifices and public Replications offered to tlm gods,
and the law which granted an immunity from military
fervice to prielts and old men, was, for the time, abo-
2 lilhed.
Expedition Againft the Greeks, the expeditions of the Gauls
agamft tlie were very little more fuccefsful than againft the Ro-
Greeks. Xhe firit of thefe we hear of was about 279
years before Chrilt, in the year after Pyrrhus had in¬
vaded Italy. At this time, the Gauls finding them¬
felves greatly overltockcd at home, fent out three great
colonies to conquer new countries for themfelves. One
of thefe armies was commanded by Brennus, another
by Cerethr’us, and the third by Be/gtus. Ihe firit en¬
tered Pannonia or Hungary ; the fecond Thrace ;
and the third marched into lllyricum and Macedonia.
Here Belgius at firit met with great fuccefs ; and en¬
riched himfelf by plunder to fuch a degree, that Bren¬
nus envying him, refolved to enter the fame countries,
in order to {hare the fpoil. In a Ihort time, however,
Belgius met with fuch a total defeat, that his army
was almolt entirely deftroyed j upon which Brennus
haltened to the fame place. His army at firit confilt-
ed of 150,000 foot and 1 5,000 horfe : but two of his
principal officers revolted, and carried off 20,000 men,
with whom they marched into Thrace •, where, having
joined Cerethrius, they feized on Byzantium and the
weltern coalt of the Propontis, making the adjacent parts
tributary to them.—To retrieve this lofs, Brennus fent
for frelh fupplies from Gaul ; and having increafed his
army to 1 50,000 foot, and upwards of 60,000 horfe,
he entered Macedonia, defeated the general who op-
pofed him, and ravaged the whole country. He next
marched towards the ftraits of Thermopylae, with a
defign to invade Greece ; but was Hopped by the
forces fent to defend that pafs againlt him. He paf-
fed the mountains, however, as Xerxes had formerly
done*, upon which the guards retired, to avoid being
furrounded. Brennus then having ordered Acicho-
rius, the next to him in command, to follow at a di-
itance with part of his army, marched with the bulk
of the forces to Delphi, in order to plunder the rich
Miferable temple there. This enterprife proved exceedingly un¬
fate of the fortunate : a great number of his men were deltroyed
army. by a dreadful ftorm of hail, thunder, and lightning *,
another part of his army was deltroyed by an earth¬
quake 5 and the remainder, fomehow or other, ima¬
gining themfelves attacked by the enemy, fought a-
gainlt each other the w'hole night, fothat in the morn¬
ing fcarcely one half of them remained. The Greek
forces then poured in upon them from all parts 5 and
that in fuch numbers, that though Acichorius came
Gaul.
up in due time with his forces, Brennus found himfelf
unable to make head againlt the Greeks, and was de- *
feated with great {laughter. He himfelf was def-
perately wounded *, and lo difheartened by his misfor¬
tune, that, having affembled all his chiefs, he advifed
them to kill all the wounded and difabled, and to make
the belt retreat they could : after which he put an end
to his own life. On this oecafion, it is laid that 20,000
of thefe unhappy people were executed by their own
countrymen. Acichorius then fet out with the re¬
mainder for Gaul*, but, by being obliged to march
through the country of their enemies, the calamities
they met with by the way w'ere fo grievous, that not
one of them reached their own country. A juft judg¬
ment, fay the Greek and Roman authors, for their la-
crilegious intentions againft Delphi. 4
The Romans having often felt the effects of the Gaul in.
Gaulifh ferocity and courage, thought proper at lalt, ^aded by
in order to humble them, to invade their country. m^ns>0"
Their firft fuccefsful attempt was about 118 years be¬
fore Chrift, under the command of (Quintus Marcius,
furnamed Rex. He opened a way betwixt the Alps and
the Pyrenees, which laid the foundation for conquer¬
ing the whole country. T his was a work of immenfe
labour of itfelf, and rendered {till more difficult by the
oppofition of the Gauls, efpecially thofe called the
Stseni, who lived at the foot of the Alps. Thefe people,
finding themfelves overpowered by the conlular army,
fet fire to their houfes, killed their wives and children,
and then threw themfelves into the flames. . After
this Marcius built the city of Narbonne, which be¬
came the capital of a province. His fucceffor Scaurus
alfo conquered fome Gauliffi nations 5 and in order to
facilitate the fending troops from Italy into that coun¬
try, he made feveral excellent roads between them,
wdiich before were almoft inipaffable. Ihefe fucceffes
gave rife to the invalion of the Cimbri and 1 eutones 5
an account of whofe unfortunate expedition is given
under the articles Cimbri, Rome, I eutones, &c.
From this time, the Gauls ceafed to be formidable
to the Romans, and even feem to have been for fome
time on good terms with them. At laft, however,
the Helvetii kindled a war with the republic, which
brought Ctefar over the Alps, and ended in the total ^
fubjedtion of the country. Orgetorix was the firit Surprifmg
caufe of it *, who had engaged a vaft number of his
countrymen to burn their towns and villages, and to ^
go in fearch of new conquefts. Julius Caeiar, to whofe
lot the whole country of Gaul had fallen, made fuch
halte to come and fupprefs them, that he was got to
the Rhone in eight days *, broke down the bridge of
Geneva, and, in a few days more, finiffied the famed
wall between that city and Mount jura, now St Claude,
which extended feventeen miles in length, was lixteen
feet high, fortified with tow*ers and caftles at proper
diftances, and a ditch that ran the whole length of
it. If his own account of it may be relied upon, he
did not fet out till the beginning of April 5 and yet
this huge work was finilhed by the ides or 13th of the
month : fo that, fubtra&ing the eight days he was a-
coming, it mult have been all done in about five days 5
a prodigious work, conlidering he had but one legion
there, or even though the whole country had given
him affiftance. Whillt this w'as doing, and the rein¬
forcements he wanted were coming, he amufed the
Helvetiij
G A U I! 461 ] G A U
Gaul. Helvetil, who had fent to demand a paflage through
' the country of the Allobroges, till he had got his re¬
inforcements j and then Hally refufed it to them :
whereupon a dreadful battle enfued 5 in which they loft
one hundred and thirty thoufand men, in fpite of all
their valour j befides a number of prifoners, among
whom were the wife and daughter of Orgetorix, the
leader of this unfortunate expedition. The reft fub-
mitted, and begged they might be permitted to go
and fettle among the Edui, from whom they original¬
ly fprung ; and at the requeft of thefe laft, were per¬
mitted to go.
The Gauls were conftantly in a ftate of variance with
one another ; and Cyefar, who knew how to make the
moft of thefe inteftine broils, foon became the protec¬
tor of the opprefled, a terror to the oppreffor, and the
umpire of all their contentions. Among thofe who
applied to him for help, were his allies the Edui; a-
gainft whom Arioviftus, king of the Germans, had joined
with the Arverni, who inhabited the banks of the Loire,
had taken the country of the Sequani from them, and
obliged them to fend hoftages to him. CaTar forth¬
with fent to demand the reftitution of both, and, in an
interview which he foon after obtained of that haughty
and treacherous prince, was like to have fallen a facri-
fice to his perfidy : upon which he bent his whole
power againft him, forced him out of his ftrong in-
trenchments, and gave him a total overthrow'. Ario¬
viftus efcaped, with difficulty, over the Rhine ; but his
two wives, and a daughter, with a great number of
Germans of diltinftion, fell into the conqueror’s hand.
Caefar, after this fignal vittory, put his army into win-
5 ter quarters, whilft he went over the Alps to make the
A general neceffary preparations for the next campaign. By this
confederacy time all the Belgte in general were fo terrified at his
fuccefs, that they entered into a confederacy againft
the Romans as their common enemy. Of this, Labi-
enus, who had been left in Gaul, fent Ctefar notice j
upon which he immediately left Rome, and made
fuch difpatch, that he arrived upon their confines in
about fifteen days. On his arrival, the Rhemi fubmit-
ted to him j but the reft appointing Galba king of
the Sueffiones general of all their forces, which a-
mounted to one hundred and fifty thoufand men,
marched directly againft him. Caefar, who had feized
on the bridge of the Axona, now Aifne, led his light
horfe and infantry over it : and whilft the others were
defeated^ encumbered jn croffing that river, made fuch a terrible
withgreat ^aug^ter of them, that the river was filled wfith their
flaughter. dead, infomuch that their bodies ferved for a bridge to
thofe who efcaped. This new vi&ory ftruek fuch ter-,
ror into the reft, that they difperfed themfelves 5 im¬
mediately after which, the Sueffiones, Bellovaci, Am-
biones, and fome others, fubmitted to him The Ner-
vii, indeed, joined with the Atrebates and Veroman-
dui againft them •, and haying firft fecured their wives
and children, made a vigorous refiftance for fome time ;
but were at length defeated, and the greateft part of
them (lain. The reft, with their wives and old men,
furrendered themfelves, and were allowed to live in their
own cities and towns as formerly. The Aduatici were
next fubdued •, and, for their treachery to the conquer¬
or, were fold for ilaves, to the number of 50,000.
Young Craffiis, the fon of the triumvir, fubdued like-
wife feven other nations, and took pofieflion of their ci¬
againft
turn.
ties ; which not only completed the conqueft of the Bel- Gaul,
gae, but brought feveral nations from beyond the Rhine "“V"
to fubmit to the conqueror. The Veneti, or ancient
inhabitants of Vannes in Brittany, who had been like-
wife obliged to fend hoftages to the conqueror, were, in
the mean time, making great preparations by fea and
land to recover their liberty. Ctelar, then in Ulyri-
cum, was forced to equip a fleet on the Loire j and ha-
ving given the command of it to Brutus, went and de¬
feated them by land, as Brutus did by lea j and having
put their chief men to death, fold the reft for {laves*
1 he Unelli, with Veridorix tlieir chief, together w ith
the Lexovii and Aulerci, were about the fame time lub-
dued by Sabinus, and the Aquitani by Craffus, with the
lois of 30.000 men. There remained nothing but the
countries of the Morini and Menapii to be conquered
of all Gaul. Caviar marched himfelf againft them j but
he found them fo well intrenched in their inacctlfible
fortreffes, that he contented himlelf with burning and
ravaging their country ; and having put his troops into
winter quarters, again paffed over the Alps, to have a
more watchful eye on fome of his rivals there. He was^
however, foon after obliged to come to defend his Gaul-
iffi conquefts againft fome nations of the Germans, who
were coming to fettle there, to the number of 400,000.
i hefe he totally defeated, and then refolved to carry
his conquering arms into Germany j but for an account
of his exploits there, fee the article Germany. g
Upon his return into Gaul, he found it labouring un-xhe Gauls
der a great famine, which had caufed a kind of univer- revolt, but
fa] revolt. Cotta and Sabinus, who were left in theare^u^*
country of the Eburones, nowr Liege, were betrayed ^ue^’
into an ambufh by Ambiorix, one of the Gauliffi chiefs,
and had moft of their men cut off. The Aduatici had
fallen upon £). Cicero, who was left there wfith one le¬
gion, and had reduced him to great ftraits : at the fame
time Labienus, with his legion, tvas attacked by Indu-
tiomarus, at the head of the Rhemi and Senones; but
had better luck than the reft, and by one bold fally
upon tnem, put them to Bight, and killed their general.
Caelar acquired no Imall credit by quelling all thefe re¬
volts $ but each vi6tory coft the lives of fo many of his
troops, that he was forced to have recourfe to Pompey
for a freffi fupply, who readily granted him two of his
own legions to fecure his Gaulith. conquefts. g
But it was not long before the Gauls, ever reftlefs A feeond
under a foreign yoke, raifed up a new revolt, andrevolt-
obliged him to return thither. His fear left Pompey
ftiould gain the affe&ions of the Roman people, had ,
obliged him to ftrip the Gauls of their gold and filver,
to bribe them over to his intereft ; and this gave no
fmall handle to thofe frequent revolts which happened
during his abfence. He quickly, however, reduced
the Nervii, Aduatici, Menapii, and Treviri ; the laft
of whom had raifed the revolt, under the command of
Ambiorix : but he found the flame fpread much farther
even to the greateft part of the Gauls, who had choferl
Vercingetorix their generaliffimo. Ctefar was forced
to leave Infubria, whither he had retired to watch the
motions of Pompey, and, in the midft of winter and
fnow, to repafs the Alps into the province of Narbonne.
Here he gathered his fcattered troops with all poffible*
fpeed •, and, in Ipite of the hard weather, befieged and
took Noviodunum, now Noyons ; and defeated Vercin¬
getorix, who was come to the relief of that place. He
next
£raul.
G A U [46
next took tlie city of Avaricum, now Bourges, one of
the ftrongeft in Gaul, and which had a garrifon of
40,000 men •, of whom he made fuch a dreadful (laugh¬
ter, that hardly 800 efcaped. Whilft he was befieging
Gergovia, the capital of the Arverni, he was informed
that the Niliobriges, or Agenois, were in arms j and
that the Aidui were fending to Vercingetorix 10,000
men, which they were to have fent to reinforce Caefar.
Upon this news, he left Fabius to carry on the liege,
and marched againft the Aldui. Thefe, upon his ap¬
proach, fubmitted, in appearance, and were pardoned j
but foon after that whole nation rofe up in arms, and
murdered all the Italian troops in their capital. Caefar,
at this, was in great (traits what meafures to take *, but
refolved at length to raife the liege of Gergovia, and at
once attack the enemy’s camp, which he did with lome
fuccefs j but when he thought to have gone to Noviodu-
num, or Noyons, where his baggage, military chert,
&e. were left, he heard that the ./Edui had carried it
off, and burnt the place. Labienus, juflly thinking
that Caefar would want his artiftance in the condition
he now was, v:ent to join him, and in his way defeated
a Gaulidi general named Camulogenus, who came to
oppofe his march •, but this did not hinder the revolt
from fpreading itfelf all over Celtic Gaul, whither Ver¬
cingetorix had fent for frefh fupplies, and, in the mean
time, attacked Caffar-, but was defeated, and forced to
retire to Alefia, a rtrong place, now Alife in Burgun¬
dy, as is fuppofed. Hither Caefar haftened, and be-
rteged him j and having drawn a double circumvallation,
with a delign to ftarve him in it, as he was likely to
have done, upon that account refuted all offers of a fur-
render from him. At length, the long expefled rein¬
forcement came, confiding of 160,000 men, under four
generals: thefe made feveral fruitlefs attacks on Casfar’s
again fub- trenches, but were defeated in three feveral battles,
<lued- which at length obliged Vercingetorix to furrender at
difcretion. Ceefar ufed all his prifoners with great fe-
verity, except the Aodui and Arverni, by whole means
he hoped to gain their nations, which were the moft
potent of Celtic Gaul : nor was he difappointed ; for
1 both of them fubmitted to him, and the former received
him into the capital, where he fpent the winter, after
he put his army into winter quarters. This campaign,
as it proved one of the hardeft he ever had, fo he gain¬
ed more glory by it than any Roman general had done
before: yet could not at all by this procure from the fer-
vile fenate, now wholly dedicated to his rival, a pro¬
longation of his proconfullhip 5 upon which he is re¬
ported to have laid Ins hand upon his fword, and fa;d,
that that Ihould do it.
He was as good as his word 5 and the Gauls, upon
their former ill luccefs, refolving to have as many fepa-
rate armies as provinces, in order to embarrafs him the
more, Csefar, and his generals Labienus and Fabius,
W'ere forced to fight them one after another 5 which
they did, however, with fuch fuccels, that, notwith-
rtanding the hardnefs of the feafon, they fubdued the
Bhuris>es, Carnutes, Rhemi, and Bellovaci, w.th their
general Cornais, by which he at once quieted all the
Belgic provinces bordering on Celtic Gaul. The next
who followed were the Treviri, the Eburonts, and the
Andes, under their general Dumnacus. The laft place
which held out againlt him was Uxellodunum j which
,’y as defended by the two laft adling generals of the
4
2 ] G A U
Gauls, Drapes the Senonian, and Luterius the Cadur-
The place being ftrong and well garrifoned,
6aul.
to
They are
Csefar was obliged to march thither from the fartheft
part of Belgic Gaul j and foon after reduced it, for
want of water. Here again he caufed the right hands
of all that were fit to bear arms to be cut off, to deter tI
the reft from revolting afreflr. Thus was the conqueft Gaul redu-
of Gaul fin idled from the Alps and Pyrenees to the«<U°a
Rhine, all which vaft trad was now reduced to a Ro-^^
man province under the government of a praetor.
Duting his feveral expeditions into Gaul, Caefar is faid
to have taken 800 cities j to have fubdued 300 dif¬
ferent nations ; and to have defeated, in feveral battles,
three millions of men, of whom one million were killed,
and another taken prifoners.— The hiftory of the coun¬
try, from the time of its conqueft by the Romans to
the prefent, is given under the articles Rome and
France. ....
The Gauls were anciently divided into a great num-character,
ber of different nations, which were continually at war&c. of th«
with one another, and at variance among themfelves.
Ceefar tells us, that not only all their cities, cantons, aU‘ ’
and diftridls, but even almoft all families, were divided
and torn by fairtions j and this undoubtedly facilitated
the conqueft of the whole. The general chara&er of
all thefe people was an exceflive ferocity and love of
liberty. This laft they carried to fuch an extreme,
that either on the appearance of fervitude, or incapa¬
city of aftion through old age, wounds, or chronic
difeafes, they put an end to their own lives, or pre¬
vailed upon their friends to kill them. In cities, when
they found themfelves fo flraitly befieged that they
could hold out no longer, inftead of thinking how to
obtain honourable terms of capitulation, their chief
care very often was to put their wives and children to
death, and then to kill one another, to avoid being led
into flavery. Their exceflive love ©f liberty a,nd con¬
tempt of death, according to btrabo, very much facili¬
tated their conqueft by Caefar j for pouring their nume¬
rous forces upon fuch an experienced enemy as Ctefar,
their w ant of conduct very foon proved the ruin of the
whole.
The chief diverfion of the Gauls was hunting j and
indeed, confidenng the vaft forefts with which their
country abounded, and the multitude of wild beads
which lodged in them, they were under an abfolute
neceflity to hunt and deftroy them, to prevent the
country from being rendered totally uninhabitable.
Befides this, however, they had alfo their hippodromes,
horfe and chariot races, tilts and tournaments •, at all
of which the bards aflifted with their poems, fongs, and
mufical inftruments.—For an account of their religion*
fee the article DRUID.
The Gauls were exceflively fond of feafting, in
which they were very profufe-, as, like all other north¬
ern nations, they were great lovers of good eating and
drinking. 1 heir chief liquors were beer and wine.
Their tables were very low. They ate but little bread,
which was baked flat and hard, and eafily broken in
pieces *, but devoured a great deal of flefti, boiled, roaft-
ed, or broiled ; and this they did in a very (lovenly
manner, holding the niece in their hands, and tearing
it w'itb their teet1 . What ;hey could not part by this
way, they cut vi h a little knife which hung at their
girdle. When the company was numerous, the Cory-
& . PWi
G A U
Caul
pJiee, or chief of the feaft, who was either one of the
h richeft, or nobleft, or braveft, fat in the middle, with
1U”I °' the mafter of the houfe by his fide ; the reft took their
places next according to their rank, having their fer-
vants holding their Ihields behind them. Thefe feafts
feldom ended without bloodihed ; but if by chance the
feaft proved a peaceable one, it was generally accompa¬
nied not only with mufic and fongs, but likewife with
dances, in which the dancers were armed cap-a-pee,
and beat time with their fwords upon their fhields. On
certain feftivals they were wont to drefs themfelves in
the lkins of beafts, and in that accompany the procef-
fions in honour of their deities or heroes. Others dref-
fed themfelves in mafquerade habits, fomeof them very
indecent, and played feveral antic and immodeft tricks.
This laft cuftom continued long after their converfion
to Chriftianity.
GAULANITIS, or Gaulonitis (Jofephus) \ in
Ancient Geography, according to the different manner
of writing the capital, Gauian or Gauion ; the extreme
part of Balhan to the fouth, and bordering on the tribe
of Gad. It was divided into the Superior, which to
the eaft extended to Arabia ; and into the Inferior,
v'hich lay on the lake of Genefareth, (Jofephus).
GAULON, or Golan, the capital of the Gaulani-
tis Superior j a Levitical city and place of refuge, (Mo-
fes, Jolhua).
_ GAULOS, in Ancient Geography, a fmall ifiand of
Sicily, in the African fea, adjoining to Melite or Mal¬
ta j with commodious harbours j a colony of Phoenici¬
ans, with a cognominal town. Gaulonitae, the people,
(Infoription). Now called Gozo, five miles to the weft
of Malta.
GAULTHERIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the decandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking
under the r 8th order, Bicornes. See Botany Index.
G AUNT-Bellied, in the manege, is laid of a horfe
tvhofe belly (brinks up towards his flanks.
GAUNTLET. See Gantlet.
GAUNTLOPE, pronounced Gauntlet, a military
punifliment for felony, or fome other heinous offence. .
In vejje/s of war, it is executed in the following man¬
ner. The whole ihip’s crew is difpofed in two rows,
(landing face to face on both (ides of. the deck, fo as to
form a line whereby to go forward on one fide, and re¬
turn aft on the other j each perfon being furnilhed with
a fmall twifted cord, called a knittle, having two or
three knots upon it. The delinquent is then ({ripped
naked above the waift, and ordered to pafs forward
between the two rows of men, and aft on the other
fide, a certain number of times, rarely exceeding three ;
during which every perfon gives him a ftripe as he runs
along. In his paffage through this painful ordeal he
is fometimes tripped up, and very feverely handled
yhile incapable of proceeding. ThL punifhment, w hich
is called running the gauntlet, is feldom in Aided, except
for fuch crimes as naturally excite a general antipathy
among the feamen: as, on fome occafions, the culprit
would pafs without receiving a (ingle blow, particu¬
larly in cafes of mutiny and fedition. But this mode
of punifliment is now', wre believe, rarely or never re-
forted to, either in the army or navy.
In the landfervtce, when a foldier is fentenced to run
the gauntlope, the regiment is drawn out in two ranks
*acing each other 3 each foldier; having a fwitch in his
[ 463 1
GAY
hand, ladies the criminal as he runs along naked from Gauntlopg
the waift upwards. While he runs, the drums beat at
each end of the ranks. Sometimes he runs three, five,
or feven times, according to the nature of the offence.
Ihe major is on horfeback, and takes care that each
foldier does his duty.
GAV1ES, or Gaurs. See Gabres.
. GAVOTTA, or Gavotte, is a kind of dance, th®
air of which has two briik and lively (trains in common
time, each of which (trains is twice played over. The
firft has ufually four or eight bars ; and the fecond con¬
tains eight, twelve, or more. The firft begins with* a
minim, or two crotchets, or notes of equal value, and the
hand rifing j and ends with the fall of the hand upon
the dominant or mediant of the mode, but never upon
the final, unlefs it be a rondeau : and the laft begins
with the rife of the hand, and ends with the fall upon
the final of the mode.
Tempi di GAVOTTA, is when only the time or move¬
ment of a gavotte is imitated, without any regard to
the meafures or number of bars or Itrains.—Little airs
are often found in fonatas, which have this phrale to
regulate their motions.
GAURA, a genus of plants belonging to the oaan-
dria clafs j and in the natural method ranking under
the 17th order, Calycanthemce. See Botany Index.
GAUSE, or Gawse, in Commerce, a very thin,
(light, tranfparent kind of ftuft, woven fometimes of
filk, and fometimes only of thread.—To warp the
filk for making of gaule, they ufe a peculiar kind of
mill, upon which the filk is wound: this mill is a
wooden machine, about fix feet high, having an axis
perpendicularly placed in the middle thereof, with fix
large, wings, on which the filk is wound from off the
bobbins by the axis turning round. When all the
filk is on .the mill, they uie another inftrument to wind
it off again on two beams: this done, the filk is paffed
through as many little beads as there are threads of
filk 3 and thus rolled on another beam to fupply the
loom.
The gaure loom is much like that of the common
weavers, though it has feveral appendages peculiar
to itfelf. See Loom.
There are figured gaufes; fome with flowers of gold
and filver, on a.filk ground: thefe laft are chiefly
brought from China.
GAY, John, a celebrated Engliih poet, deftended
from an ancient family in Devonftiire, was born at
Exeter, and received his education at the free fchool
of Barnftaple in that county, under the care of Mr
William Rayner.—He was bred a mercer in the
Strand ; but having a fmall fortune, independent of
bufinefs, and confidering the attendance on a (hop as
a degradation of thofe talents which he found himfelf
poffeffed of, he quitted that occupation, and applied
himfelf .to other views, and to the indulgence of his
inclination for the Mufes. In 1712 we find him fecre-
tary, or rather domeftic fteward, to the duchefs of
Monmouth, in which ftation he continued till the be¬
ginning of the year 1714 ; at which time he accompa¬
nied the earl of Clarendon to Hanover, whither that
nobleman v'as defpatched by Queen Anne. In the lat¬
ter end of the fame year, in confequence of the queen’s
death, he returned to England, where he lived in the
Ligheft citimation and intimacy of friendfliip with
many
GAY r 464 1 G A;
perfons of .1,0 M diflinSlon boA in rank and lica.ion of rt afterward, .n ^.o.
abilities.—He was even particularly taken notice oi by
Queen Caroline, then princefs of Wales, to whom he
}"ad the honour of reading in manufcript his tragedy ot
the Cnfrtives; and in 1726 dedicated his Fnb/es, by
permiffion, to the duke of Cumberland- From this
countenance (hown to him, and number efs promdes
made him of preferment, it was teafonable to fyppole,
that he would have been genteelly provided for In tome
office fuitable to his inclination and abilities. Inltead
of which, in 1727, ^ was offered the place of gentle¬
man uffier to one of the young prtneefles •, an office
which, as he looked on it as rather an indignity to a
man whofe talents might have been fo much better em¬
ployed, he thought proper to refufe and feme pretty
warm remonftranees were made on the occafion by his
fincere friends and zealous patrons the duke and du-
chefs of Queenlberry, which terminated in thole two
noble perfonages withdrawing from court m difguft.
Mr Gay’s dependencies on the promib s of the great,
and the difappointments he met with, he has figu¬
ratively described in his fable of the Hare with many
friends. However, the very extraordinary fucceis be
met with from public encouragement made an ample
amends, both with refpeft to fatisfaftion and emolu¬
ment, for thofe private difappointments.—For, in the
feafonof 1727-8, appeared his Beggars °Pera> ym
vaft fuccefs of which was not only unprecedented, but
almoft incredible.—It had an uninterrupted run m
London of 63 nights in the firft feafon, and was re¬
newed in the enfuing one with equal approbation. It
fnread into all the great towns of England;, was play¬
ed in many places to the 30th and 40th time, and at
Bath and Briftol 50 •, made its progrefs mto Wales
Scotland, and Ireland, in which laft place it was afted
for 24 fucceffive nights *, and laft of all it was perform¬
ed at Minorca. Nor was the fame of it confined to the
reading and reprefentation alone, for the card table
and drawing room ffiared with the theatre and clotet
in this refpeft *, the ladies carried about the favourite
fongs of it engraven upon their fan mounts-, and fereens,
ancl other pieces of furniture were decorated with the
fame. In ffiort, the fatire of this piece was fo ftnking,
fo apparent, and fo perfettly adapted to the tafte of all
degrees of people, that it overthrew the Italian opera,
that Dagon of the nobility and gentry, which had io
long feduced them to idolatry, and which Dennis, by
the labours and outcries of a whole life, and many other
writers by the force of reafon and refleftion, had in vain
endeavoured to drive from the throne of public tafte.
I'he profits of this piece were fo very great, both to the
author and Mr Rich the manager, that it gave rife to a
uuibble, which became frequent in the mouths of many,
viz. That it had made Rich gay, and Gay rich; and it has
been afferted, that the author’s own emoluments Irom it
were not lefs than 2000I. In confequence of this fuc¬
cefs Mr Gay was induced to write a fecond part to it,
which he entitled Polly. But the difguft fubfifting be¬
tween him and the court, together with the mifrepre-
fentations made of him as having been the author of
fome difaffe&ed libels and feditious pamphlets, occafinn-
«d a prohibition and fuppreffion of it to be fent from the
lord chamberlain, at the very time when every thing
was in readinefs for the rehearfal of it. A very con-
fiderable fum, however, accrued to him from the pub-
T
z
-Mr Gay wrote fe»
veral other pieces in the dramatic way, and many very-
valuable ones in verfe. Among the latter, his L nvia,
or the Art of Walking the Streets oj London, though his
firft poetical attempt, is far from being the leait conh-
derable, and is what recommended him to the etteem
and friendlhip of Mr Pope : but as, among his drama¬
tic works, his Beggar's Opera did at firft, and perhaps
ever will, ftand as an unrivalled mafterpiece, to, among
his poetical works, his Tables hold the lame rank of
eftimation •, the latter having been almoft as univena, .y
read as the former was reprefented, and both equally
admired. Mr Gay’s difpoiition was fweet and aliaeie,
his temper generous and his convention agreeable and
entertaining. Bathe had one foible, too trequently in¬
cident to men of great literary abilities, and which lub-
iecled him at times to inconveniences which otherwii*
he needed not to have experienced, viz. an excels ot in¬
dolence, without any knowledge of economy, bo that,
though his emoluments were, at fome periods or his Ifte,
very confiderable, he was at others greatly ftraitened m
his circumftances} nor could he prevail on hime.f to
follow the advice of his friend Dean bwift, "hom we
find in many of his letters endeavouring to pertuade him
to the purchafing of an annuity, as a referve for the exi-
Kencle‘ that might attend on old age-Mr Gay chofe
rather to throw himfelf on patronage, than leeure to
himfelf an independent competency by the means pom -
ed out to him *, fo that, after having undergone many
viciffitudes of fortune, and being for iome time chiefly
fupported by the liberality of the duke and ducheis
ofPQueenffierry, he died at their houfe in Burlington
gardens, in December 1732- He was ^ u:"
Weftminifter Abbey, and a monument erefted to his
memory, at the expence of his aforementioned noble
benefactors, with an infcription expreflive of their re¬
gards and his own deferts, and an epitaph in verfe by
MGAZA, Theodore, a famous Greek in the 15th
century, was born in 1398. His country ^ng invad¬
ed by the Turks, he retired into Italy, where h
at firft fupported himfelf by tranfcnb.ng ancien au¬
thors, an employment the learned had Sequent e-
courfeto before the invention of printing. HIS un¬
common parts and learning loon recommended him
public notice-, and particularly to Cardinal Barton,
who procured him a benefice m Calabna. He was
one of thofe to whom the revival of polite I teratu
in Italy was principally owing. He tranflated from
the Greek into Latin, Ariftotle’s Hiftory of Animals,
Theophraftus on Plants, ^d Hippocrates s Apho-
rifms -, and from the Latin into Greek, bcipio s Diea ,
and Cicero’s Treatife on Old Age. He ™ e Several
other works in Greek and Latin ; and died at Rome m
I4Gaza, in Ancient a principal Hty and
one of the five fatrapies of the Philiftmes. It was fitu
Zd about 100 ftadia from the Mediterranean, on ^
artificial mount, and ftrongly walled round. It was
deftroyed by Alexander the Great, and afterwards by
Antiochus. In the time of the Maccabees i^was^
ftrong and flounftung city •, but was cel roj .
time by Alexander Jam teus- At prefent it as -
feTable^appearance. The buildings are nuan boA a
to the form and matter. Some remams of ^anae^
G A Z
Gaza grandeur appear in the handfome pillars of Parian
i| marble which fupport feme of the roofs ; while others
_pa^na‘ are difpofed of here and there, in different parts of al-
moft every beggarly cottage. On the top of the hill,
at the north-eait corner of the town, are the ruins of
large arches funk low into the earth, and other foun¬
dations of a ftately building, from whence fome of
the baihaws have carried off marble pillars of an in¬
credible fize. The caftle is a contemptible ftrudure,
and the port is ruined. E. Long. 34. 55. N. Lat. 31.
28.
GAZE-HOUND, or Gaf} hound, nm that makes more
ufe of his fight than of his nofe. Such dogs are much
ufed in the north of England : they are fitter in an
open champaign country than in bulhy and woody
places If at any time a well-taught gaze-hound takes
a wrong way, he will return upon a fignal, and begin
the chafe afreih. He is alfo excellent at fpying out the
fat tell; of a herd ; and having feparated it from the reff,
will never give over the purfuit till he has worried it
to death.
GAZEL, in Zoology, a fpecies of Capra. See
Mammalia Index.
GAZETTE, a newfnaper, or printed account of
the tranfaflions of all the countries in the known world,
in a loofe (heet or half iheet. This name is with us
confined to that paper of news publilhed by authority.
The word is derived from ga%etta, a Venetian coin,
which was the ufual price of the firft newfpaper printed
there, and which was afterwards given to the paper it-
felf.
The firft gazette in England was publilhed at Ox¬
ford, the court being there, in a folio half Iheet, No¬
vember 7. 1665. On the removal of the court to Lon¬
don, the title was changed to the London Gazette.
The Oxford gazette was publilhed on Tuefdays, the
London on Saturdays : and thefe have continued to be
the days of publication ever fince.
GAZNA, a city of Afia, once much celebrated,
and the capital of a very extenfive empire 5 but which
is now either entirely ruined, or become of fo little
confideration, that it is not taken notice of in our
books of geography. I he city was anciently an em-
pory and fortrefs of Sableftan, not far from tlie confines
of India. During the vaft and rapid eonquefts of the
Arabs, all this country had been reduced under their
fubjesftion. On the decline of the power of the caliphs,
however, the vaft empire eftablilhed by Mahomet and
his fucceffors was divided into a number of independent
principalities, moft of which were but of Ihort duration.
In the year of the Hegira 384, anfwering to the 994th
of the Chriftian era, the city of Gazna, with fome part
of the adjacent country, was governed by Mahmud
Gazni j who became a great conqueror, and reduced
tmder his fubje<ftkm a confiderable part of India and
mo l of Perfia.
This empire continued in the family of Mahmud
Gazni for upwards of 200 years. None of his fue-
ceffors, however, were poffeffed of his abilities ; and
therefore the extent of the empire, inftead of increaf-
ing, was very confiderably diminiflied foon after Mah¬
mud’s death The Seljuks made themfelves mailers of
Khorafan, and could not be driven out ; the greateft
part of the Perfian dominions alfo fell off-, and in the
547th year of die Hegira, the race of Gazni fultans
\'ol. IX. Part II.
G A Z
was entirely fet afide by one Gauri, who conquered Gazna.
Khofru Shah the reigning prince, and bellowed his
dominions on his own nephew Gayathoddin Moham¬
med. i hefe new lultans proved greater conquerors
than the former, and extended their dominions farther
than even Mahmud Gazni himielf had done. They
did not, however, long enjoy the loVereignty of Gazna ;
for in 1218, Jenghiz Khan having conquered the
greateft part of China and almoll all Tartary, begau
to turn his arms weftward , and fet out again!! the
fultan of Gazna at the head of 700,000 men.
1 o oppoie this formidable army, Mohammed, the
reigning iultan, could muller only 400,000 men ; and,
in the firil battle, 160,000 of his troops art laid to have
perilhed. After this vxffory, Jenghiz Khan advanced ;
Mohammed not daring to rifk a fecond battle, the lofs
of which would have been attended with the entire
ruin of his kingdom. He therefore diftributed his
army amongll the Itrongell fortified towns he had in his
dominions ; all of which Jenghiz Khan took one after
another. The rapid progrefs of his conquefts, in¬
deed, almoft exceeds belief. In 1219 and 1220, he
had reduced Zarnuk, Nur, Bokhara, Otrar, Saga-
nak, Lzkant, Alfliafii, Jund, Tonkat, Khojend, and
Samarcand. Mohammed, in the'mean time, fled firil
to Bokhara 5 but on the approach of Jenghiz Khan’s
aimy, quitted that place, and fled to Samarcand.
When this lall city was alio in danger of being invelt-
ed, the lultan did not think proper to trull himfelf in
it more than in the other, though it was garrifoned by
110,000 of his bravelt troops j and therefore fled
through byways into the province of Ghilan in Perfia
where he took refuge in a ftiong fortrels called FJlabad.
But being alfo found out in this retreat, he fled to an
ifland in the Calpian lea called /ib'Jleunwhere he
ended his days, leaving his empire, luch as it was, to
his fon Jaloloddin.
The new fuitan was a man of great bravery and ex*-
perience in war ; but nothing was able to Hop the pro-
grefs of the Moguls, in 1220 and 1221, they made
themfelves mailers of all the kingdoms of Karazim and
Khorafan, committing everywhere fuch maflacres as
were never heard of before or fince that time. In the
mean time Jaloloddin allembled his forces with the
utmoft diligence,^ and defeated two detachments of the
Mogul army. This happened while Jenghiz Khan
was belieging Bamiyan j but anfwered little other pur-
pole, than ferving to bring upon that city the terrible
dfcftiudlion of which an account is given under the ar¬
ticle Bamiyan. Immediately after the reduction of
that city, Jenghiz Khan marched towards Gazna j
which was very Itrongly fortified, and where he exped-
ed to have found Jaloloddin. But he had left the
place 15 days before j and, as Jenghiz Khan’s army
was much reduced, he might perhaps have flood his
ground, had it not been for an accident He had
been lately joined by three Turkilh commanders, each
of whom had a body of 10,000 men under his com¬
mand. After his vidories over the Moguls, thefe
officers demanded the greateft lhare of the fpoils j
which being refuted, they leparated themfelves from
the fultan. He uled his utmoil endeavours to make
them hearken to realon j and fent feveral meffages
and letters to them, reprefenting the inevitable ruin
which mult attend their feparation, as Jenghiz Khan
3 N was
r 465 i
G A Z
[ 466 ]
G A Z
was advancing againft them with his whole army.
^ n   &  At
laft they were perfuaded to lay afide their animofi-
ties : but it was now too late j for Jenghiz Khan, be¬
ing informed of what paffed, detached 60,coo horfe
to prevent their joining the lultan’s army j who, find¬
ing himlelf deprived of this powerful aid, retired to¬
wards the river Indus. When he was arrived there
he flopped in a place where the ftream was moft rapid
and the place confined, with a view both to pre¬
vent his foldiers from placing any hopes of fafety in
flight, and to hinder the whole Mogul army from at¬
tacking him at once. Ever fince his departure from
Gazna he had been tormented with a colic : yet, at a
time when he fuffered moil, hearing that the enemy’s
vanguard was arrived at a place in that neighbourhood
called Herder, he quitted his litter, and, mounting a
horfe, marched with fome of his ehofen ioldiers in the
night ; furprifed the Moguls in their camp j and hav¬
ing cut them almoft all in pieces, without the lofs of
a Angle man on his fide, returned with a confiderable
b0jln’ghiz Khan, finding by this that he had a vigi¬
lant enemy to deal with, proceeded with great circum-
fpedlion. When he came near the Indus, he drew out
his army in battalia : to Jagatay, one of his fons, he
gave the command of the right wing *, to Oktay,
another fon, he gave the command of the left : and
put himfelf in the centre, with 6coo of his guards.
On the other fide, Jaloloddin prepared for battle like
one who had no refource but in vi£lory. He firft fent
the boats on the Indus farther off j referving only one
to carry over his mother, wife, and children : but un¬
luckily the boat fplit when they were going to embark,
fo that they were forced to remain in the camp. 1 he
fultan took to himfelf the command of the mam body
of the army. His left wing, drawn up under {belter
of a mountain which hindered the whole right wing
of the Moguls from engaging at once, was command¬
ed by his vizir j and his right by a lord named Amin
Ma/ek. This lord began the fight j and forced the
enemy’s left wing, notwithftanding the great difpanty
of numbers, to give ground. The right, w ing of the
Moguls likewife wanting room to extend itfelf, the ful¬
tan made ufe of his left as a body of referve, detaching
from thence fome fquadrons to the afliftance of the
troops who flood in need of them. He alfo took one
part of them with him when he went at the head of
Kis main body to charge that of Jenghiz Khan ; which
he did with fo much refolution and vigour, that he not
only put it in diforder, but penetrated into, the place
where .lenghiz Khan had originally taken his ftatio.n .
but that prince having had a horfe killed under him,
was retired from thence, to give orders for all the
troops to engage.
This difadvantage had like to have loft the Moguls
the battle ; for a report being immediately fpread that
the enemy had broken through the main body, the
troops were fo much difcouraged, that they would cer¬
tainly have fled, had not Jenghiz Khan encouraged
them by riding from place to pjace in order to {how
himfelf. At laft, however, Jaloloddin’s men, who
were in all but 30,000, having fought a whole day
with ten times their number, were feized with fear
and fled. One part of them retired to the rocks which
were on the fltore of the Indus, where the enemy s horfe
3
could not follow them ; others threw themfelves into Gazna.
the river, where many w-ere drowned, though fome had ■
the good fortune to crofs over in fafety 5 while the reft
furrounding their prince, continued the fight through
defpair. The fultan, however, confidering that he
had fcarce 7000 men left, began to think of providing
for his own fafety : therefore, having bidden a final
adieu to his mother, wife, and children, he mounted a
frefti horfe, and fpurred him into the river, which he
croffed in fafety, and even flopped in the middle of it
to infult Jenghiz Khan, who was now arrived at the
bank. His family fell into the hands of the Moguls j
who killed all the males, and carried the women into
captivity.
Jaloloddin being now fecurely landed in India, got
up into a tree in order to preferve himfelf from wild
hearts. Next day, as he walked .melancholy among
the rocks, he perceived a troop of his foldiers, vyith
fome officers, three of whom proved to be his particu¬
lar friends. Thefe, at the beginning of the defeat,
had found a boat in which they had tailed all night,
with much danger from the rocks, (helves, and rapid
current of the river. Soon after, he faw 500 horfe
coming towards him j who informed him of 4000 more
that had efcaped by fwimming over the river j and
thefe alfo foon after joined the reft. In the mean time
an officer of his houfehold, named Jatnolarra%adt
knowing that his mafter and many of his people were
efcaped, ventured to load a very large boat with arms,
provifions, money, and fluff to clothe the. foldiers j
with which he croffed the river. For this important
fervice Jaloloddin made him fteward of his houfehold,
and furnamed him the Chofen or the Glory of the Faith.
For fome time after, the fultan’s affairs ieemed to go
on profperoufly : he gained fome battles in India j but
the princes of that country, envying his profperity,
confpired againft him, and obliged him to repals the
Indus. Here he again attempted to make head againft
the Moguls j but was at laft defeated and killed by
them, and a final end put to the once mighty empire
of Gazna.
The metropolis was reduced by Otkay j who n»
fooner entered the country in which it was. fituated,
than he committed the moft horrid cruelties. Ihe
city was well provided with all things neceffary for
fuftaining a fiege *, had a ftrong. garrifon, and a brave
and refolute governor. The inhabitants, expecting
no mercy from Jenghiz Khan, who they knew had
fworn their ruin, were refolved to. make a defperate
defence. They made frequent Tallies on the befiegers,
feveral times overthrew their works, and. broke above
100 of their battering rams. But one night, after an
obftinate fight, part of the city walls fell down J and
a great number of Moguls having filled up the ditch,
entered the city fword in hand. The governor per¬
ceiving all was loft, at the head of his braveft foldiers
ruflied into the thickeft of his enemies, where he and his
followers were all {lain. However, Gazna was not en¬
tirely deftroyed, nor were the people all killed j for
after the maffacre had continued for four or five hours,
Otkay ordered it to ceafe, and taxed thofe who were
left alive at a certain rate, in order to redeem themlelves
and the- city. It does not, however, appear that alter
this time the city of Gazna ever made any confiderable
figure.—It was taken by the Moguls in the£^12^2.
Cfebies
II
Geddes.
G E D [
GEBRES. See Gabres.
GECCO, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by the
, Indians to their terrible poifon, which kills when mixed
with the blood even in the fmalleft quantity. They
fay that this gecco is a venomous froth or humour vo¬
mited out of the mouths of their moil poifonous fer-
pents j which they procure in this fatal ftrength, by
hanging up the creatures by the tails, and whipping
them to enrage them : they colleft this in proper vef-
fels as it falls j and when they ufe it, they either poi¬
fon a weapon with it, or wounding any part of the fleth
introduce the fmalleft quantity imaginable into it j and
this is faid to be immediate death.
GECKO. Sec Lacerta, Erpetology Index.
GED, William, an ingenious though unfaccefsful
artift, who was a goldfmith in Edinburgh, deferves to
be recorded for his attempt to introduce an improve¬
ment in the art of printing. The invention, lirft
pra&ifed by Ged in 1725, was fimply this. From any
types of Greek or Roman, or any other chara&er, he
formed a plate for every page, or flieet, of a book, from
which he printed, inftead of ufmg a type for every let¬
ter, as is done in the common way. This was firft
praftifed, but on blocks of wood, by the Chinefe and
Japanefe, and purfued in the firft: effays of Cofter the
European inventor of the prefent art. “ This improve¬
ment (fays James Ged the inventor’s fon) is principal¬
ly confiderable in three moft important articles, viz.
expence, corredtnefs, beauty and uniformity.”
In July 1729, William Ged entered into partner-
ftiip with Wiliam Fenner, a London ftationer, who
was to have half the profits, in confideration of his
advancing all the money requifite. To fupply this,
Mr John James, then an architeft at Greenwich (who
built Sir Gregory Page’s houfe, Bloomlbury church,
&c.) was taken into the fcheme, and afterwards his
brother Mr Thomas James, a letter founder, and James
Ged the inventor’s fon. In 1730, thefe partners ap¬
plied to the univerlity of Cambridge for printing Bibles
and common prayer books by blocks inftead of fingle
types j and, in confequence, a leafe was fealed to them,
April 23. 1731. In their attempt they funic a large
uim of money, and finifhed only two prayer books j fo
that it was forced to be relinquifiied, and the leafe was
afterwards given up. Ged imputed his difappointment
to the villany of the prefsmen, and the ill treatment of
his partners (which he fpecifies at large), particularly
Fenner, whom John James and he were advifed to prole-
cute, but declined it. He returned to Scotland in 1 736,
where he gave his friends a fpecimen of his perform¬
ance, by an edition of Salluft. But being ftill unfuc-
cefsful, and having failed in obtaining redrefs from
Jenner, who died infolvent, he was preparing again to
fet out for London, in order to join with his fon James
as a printer there, when he died Oflober 19. 1749. Ged’s
Ion attempted unfuccefsfully, in 1751, to revive this in¬
vention 5 Melfrs Tilloch and Foulis about the year 1782
practiied it cn a fmall fcale at Glafgow ; and of late
years many beautiful editions of the daffies have been
printed in this way by Didot of Paris, and Wilfon and
Company of London*.
iLMaS. GEDDES, Alexander, a learned Scots Catholic
l67- ^ divine and eminent bible critic, was born in the parilh
ot Ruthven in Banffshire, in the year 1737. His pa¬
rents were refpe&able, although not opulent. His fa-
467 ] GED
ther was a farmer, who deemed no trouble too great, Gedde*.
in order to procure for his children as liberal an educa- V 
tion as poffible. Both father and mother were of the
Catholic perfuafion, and the only book of confequence
which the former had in his library was an Englith
tranflation of the bible, in which young Geddes was in-
ftruded with fuch care and attention, that he was able
to give an account of the hiftory of it before he had
reached the eleventh year of his age. The firft inftruc-
tions he received, after thofe of his parents, were commu¬
nicated by a fchool-miftrefs in the vicinity, by whom he
was fo much diftinguilhed, that it became the firft men¬
tal gratification which, in his own opinion, he ever felt.
He w as next put under the tuition of a young man from
the city of Aberdeen, who had been engaged by the
laird for the education of his own children ; and after¬
wards went to a place called Scalan, in the Highlands,
where thofe were to be trained up who defigned to devote
themfelves to theCatholic priefthood, and to finifli their
education at fome foreign univerfity. Here it was in
this obfeure retreat, that Geddes laid the foundation of
that intimate acquaintance with the learned languages,
by which he was fo eminently diftinguiffied in the fubfe-
quent part of his life. He went to the Scots univerfity at
Paris in the year 1758,, and foon after began theftudyof
rhetoric in the college of Navarre. By the ftrength of
his genius and his indefatigable attention, he was foon at
the head of this clafs, although he had to contend with
two veterans, and became the favourite of Vicaire the
profeffor, whofe friendlhip lafted to the clofe of life.
Inftead of entering into the philofophical clafs at the
ufual time, he ftudied that fubje6f at home, in order to
faciliate his theological ftudies, on which he entered
under M. M. Bure and de Sauvent, at the college of
Navarre, and Lavocat at the Sorbonne was his He¬
brew preceptor. So great, or rather aftonilhing, was
his progrefs, that Profeffor Lavocat urged him ftrong-
ly to continue at Paris } but his friends prevailed W'ith
him to return to his native country in 1764. His firft
charge as a prieft was in a Catholic chapel in the
county of Angus, from which he removed to Tra-
quair in 1765, and became chaplain to the earl of that
name, where he remained for about three years. This
fituation was moft agreeable to his literary purfuits, as
he had unlimited accefs to a very extenfive library
which greatly affifted him in the profecution of his darl
ling ftudies. He left the earl’s houfe in the year 1768
and returned to Paris, where he devoted his time during
the following winter to the perufal of books and manu-
feripts in the king’s libraries, making large extra&s
from fcarce copies, particularly fuch as were in the
Hebrew tongue.
In the fpring of 1769, he returned to his native
country, and became paftor of a congregation at Auch-
inhalrig in Banffsffiire, where he was for fome time in¬
volved in pecuniary difficulties, out of which he was
extricated by the liberality of the then duke of Norfolk.
Thefe were occafioned by the debts he incurred in
building a new chapel for his flock, and in making the
parihn’s houfe one of the neateft and moft convenient in
Scotland. With the view of bettering his circum-
ftances he commenced farmer ; but as he had to borrow
money to ftock his farm, and as the crops failed for three
fuccefljvefeafonSjhe was under the neceffity of abandon-
ing this fcheme in a much poorer ftate than when he
3 N 2 ffift
G E D [468
Geddes. firft proje«?led it. But his unweaned exertions, joined
]
G E D
to the afliitance of friends, again relieved him, and he
was enabled to difeharge every claim againlt him of a
pecuniary nature in an honourable manner.
In the year 1779 he refigned his paftoral charge at
Auchinhalrig, which was a heavy ftroke to the mem¬
bers of his congregation, as the zeal and diligence with
which he difeharged the duties of his minifterial func¬
tion had endeared him to all. He was alfo juftly
eiteemed for his attention to the inftrudion of youth.
Next year the univerfity of Aberdeen conferred on him
the degree of LL. D a literary honour which was
never bellowed on any Homan Catholic by that body
fince the Reformation. He afterwards, went to Lon¬
don, that he might profecute his favourite {Indies with
greater facility, and give the world his Englilh tranf-
lation of the Old and New Teftament, to which he had
turned his attention for a number of years. He offici¬
ated for fome months after his arrival at the imperial
ambaffador’s chapel in Duke-ltreet, till the teim of
Eafter 1782, at which time it was fuppreffed by order
of the emperor Jofeph II. after which I)r Geddes feems
to have declined entirely the exercife of his clerical
functions.
No {boner had the delign of Mr Geddes, relative to
a new tranflation of the Bible been made public, than
he met with formidable oppofition from his Catholic
brethren ; an event which the doftor with good reafon
feems to have anticipated. His own words on this oc-
cafion were : “ I expc6t not exceffive profits from excef-
five exertion. I truft 1 ftull never want meaty and
clothes, and fire ; to a philofophical and contented mind,
what more is neceffary ?” He was many years em¬
ployed in preparing this important work for the prefs,
before he had any profpeft of adequate fuccefs. In ad-
dreffing the Englilh Catholics on the fubjeft of his
tranflation, he has thefe memorable words . At any
rate, I do what I think it my duty to do, and do it fair¬
ly and openly. In the following pages ye will find neither
palliation nor difguife. I pour out my fentiments with
the fame fincerity as if I were before the tiibunal of.
Him who is to judge the living and the dead. Mif-
take I may, but prevaricate I never will.’.’ He difeo-
vered this noble fpirit in every aftion of his life, and in
all his tranfa£tions and intercourfe with mankind, al¬
though he did not conciliate the regard of thofe who
could have beftowed upon him the mott effectual af-
fittance.  
After fpending much of his life in biblical ftudies,
he met with a long and cruel interruption, of which he
thus fpeaks : “ I had but little hope of ever living in a
lituation to refume them, when Providence threw, ms
into the arms of fuch a patron as Origen himfelf might
have been proud to boaft of—a patron, who, for. theie
ten years paft, has, with a dignity peculiar to himfelf,
afforded me every convenience that my heart could de-
fire towards the carrying on and completing of my ar¬
duous work.”
It is needlefs to inform the public, that the patron to
whom the learned dofitor here alludes was Lord Petre.
Lor this munificence continued through the whole of
his life, and even beyond it by his latter will, Chri.ftians
e£ every denomination will feel fentiments of gratitude,
when they are qualified to make a true eftimate of the
advantages of free and impartial enquiry.
In the year 1792, the firft volume of his tranttation
was publittied, dedicated to his patron Lord Petre, con¬
taining the farft fix books of the Old Teftament. Soon
after this volume made its appearance, three apoitolic
vicars, calling themielves the bilhops of Hama, Acan-
thos, and Centurise, iffutd a paftoral letter, addreffed to
their refpeftive docks over which they prefided, warn¬
ing them againft the reception of Dr Geddes’s tranfla¬
tion. In his reply to the biffiop of Centunae we find
thefe words : “ Perhaps, my lord, you with to have an¬
other occafion of exercifing your epifcopal authority, and
of playing with cenlures as children do with a new
ball. I wiffi your lordlhip much joy of the bauble.*, but
however, my lord, beware of playing too often with it.
Read St Chryfottom on Eccleliattical Cenfures, and
learn from him a little more moderation. Permit an
old prieft to tell you, that it is a very great ornament
in a yountt bijhop. As to myfelf, my lord, I a in. not
afraid of your threats, and {hall laugh at your cenfures
as long as I am confcious that 1 deierve them not. You
cannot hinder me from praying at home j and at home
I will pray, in defiance of your cenfure, as often as I
pleafe. The chief Biftiop of our fouls is always accefli-
ble *, and through him I can, at all times, have free ac-
cefs to the Father, who will not reject me, but for vo¬
luntary unrepented crimes. In the panoply of con-
feious innocence, the whole thunder of the \atxcan
would in vain be levelled at my head.”
The feeond volume of his tranflation, owing to a va¬
riety of interruptions, did not make its appearance till
the year 1797* to which was prefixed a dedication to
her royal highnefs the duchefs of Gloucetter, as an
“early, fpontaneous, and liberal encouvager of the
work.” In this volume the doftor gives up, and boldly
combats, the abfolute infpiration of feripture, believing
that the Hebrew, like all other hiftorians, wrote from
fuch human documents as they could find, and were of
confequence liable to fimilar miftakes. Ibis latitude of,
thinking naturally led the do61or to give up as fabulous,
and wholly unworthy of the divine philanthropy, every
command, precept, and injun&ion, which appeared
unworthy even of human authority. He denied of con¬
fequence, that the command given to deftroy the Ca-
n?anites could have God for its author. Ibis volume
of Critical Remarks was publithed in 1800, in which
he enters into an able vindication of bis own theory,
which rather increafed than diminilhed the number of
enemies, for as be wrote to pleafe no party, he forefaw
that he would have enemies in every party, and fo it
happened.
Dr Geddes was a man of extenfive literature, uncom¬
mon liberality of thinking, the friend of all mankind j
a man of integrity, honour, and benevolence ; in the
ftrifteft fenfe of the word, a truly genuine Catholic,,
and whofe love of truth was fo invincible, that nei¬
ther hopes nor fears could induce him to con-
cual it. ' _
His profpeefus of a new tranflation of the Bible in
4to was publiffied in 1786, and a letter to the biffiop
of London on the fame lufcjedl in 1787’ Pr(?"
pofals were printed in 1788. As a controverfial wri¬
ter, Dr Geddes was eminently diflinguiflied by his let¬
ter’ to Dr Prieltley, in defence of the divinity of Je-
fus Chrift, and by one to a member of parliament, on
the expediency of a general repeal or the penal fta-
^ J tutes
Geddes.
G E H [ 469 ] GEL
©eddes, tutes which have a refpeft to religious opinions. In
Gehenna. ^]ie fpring of the year i8oo, he publifhed an apology
L' ^ " for the Roman Catholics of Great Britain, in which he
zealoufly defended his peculiar tenets, but difplayed a
commendable moderation, when he mentioned the in¬
juries to which he himfelf and brethren were fubje&ed
by the continuance of perfecuting laws 5 and, when he
argued in behalf of abolifhing all legal difabilities, he
difcovered the founded logical underftanding.
We (hall clofe our fhort account of thh great man in
the words of one who was well acquainted with him, and
fully qualified to appreciate his merits. “ It mult be
lamented, that, in the death of Dr Geddes, the world
has loft the fervices of a man, who by his acute and pe¬
netrating genuis—his various, profound, and extenfive
erudition—his deep refearch—his indefatigable appli¬
cation—and his independent, dignified, and unfettered
fpirit, riling fuperior to the prejudices of education j
nobly difdaining the ihackles of fyftem ; fpurning the
petty temporizing arts of unmanly accommodation ;
and fetting at defiance all the terrors of malignity, bi¬
gotry, and intolerance, was fupereminently qualified
for the great, laborious, and important work in which
he had, for a long feries of years, been engaged, of giv¬
ing an Englifh verfion of the venerable literary re¬
mains of facred antiquity, the fcriptures of the Old and
New Teftament. During his life, this work did not
meet with encouragement adequate to the magnitude of
the defign ; or, it may be added, to the merit of the
execution. In this laft relpetR, it will be matter of
furprife to all who are competent to judge of the nature
of fuch an enterprife, how much has been done, and
with what uncommon ability and fuccefs. It every¬
where difplays the Ikilful hand of a mafter.”
He had correfted and prepared his tranflation for
the prefs up to the hundredth and eighteenth pfalm,
when he was feiztd with a moft painful and excrucia¬
ting diftemper, which put a period to his ineftimable
life on the 26th of February 1802. The learned world
will unqueftionably have caufe to lament, that Dr Ged¬
des was arrefted by the hand of death in the midit of
his career, unlefs that unexpedled phenomenon, an¬
other Geddes, fhould make his appearance, and happily
finifti what his extraordinary predeceffor conduced fo
far with fuch aftoniihing abilities j—but rara avis in
terris.
GEHENNA, a fcripture term which has given
feme pain to the critics. It occurs in St Matthew, v.
22. 29. 30. x. 28. xviii. 9. xxiii. 15. 33. Mark ix.
43. 45. 47. Luke xii. 5. James iii. 6.
• The authors of the Louvain and Geneva verfions re¬
tain the word gehenna as it ftands in the Greek 5 the
like does M. Simon : the Englifti tranflators render it
by he/l and hellfre, and fo do the tranflators of Mons
and Father Bohours.
The word is formed from the Hebrew gehinnom, i. e.
“ valley of Hinnom.” In that valley, which was near
Jerufalem, there was a place named Tophet, where fome
Jews facrificed their children to Moloch, by making
them pafs through the fire. King Jofias, to render this
place for ever abominable, made a cloaca or common
fewer thereof, where all the filth and carcafes in the *
city were caft.
The Jews obferved farther, that there was a continual
fxe kept up there, to burn and confume thole carcafes ;
for which reafon, as they had no proper term in their Gthems*
language to fignify hell, they made ufe of that oigehenna H
ox gehinnom, to denote a fire unextinguifhable. ^eilcrt'
GELA, in /Indent Geography, a city of great ex¬
tent on the fouth of Sicily, taking its name from the ri¬
ver Gelas, which wafhes it. It was built by colonifts
from Rhodes and Crete, 45 years after the building of
Syracufe, or in the third year of the ?2d Olympiad, 690
before Chrift ; originally called Lindii, from the colo¬
nifts of Lindas, a city of Rhodes, who fettled there firft.
Now Terra Naova, and the river called Fiume di Terra
Nuova. The people were called Geloi, Gelenjes, and Ge~
lam. The city of Gela, after having flood 408 years, was
deflroyed by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum j and the
inhabitants were removed to a new city, called Phin¬
tias after his name.
GELAT1NA, Jelly. See Jelly.
GELATINOUS, among the phyficians, is applied,
to any thing approaching to the glutinous coniiltence
of a jelly.
GELD, in the Engliflr old cuftoms, a Saxon word-
fignifying money, or tribute. It alio denoted a com-
penfation for fome crimes committed : Hence vuergeld,
in their ancient lavs, was ufed for the value of a man
flain ; and orfgtld, of a beafl.
GELDENHAUR, Gerard, in Latin Geldenha-
rius, an hiflorian and Proteflant divine in the 16th
century. He was a native of Nimeguen, and fludied
claffical learning at Deventer. He went through his
courfe of philofophy at Louvain, where he contra&td
a very Arid friendfliip with feveral learned men, and
particularly with Eral’mus. He became reader and
hiflorian to Charles of Auftria, and aftervards to
Maximilian of Burgundy. At length he embraced
the Proteflant religion *, taught hiftory at Marpurg,
and aftervards divinity till his death, in 1542. He
wrote, l. Hifloiy of Holland. 2. H;ftory of Low
Countries. 3. Hiftory of the bifliops of Utrecht j and
other works.
GELDERLAND See Guelderland.
GELDERS. See Guelders.
GELDING, the operation of caftrating any animaL .
See Castration, Furriery Index.
GELE'E, Claude. See Claude.
G ELElNHAUSEN, a fmall imperial townof Wet-
teravia in Germany, with a caflle built by the emperor
Frederic I. E. Long. 8. 13. N. Lat. 50. 20.
GELLENIUS, Sigismund, a learned and excellent
man, born of a. good family at Prague, about the year
1498. Erafmus conceiving an. efteem for him at Ba-
fil, r» commended him to John Frobenius as a corrector
for his printing-houfe 5 which laborious charge he ac¬
cepted, and had a great number of Hebrew, Greek,
and Latin books to correft : he alfo tranflated many
works himfelf from the Greek and Latin ; and pub-
IHhed a didtionary in four languages, Greek, Latin,
German, and Solavonian. Profitable and honourable
employments were offered him in other places 5 but no¬
thing could tempt him to quit his peaceful fituation at
Bafil. He died in 1555. All his tranflations are
highly efteemed.
GEL1NOTTE, or Grus. See Tetrad, Orni¬
thology Index.
GELLERT, Christian Furghtegolt, was born
st Haynichen, in. July 1715, near Freyberg, where
his
GEL
[ 47° 1
GEM
his father was a clergyman He ^
Gclli. felfor of philofophy at Le.pfic, and a diftingmlh d
 tpr among the Germans. When but 13 years or age
he difcovered a poetical genius *, buJ^aVinS ^
guide his tafte for this kind of compofition Jas
to imitate Gunther, Neukerch, and Hanke men of
different abilities. He ftudied theology at Leipfic in
l„4 and returned home at the expiration of four
veart when he commenced public ipeaker 5 but
timid difpofition prevented him from thming as an ora-
JoTin theP pulpit The delicacy of his conftitution for¬
bidding him to afpire after extenfive learning, ie con¬
fined hhnfelf to the acquifition of that W^ feft
''Ktw.'Ef1b." i-lif- »•
tion of fermons, inclined him to lay afide the derical
profeflion, and devote himfelf "Tolly to the ™
of vouth in which he not only diffufed knowledge
through the minds of his pupils, but alfo infpired them
lith fhe love of religion and virtue. He was made
A. M. in r 744, -d publilhed the
He
eave the world the fecond part of his fables in I 74«,
Although two years before this period he was much af-
fli&ed with hypochondriacal affe&ions. In 75 ,
ttrolicitedjo^ccept the office o e rraordmarypr
languages, and made an uncommon progrefs in the belles
lettres : and though he continued always to work at his
trade, became acquainted with all the wits and learned
men at Florence, and his merit was umverfally known.
He was chofen a member of the academy there, and
the city made him a burgefs. _ He acquired the higheft
reputation by his works, which are, x. L Upnct del
Bottaio, quarto , which contains ten dialogues 2.
La Circe, octavo. This, which alfo contains ten dia-
Incmes and treats of human nature, has been tranl-
!Td into Latin, French, and Englifli. 3 D.fferta-
tions in Italian on the poems of Dante and Petrarch.
4. The comedies of La Sporta and La Error,; and o-
tlipr works. died in ^5^3* . n
GELLIBRAND, Henry, a laborious aftronomer
of the l7th century, was born m 1597. Th°ugh he
Mas not without good views m the church, yet be be*
came fo enamoured with mathematical ftudies, that on
the death of his father he became a ftudent at Oxford,
contented himfelf with his private patrimony, and de¬
voted himfelf folely to them. On the death of Mr
Gunter, he was recommended by Mr Briggs to the
truftees of Grettiam college, for the agronomical pro-
fefforfhipthere-, to which he was eleaed m 1627. His
friend Mr Briggs dying in 1630, before he had hnilh-
ed his Trigonometria Britannica, it was fimftred by Gel-
librand at his requeft. He wrote feveral other things
chiefly tending to the improvement of navigation j and
died in 1636-
GeUi
I!
Gem.
.astl^dTaceept the office of extraordinary pro- *"3^ & gra ian who
feffor of philofophy, together with a decent fal y, ^ ^ ^ century under Marcus Aurelius and
which was augmented on the termination _ • ^ fUCceeding emperors. He wrote a colkaion of
Affailed by unconquerable lownefs of fpin s a . Kfervations on" authors, for the uie of his children ;
firmed melancholy, he ftill exhibited the lame patience, o ^ Juicer, becaufe compoled in the
refignation, and univerlal venin^of a winter he fpent at Athens. The chief
nJ„, and w^ich pelted the admiration of • • - -r.   — fafb
(hewn and wmen exciteu me dun* * r •
during the war. His fufferings continued to increafe m
feverity and at laft terminated his exiftence on th
, ,th of December 1769. He contributed much to the
improvement of the taffe and morals of his countrymen,
and their gratitude for his fervices ^ade them deeply
Hint toU, Hb praife was refoundad by every
voice, his likenefs was caft in gypfum, and moulded n
Z*; it was engraved on copper, and reprefented in
fcujpture and^s m,n and captivating writer,
by Kutner, who wrote the lives of German authors,
that it will probably be a century before the appearance
of another poe,, fo fully qualified to emte the love-d
admiration of his cotemporar.es, “ttam fuch
nnwerful influence over the tafte and May ot thinking
of'all defer ip tions of men. If it would indicate too
much partiality to call him a genius of the firft clafs he
certainly was a moft agreeable and fertile writer , the
poet to whom religion and virtue are deeply indebted,
an able reformer of public manners, and onder of a^
fording confolation, than of plunging into dependency.
Kutner gives him ^ moft excellent and enviable charac¬
ter in thefe words: “As long as the Germans ilial
underftand their prefent language, will the'vork*
Gellert be read and his charaaer will be honoured
while virtue is known and refpeaed.
GF LLI John Baptist, an eminent Italian writer,
was born of mean parents at Florence, in the year 149b.
He was bred a taylor, fome fay a fhoemaker i bat b ,
fuch an extraordinary genius, that he acquired ievera
evenings ot a winvei nc ....  
value of it is for preferving many fa^ls and monu¬
ments of antiquity not to be found elfewhere Cr -
tics and grammarians have bellowed much pains on this
Mriter.
GELLY. See Jelly. . . ,
GELO, or Gelon, a fon of Dinomenes who made
himfelf abfolute ‘ at Syracufe 484 years before the
Chriftian era He conquered the Carthaginians at
Himera, and made his oppreffion popular by his great
equity and moderation. He reigned feven years, and
Ms dLh was umverfally lamented at Syracufe. He was
called the father of his people, and ^ Pabron of hbe -
ty and honoured as a demigod. Hi= Mother liiero
fucceeded him. See Syracuse.
GEM, in Natural Htjlory, a common name for a l
precious ftoues; of which there are two claffes, the pel-
'“TheWte'^ompofing ll’e cli,r3 of Pell,u.c!,d S™,5 arJ
brivht elegant, and beautiful foffils, which are found
in {mail detached males, extremely hard, and of great
1U The bodies compofing the clafs of femipellucid gems,
are ftones naturally compound, not niflammable or 10 u-
H?. in water found in detached maffes, and compoled
of cryitalline matter debafed by earth : however, they
are but (lightly debafed ; and are of great beauty and
brightnefs? of a moderate degree ot tranfparency, an
are ufually found in fmall maffes. ... ,
The knowledge of gems depends prinopa. y on
faying their hfrdnefe and colour. Their hardnefs is-
GEM
[ 47^ ]
GEM
Cetw. commonly allowed to (land in tlie following order:
—  The diamond the hardeft of all •, then the ruby, fap-
.phire, jacinth, emerald, amethyft, garnet, carneol,
chalcedony, onyx, jafper, agate, porphyry, and marble.
This difference, however, is not regular and conftant,
but frequently varies. Good cryitals may be allowed
to fucceed the onyx j but the whole family of me¬
tallic glaffy floors feems to be ftill fofter.—In point of
colour, the diamond is valued for its tranfparency, the
ruby for its purple, the fapphire for its blue, the eme¬
rald for its green, the jacinth for its orange, the
amethyft carneol for its carnation, the onyx for its
tawney, the jafper, agate, and porphyry, for their ver-'
milion, green, and variegated colours, and the garnet
for its tranfparent blood red.
All thefe gems are fometimes found coloured and
fpotted, and fometimes quite limpid and colourlefs. In
this cafe the diamond cutter or polifher knows how to
diftinguifh their different fpecies by their different de¬
grees of hardnefs upon the mill. For the cutting or
polifhing of gems, the fine powder of the fragments
of thofe that are next in degree of hardnefs is always
required to grind away the fofter ; but as none of
them are harder than the diamond, this can only be
polifhed by its own powder.
Cronftedt obferves of gems in general, that the co¬
lour of the ruby and emerald are faid to remain in the
fire, while that of the topaz flies off: hence it is ufual
to burn the topaz, and thence fubftitute it for the dia¬
mond. “ Their colours (fays our author) are com¬
monly fuppofed to depend upon metallic vapours ; but
may they not more juftly be fuppofed to arife from a
phlogifton united with a metallic or fome other earth ?
becaufe we find that metallic earths which are perfectly
well calcined give no colour to any glafs : and that the
manganefe, on the other hand, gives more colour than
can be afcribed to the fmall quantity of metal which is
to be extrafted from it.” M. Magellan is of opinion,
that their colour is owing chiefly to the mixture of
iron which enters their compofition *, but approves the
fentiment of Cronftedt, that phlogifton has a fhare in
their produflion, it being well known that the calces
of iron when dephlogifticated produce the red and
yellow colours of marble, and when phlogifticated to a
certain degree produce the blue or green colours.
With regard to the texture of gems, M. Magellan
obferves, that all of them are foliated or laminated,
and of various degrees of hardnefs. Whenever the
edges of thefe laminae are fenfible to the eye, they have
a fibrous appearance, and refledf various fliades of co¬
lour, which change fucceftively according to their an¬
gular pofition to the eye. Thefe are called by the
French chatoyantes; and what is a blemifh in their
tranfparency, often enhances their value on account of
their fcarcity. But when the fubftance of a gem is
compofed of a broken texture, confifting of various
fets of laminae differently inclined to each other, it
emits at the fame time various irradiations of different
colours, which fucceed one another according to their
angle of pofition. This kind of gems has obtained the
name of opals, and are valued in proportion to the
brilliancy, beauty, and variety of their colours. Their
cryftallization, no doubt, depends on the fame caufe
which produces that of falts, earths, and metals, which
is treated of under the article Crystallization. The
following table ftiows the component parts of gems ac¬
cording to the analyfis of Bergman and M. Achard; the
letter B prefixed to each denoting Bergman’s analyfis,
and A that of Achard.
Argil.
B 40
A 37*5
B 58
A
B 46
B 60
A 60
B 40
A 42
*39
B 50
B 42
A 30
Silic. Calc Iron.
39
42.5
35
33
39
24
23
25
22
37
34
40
48
9
9
5
6
8
8
10
20
20
15
11
12
11
10
11
2
3
6
6
7
*3
16
9
5
6
10
Red oriental ruby,
Ditto,
Blue oriental fapphire,
Ditto,
Yellow topaz from Saxony,
Green oriental emerald,
Ditto,
Yellow brown orient, hyacinth,
Ditto,
Tourmalin from Ceylon,
Ditto from Brafil,
Ditto from Tyrol,
Garnet from Bohemia,
But later analyfes (hew that the component parts are
different from the above, particularly the coluring
matters which are here afcribed to iron. See Mine¬
ralogy.
The chryfoprafe from Kofeinitz in Silefia was like-
w’ife analyzed by M. Achard j who found that it con¬
tained 456 grains of filiceous earth, 13 of calcareous,
fix of magnefia, three of copper, and two of iron. “ This
(fays M. Magellan) feems to be the only gem that con¬
tains no argillaceous earth.”
Imitation or Counterfeiting of GEMS in Glafs. The
art of imitating gems in glafs is too confiderable to be
palled without notice : fome of the leading compofitions
therein we lhall mention upon the authority of Neri
and others.
Thefe gems are made of paftes j and are noway in¬
ferior to the native ftones, when carefully made and
well polilhed, in brightnefs or tranfparence, but want
their hardnefs.
The general rules to be obferved in making the paftes
are thefe: 1. That all the veffels in which they are
made be firmly luted, and the lute left to dry before
they are put into the fire. 2. That fuch veffels be
chofen for the work as will bear the fire well. 3. That
the powders be prepared on a porphyry ftone; not in
a metal mortar, which would communicate a tinge to
them. 4. That the juft proportion in the quantity of
the feveral ingredients be nicely obferved. 5. That
the materials be all well mixed j and, if not fufficient-
ly baked the firft time, to be committed to the fire
again, without breaking the pot; for if this be not
obferved, they will be full of blifters and air blad¬
ders. 6. That a fmall vacuity be always left at the top
of the pot, to give room to the fwelling of the ingre¬
dients.
To make pafte of extreme hardnefs, and capable of
all the colours of the gems, with great luftre and beau¬
ty.—Take of prepared cryftal, ten pounds ; fait of
polverine, fix pounds-, fulphur of lead, two pounds:
mix all thefe well together into a fine powder; make
the whole with common water into a hard pafte 5 and
make this parte into fmall cakes of about three ounces
weight each, with a hole made in their middle j dry
them in the fun, and afterwards calcine them in tht
ftraiteft part of a potter’s furnace. After this, pow*
de*
Gem,
GEM
[ 472 1
G E M
der them, and levigate them to a perfeft finenefs on a
porphyry ftone, and let this powder in pots in a glais
furnace to purify for three days : then call the whole
into water, and afterwards return it into the furnace,
where let it Hand x 5 days, in which time a 1 foulnets
and blitters will difappear, and the pafte will greatly
referable the natural jewels. To give this the colour
of the emerald, add to it brafs thrice calcined j lor a
Tea green, brafs fxmply calcined to a rednefs 5 tor a
fapphire, add zaffer, with manganefe •, and for a topaz,
tnanganefe and tartar. All the gems are thus .mitated
in this, by the fame way of working as the making ot
coloured glaffes-, and this is fo hard, that they very
much approach the natural gems.
The colour of all the counterfeit gems made ol the
Teveral paftes, may be made deeper or lighter accord-
ine to the work for which the Hones are defigned j and
it is a neceffary general rule, that (mall Hones for rings,
-&c. require a deeper colour, and large ones a palrur.
Befides the colours mode from manganefe, verdigris,
and zaffer, which are the ingredients commonly uled,
there are other v«ry fine ones which care and fki
may prepare. Very fine red may be made from gold,
and one not much inferior to that from iron •, a very
fine green from brafs or copper j a fky cmour from
'filvert and a much finer one from the granates of Bo-
A very fingular and excellent way of making the
pafie to imitate the coloured gems is this : ±*
quantity of faccharum faturni, or fugar of lead made
/with vinegar in the common way ; fet it in .and m a
elafs body well luted from the neck downwards; leave
the mouth of the glafs open, and continue the hre 24
hours •, then take out the fait, and if it be not red but
yellowilh, powder it fine, and return it into the veffel,
and keep it in the fand heat 24 hours more, till it be-
comes as red as cinnabar. The fire mufi not be made
fo flrong as to melt it, for then all the procefs is fpo.l-
ed Pour diltilled vinegar on this calcined lalt, and
feparate the folution from the dregs-, let the decanted
liquor Hand fix days in an earthen veffel, to give time
for the finer fediment to fubhde; filter this liquor,
and evaporate it in a glafs body, and there will reraam
a molb pure fait of lead dry this well then diffolye it
in fair water; let the folution Hand fix days in a
glazed pan; let it fubfide, then filter the clear folu¬
tion, and evaporate it to a yet more pure white and
fweetfalt; repeat this operation three times; put the
now perfectly pure fait into a glafs veffel, fet it in a
fand heat for feveral days, and it will be calcined to a
fine impalpable powder of a lively red. ihis is called
the fulphur of lead*
Take all the ingredients as in the common compo-
fition of the.paffes of the feverai colours only inHead
of red lead, ufe this powder; and the produce will well
-reward the trouble of the operation, as experience has
often proved. . . , , j-i„
A paffe proper for receiving colours may be readily
made by well pounding and mixing fix pounds of whi' e
fand cleanfed, three pounds of nd lead, two pounds ot
-purified p-arl athes, and one pound of nitre. A iotter
paffe may be made in the fame manner, of fix pounds
of white fand cleanfed; red lead, and puriaed pcarl-
alhes, of each three pounds ; one pound of mtte, halt
a pound of borax, and three ounces of ariemc. 4or
Gem.
common ufe a pound of common fait may be fubfti-
tuied for the borax. This glafs will be Very foft, and
will not bear much wear if employed for rings, buckles,
or fuch imitations of Hones as are expofed to much
rubbing ; but for ear-rings, ornaments worn on the
bread, and thofe little ufed, it may laff a confiderable
tllTjn order to give paffe different colours, the procefs
is as follows : For
AmethyJL Take ten pounds of either ot the com-
pofitions dt feribed under Colouring of GLASS, one ounce
and a half of manganefe, and one drachm of zaffer}
powder and fufe them together. . .
Block. Take ten pounds of either of the compon-
tions juft referred to, one ounce of zaffer, fix drachms
of manganefe, and five drachms of iron, highly calcined}
and proceed as before. _
Blue. Take of the fame compofition, ten pounds}
of zaffer, fix drachms; and of manganefe, two drachms :
and proceed as with the foregoing. .
Chryfohte. Take of either of the competitions tor
pafte above deferibed, prepared without faltpetre, ten
pounds, and of calcined iron five drachms; and puriue
the fame procefs as with the reft. . ,
Red Cornelian. Take of the competitions mentioned
under Colouring of GLASS, two pounds; of glafs ot an¬
timony, one pound ; of the calcined vitriol called /car-
let ochre, two ounces ; and of manganefe, one drachm.
Fufe the glafs of antimony and manganeie with the
compofition; then powder them, and mix them with
the other, by grinding them together, and fule them
with a gentle heat. .
White Cornelian. Take of the compofition juft re¬
ferred to, two pounds; of yellow ochre well walhed,
two drachms ; and of calcined bones, one ounce. Mix
them, and fufe them with a gentle heat.
Diamond. Take of the white fand, fix pounds; of
red lead, four pounds; of pearl afhes, purified, three
pounds; of nitre two pounds; of arfenm five ounce, >
and of manganefe, one fcruple. Powder and fufe
^iue-marine. Take ten pounds of the compofition
under Glass; three ounces of copper highly calcined
with fulphur ; and one fcruple ot zafter. Proceed as
focf 1*0
Q Emerald. Take of the fame compofition with the
laft, nine pounds; three ounces of copp r_ precipita e
from aquafortis; and two drachms of precipitated iron.
See Emerald, Mineralogy /^ _
Garnet Take two pounds of the compofition unoer
Glass ; two pounds of the glafs of antimony and two
drachms of manganefe. For vinegar garnet, take of t
compofition for paffe. deienbed in this article two
pounds; one pound of glafs of antimony, and halt an
ounce of iron, highly calcined : mix the iron ruth he
uncoloured paffe, and fule them: t^n add th R
of antimony powdered, and continue them m the heat
till the whole is incorporated.
GoU or full Telluw. Take of the compofit.on f«
.pafte ten pounds', and one ounce and a half of
ftrongly calcined; proceeding as with the other-
Dtel Purple. Take of either of the competitions for
pafte, ten pounds; of manganefe,. one ounce; an o
zaffer, half an ounce. , , c .
Ruby. Take one pound of either of the ^
gem f 473 ] G E M
Gem. tlons for pafte, and two drachms precipitate of gold by
"'v tin ; powder the pafte, and grind the calx of gold with
it in a glafs, flint, or agate mortar, and then fufe them
together. A cheaper ruby palte may be made with
half a pound of either of the above compofitions, half a
pound of glafs of antimony, and one drachm and a half
of the calx of gold ; proceeding as before.
Sapphire. Take of the compofition for pafte, ten
pounds of zaft'er, three drachms and one fcruple ; and
of the calx CaJJii, one drachm. Powder and fufe them.
Or the fame may be done, by mixing with the pafte
one-eighth of its weight of fmalt.
Topa%. Take of the compolitions under Glass
ten pounds, omitting the faltpetre *, and an equal
quantity of the Gold-coloured hard GLASS. Powher
and fufe them. See Topaz, Mineralogy Index.
Turquoife. Take of the compofition for blue pafte
already deferibed, ten pounds ; of calcined bone, horn,
or ivory, half a pound. Powder and fufe them.
Opaque white. Take of the compofition for pafte
ten pounds ; and one pound of calcined horn, ivory,
or bone ; and proceed as before.
Semitranfparent white, like opal. See Opal, Mine¬
ralogy Index.
To the above we (hall add the following receipts and
procefles, contained in a memoir by M. Fontanieu of
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and faid to
have met with much approbation.
I. Of theBafes. Although the different calces of lead
are all adapted to produce the fame effect in vitrifica¬
tion j yet M. Fontanieu prefers lead in feales, and
next to that minium, as being the molt conftantly
pure. It is neceffary to lift through a filk fieve the
preparations of lead one willies to make ufe of in the
vitrification, in orde-r to feparate the gruffer parts, as
alfo the lead found in a metallic ftate when white lead
in feales is employed.
The bafe of factitious gems is calx of lead and rock
eryftal, or any other itone vitrifiable by the calces al¬
ready mentioned. Pure fand, flint, and the tranfpa-
rent pebbles of rivers, are fubftances equally fit to make
glafs : but as it is firft neceffary to break the maffes
of cryftal, ftones, or pebbles, into fmaller parts 5 fo
by this operation particles of iron or copper are fre¬
quently introduced, and to thefe duft or greafy matters
are alfo apt to adhere. Our author therefore begins by
putting the pounded cryftal or pebbles into a crucible,
which he places in a degree of heat capable of making
the mafs red hot •, he then pours it into a wooden bowl
filled with very clear water 5 and {baking the bowl
from time to time, the fmall portions of coals furniihed
by the extraneous bodies fivim on the furfaee of the
water, and the vitrifiable earth, with the iron, &c.
refts on the bottom. He then decants tbew-ater j and
having dried the mafs, he pounds it, and lifts the pow der
through the fineft filk fieve : he then digefts the pow¬
der during four or five hours with marine acid, (baking
the mixture every hour. After having decanted the
marine acid from the vitrifiable earth, he wafhes the
latter until the water no longer reddens the tin£fureof
turnfol. The faid earth being dried, is palled through
a filk fieve, and is then fit for ufe. Nitre, fait of tar¬
tar, and borax, are the three fpecies of falts that enter
with quartz and the feveral galcps of lead into M. Fou-
tanieu’s vitrifications,
IX. Part JL
Much of the fuccefs in the art of making coloured
ftones depends on the accurate proportion of the fub¬
ftances made ufe of to form the cryftal which ferves as
a bafe to the fa£titious ftones. After having tried a
great variety of receipts, our author found they might
be reduced to the following.
1. lake two parts and a half of lead in feales, one
part and a half of rock cryftal or prepared flints, half
a part of nitre, as much borax, and a quarter part of
glafs of arlenic. Thefe being well pulverized and
mixed together, are to be put into a Heflian crucible,
and fubmitted to the fire. When the mixture is well
melted, pour it into cold water : then melt it again a
fecond and a third time 5 taking care, after each me!t-
ing, to throw it into froth cold water, and to leparate
from it the lead that may be revived. The fame cru¬
cible fliould not be ufed a fecond time, becaufe the
glafs of lead is apt to penetrate it in fuch a manner as
to run the rifk ot lofing the contents. One muft alfo
be careful to cover the crucible well, to prevent any
coals getting into it, which would reduce the calx of
lead, and fpoil the compofition.
2. lake two parts and a half of white cerufe, one
part of prepared flints, half a part of fait of tartar,
and a quarter part of calcined borax : melt the mixture
in a Heflian crucible, and then pour it into cold water ;
it is then to be melted again, and waftied a fecond
and a third time, the fame precautions being obferved
as for the firft bafe.
3. Take two parts minium, one part rock cryf¬
tal, half a part of nitre, and as much fait of tartar:
this mixture being melted, muft be treated as the for¬
mer.
4. Take three parts of calcined borax, one part of
prepared rock cryftal, and one part of fait of tartar;
thefe being well mixed and melted together, muft be
poured into warm water: the water being decanted
and the mafs dried, an equal quantity of minium muft:
be added to it; it is then to be melted and waftied feveral
times as dire&ed above.
5. That called by our author the Mayence bafe, and
which he confiders as one of the fineft cryftalline com¬
pofitions hitherto known, is thus compofed : Take
three parts of fixed alkali of tartar, one part of rock
cryftal or flint pulverized : the mixture to be well
baked together, and then left to cool. It is afterwards
poured into a crucible of hot water to diffolve the
frit; the folution of the frit is then received into a
(tone-ware pan, and aquafortis added gradually to the
folution till it no longer effervefees : this water being
decanted, the frit muft be waftied in warm water till it
has no longer any tafte : the frit is then dried, and
mixed with one part and a half of fine cerufe or white
lead in feales ; and this mixture muft-be well levigated
with a little diftilled water. To one part and a half
of this powder dried add an ounce of calcined borax :
let the whole be well mixed in a marble mortar, then
melted and poured into cold water as the other bales
already deferibed. dhefe fufions and lotions having
been repeated, and the mixture dried and powdered,
a 12th part of nitre muft be added to it, and then
melted for the laft time ; when a very fine cryftal will
be found in the crucible.
6. As a compofition for furniftiing very fine white
Hones: T ake eight ounces of cerufe, three ounces of
3 O rock
GEM t 474 ] G - M h-, i
.ryftal pulvenzed, two «mc« of borax finely Shake*, whole F-tr .Unto_a cucurb.t, wher,^
rock «iJFALax -   w • '
powdered, and half a grain of manganefe : having
melted and wafhed this mixture in the manner directed
above, it will produce a very fine white cryftal.
II. Of the Colours. The calces of metals, as already
obferved, are the fubftances employed to colour fa&i-
tious gems j and on the preparation of theie calces
depends the vividnefs of their colours.
a, From Gold.] To obtain the mineral purple
known by the name precipitate of Coffins, M. lonta-
nieu employs the following different proceffes.
j. Diffolve fome pare gold in aqua regia, prepared
with three parts of precipitated nitrous acid and one
part of marine acid j and to haften the diffolution, the
matrafs fhould be placed in p fand bath. Into this
folution pour a folution of tin in aqua regia.. . 1 he
mixture becomes turbid, and the gold is precipitated
with a portion of the tin, in the form of a reddifti pow¬
der ; which after being wafhed and dried, is called
precipitate of Coffins.—T\k aqua regia employed to
diffolve the tin is compofed of five parts of nitrous
acid and one part of marine acid : to eight ounces
of this aqua regia, are added fixte.en ounces of dutilled
water. Some leaves of Malacca tin, about the fize and
thicknefs of a fixpence, are then put into this diluted
aqua regia, till it will diffolve no more of them : which
operation our author obferves, requires commonly twelve
or fourteen days ; though it might probably be haftened
by beating the tin ftill thinner, and then rolling it into
the form of a hollow cylinder, or turning it round into
fpiral convolutions, andt hus expofing a greater extent
of furface to the aftion of the menftruum. In order to
prepare more readily the precipitate of Caffius M. Fon-
tanieu puts into a large jug eight ounces of folution of
tin to which he adds four pints of diililled water : he
afterwards pours into this metallic lye fome folution of
gold, drop by drop, taking care to ftir the whole with
a glafs tube : when the mixture becomes of a deep
purple colour, he ceafes dropping the folution of gold •,
and in order to hallen the precipitation of the mineral
purple, pours into the mixture a pint of freff urine.
Six or feven hours after, the precipitate is collected at
the bottom of the veffel : the fluid is then.decanted ;
and the precipitate, wafhed once or twice, is dried till
it becomes a brown pow'der. .
2. Pour into a veffel of fine tin with a thick bottom
four ounces of the folution of gold ; three minutes
after add two pints of diftilled water. Let this mix¬
ture (land in the tin veffel during feven hours, taking
care to ftir it every hour with a glafs tube \ afterwards
pour it into a conical glafs jug, and add to it a pint of
new urine: the mineral purple is foon precipitated,
and then is to be 'wafhed and dried. ^
- Diftil in a glafs retort placed in a bath of
Gem.
precipitate is depofited, the colour of which is fome-
titnes brown and fometimes yellow : After having
waflied this precipitate, dry it. Our author fays, this
mineral purple was much fuperior to the foregoing,
fince two grains of it only were futhcient to an ounce
of the bafe, whilft it required of the other two a 20th
part of the bafe. And he adds, that he found a means
of exalting the colour of the precipitate of Caffius, by
putting to it a fixth part of its weight of glafs of an*
timony finely powdered, and of nitre in the propoilion
of a drachnAo eight ounces of the bafe. _ .
b From Silver.] The oxide of filver, being vitrified,
produces a yellowifh gray colour. This oxide enters
only into the compofition of the yellow artificial dia-.
mond and the opal. M. lontanieu introduces it into
the bafe in the form of luna cornea.
In order to prepare it, he direfts to diffolve the fil¬
ver in precipitated nitrous acid, and afterwards to
pour into it a folution of fea fait: a white precipitate
is obtained j which, being wafhed and dried? .™e*ts
very readily in the fire, and is foon volatilized if not
mixed with vitrifiable matters. I o make the yellow'
diamond, 25 grains of this luna cornea are put to an
ounce of the fourth bafe : the dofe of filver may be di-
minifhed according to the fhade of yellow that one
wifhes to procure.
c From Copper.] The oxide of copper imparts to
white glafs the fineft green colour j but if this metal
be not exactly in a ftate of oxide, it produces abrowmfh
red colour. Mountain blue verdigris, and the refidue of
its diftillation, are the different preparations of copper
which our author employs to make the artificial eme-
ral</,S* From Iron.] Although it has been affertei
that the oxides of iron introduce a very fine tranfpa-
rent red colour into white glafs, M. Fontanieu
only obtain from it a pale red a little opake. Ihe
oxide of iron that he employed was in the proportion
of the 20th part of the bafe. .
There are feveral ways of preparing the oxide oi
iron called crocus Mortis, or faffron of Mars. In ge¬
neral, it is neceffary that this metal be fo far oxidated
that the magnet ceafes to attra£l it: thus one may
ufe the fcales of iron found upon the bars of the fur¬
naces which ferve to diftil aquafortis. By digeftmg
filings of fteel with diftilled vinegar, then.evaporat¬
ing and replacing the vinegar 10 or 12 times upon
thefe filings and drying them alternately, an oxide of
iron is obtained, which muft be fifted through a
filk fieve, and then calcined. The oxide of iron thus
obtained by the vinegar, our author fays, only in¬
troduced into his bafes a green colour inclining to a
yellow. Ti/r c t.
By the following procefs a faffron of Mars, ot the
fineft red colour is obtained : Let. an ounce of iron fil-
be diffolved in nitrous acid in a glafs retort, and
afhes, fome gold diffolved in aqua regia, made with
three parts nitrous and one part marine acid j vhen
the acid is paffed over and the gold contained in the ^    \i wh tn drvnefs” After having
retort appears dry, leave the veffel to cool, then pour diftilled over a fand bath to drynels. After g
into it fome new aqua regia, and proceed to diftil as replaced tire acid or ^"^“^tated with
before Replace the aqua regia twdce upon the gold, fecond and a third time, it is t i.r..,. .
and diftil S fame A^er thefe four operations, pour fpirits of wine, and afterwards walked with diftilled
Jur littlp and little into the retort fome oil of tartar water. . rr . 1 •
pVdelcjuium which will occafion a brilk effervefcence : *, From the Magnet.] It neceffary to calcine the
when this ceafes, diftil the mixture till it becomes dry, magnet before it be mJ0 tWo
and tfitn put fome warm water into the retort. Having therefore torrefied the magnet du g
GEM [ 4-
hours, it muft be wafhed and dried. It 12 only employ¬
ed in the compofition of the opal.
From Cobalt.^ The oxide of cobalt is only proper
to introduce a blue colour into glafs ; but this femime-
tal is rarely found free from iron and bifmuth, and there¬
fore it is firft neceffary to feparate them from it» This
is done by calcining the ore of cobalt in order to dif-
engage the arfenic; afterwards the oxide mull be di-
ftilled in a retort with fal ammoniac, and the iron
and the bifmuth are found fublimed with this fait.
The dillillation muft be repeated with the fal ammo¬
niac till this fait is no longer coloured yellow. The
cobalt which remains in the cornute is then calcined
in a potfherd, and becomes a very pure oxide ; which
being introduced into the bafe, in the proportion of
a poodth part, gives it a very fine blue colour, the in-
tenfity of which may be increafed at diferetion by the
addition of oxide of cobalt. In order to prepare black
tnamelrefembling that which is called black agate of Ice¬
land ) melt together a pound and a half of one of the
bafes, twm ounces of the oxide of cobalt, two ounces of
crocus Martis prepared with vinegar, and two ounces
of manganefe.
g. From Tin.~] The oxide of tin, which is of a white
colour, renders opake the glafs with which it is melted,
and forms white enamel. For this purpofe, calcine the
putty of tin j then walh and dry it, and fift it through
a filk fieve. Take fix pounds of the fecond bafe, the
fame quantity of the calcined putty of tin, and 48
grains of manganefe.
h. From Antimony.'] Antimony is only fufceptible
of vitrification in a certain ftate of oxidation, and then
it produces a reddilh or hyacinth coloured glafs j
but if the antimony be in a ftate of abfolute calx,
fuch as the diaphoretic antimony, then it is no longer
verifiable, and may be fubftituted for oxide of tin to
make white enamel. M. Fontanieu introduces the glafs
of antimony in the compofition of artificial topazes. For
the oriental topex, he takes 24 ounces of the firft bafe,
and five drachms of the glafs of antimony. To imitate
the topa% of Saxonyy he adds to each ounce of the bafe
five grains of the glafs of antimony. For the topa% of
Brazil, he takes 24 ounces of the firft bafe, one ounce
24 grains of glafs of antimony, and 8 grains of the pre¬
cipitate of Ca/Jius.
1, From Manganefe.'] This mineral employed in a
fmall quantity, renders the glafs whiter *, a larger
quantity produces a very fine violet colour, and a
ftill larger dofe of it renders the glafs black and
«pake.
There are two w'ays of preparing manganefe. 1. The
moft fimple confifts in expofing it to a red heat, and
then quenching it with diltilled vinegar ; it is after¬
wards dried and powdered, in order to pafs it through
a filk fieve. 2. Haudiquer de Blancour deferibes the
fecond manner of preparing the manganefe, proper to
furniih a red colour, and names it fujible manganefe.
1 ake of manganefe of Piedmont one pound; torrefy
and pulverize it; then mix it with a pound of nitre,
and calcine the mixture during 24 hours; afterwards
valh it repeatedly in w'arm water, till the water of the
lyes has no longer any tafte ; dry the manganefe, and
mix with it an equal weight of fal ammoniac ; levigate
this mixture on a flab of porphyry with oil of vitriol
diluted with water to the ftrength of vinegar, Dry the
'5 ] GEM
mixture, and introduce it into a cornute ; diftil by a
graduated fire ; and when the fal ammoniac is fublimed
weigh it, and add to the mixture an equal quantity.
Then diftil and fublime as before, and repeat the opera¬
tion fix times, being careful at each time to mix the fal
ammoniac and the manganefe upon the porphyry with
diluted oil of vitriol.
At Tournhault in Bohemia, there is fold a fufible
glafs of a yellow colour, very like that of the topaz of
Brazil, which, when expofed to a degree of fire in a cu¬
pel fufficient to redden it, becomes of a very fine ruby
colour, more or lefs deep according to the degree of
fire to which it has been expoted. Our author aifayed
this glafs, and found it to contain a great deal of lead,
but was not able to difeover any gold in it.
III. Of the different degrees offire neceffary for Facli-
tious Gems. Our author obferves, that there are three
degrees of heat very different in their energy. The fire
kept up in the wind furnaces in the laboratories of che-
mifts, is lefs aftive than that whofe effefl: is accelerated
by the means of bellows; and a fire fupported by w ood,
and kept up during 60 hours without interruption, pro¬
duces lingular effefts in vitrification, and renders the
glafs finer and lefs alterable.
When recourfe is had to the forge, in order to ope¬
rate a vitrification, it is neceffary to turn about the
crucible from time to time, that the mafs may melt
equally. Some coal alfo fhould be replaced, in pro¬
portion as it confumes towards the nozel of the bel¬
lows ; for without this precaution, we fhould run the
rifle of cooling the crucible oppofite to the flame, and
probably of cracking it, when all the melted mafs run¬
ning among the coals would be totally loft. Though
this is the readieft way of melting, it Ihould not be em¬
ployed out of choice ; for the crucible often breaks, or
coals get into it, which may reduce the lead to the me¬
tallic ftate.
The wind furnace is either fquare or round. A
fmall cake of baked clay or brick, of the thicknefs of
an inch, is placed upon the grate ; and upon this cake
is placed the crucible, furrounded with coals. The
degree of heat produced by this furnace is much lefs
than that of the forge : but in order to fucceed in the
vitrification, M. Fontanieu recommends the ufe of a
furnace deferibed by Kunckel, of which, the interior
part is fo difpofed, that we may place crucibles at
three different heights ; and the name of chambers is
given to thofe fteps upon which the crucibles are pla¬
ced.
It is obvious, that the degree of heat cannot be equal
in the faid three chambers. In the firft or loweft cham¬
ber the heat is greateft, afterw ards in the next, and laft.
ly, in the higheft. We fliould begin by placing the
crucibles according to their fize, in theie different cham¬
bers ; by which means the befi efled in vitrification is
produced.
In order to conduft the fire well, only three billets
of white wood fliould be put into the furnace at a time
for the firft 20 hours, four billets at a time for the next
20 hours, and fix billets for the laft 20 hours ; in all
60 hours. The furnace is then left to cool, care being
taken to flop the air holes with feme lute ; and in about
48 hours after, when the kiln is quite cold, the cruci¬
ble is to be withdrawn.
IV. The Covipojitions. 1. For the white diamond :
3 O 2 Take
G E M [ 476
Gem. Take the bafe of Mayence. This cryftal is very pure,
ancj j-jas no colours.
2. Tor the yellow diamond fo an ounce of the
fourth bafe, add for colour 25 grains of luna cornea or
10 grains of glats of antimony.
3. For the emerald : 1. To 15 ounces of either of the
bafes add for colour one drachm of mountain blue and
fix nrains of glafs of antimony ; or, 2. To an ounce of
the fecond bafe, add for colour 20 grains of glafs of
antimony and three grains of calx of cobalt.
4. For the fapphire : To 24 ounces of the Mayence
bafe, add for colour two drachms 46 grains of the calx
of cobalt.
5. For the amethyft : To 24 ounces of the Mayence
bafe, add for colour four drachms of prepared manganefe
and four grains of precipitate of Caflius.
6. For the beryl: To 24 ounces of the third bafe,
add for colour 96 grains of glafs of antimony and four
grains of calx of cobalt.
7. For the black agate : To 24 ounces of either of
the bafes, add two ounces of the mixture directed
above in par./I
8. For the opal: To an ounce of the third bafe, add
for colour 10 grains of luna cornea, two grains of mag¬
net, and 26 grains of ablorbent earth.
9. For the oriental topaz : To 24 ounces of the firft
or third bafe, add for colour five drachms of glafs of
antimony. _ r
10. For the topaz of Saxony: To 24 of the lame
baft, add for colour fix drachms of the glafs of anti¬
mony. .
1 i. For the topaz of Brafil : To 24 ounces ol the
1
G E M
fecond or third bafe, add for colour one ounce 24
grains ol the glafs of antimony and eight grains of pre¬
cipitate of Caflius.
12. For the hyacinth : To 24 ounces of the bale
male with rock cryttal, add for colour two drachms 48
grains of giafs of antimony.
i For the oriental ruby : I* To 16 ounces or the
Mayence bafe, add for colour a mixture of two drachms
48 grains of the precipitate of Caflius, the fame quan-
tity'of crocus Martis prepared in aquafortis, the lame
of golden fulphur of antimony and of tufible manganefe,
with the addition of two ounces of mineral cryftal : or,
2. To 20 ounces of the bafe made with flint, add half
an ounce of fufible manganefe and two ounces of mine¬
ral cryftiil.
14. For the balafs ruby : 1. To 16 ounces of the
Mayence bafe, add the above colouring powder, but di-
ruinilhed a fourth part-, or, 2. ’lo 20 ounces of the bafe
made with flints, add the fame colouring powder, but
with a fourth lefs of the manganefe. ^
Vhe factitious gems are eafily diftinguilhed from the
natura/, by their foftnefs and fufibility -, by their folu-
bility in acids -, by their caufing only a Angle refrac¬
tion of the rays of light j and in many cales, by their
fpecitic gravity, which exceeds 2.76 in all precious
gems of the firft order, as the diamond, ruby, fap¬
phire, &c.
I/Kitatwn of Antique Gf.MS. There has been at dif¬
ferent times a method praclifed by particular perfons
of taking the impreffions md figures of antique gems,
w ith their engravings, in glafs of the colour of the ori¬
ginal gem. This has always been efteemed a very va-
4
luable method, and greatly preferable to the more or¬
dinary ones of doing it on tealmg wax or brimftone }
but, to the misfortune of the world, this art being a
ffccret only in the hands of fome. particular perions
who got their bread by it, died with them, and every
new artift was obliged to re-invent the method j till
at length Mr Homberg having found it in great per¬
fection, gave the whole procels to the world to be no
more forgotten or loft j and fince that time it has been
very commonly pradlifed in France, and iometimes in
other places.
Mr Homberg was favoured in his attempts with all
the engraved gems of the king’s cabinet j and took inch
elegant impreflions, and made inch exadt refemblantes
of the originals, and that in glaffes fo artfully tinged
to the colour of the gems themielves, that the niceit
judges were deceived in them, and often took them foe
the true antique ftones. The counterteit gems alio
ferve, as well as the original ones, to make more co¬
pies from afterwards j lo that there is no end of the
numoers that may be made from one j and there is
this farther advantage, that the copy may be eafily
made perfect, though the original ihould not be fo,
but fhould have iuftained fome damage from a blow or
otherwife.
The great care in the operation is to take the im-
preffion of the gem in a very fine earth, and to prefs
down upon this a piece of proper glals, foftened or
half melted at the fire, fo that the figures of the im-
preflion made in the earth may be nicely and perfedtly
exprtffed upon the glafs. In general, the whole pro-
cel's much refembles that of the common founders.
But when it is brought to the trial, there is found a
number of difficulties which were not to be foreleen,
and which would not at all affedt the common works of
the founder. For this purpole, every earth will ierve that
is fine enough to receive the impreflions, and tough
enough not to crack in the drying : thefe all ierve for
their ufe, becauie the metals which they caft are of a
nature incapable of mixing with earth, or receiving it
into them, even if both are melted together, fo that
the metal always eafily and perfedtly ieparates itfelf
from the mould $ but it is very difficult in thefe calls
of glafs. They are compofed of a matter which differs
in nothing from that of the mould, but that it has
been run into this form by the force of fire, and the
other has not yet been fo run, but is on any occafion
ready to be fo run, and will mix itfelf infeparably
with the glafs in a large fire : ccnfequently, if there
be not great care ufed, as well in the choice of the
glafs as in the manner of ufing it, when the whole is
finifhed there will be found great difficulty in the fe-
parating the glafs from the mould, and often this
cannot be done without wholly deftroying the im-
preffion.
All earths run more or lefs eafily in the fire as they
are more or lefs mixed with faline particles in their na¬
tural formation. As all falts make earths run into
glafs, and as it is neceffary to ufe an earth on this oc¬
cafion for the making a mould, it being alfo neeeflary
to the perfedtion of the experiment that this earth
ffiould not melt or run, it is our bufinels to learch out
for this purpofe fome earth which naturally contains
very little fait. Of all the fpecies of earth which Mr
Homberg examined on this occ&fion, none proved fo
much
Gem.
G E M [ 477 ] GEM
Gem. much divefted of falls, or fo fit for the purpofe, as the
-~v common tripela, or Tripoli, ufed to polilh glafs and
Hones. Of this earth there are two common kinds :
the one reddiih, and compofed of feveral fiakes or ilra-
ta ; the other yellowifti, and of a iimple ftruclure. Thefe
are both to be had in the {hops. The latter kind is
from the Levant ; the former is found in England,
France, and many other places. The tripela mull be
chofen foft and fmooth to the touch, and not- mixed
with fandy or other extraneous matter. The yellowilh
kind is the bell of the two, and is commonly called
Venetian tripoh. I his receives the imprefiions very
beautifully ; and never mixes with the glafs in the ope¬
ration, which the red kind fometimes does. Mr Hom-
berg ufually employed both kinds at once in the fol¬
lowing manner : firft powder a quantity of the red
tripela in an iron mortar, and fifting it through a fine
fieve let it by for ufe ; then fcrape with a knife, a
quantity of the yellow tripela into a fort of powder,
and afterwards rub it till very fine in a glafs mortar
with a glafs peftle. The finer this powder is, the finer
will be the impreflion, and the more accurately perfedl
the call. The artificer might naturally fuppofe, that
the belt method to obtain a perfect fine powder of this
earth would be by walhing it in water ; but he mutt
be cautioned againft this. There is naturally in this
yellowilh tripoli a fort of unfluofity, which when it is
formed into a mould keeps the granules together, and
gives the whole an uniform glofly furface : now the
waiting the powder takes away this unftuofity ; and
though it renders it much finer, it makes it leave a
granulated furface, not this fmooth one, in the mould j
and this mull render the furface of the call lefs fmooth.
When the two tripdas are thus feparately powder¬
ed, the red kind mull be mixed with fo much water
as will bring it to the confluence of palle, fo that it
may be moulded like a lump of dough between the
fingers : this palle mull be put into a fmall crucible
of a Hat Ihape, and about half an inch or a little more
in. depth, and of luch a breadth at the furface as is a
little more than that of the Hone w'hofe imprelfion is
to be taken. Ihe crucible is to be nicely filled with
this palle lightly preffed down into it, and the fur¬
face of the palle mull be llrewed over with the fine
powder of the yellow tripela not wetted. When this
is done, the Hone, of which the impreflion is to be taken,
mull be laid upon the furface, and preffed evenly down
into the palle with a finger and thumb, fo as to make
it give a Itrong and perfeft impreflion ; the tripela is
then to be preffed nicely even to its fides with the
fingers, or with an ivory knife. The Hone mull be thus .
left a few moments, for the humidity of the palle to
moillen the dry powder of the yellow tripela which is
llrewed over it : then the Hone is to be carefully raifed
by the point of a needle fixed in a handle of wood ; and
the crucible being then turned bottom upwards, it will
tall out, and the impreflion will remain very beautifully
on the tripoli. J
If the fides of the cavity have been injured in the
tailing out of the Hone, they may be repaired ; and the
crucible mull then be fet, for the paile to dry, in a place
where it will not be incommoded by the dull.
The red tripoli being the more common and the
cheaper kind, is here made to fill the crucible only to
*ave the other, which alone is the fubftance fit for ta¬
king the impreflion. When the ftone is taken out, Gem.'
it mull be examined, to fee whether any thing be lodged "
in any part of the engraving, becaule if there be any
of the tripela left there, there will certainly be fo much
wanting in the imprtflion, When the crucible and
paite are dry, a piece of glafs mull be chofen of a pro¬
per colour, and cut to a fize proper for the figure j
this mull be laid over the mould, but in fuch a man¬
ner that it does not touch the figures, otherwife it
would Ipoil them. The crucible is then to be brought
near the furnace by degrees, and gradually heated till
it cannot be touched without burning the fingers; then
it is to be placed on the furnace under a muffle, fur-
rounded with charcoal. Several of thefe fmall cru¬
cibles may be placed under one muffle j and wnen they
are properly diipofed, the aperture of the muffle Ihould
have a large piece of burning charcoal put to it, and
then the operator is to watch the procefs, and fee when
the glafs begins to look bright : this is the fignal of
its being fit to receive the impreflion. The crucible
is then to be taken- out of the fire ; and the hot glafs
mull be preffed down upon the mould with an iron in-
ftrument to make it receive the regular imprwfiion :
as foon as this is done, the crucible is to be fet at the
fide of tlm furnace out of the way of the wind, that
it may cool gradually without breaking. When it is
cold, the glais is to be taken out, and its edges fliould
be grated round with pincers, which will prevent its
flying afterwards, which is an accident that fometimes
happens when this-caution has been omitted, efpedaily
when the glafs is naturally tender. The different co¬
loured glaffes are of different degrees of hardnefs, ac¬
cording to their competition j but the hardeft to melt
are alw ays the bell for this purpofe, and this is known
by a few trials.
If it be defired to copy a ftone in relief which is
naturally in creux, or to take one in creux which is
naturally in relief, there needs no more than to take T
an impreflion firit in wax or fulphur, and to mould -
that upon the paite of tripela inllead of the Hone itfelf j
then proceeding in the manner before directed, the
procels will have the defired fuccefs.
A more Ample and eafy method than the above, is
by taking the calls in gypfum, or plafter of Paris as
it is commonly called. For this purpofe, the gypfum
mult be finely pulverized, and then mixed with clear
water to the confiftence of thick cream. This is pour¬
ed upon the face of the gem or feal of which the im-
preffion is wanted, and which mult be previoufly moill-
ed with oil to facilitate the feparation of the call j
and in order to confine the liquid plafter, it is only ne-
ceffary to pin a flip of oiled paper round the fides of
the feal by way of a cap or rim. When the plalter is
dry, it is to be taken off, and fet before the mouth of
the furnace, in order to free it entirely from moilture j
when it is fit to be ufed as a matrix in the lame way as
that formed with the tripoli earths. Only no crucible or
other receptacle is at all neceffary j the calls being form¬
ed like fo many fmall cakes half an inch thick, and thus
put into the furnace with bits of glafs upon them.
The glafs, after coming to a proper heat, is preffed
down upon the mould with an iron fpatula to receive
the defired impreflion, the preffure requifite being
more or lefs according to the fize of the ftone. This
method has been long pra&ifed very fuccefsfully, and
with
i
GEM
[ 4?S ]
G E M
with no fmall emolument, by that ingenious feal en¬
graver Mr Deuchar of Edinburgh. The only re^eft
in which it is inferior to the other moreoperole and ex-
penfive methods, confifts in the chance of air bubbles
arifine in pouring on the plafter *, which chance, how-
ever 1 lefs in proportion to the finenefs of the gypfum
employed. When air bubbles do occur, the cafts may
be laid afide, as it is fo eafy to replace them.
The application of paites to multiply and preferve
V- c   1 v siifl intaglios, is an obieit
Orleans regent of France, who ufed to amufe himfelf
with that celebrated chemift in taking off impreffions in
palle from the king of France’s, from his own, and
other collections of gems. j-n t\t n
According to the French Encyclopedifts, M. Cla-
chant the elder, an engraver of fome note, who died at
Paris in 1781, learned this art from his royal highnds,
to whofe houfehold his father or he feems to have be-
lomred. Mademoifelle Feloix next cultivated this art,
Gem
eThe application of paites to multiply and Pre erve ^ / belieavcd ftili carries it on. She had been taught
the impreffions of camaieux and .ntagl.os,. J ^ ^ fath wh in qu^ity of g^on^ oWbre to
the imprellions 01 »— j 1“1
very interefting to artifts and to antiquaries, as well as
to men of learning and tafte in the fine arts.
This art, though only lately reitored in any degree
of perfection, is of very confiderable 1 ’
grJat prices which the ancients paid for the ele&ant
^ P  a u.r +Vif> (-plfahrated Greek artilts, Could
and it is Deiieveu iuii oamva 1
by her father, who in quality of gallon de chambre to
the regent had often affiited in the laboratory of his
mailer, where he acquired this knowledge. Her col-
leCtion confifts of 1800 articles.
Baron Stofch, a Pruffian, who travelled over Europe
n c ftnnes and imprelhons ot
ot periecuun, ^ y j . r .. pleaant Baron btoicn, a riunuui, /r c
their nundsers, by taking off their impreflions in wax,
in fulphur, in plalter, or in clay •, but more particular-
ly in coloured glafs, or that vitrified fubftance common-
ly Al^the t^preflions on pafte are durable, and imi-
talc the colours and brilliancy of the
they fervethe fame “ ‘j16 8™s “e“'elv“;
This art was therefore praaffed not only by t
Greeks, but by all the nations who cultivated Grecian
13 Many of the fineft gems of antiquity are now loft
, . y • found only on ancient
ancient gems ior me c.cgawu ; x
and Picart engraved (b), »as well acquainted with this
art. He had taught it to his fervant Chnftian Dehn,
who fettled at Rome, where he made and ^ld bis ^^11
known fulphur impreffions and paites. He had col-
leaed 2 coo articles. Dolce has arranged them in a
fcientific order, and given a defcriptive catalogue of
was chiefly from Dehn’s colleaion that the tafte
for fulphurs andpafteshas become fo umverfal. I hey
are great objefts of ftudy, and often require much learn-
ing to explain them. They have unqueftionabl^ferv-
Many of the fineft gems of antiquity are now loft “8 and improve^ the _ art of engraving on
S L/ruVotthefeTaftes. ^ i and have been of infintte ufe to pamters.
paftes Great therefore is the value of thefe paftes
Numerous colleaions of them have been formed by
tlmcurious. Inftances of this ate found in the Flo.
rentine Mufseum, in Stofch’s work on ancient gems
wfth infcriptions, in Winkelmann’s defcr.pt,on of
Stofch’s cabinet, and in the noble colleftion of Mr
C Thr^rof'Sking^mpreffions of gems feems not to
have been altogethfr loll even in the Gothic ages;
for Heraclius, who probably lived in the ninth century,
and wrote a book De coloribm et artibus Romanorum
teaches in very plain though not elegant terms how to
make them. Indeed, fome of the few per ons who then
poffeffed this art, taking advantage of the tgnotance
of the times, fold paites for original gems. Ihus the
famous emerald of the abbey of Reichnaw near Con-
ftance although a prefent made by Charlemagne, is nov
&„„d’.o beaV.ece of glafs And thus the cdehra -
rd emerald vafe in the cathedral of Genoa is likewiie
tund to be a piece of pafte (a). The Geneofe got
ffiis vafe at the taking of Cefarea in the year i iox as
^ivale^foralargefum «f money nor ws^y
ed to extenu ami °
ftones j and have been of infinite ufe to painters, to
ftatuaries, and to other artifts, as well as to men o£
claffical learning and fine tafte. _
It is very difficult to take off impreffions, and per-
feaiy to imitate various-coloured cameos. It canno
be properly done in wax, fulphur, pHfter, or giafs of
onePcolour only. The difficulties arifing from their fize
and form, and from the various nature of the d'ff5ren^
forts of glafs which do not well unite into difterent
ftrata, are very numerous : nor could the C0™Plet^
fuccefs in this chemical and mechanical branch ot the
art produce a tolerable cameo Impreffions or imita¬
tions, if unaffifted by the tool of _ the engraver, do not
fucceed: becaufe the undercutting and deep work of
moft of the originals require to be filled up with clay
or wax, that the moulds may come off lafe ^tbout m-
iuring them. Hence the impreffions from thefe mould
3comeSoff hard and deftitute of delicacy, ffiarpnels, and
precifion of outline, till the underworkmg of the
moulder is cut away. But Mr Reiffenftein at Rome
by his genius, perfeverance, and the affiftance of able
artitfs, has ov Lme thefe dHficuU-; am ha, d
his vaie at uic    „ . ' was anv artifts, has overcome uieic uwmv.—., - .
equivalent for a large fum of money ; n™ was any “ of fucceed;ng, a„d producing variegated
irnpofition then fufpefted, for m the yeai 39 y »Kich can hardly be diftinguilhed from the on-
“ Bnutdthlsingentms art, revifed mdeed in Ita'y in the gnals. ^ Drefden m ingeni0„s glazier and an
time of Laurence of Medic, and Pape X « " lhe fi„e artSj praftifed this branch not un-
mltivated in an extenfive manner till the beginning f f ,, . h ., not finding fufficient encouragement
“S sSSi —*>“ li“-" ‘•2=
n. 1724, folio.
Gem.
GEM [ 479 ] GEM
He fubftituted in its place impreflions fine poli(h j and which fhoM s every flroke and touch of
im-
doned this art.
of fine white alabafter or felenite plafter. Such
preffions when carefully foaked in a folution of white
Caftile foap, then dried, and rubbed over with a foft
brufh, take a very agreeable polifti. They fhow the
work perhaps to better advantage than red or white
fulphurs do ; but they are not fo durable, and are liable
to be defaced by rubbing.
Of thefe impreflions Mr Lippart publilhed three
different colledtions, each of them containing 1000
articles $ and to the merit of having increafed the num¬
ber of Madamoifelle Feloix and Chriftiano Dehn’s
collections, which are all inferted in his, he added
that of employing two learned Germans to arrange
and defcribe them. The firft thoufand were arran¬
ged and defcribed by the late Profeffor Chrifl at Leip-
flc, and the fecond and third thoufand by Profeflor
Heine at Goettingen. Nor did Mr Lippart flop here :
but to make the fludy of antiquity more eafy and ac¬
ceptable to artifts, he feleaed out of the whole collec¬
tion of 3000, a fmaller one of 2000 of the belt and
more inltniftive fubje&s, of which he himfelf drew up
and publiflied a defcription in German.
But of all the artifts and ingenious men who have
taken impreflions of engraved gems in fulphur and irt
pafte, no one feems to have carried that art to fuch
perfection as Mr James Taflie, a native of Glafgow,
who refided in London from the year 1766 till hisdeath.
His knowledge in various branches of the fine arts,
particularly in that of drawing, naturally led him to
it. The elegant portraits which he modelled in wax,
and afterwards moulded and caft in pafte, and which
entirely referable cameos, are well known to the pub¬
lic.
.Mr Taflie, profiting of all the former publications of
this fort, and by expence, induftry, and accefs to many
cabinets in England and other kingdoms to which
former artifts had not obtained admiflion, was enabled
to increafe his collection of impreflions of ancient and
modern gems to the number of above 15,000 articles,
it is the greateft collection of this kind that ever ex-
ifted ; and ferves for all the purpofes of artifts, anti¬
quaries, fcholars, men of tafte, and even philofophers.
The great demand for his paftes was perhaps owing in
the beginning to the London jewellers, who introduced
them into falhion by fetting them in rings, feals, brace¬
lets, necklaces, and other trinkets.
The reputation of this colleftion having reached the
emprefs of Ruflia, Ihe was pleafed to order a complete
‘ which being accordingly executed in the beft and
the artift in higher perfection than any other fub-
ftance. When the colours, mixed colours, and nature
of the refpeCtive originals, could be afcertained, they
were imitated as completely as art can imitate them ;
infomuch that many of the pafte intaglios and cameos
in this collection are fuch faithful imitations, that
artifts themfelves have owned they could hardly be
diftinguiftied from the originals. And when the co¬
lour and nature of the gems could not be authenticated,
the paftes were executed in agreeable, and chiefly tranf-
parent, colours ; conftant attention being beftowed to
preferve the outlines, extremities, attributes, and in-
fcriptions.
It was the learned Mr Rafpe (from whom this ac¬
count (c) is taken) who arranged this great collection,
and made out the defcriptive catalogue. His arrange¬
ment is nearly the fame with that of the late Abbe
Winkelmann, in his defcription of the gems which be¬
longed to Baron Stofch. But as modern works were
inferted in this collection, he found it neceffary to
make a few alterations, and added fome divifions to
thofe of M. Winkelmann, as will appear from the fol¬
lowing confpeCtus, with which we ftiall conclude this
detail.
I. Ancient Art and Engravings.
■^gyp**311 hieroglyphics, facred animals, divinities,
priefts.
Bafilidian, Gnoftic, and other talifmans, &c.
Oriental and barbarous ancient and modern engra¬
vings.
Greek and Roman original copies, and imitations
(the Etrufcan are claffed with the Greek works).
A, Mythology or fabulous age. Gods, inferior di¬
vinities, religious ceremonies.
B, Heroic age before the fiege of Troy.
C, Siege of Troy.
D, Hiftoric age. Of Carthage, Greece, Rome, fub-
jeCts unknown.
E, Fabulous animals and chimeras.
F, Vafes and urns.
moft durable manner, were arranged in elegant cabinets,
and. are now' placed in the noble apartments of her im¬
perial majefty’s fuperb palace at Czarfko Zelo.
Mr 1 aflie, in executing his commiflion, availed him-
relf of all the advantages which the improved ftate of
chemiftry, the various ornamental arts, and the know¬
ledge of the age, feemed to afford. The impreflions
were taken in a beautiful white enamel compofition,
which is not fubjeCt to (brink or form air bladders ;
vhich emits fire when (truck with fteel, and takes -
II. Modern Art and Engravings.
A, Religious fubjeCts.
B, Portraits of kings and fovereigns.
C, Portraits of illultrious men in alphabetical order.
1), Portraits unknown.
E, Devices and emblems.
F, Cyphers, arms, fupporters, and medley of modern
hiftory.
GEMAPPE, a village of Auftrian Hainault, three
miles weft-by-fouth of Mons, rendered memorable for a
victory which the French under General Dumourier
obtained over the Auftrians, Nov. 5. 1792 j in which
the carnage on both (ides was fo dreadful, that three
coal pits in the vicinity were filled up with the dead
bodies of men and horfes.
GEMARA, or Ghemaka, the fecond part of th$
Talmud.
The
(c) Account of the prefent ftate and arrangement of Mr James Taflie’s collection of paftes and impreflions
1 m ancient and modern gems, by R, C. Rafpe, London, 1786, 8vo.
GEM [ 480 ]
The word-mns gemara, is ecmmonly fuppofed to ment
^ , » 1- if votV»pr {iCTninPS
Gemara me wora *» iwj   , llr -r
II . denote a fupplement •, but in ftriftnefs it rather figmfies
Gemmiam. com lement perfedion : being formed of the Chaldee
V‘~v ™, gemar, otghemer, “ to finifli, perfeft, or complete
a11 Th^'rabbins call the Pentateuch limply the law:
the firft part of the Talmud, which is only an expli¬
cation of that law, or an application thereof to parti¬
cular cafes, "with the decifions of the ancient rabbins
thereon, they call the Mfchna, i. e. “ fecond law : and
the fecond part, which is a more extenfive and ample
explication of the fame law, and a colleaxon of deci¬
fions of the rabbins poller lor to the Mifchna, they ca^
Ganara, q. d. “ perfe.aion, completion, fimfhmg *,
becaufe they efteem it the fin 1 Hung of the iaw, or
an explication beyond which there is nothing ar ei o
The Gemara is ufually called fimply Talmud, the
common name of the whole work in this fenfe we
fay, there are two Gemaras or 1 almuds; that ot J c-
rufalem and that of Babylon: though in ilnamft the
Gemara is only an explication of the Mifchna, given
by the Jewiih doaors in their fchools: much as the
commentaries of our fchool divines on St Ihomas or
the matter of the fentences, are an explication oi the
writings of thofe authors.
A commentary, Monf. Tillemont obferves, teas wrote
pn the Mifchna, by one Johanan, whom the Jews
place about the end of the fecond century ; but Fa.
Morin proves, from the work itfelf, wherein mention
i, made of the Turks, that it was not wrote till the
time of Heraclius, or about the year 620 ; and this
^ hat is called the Gemara, or Talmud of Jerufalem,
which the Jews do not ufe or efteem much becauie ot
USTheCy fet a much greater value on the Gemara, or
Talmud of Babylon, begun by one Afa ; ^fcontinued
for 72 years, on occafion of the wars with the Saracens
and Perfians; and finiflied by one Jofa, about the c o e
of the feventh century. See Talmud..
Though the name Talmud, m its latitude, include
both the Mifchna and the two Gemaras, yet it is pro¬
perly that of Afa and Jofa alone which is meant unaer
that name. This the Jews prize above all their other
writings, and even fet it on a level with Scripture it¬
felf: in effeft, they conceive it as the word of God,
derived by tradition from Mofes, and preferved with¬
out interruption to their time. R. Jehuda and after¬
wards R. Johanan, R. Afa, and R. Jofa, fearing he
traditions fhould be loft in the difperfion of the Jews,
collefted them into the Mifchna and the Gemara. bee
CaraITES and Rabbinists. . .. .
GEMINI in Aftrdnomij,^ TwiXS •, a conitellation
or fign of the zodiac, the third in order, reprefenUng
Caftor and Pollux •, and it is marked thus, n . J he
ftars in the fign Gemini, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are
2 r, in Tycho’s, 25 j in Hevelms’s, 38 *, m the Britannic
Catalogue, 85. r
GEMINIANI, a celebrated mufician and compoier,
was born at Lucca in the year 1680. He received his
•firft inftruftions in mufic from Aleffandro Scarlatt ,
and after that became a pupil of Carlo Ambrofio Lu-
nati, furnamed // Gobbo, a moll celebrated per '’nutr
on the violin •, after which he became a difciple of Co¬
relli, and under him finilhed his ftudies on that imtru-
G E M
ment. In the year 1714 he came to'.England *, where Cemmiiml
in a (hurt time he fo recommended himfelf by his ex- v
quifite performance, that all who profeffed to love and
underftand mufic were captivated with hearing him.—
Many of the nobility laid claim to the honour of being
his patrons; but he feemed chiefly to attach himielt
to Baron Kilmnnfegge, chamberlain to King George I.
as eleftor of Hanover, and a favourite of that prince.
In 17x6, he puhliftied and dedicated to his patron .12
fonatas a violino violone e cembalo : the firft fix with
fugues, or double flops as they are vulgarly called 4
the laft with airs of various meafures, luch as alle-
mandes, courantes, and jiggs. This publication was
fo well reliftied by the baron, that he mentioned Ge-
miniani to the king as an excellent performer •, m con-
fequence of which our mufician had the honour to per¬
form before his majefty, in concert with the celebrated
Handel, who played on the harpfichord. But though
Geminiani was exceedingly admired, yet he had not
a talent, at affociating mufic with poetry, nor do we
find that' he ever became a public performer: he
was therefore obliged to depend f°r his lubfiflence
on the friendftiip of his patrons and the profits which
accrued to him from teaching. He had alio the
misfortune to be an enthufiaft in painting j and the
verfatility of his temper was fucJftr -nj-
gratify this paflion, he not only fufpended Ins ftudies,
and negle&ed to exercife his talents, but involved him¬
felf in debts. In 17271 he was offer!d fhe Place of
matter and compofer of the ftate mufic m Ireland j
but this could not be conferred on a Carbolic, and Ge¬
miniani refufed to change his religion : upon which it
was given to Matthew Dubourg, a young man who
had been one of his pupils, and was a celebrated per¬
former on the violin. Geminiani then fet himfelf to
compofe parts to the opera quinta of Corelli 5 or, m
other words, to make concertos of the firft hx of h s
folos. This work he completed, and, with the help
of a fubfeription, at the head of which were the names
of the royal family, publiihed in 1726.. In I732> h®
publiftied his opera feconda, which contains a celebrated
minuet that goes by his name He publiihed many
other pieces, the profits of which did not much mend
his circumftances ■, but this perhaps was owing to.his
rambling difpofition and enthufiaftic fondnefs °f paint¬
ing. He was alfo an utter ftranger to the bufinefs
of an orcheftra, and had no idea of the labour and
pains neceffary in the uiftruftion of fingers for the per¬
formance of mufic to which they were gangers. 1 he
confequence of this was, that a concertofpintuale which
he had advertifed for his own benefit m 1748, failed
the performance. The audience, however, compaflion-
ated his diftrefs, and fat very filent till the books we e
changed-, when the performance was continued vith
compofitions of the author’s own, and which he exe¬
cuted in fuch a manner as was never forg° ten- . *
profits ariiing from this performance enabled him to
take a journey to Pans; where he fta.d long enough
to yet plates engraven for a fcore of fobs, and the parts
-o t r tfip vear 1*7 C; he
to get twates engraven mi a    , 7 „ ;r
of two operas of concertos. About the year 170, 
returned to England, and advert.ied them for Me¬
in 1761 Geminiani went over to Ireland, and
kindly entertained there by Mr Matthew Oubourg
who had been his pupil, and was then mailer of the
king’s band in Ireland. Uhis perfon
OEM C 4
Gemlniani, couvfe of his life had ever been difpofed to render him
, Ge^ma‘, friendly offices ; and it was but a ffiort time after Ge-
miniani’s arrival at Dublin that he was called upon to
do him the laft. It appears that Geminiani had fpent
many years in compiling an elaborate treatifeon mufic,
which he intended for publication 5 but foon after his
arrival at Dublin, by the treachery of a female fer-
vant, who, it was faid, was recommended to him for
no other end than that the might deal it, it was con¬
veyed away, and could not be recovered. The great-
nefs of this lofs, and his inability to repair it, made a
deep impreffion on his mind 5 and, as it is conjectured,
haitened his end ; at lead he furvived it but a diort
time, ending his days on the 17th of September 1762.
The following lid comprifes the whole of his publica¬
tions, except two or three articles of fmall account:
T welve foies for a violin, opera prima; dx concertos
in feven parts, opera feconda ; fix concertos in feven
parts, opera ter%a; twelve folds for a violin, opera
yuarta ; fix Tulos for a violoncello, opera quinta ; the
fame made into folos for a violin j fix concfSttos from
his opera quarto; fix concertos in eight parts, opera
fettima; rules for- play mg in tade ; a treatife on good
tade ; the art of playing the violin; 12 fonatas from
his fird folos, opera undecimaRipieno parts to ditto ;
JeiTons for the harpfichord ; Q-uida Armonica ; fupple-
ment to ditto ; the art of accompaniment, two books •
his fird two operas of concertos in fcore ; and the En¬
chanted Fored.—Of his folos the opera pnma is edeem-
ed the bed. Of his concertos fome are excellent, others
of them fcarce pafs the bounds of mediocrity. The
fixth of the third opera not only furpafles all the red,
but, in the opinion of the bed judges of harmony, is
the fined indrumental compofition extant.
GEMMA, or Bud, in Botany: a compendium or
epitome of a plant, feated upon the dem and branches
and covered with fcales, in order to defend the tender
rudiments enclofed from cold and other external injuries,
till, their parts being unfolded, they acquire drength’
and render any further proteftion unneceffary. ’
Buds, together with bulbs, which are a fpecies of
buds generally feated upon or near the root, conditute
that part of the herb called by Einnasus hybernacu/a ;
that is, the winter quarters of the future vegetable : a
very proper appellation, as it is during that fevere
feafon that the tender rudiments are prote&ed in the
manner jud mentioned.
Plants, confidered in analogy to animals, may pro¬
perly enough be reckoned both viviparous and ovipa¬
rous. Seeds are the vegetable eggs; buds, living
retufes, or infant plants, w hich renew the fpecies as
certainly as the feeds.
Buds are placed at the extremity of the young fhoots
and along the branches, being fixed by a fiiort foot-
dalk upon a kind of brackets, the remainder of the
leaves, in the wings or angles of which the buds in
quedion were fotmed the preceding year. They are
fometimes placed fingle ; fometimes two by two, and
Uiofe either oppofite or alternate ; fometimes colleaed
in greater numbers in whirls or rings.
With refpeft to their condrudion, buds are com-
poled of feveral parts artificially arranged. Externally
we find a number of fcales that are pretty hard fre¬
quently armed with hairs, hollowed like a fpoon,’ and
placed over each other like tiles. Thefe fcales are
\ OL. 1A. Part II.
i ] GEM
fixed into the inner plates of the bark, of which they
appear to be a prolongation. Their ufe is to defend
the internal parts of the bud ; which, being unfolded,
will produce, Ibme, dowers, leaves, and dipulaj ; others,
foot dal ks and fcales. All thefe parts, while they re¬
main in the bud, are tender, delicate, folded over each
other, and covered with a thick clammy juice, which
is fometimes refinous and odoriferous, as in the taca-
mahac tree. This juice ferves not only to dtfend the
more tender parts of the embyro plant from cold, the
aflaults of intefts, and other external injuries ; but
likewile from exceffive perfpiration, which, in its
young and infant date, would be very dedruftive. It
is confpicuous in the buds of horfe chefnut, poplar, and
willow trees.
In general, we may didinguiffi three kinds of buds ;
that containing the dower, that containing the leaves,
and that containing both flower and leaves.
1 he fird, termed gemma jiorifera, and by the French
bouton a fleur or a fruit, contains the rudiments of one
or feveral flowers, folded over each other, and furround-
ed with fcales. In feveral trees, this kind of bud
is commonly found at the extremity of certain fmall
branches, which are ffiorter, rougher, and led gar-
nidled with leaves, than the red. The external fcales
of this fpecies of bud are harder than the internal ;
both are furniffied with hairs, and in general more
dwelled than thole of the fecond fort. The bud con¬
taining the flower too is commonly thicker, Ihorter, ai¬
med fquare, lefs uniform, and lefs pointed ; being,ge¬
nerally terminated obtufidy. It is called by Pliny
oculus. gemma:; and is employed in that fpecies of
grafting called inoculation, or budd'ng.
The fecond fpecies of bud, viz. that containing the
leaves, termed ^ tnma folifera, and by the French bouton
a feuilles or a hois, contains the rudiments of feveral
leaves, which are varioufly folded over each other, and
outwardly lurrounded by hales, from which the fmall
dipulae that are feated on the foot of the young branches
are chiefly produced. 1 hefe buds are commonly more
pointed than the former fort. In the hazel nut, how¬
ever, they are perfe&ly round ; and in horfe chefnut
very thick.
The third fort of bud is fmaller than either of the
preceding ; and produces both flowers and leaves
though not always in the fame manner. Sometimes
the flowers and leaves are unfolded at the fame time.
This mode of the flower and leaf bud is termed by
Linnaeus gemma folifera et foff era. Sometimes the
leaves proceed or emerge out of this kind of bud upon
a^ fmall branch, which afterwards produces flowers.
This mode of the flower and leaf bud is termed by-
Linnaeus and is the moil com¬
mon bud of any.
Such buds as produce branches adorned only with
leaves, are called barren ; fuch as contain both leaves
and flowers, fertile. From the bulk of the bud we
may often with eafe foretel whether it contains leaves
only, or leaves and flowers together, as in cherry and
pear trees.
Neither the buds produced on or near the root,
called by fome authors turiones, nor thofe produced on
the trunk, and from the angles or wings of the leaves,
contain, in flridt propriety, an entire delineation of the
plant; fince the roots are wanting; and in various
3 P buds,
Gemma.
GEM
Gemma, buds, as we have feen, (hoots are
^ -y -■ * leaves only, and not with flowers: but as a branch
may be confidered as a part fitnilar to the whole plant,
and, if planted, would in procefs of revegetation ex-
hibit or produce roots and flowers, we may in general
allow, that the bud contains the whole plant, or the
principles of the whole plant, which may be unfolded
ad libitum i and thus relembles the feed, in containing
a delineation of the future plant in embryo : for al¬
though the bud wants a radicle, or plumula, of which
the feed is poffefled, yet it would undoubtedly form
one, if planted in the earth. But as the medullary
part adhering to the bud is too tender, and by the
abundance of juice flowing into it from the earth would
be difpofed to putrefaaion, the buds are not planted
in the foil, but generally inferted within the bark of
another tree j yet placed fo that the produftion of the
marrow, or pith, adhering to them, may be inferted
into the pith of the branch in which the fillure or cleft
is made ; by which means there is a large communica¬
tion of juice. This propagation by gems or buds,
called inoculation, is commonly pra&ifed with the hilt
fort of buds above defcribed.
From the obvious ufes of the buds, we may colleft
the reafon why the Supreme Author of nature has
granted this fort of prote&ion to mofl: of the trees that
are natives of cold climates: and, on the other hand,
denied it to fuch as, enjoying a warm benign atmo-
fphere, have not the tender parts of their embryo
(hoots expofed to injuries and depredations from the
feverities of the weather. Of this latter kind are the
plants of the following lift; fome of them very large
trees \ others fmaller woody vegetables, of the (hrub
and under-fhrub kind: Citron, orange, lemon, caflava,
mock orange, blad apple, fhrubby fwallow-wort, alater-
nus, fhrubby geraniums, berry-bearing alder, Chnft s
thorn, Syrian mallow, boabab or Ethiopian four
gourd, jufticia, mild fena, the acacias and fenfitive
plant, coral tree, (linking bean trefoil, medicago, ole¬
ander, viburnum, fumach, ivy, tamarifk, heath, Barba-
does cherry, lavatera, rue, fhrubby nightfhades, Guinea
henweed, cyprefs, lignum vitae, and favine, a fpecies or
^ On annual plants, whofe root as well as flalk perifhes
after a year, true buds are never produced \ in their
(lead, however, are produced fmall branches, like a
little feather, from the wings of the leaves, which
wither without any farther expanfion if the plants climb
and have no lateral branches } but if, either by their
own nature or from abundance of fap, the plants be¬
come branched, the ramuli juft mentioned obtain an
increafe fimilar to that of the whole plant.
The fame appearance obtains in the trees of warm
countries, fuch as thofe enumerated in the above lift, in
which a plumula, or fmall feather, fends forth branches
without a fcaly coveringas, in fuch countries, this
tender part requires no defence or proteftion from cold.
A fcaly covering then is peculiar to buds, as it protedls
the tender embryo enclofed from all external injuries.
"When we therefore fpeak of trees having buds that are
naked or without fcales, our meaning is the fame as if
we had faid that they have no buds at all.
The buds that are to be unfolded the following
vear, break forth from the evolved buds of the prefent
^ear, in fuch a manner as to put on the appearance
[482] G E K
contained with of fmall eminences in the wings or angles of the leaves. Gemma
Thefe eminences or knots grow but little during the
fummer j as, in that feafon, the fap is expended on the srmmi
increafe of the parts of the plant: but in autumn,
w hen the leaves begin to wither and fall off, the buds,
placed on the wings, increafe ; and the embryo plant
contained in the bud is fo expanded, that the leaves and
flowers, the parts to be evolved the following year, are
diftinttly vifible. Thus in horfe chefnut the leaves, and
in cornel tree the flowers, are each to be obferved in
their refpeftive buds.
As each bud contains the rudiments of a plant, and
would, if feparated from its parent vegetable, become
every way fimilar to it ^ Linnaeus, to fhow the wonder¬
ful fertility of nature, has made a calculation, by which
it appears, that, in a trunk fcarcely exceeding a fpan in
breadth, 10,000 buds (that is, herbs) may be produced.
What an infinite number, then, of plants might be
raifed from a very large tree !
GEMMATIO, from gemma, “ abudj” a term ufed
by Linnaeus, expreflive of the form of the buds, their
origin, and their contents. It includes both thofe pro¬
perly called buds, and thofe which are feated at the
roots, flyled bulbst
As to the origin of buds, they are formed either of
the footilalks of the leaves, of itipulae, or of fcales of
the bark. Their contents have been already difcovered,
in the preceding article, to be either flowers, leaves, or
both.
GEMONI^E SCAUE, ox GradusGEMONIJ, among
the Romans, was much the fame as gallows or gibbet
in England.—Some fay they were thus denominated
from the perfon who raifed thent •, others, from the
fiifl criminals that fuffered on them j and others, from
the verb gemo, “ I figh or groan.”
The gradus gemonii, according to Publius Vittor or
Sextus Rufus, was a place raifed on feveral fleps, from
whence they precipitated their criminals •, others re-
prefent it as a place whereon offenders were executed,
and afterwards expofed to public view. 'Iho gemoma
fcalce were in the tenth region of the city, near the
temple of Juno. Camillus firft appropriated the place
to this ufe, in the year of Rome 358. . , „ ,
GENDARMES, or Gens d’armes, in the French
armies, a denomination given to a feleft body of horfe,
on account of their fucceeding the ancient gendarmes,
who were thus called from their being completely
clothed in armour; (fee Scots GENDARMES, infra.)
Thefe troops were commanded by captain lieutenants,
the king and the princes of the blood being their
captains ; the king’s troop, befides a captain-lieute¬
nant, had two fublieutenants, three enfigns, and three
guidons. r j
Grand GENDARMES, latterly were a troop compoied
of 250 gentlemen j the king himfelf was their captain,
and one of the firft peers their captain-lieutenant, who
had under him two lieutenants, three enfigns, three
guidons, and other officers.
Small GENDARMES, were the Scots gendarmes, the
queen’s, the dauphin’s, the gendarmes of Anjou, Bur¬
gundy, the Englifh and Flemifh gendarmes, having
each a captain lieutenant, fub-lieutenant,enfign, guidon,
and quarter-mafter. ..... A
Scots GENDARMES, were originally mtlituted b/
Charles VII. of France, about the middle of the ijtfc
century*
GEN [ 483 ] GEN
Gendarmes century, and formed a part of his guard •, in which
II ftation alfo they afted under other princes. It was their
Geneaiog)- prerogatjve to take precedence of all the companies of
Stuart's gendarmerie of France ; and, on particular occa-
Con/lit. of fions, they even preceded the two companies of the
Scotland, king’s moufquetaires. The fons of the Scottifh mo-
narchs were the ufual captains of this company $ and,
after Mary’s acceflion to the throne, its command
belonged to them as a right. It was thence that
James VI. made a claim of it for his fon Prince Henry.
This honour, and its emoluments, were alfo enjoyed
by Charles I. and the next in command to this prince
was Louis Stuart duke of Lennox. George Gordon
marquis of Huntly, fucceeded the duke of Lennox in
the year 1624, an(^ t0°k t^e °f captain or com¬
mander in chief when Charles I. mounted the Englilh
throne. It is not certain whether Charles II. was ever
captain of this company; but it was conferred on his
brother the duke of York, who was captain of the
Scots gendarmes till the year 1667, when he refigned
his commiffion into the hands of the French king.
Since that time no native of Great Britain has enjoyed
this command. See Scots GUARDS.
All the different gendarmeries are now abolifhed, in
confequence of the reforming fyftems that have lately-
taken place in France.
GENDER, among grammarians, a divifion of nouns,
or names, to diftinguiih the two fexes.
This was the original intention of gender : but after¬
wards other words, which had no proper relation either
to one fex or the other, had genders affigned them,
rather out of caprice than reafon ; which is at length
eltablifhed by cultom. Hence genders vary according
to the languages, or even according to the words in¬
troduced from one language into another. Thus, arbor
in Latin is feminine, but arbre in French is mafeulinej
and dens in Xatin is mafeuline, but dent in French is
feminine.
The oriental languages frequently negleft the ufe of
genders, and the Perfian language has none at all.
The Latins, Greeks, &c. generally content them-
felves to exprefs the different genders by different ter¬
minations ; as bonus equus, “ a good horfe j” bona equa,
“ a good mare,” &c. But in Englifh we frequently
go further, and exprefs the difference of fex by differ¬
ent words : as boar, fow • boy, girl j buck, doe ; bull,
cow; cock, hen; dog, bitch, &c.—We have only
about 24 feminines, diftinguifhed from the males, by
the variation of the termination of the male into efs ;
of which number are abbot, abbefs ; count, countefs ;
aftor, aftrefs; heir, heirefs; prince, princefs, &c.
which is all that our language knows of any thing like
genders.
The Greek and Latin, befides the mafculine and fe-
- minine, have the neuter, common, and the doubtful
gender; and likewife the epicene, or promifeuous,
which under one Tingle gender and termination includes
both the kinds.
GENEALOGY, an enumeration of a feries of an-
ceilors; or a fummary account of the relations and al¬
liances of a perfon or family, both in the direcl and
collateral line.
The word is Greek, yimthoyta ; which is formed of
yixes, “ race or lineage,” and *97*5, “ difeourfe.”
In divers chapters and military orders, it is required,
that the candidates produce their genealogy, to fhow Genealogy
that they are noble by fo many dements. II
GENEALOGICA arbor, or Tree of Confangui-.GencraI*,
lignifies a genealogy or lineage drawn out under ^
the figure of a tree, with its root, flock, branches,
&c. The genealogical degrees are ufually reprefented
in circles, ranged over, under, and afide each other.
This the Greeks called Jlemmata, a word fignifying
crown, garland, or the like. See the articles Con¬
sanguinity and Descent, and theplates there referred
to.
GENEP, a ftrong town of Germany, in the circle
of Weflphalia, fubjedt to the king of Pruffia. E. Long.
4. 29. N. Lat. 51. 42.
GENERAL, an appellation given to whatever be¬
longs to a whole genus.
General AJfembly. See Assembly.
General Charge^ in Law. See CHARGE to enter
Heir.
GENERAL Terms, among logicians, thofe which are
made the figns of general ideas. See Logic and Me¬
taphysics.
General Warrant. See Warrant.
General of an Army, in the art of War, he who
commands in chief. See the article War, where his
office and duties are particularly explained.
General of the Artillery. See Ordnance.
General of Horfe, and General of Foot, are
polls next under the general of the army, and thefe
have upon all occafions an abfolute authority over all
the horfe and foot in the army.
Adjutant GENERAL, one who attends the general,
affiils in council, and carries the general’s orders to
the army. He diflributes the daily orders to the ma¬
jors of brigade. He is likewife charged with the ge¬
neral detail of the duty of the army. The majors of
brigade fend every morning to the adjutant general
an exadl return, by battalion and company, of the
men of his brigade. In a day of battle the adjutant
general fees the infantry drawn up ; after which, he
places himfelf by the general, to receive any orders
which may regard the corps of which he has the de¬
tail. In a liege, he orders the number of workmen
demanded, and figns the warrant for their payment.
He receives the guards of the trenches at their ren¬
dezvous, and examines their condition ; he gives and
figns all orders for parties. He has an orderly fer-
jeant from each brigade of infantry in the line, to
carry fuch orders as he may have occafion to fend from
the general.
Lieutenant GENERAL, is the next in command after
the general; and provided he fhould die or be killed,
the order is, that the oldeft lieutenant general fhall take
the command. This office is the firfl military dignity
after that of general. One part of their funftion is,
to affifl the general with their council: they ought
therefore, if poffible, to poffefs the fame qualities with
the general himfelf; and the more, as they often com¬
mand armies in chief.
The number of lieutenant generals has been mul¬
tiplied of late in Europe, in proportion as the armies
have become numerous. They ferve either in the field,
or in fieges, according to the dates of their commiffions.
In battle, the oldeft commands the right wing of the
army, the feccmd the left wing, the third the centre,
3 P 2 the
GEN
[ 484 3
GEN
General, the fourth the right wing of the fecond line, the fifth
  v the left wing, the fixth the centre } and lo on. In
fieges, the lieutenant generals always command the
right of the principal attack, and order what they judge
proper for the advancement of the fiege during the 24
hours they are in the trenches : except the attacks,
which they are not to make without an order from the
general in chief. o r\
Lieutenant GENERAL of the Ordnance. See Ord-
Lieutenant GENERAL of Artillery, is, or ought to
be, a very great mathematician, and an able engineer j
to know all the powers of artillery j to underftand the
attack and defence of fortified places, in all its difterent
branches j how to difpoie of the artillery in the day of
battle to the beft advantage j to conduct its march and
retreat j as alfo to be well acquainted with all the nu¬
merous apparatus belonging to the train, and to the la¬
boratory, &c. i
Major General, the next officer to the lieutenant
general. His chief bufinefs is to receive orders from
the general, or in his abfence from the lieutenant gene¬
ral of the day 5 which he is todiilribute to the brigade
xoaiors, w'ith whom he is to regulate the guaras, con-
vovs, detachments, &c. On him relts the whole fa¬
tigue and detail of duty of the army roll. It is the ma¬
jor general of the day who is charged with the encamp¬
ment of the army, who places himielf at the head ol it
when they march, who marks out the ground of the
camp to the quartermafter general, and who places the
new guards for the lafety of the camp.
The day the army is to march, he dictates to the
field officers the order of the march, which he has re¬
ceived from the general, and on other days gives them
In a fixed camp he is charged with the foraging,
with reconnoitring the ground for it, and polling the
efcorts, &e. r
In fieges, if there aie two feparate attacks, the le-
cond belongs to him ; but if there is but one, he takes,
either from the right or left of the attack, that which
the lieutenant general has not cholen.
When the army is under arms, he aflilts the lieute¬
nant general,, whole orders he executes.
If the army marches to an engagement, his pod is at
the head of the guards of. the army, until they are near
enough to the enemy to rejoin their different corps •, af¬
ter which, he retires to his own proper poll: tor the
major generals are difpofed on the order of battle as the
lieutenant generals are 5 to whom, however, they aie
fubordinate, for the command of their, divifions. The
major-general has one aid-de-camp, paid for executing '
his orders. .
General is alfo ufed for a particular march, or
beat of drum y being the firft which gives notice, com¬
monly in the morning early, for the infantry to be in
readinefs to march. _
General is likewife an appellation by which officers
in law, in the revenues, &c. are diftinguifhed 3 as at¬
torney general, folicitar general, &c. receiver general,
comptroller general,'&.c. See ATTORNEY, &c.
General is alfo ufed for the chief of an order of
monks, or of ail the houles and congregations efta-
bliffied under ihe fame rule. Thus we fay, the gene¬
ral of the Franciieans, Ciftertians, &c.
GENERALISSIMO, called alfo captain GeneraliffU
and limply general, is an officer who commands all the n'‘°
military pow ers of a nation *, who gives orders to all the
other general officers ; and receives no orders himfelf 
but from the king.
M. Balzac obferves, that the cardinal de Richelieu
firft coined this word, of his own abfolute authority^
upon his going to command the French army in Italy.
GENERATE, in Muftc, is ufed to fignify the ope¬
ration of that mechanical power in nature, which every
found has in producing one or more difterent founds.
Thus any given found, however fimple, produces along
with itfelf, its oftave, and two other founds extremely
fharp, viz. its twelfth above, that is to fay, the odtave
of its fifth } and the other the feventeenth above,,
or, in other words, the double odtave of its third
major.
Whether we fuppofe this procreation of lounds to
refult from an aptitude in the texture and magnitude
of certain particles in the air, for conveying to our
ears vibrations that bear thofe proportions, one t;o ano¬
ther, as being determined at once by the partial and
total ofcillations of any mufical firing •, or irorn what¬
ever economy of nature we choofe to trace it j the
power of one found thus to produce another, when in
a£lion, is fai'd \.a generate. The. fame word is applied,
by Signior Tartini and his followers, to any two founds-
which, fimultaneoully heard, produce a third.
GENERATED, or Genited, is ufed, by feme
mathematical writers, for whatever is produced, either
in arithmetic, by the multiplication, divifion, or ex4
traftion of roots •, or in geometry, by the invention of
the contents, areas, and tides ; or of extreme and mean
proportionals, without arithmetical addition and fuD-
traction.
GENERATING line, or Figure, in Geometry,
is that which, by its motion of revolution, produces any
other figure, plane or iolid. See Genesis.
GENERATION, in Physiology, the aft of procre¬
ating and producing a being limilar to the parent. See
Anatomy, N° 157.
Generation ofFifhes. See Comparative Ana¬
tomy, N° 304, and Ichthyology.
Generation of Plants. See Botany.
Generation of InJeBs. See Comparative Ana¬
tomy, p. 312, and Entomology, p. 234.
Parts of Generation. See Anaiomy, N° 157.
Generation, in Mathematics, is uled for formation
or production. Ihus we meet wuth the generation of
equations, curves, folids,,&c.
Generation, in Theology. The Father is faid by
fome divines to have produced his W ord or Son from
all eternity, by way of generation •, on which occafion
the word generation railes a peculiar idea : that procef-
fion, which is really effected in the way of underftand^.
ing, is called generation, btcaufe in virtue thereof, the
\\ ord becomes like to him from w horn he takes this ori¬
ginal 5 or, as St Paul expreffes it, is the figure or image
of his fubftance, i. e. of his being and nature.
hence it is, they fay, that the fecond Perfon in the Tri¬
nity is called the Son. .
Generation is alfo ufed, though fomewhat impro¬
perly, for genealogy,, or the leries of children ifiued
from the fame Itock. Thus the gofpel ol St Matthew
commences with the book of the generation of Jems
Chrift*
GEN [48
Generation Chrift, &c. The latter and more accurate tranflators,
II r inllead of generation ufe the word genealogy.
13 Generation is alfj ufed to fignity a people, race,
or nation, efoecially in the literal tranilations of the
Scripture, where the word generally occurs wherever
the Latin has generation and the Greek ysyso-*?. Thus,
w A wicked and perverfe generation 1'eeketh a fign,”
&Lc. “ One generation paffes away, and another cotn-
eth,” &c.
Generation is alfo ufed in the fenfe of an age, or
the ordinary period of man’s life. Thus we fay, “ to
the third and fourth generation.” In this fenfe hifto-
rians ufually reckon a generation the fpace of 33 years
or thereabouts. See Age.
Herodotus makes three generations in a hundred
years 5 which computation appears from the latter au¬
thors of political arithmetic to be pretty juft.
GENERATOR, in Ah/Jic, fignifies the principal
found or founds by which others are produced. Thus
the loweft C for the treble of the harpfichord, befides
its ottave, will ftrike an attentive ear with its twelfth
above, or G in alt, and with its feventeenth above, or
E in alt. The C, therefore, is called their generatorx
the G and E its products or harmonics. But in the
approximation of chords, for G, its odtave below is
iubftituted, which conftitutes a fifth from the generator,
or loweft C j and for E, is likewife fubftituted its fif¬
teenth below, which, with the above-mentioned C,
forms a third major. To the loweft notes, therefore, ex¬
changed for thofe in alt by fubftitution, the denomina¬
tions of products or harmonies are like wife given, whilft
the C retains the name of their generator. But ftill
according to the fyftem of Tartini, two notes in con¬
cord, which when founded produce a third, may be
iexmtti. concurring generators that third. (See
Generation Harmonique, per M. Rameau ; fee alfo that
delineation of Tartini’s fyftem called The Power and
Principles of Harmony).
GENERIC AL NAME, in Natural Hi/lory, the word
ufed to fignify all the fpecies of natural bodies, w hich
agree in certain effential and peculiar charafters, and
therefore all of the fame family or kindj fo that the
word ufed as the generical name equally exprefles every
one of them, and fome other words expretlive of the
peculiar qualities or figures of each are added, in order
to denote them fingly, and make up what is called the
fpecific name. See Botany and NATURAL Hi/lory.
GENESIS, the firft book of the Old Teftament,
containing the hiftory of the creation, and the lives of
the firft patriarchs.
I he book of Genefis Hands at the head of the Pen¬
tateuch. Its author is held to be Mofes: it contains
the relation of 2369 years, viz. from the beginning of
the rvorld to the death of Jofeph. The Jews are for¬
bidden to read the beginning of Genefis, and the be¬
ginning of Ezekiel, before 30 years of age.
The Hebrews call this book Berefchith, becaufe it
begins with that word, which in their language figni-
fies in pnncipioy or “ in the beginning.” Greeks gave
give it the name Gene/is, rivuris, q d. production, ge¬
neration, becaufe it begins with the hiftory of the pro-
duCtio , or generation of all beings.
^Ihis book, befides the hiftory of the creation, con¬
tains an account of the original innocence and fall of
man} the propagation of mankind j the rife of religion j
1 GEN
the general defection and corruption of the tvorld j the Genefir
deluge 5 the reftoration of the world ; the divifion II
and peopling of the earth ; and the hiftory of the GeKeYa;
firft patriarchs to the death of Jofeph. It was eafy for ”
Mofes to be fatisfied of the truth of what he delivers
in this book, becaufe it came down to him through
a few hands 5 for from Adam to Noah there was one
man, viz. Methufelah, who lived fo long as to fee them
both : in like manner Shem converfed with Noah and
Abraham j Ifaac with Abraham and Jofeph, from
wrhom the records of this book might eafily be convey¬
ed to Mofes by Amram, who was contemporary with
Jofeph.
Genesis, in Geometry, denotes the formation of a
line, plane, or folid, by the motion or flux of a point,
line, or furface. See Fluxions.
The genefis or formation, e. gr. of a globe or fphere,
is conceived by fuppofing a femicircle to revolve upon
a right line, drawn from one extreme thereof to the
other, called its axis, or axis of circumvolution : the
motion or revolution of that femicircle is the genefis of
the fphere, &e.
In the genefis of figures, &c. the line or furface that
moves is called the deferibent; and • the line round
which, or according to which, the revolution or motion
is made, the dirigent.
GENET, Gennet, or Jennet, in the manege, de¬
notes a imall-fized well-proportioned Spanifh horfe.
.To ride a la genette, is to ride after the Spanilh fa-
ftuon, fo ftiort, that the fpurs bear upon the horft’s
flank.
GENETHLIA, in antiquity, a folemnity kept in
memory of fome perfon deceafed.
GENE1 HLIACI, in AJlrology, perfons who ere£l
horofeopes, or pretend to foretel what fliall befal a man
by means of the ftars which prefided at his nativity.
1 he word is formed of the Greek yevsfboj, origin, gene¬
ration, nativity.
ihe ancients called them Chaldaei, and by the gene¬
ral name mathematici: accordingly, the feveral civil and
canon laws, W’hich we find made againft the mathema¬
ticians, only refpect the genethliaci or aftrologers.
i hey were expelled Rome by a formal decree of the-
fenatej and yet found fo much proteftion from the cre¬
dulity of the people,, that they remained therein un-
molefted. Hence an ancient author fpeaks of them
as homwum genus quod in eivitate nojlra femper et veta-
bitur et retinebetur.
GENETTE, in Zoology. See Viverra, Mam¬
malia Index.
GENEVA, a city of Switzerland, on the confines'
of France and Savoy, fituated in 6° E. Long, and
46 12 N. Lat. It ftands on the banks of the river
Rhone, juft, at the place where the latter iffues from
the. lake which takes its name from the city ; and part
of it is built on an ifland in the river. It is handfome
well fortified, and pretty large ; the ftreets in general-
are clean and well paved, but the principal one is en¬
cumbered with a row of Ihops on each fide betw-een
the carriage and foot-path. The latter is very wide
and protected from the weather by great wooden pent-
houfes proje&ing from the roofs 5 which, though very
convenient, give the ftreet a dark and dull appear¬
ance. The houfes are generally conftrubted of free-
ftone, with bafements of limeftone } the gutters, (pouts,
ridges,
GEN
[
Gtneva. ridges, and outward ornaments, being made of tinned
iron. Some of them have arched walks or piazzas m
front. The place called Treille is very agreeable, be¬
ing planted with linden trees, and commanding affine
profpea of the lake, with feveral ranges of rocks rifing
behind one another, fome covered with vineyards and
herbage, and others with fnow, having openings be-
tweent hem. Immediately below Geneva the Rhone
is joined by the Arve, a cold and muddy ftream rifing
among the Alps, and deriving a confiderable part of its
waters from the Glaciers. The Rhone is quite clear
and tranfparent, fo that the muddy water of the Arve
is diftinguilhable from it even after they have flowed
for feveral miles together. There are four bridges
over the Rhone before it joins the Arve *, and from it
the city is fupplied with water by means of an hy¬
draulic machine, which raifes it ico Paris feet above
its level. The principal buildings are, i. Themailon
de ville, or townhoufe, a plain ancient edifice, ivith
large rooms, in which the councils affemble, and pub¬
lic entertainments are held •, and in one of them a week¬
ly concert is held by fubfcription during the winter.
The afcent to the upper ftory is not by fteps but a
paved acclivity : which, however, is fo gentle, that
horfes and mules can go up to the top. 2. Hie
church of St Peter’s, formerly the cathedral, is an an¬
cient Gothic building, with a modern portico of feven
large Corinthian columns of red and white marble from
Roche. The only thing remarkable in the mfide is
the tomb of Henry duke of Rohan. 3. The arfenal ls
in good order, and fupplied with arms fufficient for
,2ioo men. There are many ancient fuits of armour;
and the fcaling ladders, lanthorns, hatchets, &c. ufed by
486 ] GEN
thofe inhabitants, who poffefs additional advantages. Geneva.
The people are very adtive and induftrious, carrying on ^ J
an extenfive commerce. i
This city is remarkable for the number of learned State of
men it has produced. The reformed doftrines of reli-^^S
gion w'ere very early received in it, being preached
there in 1533 by William Farel and Peter Viret of
Orbe, and afterwards finally eftabliihed by the celebra¬
ted John Calvin. Of this reformer Voltaire obferves,
that he gave his name to the religious dodtrines firft
broached by others, in the fame manner that Americus
Vefputius gave name to the continent of America,
which had formerly been difcovered by Columbus. It
was by the afliduity of this celebrated reformer, and
the influence that he acquired among the citizens,
that a public academy was firft eftablifhed in the city,
where he, Theodore Beza, and fome of the more enu-
nen firft reformers, read ledhires with uncommon fuc-
cefs. The intolerant fpirit of Calvin is well known j
but little of it now appears in the government of Ge¬
neva : on the contrary, it is the moft tolerating of all
the eftates in Switzerland, being the only one of them
which permits the public exercile of the Lutheran re¬
ligion. The advantages of the academy at Geneva are
very confpicuous among the citizens at this day, even
the lower clafs of them being exceedingly well inform¬
ed 5 fo that, according to Mr Coxe, there is not a city
in Europe w'here learning is fo generally diftufed. “ I
received great fatisfadVion (fays he) in converfing even
with feveral tradefmen upon topics both of literature
and politics •, and was aftonilhed to find in this clafs
of men fo uncommon a {hare of knowledge; but the
wonder ceafes when we are tcld that all of them were
educated at the public academy.” In this feminary
the Savoyards in their treacherous attempt on the city jlft d emulalio„ „f ,he Undents are excited
in the year tgot, lobe afterwards noticed, are here pre. ‘1',! / dirtr;bution „f prizes to thofe who di-
ferved. The magazines contam no cannon, beiides & the “JO* >f The prizes confift
ferved; The magazines
mortars. 4. The hofpital is a large handfome building,
by which and other charities near 4000 poor people
are maintained. 5- The fortifications on the fide of Sa¬
voy are of the modern conftrudtion, but are command¬
ed by fome neighbouring grounds. On the fide of
France they are old faftiioned, and at any rate are ra¬
ther calculated to prevent a furprife than to fuftam a
regular fiege. There are three gates, towards France,
Savoy, and Switzerland •, and the accefs to the lake is
guarded by a double jetty and chain.. .
The territory belonging to this city contains about
feven fquare leagues, and is divided into nine pa-
jjfhes ; the town is by far the moft populous m Swit¬
zerland, having about 30,000 inhabitants, of whom,
however, 5000 are generally fuppofed to be abient.
It has a fmall diftria dependent on it, but this
does not contain above 16,000. The adjacent coun¬
try is extremely beautiful, and has many magnificent
views arifing from the different pofitions of the nume¬
rous hills and mountains with regard to the town and
lake. The inhabitants were formerly diftinguiftied in¬
to four claffes, viz. citizens, burgeffes, inhabitants, and
natives : and fince the revolution in ihjo2f a fifth clals
named domicilius, has been added, who annually
receive permifiion from the magiftrates to refide in the
city. The citizens and burgeffes alone, however, are
admitted to a {hare in the government •, thofe called
inhabitants are ftrangers allowed to fettle in the town
with certain privileges 5 and the natives are the ions oi
3
ftinguith them Cel ves in each clafs. The prizes confift
of fmall medals, but are conferred with fuch folemmty
as cannot fail to produce a {hiking effeft on the minds
of youth. There is alfo a public library to which the
citizens have accefs, and which undoubtedly tends
greatly to that univerfal diftufion of learning fo re¬
markable among the inhabitants. It was founded by
Bonnivard, remarkable for his fuffenngs m the caufe ot
the liberties of his country. Having been a great an-
tagonift of the dukes of Savoy, againft whom he ai-
ferted the independence of Geneva, he had. the mis¬
fortune at laft to be taken prifoncr, and was imprifon-
ed for fix years in a dungeon below the level of the
lake, in the caftle of Chillon, which {lands on a rock m
the lake, and is conneaed with the land by a draw¬
bridge In 1536 this caftle was taken from Charles 111.
of Savoy by the canton of Berne, affifted by the Gene¬
vans, who furnilhed a frigate (their whole nava iwce)
to befiege it by water. Bonnivard was now taken from
his dungeon, where by conftant walking backward and
forward, his only amufement, he had worn a hollow
in the floor which confifte.d of folid rock. Bonnivard
confidered the hardfliips he had endured as ties which
endeared him to the city, and became a principal pro¬
moter of the reformation by the mild methods of per-
fuafion and inftruaion. He clofed his benefachons.by
the gift of his books and manufcnpts, and bequeathing
his fortune towards the eftabliftiment and fupport of
the feminary. His works, which chiefly relate^the
GEN
Geneva,
cabinet.
hiftory of Geneva, are ftill preferred with great care
L » and reverence. The library contains 25,000 volumes,
with many curious manufcripts, of which an account
has been publifhed by the reverend M. Sennebier the
librarian, who has likewife diftinguilhed himfelf by fe-
veral literary works. Meflrs Bonnet, Sauffure, Mallet,
and De Luc, are the other molt diftinguilhed literary
geniufes of which Geneva can boaft. The lalt is par¬
ticularly remarkable for the perfe&ion to which he has
brought the barometer, and which is now fo great,
a that very little feems poflible to be done by any body
Account of elfe. His cabinet merits the attention of naturalifts,
De Luc’s as containing many rare and curious fpecimens of fof-
lils, which ferve to illuftrate the theory of the globe.
It may be divided into three parts : 1. Such as enable
the naturalift to compare the petrifattions of animals
and vegetables with the fame bodies which are ftill
known to exift in our parts of the globe. 2. To com¬
pare thefe petrifactions of animals with the fame bodies
which are known to exift in different countries. 3.
To confider the petrifa&ions of thofe bodies which
are no longer known to exift. The fecond part com¬
prehends the Hones under three points of view : 1.
Thofe of the primitive mountains, which contain no
animal bodies j 2. Thofe of the fecondary mountains,
which contain only marine bodies j 3. Thofe which
contain terreftrial bodies. The third part contains the
lavas and other volcanic productions j which are diltin-
guilhed into two claffes : 1. Thofe which come from
volcanoes now actually burning j 2. Thofe from ex-
tmguilhed volcanoes.
In the time of Charles the Great, the city and ter-
[ 487 ]
GEN
Hiftory and
govern¬
ment of
Geneva.
ritory of Geneva made part of his empire ; and, under
his fucceffors, it became fubjeCt to the German empe¬
rors. By reafon of the imbecility of thefe princes,
however, the bilhops of Geneva acquired fuch autho¬
rity over the inhabitants, that the emperor had no
other means of counterbalancing it than by augmenting
the privileges of the people In thefe barbarous ages
alfo the bilhops and counts had conftant difputes, of
which the people took the advantage ; and by Tiding
fometimes with one, and fometimes with the other,
they obtained an extenfion of their privileges from
both. The houfe of Savoy at length purchafed the
territory, and fucceeded the counts with additional,
power againrt them .therefore the biftiops and people
united in order to refill their encroachments 5 and, du¬
ring this period, the government was-ftrangely com¬
plicated, by reafon of the various pretenfions of the
three parties. I he counts of Savoy, however, had at
laft the addrefs to diflblve the union between the bi¬
ftiops and citizens, by procuring the epifcopal fee for
their brothers, and even their illegitimate children j by
which means their power became gradually fo exten-
ftve, that towards the commencement of the 16th
century, Cnarles III. of Savoy (though the govern¬
ment was accounted entirely republican) obtained an
almoft abfolute authority over the people, and exer-
cifed it in a moft unjuft and arbitrary manner. Thus vio-
lent commotions took place j and the citizens became
divided into two parties, .one of which, viz. the pa¬
triots, were ftyled FAdgenoffen or confederates; the
partifans of Savoy being di'fgraced by the appellation
of Mamelucs oxjlaves. The true period of Genevan
liberty may therefore be conlidered as. commencing
with the treaty concluded with Berne and Friburg in Geneva,
the year 15265 in confequence of which the duke—■V'—
was in a ftiort time deprived of his authority, the bi-
Ihop driven from the city, and the reformed religion and
a republican form of government introduced A long
war commenced with Savoy on this acconnt 5 but the
Genevans proved an overmatch for their enemies by
their own bravery and the afliftance of the inhabitants
of Berne. In 1584, the republic concluded a treaty
■with Zurich and Berne, by which it is allied to the Swifs
cantons. The houfe of Savoy made their laft attempt
againft Geneva in 1602, when the city was treach-
eroufly attacked in the night time during a profound
peace. Two hundred foldiers had fcaled the walls,
and got into the town before the alarm was given 5
but they were repulfed by the defperate valour of a few
citizens, who periftied in the encounter. A petard had
been faftened to one of the gates by the Savoyards 5
but the gunner was killed before it could be difchar-
ged. The war occafioned by this treachery was next
year concluded by a folemn treaty, which has ever-
frnce been obferved on both fides : though the inde¬
pendence of Geneva was not formally acknowledged
by the king of Sardinia till the year 1754.
The reftoration of tranquillity from without, in
confequence of the above treaty, was however loon
followed by the flames of internal difcord, fo com¬
mon in popular governments 5 fo that during the
whole of the laft century the hiftory of Geneva af¬
fords little more than an account of the ftruggles be¬
twixt the ariftocratical and popular parties. About
the beginning of the prefent century the power of the
grand council was become almoft abfolute 5 but in
order to reftrain its authority, an edift was procured
in 1707 by the popular party, ena£ting, that every
five years a general council of the citizens and burgh¬
ers Ihould be fummoned to deliberate upon the af¬
fairs of the republic. In confequence of this law a ge¬
neral affembly was convened in 1712 ; and the very
firft aft of that affembly was to abolilh the editt by
which they had been convened. A proceeding fo ex¬
traordinary can fcarcely be accounted for on the prin¬
ciples of popular ficklenefs and inconftancy. . Rouf-
feau, in his Mifcellaneous Works, afcribes it to the
artifices of the magiftrates, and the equivocal terms
marked upon the billets then in ufe. For the queltion
being put, “ Whether the opinion of the councils for
abolilhing the periodical affemblies ftiould pafs into a
law ?” the words approbation or rejeSlion, put upon the
billets by which the votes were given, might be inter¬
preted either way. Thus, if the billet was chofen on
which the word approbation was written, the opinion
of the councils which rejedled the affemblies was ap¬
proved ; and by the word rejeBion, the periodical af¬
fembly was rejected of courfe. Hence feVeral of the
citizens complained that they had been deceived, and
that they never meant to rejeft the general afftmbly,
but only the opinion of the councils.
In confequence of the abolition of the general af¬
femblies, the power of the ariftocratical party was
greatly augmented ; till at length the inhabitants exert¬
ing themfelves with uncommon fpirit and perfeverance
found means to limit the power of the magiftrates, and
enlarge their own rights. In 1776, as Mr Gox informs -
us, the government might be confidered as a mean be¬
twixt
GEN [ 488 ] GEN
Geneva, twixt that of the ariftocratical and popular cantons of uhile the popular party had that of reprefentants; and geneva
^ Switzerland. 'J.'he members of the ienatCj or little
1 f council of 25, enjoyed in their^ corporate capacity fe-
the govem-.veral very confiderabie prerogatives. By them half the
ment in members of the great council were named j the princi-
in6’ pal magiftrates -were fupplied from their own body;,
they convoked the great and general councils, delibe¬
rating previoufly upon every queftion which was to be
brought before thefe councils. They were veiled alfo
with the chief executive power, the adminiilration of
finances, and had in a certain degree the jurifdiftion
in civil and criminal caufes. Moft of the fmaller polls
were likewife filled by them; and they enjoyed the
foie privilege of conferring the burgherlhip. Thele,
and other prerogatives, however, were balanced by
thofe of the great council and the privileges of the ge¬
neral council. The former had a right to choofe the
members of the fenate from their own body ; receiving
appeals in all caufes above a certain value, pardoning
criminals, &c. befides which they had the important
privilege of approving or rejecting whatever was pro-
pofed by the fenate to be laid before the people.
The general council or alfembly of the people is
compofed of the citizens and burghers of the town}
„their number in general amounting to 1500, though
ufually not more than 1 200 were prefent} the remain¬
der refiding in foreign countries, or being other wife
abfent. It meets twice a-year, choofes the principal
magillrates, approves or rejects the law's and regula¬
tions propofed by the other councils, impofes taxes,
* contrails alliances, declares wrar or peace, and nomi¬
nates half the members of the great council, &c. But
the principal check to the power of the fenate arofe
from the right of re-ele£lion, or the power of annually
expelling four members from the fenate at the nomi¬
nation of the fyndics.ox principal magiilrates, and from
the right of reprefentatiqn. The fyndics are four in
number, chofen annually from the fenate by the gene¬
ral council} and three years elapfe before the fame
members can be'again appointed. In ch ofing thefe
magiftrates, the fenate appointed from its own body
eight candidates, from whom the four fyndics wrere
to be chofen by the general council. The latter, how¬
ever, had it in their power to rejeiSl not only the firft
eight candidates, but alfo the whole body of fenators
in fucceffion : in which.cafe, four members of the fenate
retired into the great council: and their places were
filled by an equal number from that council. With
regard to the power of reprefentation, every citizen
or burgher has the privilege of applying to the fenate
in order to procure a new regulation in this refpefl,
or of remonftrating againft any.a<& of the.magistracy.
To thefe remonilrancts the magiftrates were obliged to
give an explicit anfwer ', for if a fatisfa£tory anfwer was
not given to one, a fecond was immediately prefented.
The reprefentation was made by a greater or fmaller
number of citizens according to the importance of the
r point in queftion.
Account of Since 1776, however, feveral changes have taken
the revolu- place. This right of re-elechon, which the ariftocratical
tion in party were obliged to yield to the people in 1 768, foon
17 S proved very difagreeable, being confidered by the former
as a kind of oltracifm } for which reafon they catched
at every opportunity .of procuring its abolition. They
were now diftinguiihed by the title of negatives.
the point in dilpute was the compilation or a new
of laws. This meafure the negatives oppofed, as
fuppofing that it would tend to reduce their preroga¬
tives •, while, on the other hand, the reprefentants ufed
their utmoft endeavours to promote it, in hopes of
having their privileges augmented by this means. At
laft in the month of January 1777, the negatives were
obliged to comply with the demands of their antago-
nifts} and a committee for forming a new code of laws
was appointed by the concurrence of the little, great,
and general councils. The committee was to laft for two
years, and the code to be laid before the three councils
for their joint approbation or rejection. A {ketch of
the firft part of the code was prefented to the little and
great councils on the firft of September I779> th9!-
they might profit by their obfervations before it was
prefented to the general council. Great difputes a-
rofe } and at length it was carried by the negatives that
the code ftiould be rejefted and the committee diffolv-
ed. The oppofite party complained of this as un-
conftitutional, and violent difputes enfued *, the iffue of
which was, that the great council offered to compile
the code, and fubmit it to the decifion of the public.
This did not give fatisfaftion to the popular party,
who confidered it as infidious; the contentions revived
with more fury than ever, until at length the negatives
fuppofing, or pretending to fuppofe, that their coun¬
try was in danger, applied to the guarantees, France,
Zurich, and Berne, entreating them to proteft the
laws and conftitution. I his was productive of no
good effeft } fo that the negatives found no other me¬
thod of gaining their point than by fowing diffenfion
among the different claffes of inhabitants. I he na¬
tives were difeontented and jealous on account of many
exclufive privileges enjoyed by that clafs named citi¬
zens: they wTere befides exafperated againft them for
having, in 1 770, baniihed eight of the principal na¬
tives, who pretended that the right of burgherftiip be¬
longed to the natives as well as to the citizens, and
demanded that this right ought to be gratuitoufty
conferred inftead of being purchafed. I he negatives,
in hopes of making fuch a confiderabie addition to
their party, courted the natives by all the methods
they could think of, promifing by a public declaration
that they were ready to confer upon them thofe privi¬
leges of trade and commerce which had hitherto been
confined exclufively to the citizens. I he defigns of the
negatives were likewile openly favoured by the court
of "France, and difpatches were even written to the
French refident at Geneva to be communicated to the
principal natives who fided with the arirtocratic party.
The attorney-general, conceiving this mode of interfe¬
rence to be highly unconftitutional, prefented afpinted
semonftrance •, by which the French court were fo much
difpleafed, that they procured his depofition from his
office } and thus their party was very confiderably in-
creafed among the natives. The reprefentants ^ere
by no means negligent in their endeavours to conciliate
the favour of the fame party, and even promifed what
they had hitherto oppofed ’ in the ftrongeft manner,
viz. to facilitate the acquifition of the burgherftiip,
and to bellow it as the recompenfe of induftry and
good behaviour. Thus two parties were formed a-
mong the natives themfelves 5 and the diffenfions be-
* coming
GEN
Geneva.
coming every day worfe and worfe, a general infurrec-
tion took place on the 5th of February 1781. A dif-
pute, accompanied with violent reproaches, having
commenced betwixt two neighbouring and oppofite
parties of natives, a battle would have immediately tak¬
en place, had it not been for the interpofition of the
fyndics on the one fide, and the chiefs of the reprefen-
tants on the other* "l he tumult was beginning to fub-
fide, when a difeharge of mufquetry was heard from the
arfenal. Some young men who tided with the nega¬
tives, having taken pofleffion of the arfenal, had fired
by mifiake upon feveral natives of their own party, and
had killed one and wounded another. This was con-
fidered by the reprefentants as the fignal for a general
in furred ion, on which they inftantly took up arms and
marched in three columns to the arfenal •, but finding
there only a few young men who had rafiily fired with¬
out orders, they permitted the reft to retire without
moleftation. In the opinion of fome people, however,
this affair was preconcerted, and the reprefentants are
faid to have been the firft aggreffors.
The reprefentants having thus taken up arms, were
ih no hafte to lay them down. They took poffeflion
of all the avenues to the city j and their committee
being fummoned next morning by the natives to fulfil
their engagements with refped to the burgherftiip,
they held feveral meetings with the principal negatives
on that lubjeft, but without any fuccefs : for though
the latter readily agreed to an augmentation of the
commercial privileges of the natives, they abfolutely
refufed to facilitate the acquifition of the burgherlhip.
The committee, however, embarraffed and alarmed at
the number and threats of the natives, determined to
abide by what they had promifed ; drew up an edi<ft
permitting the natives to carry on trade, and to hold the
rank of officers in the military affociations ; and con¬
ferred the burgherfnip on more than too perfons taken
from the natives and inhabitants, and even from the
peafants of the territory. This was approved by the
three councils j the negatives, dreading the power of
their adversaries, who had made themfelves mailers of
the city, not daring to make their appearance.
Thus the popular party imagined that they had got
a complete vi&ory ; but they foon found themfelves
deceived. They were prevailed upon by the deputies
from Zurich and Berne (who had been fent to conci¬
liate the differences) to lay down their arms ; and this
was no fooner done, than the fame deputies declared
the edi£l in favour of the natives to be null and illegal,
i he fenate declared themfelves of the fame opinion ;
and maintained, that the affent of the councils had
been obtained only through fear of the reprefentants
who were under arms, and whom none at that time
durft oppofe. The reprefentants, exafperated by this
proceeding, prefented another remonftrance on the
18th of March 1782, fummoning the magiftrates once
more to confirm the edi6t ; but a month afterwards
received the laconic anfwer, that “ government was
neither willing nor able to confirm it.” The natives,
now finding themfelves difappointed in their favourite
objett at the very time they had fuch ftrong hopes of
obtaining it, behaved at firft like frantic people ; and
thefe tranfports having fubfided, an univerfal tumult
took place. Ihe moil moderate of the popular party
endeavoured in vain to allay their fury. Dy difperling'
Vol. IX. Part II. ' i
r 489 i
GEN
themfelves in different quarters of the city j and the
citizens, finding themfelves at laft obliged either to
abandon the party of the natives or to join them open¬
ly, haftily adopted the latter meafure 5 after which, as
none could now oppofe them, the officers of the repre¬
fentants took poffeflion of the town, and quelled the
infurreftion. Various negotiations were carried on
with the negatives in order to prevail upon them to
ratify the edidl, but without fuccefs : on which a
few of the magiftrates were confined by the popu¬
lar party along with the principal negatives j and
as they juftly expedfed the interference of France on
account of what they had done, they refolved to
prolong the confinement of the prifoners, that they
might anfwer the purpofe of hoftages for their own
fiafety. In the mean time the body of citizens, deceiv¬
ed by the pretences of the popular party, adled as if
their power was already eftabliihed and permanent.
In confequence of this, they depofed feveral members
of the great and little councils, appointing in their
room an equal number of perfons who rvere favourable
to the caufe of the reprefentants. The great council
thus new modelled, executed the edidl for conferring
the burgherftiip upon a number of the natives 5 and
appointed a committee of fafety, compofed of eleven
members, with very confiderable authority. By this
committee the public tranquillity was re-eftabliftied j
after which, the fortifications were ordered to be re¬
paired ; and the people were buoyed up by the moll
dangerous notions of their own prowefs, and a confi¬
dence that France either durft not attack them or did
not incline to do fo. In confequence of this fatal er¬
ror, they refufed every offer of reconciliation which
was made, them from the other party ; until at laft
troops were difpatched againft them by the king of
Sardinia and the canton of Berne 5 and their refpec-
tive generals, Meffrs de la Marmora and Lentulus,
were ordered to a£l in concert with the French
commander, M. de Jaucourt, whe had advanced to
the frontiers with a confiderable detachment. The
Genevans, however, vainly puffed up by a confi¬
dence in their own abilities, continued to repair their
fortifications with indefatigable labour ; the peafants
repaired from all quarters to the city, offering to mount
guard and work at the fortifications without any pay j
women of all ranks crowded to the walls as to a place
of amufement, encouraging the men, and even aflift-
ing them in their labour. The befiegers, however,
advanced in fuch force, that every perfon of difeern-
ment forefaw that all refinance would be vain The
French general Jaucourt, on the 29th of June 1782,
defpatched a meffage to the fyndics; in which he in¬
filled on the following humiliating conditions : 1. That
no perfon Ihould appear on the ftreets under pain of
military punifhment. 2. That a certain number of
citizens, among whom were all the chiefs of the re¬
prefentants, Ihould quit the place in 24 hours. 3. That
all arms Ihould be delivered to the three generals.
4. That the depofed magiftrates ftiould be inftantly
re-eftablifhed : And, laftly, That an anfwer Ihould be
returned in t\vo hours. By this meffage the people
were thrown into the utmoft defpair j and all without
exception refolved to perifti rather than to accept of
terms fo very difgraceful. They inftantly hurried to
the ramparts with a view of putting their refolution
3 Q. in
Geneva.
GEN [490
Geneva, in force} but in the mean time the fyndics found
—-■v   means to obtain from the generals a delay of 24 hours.
During this interval, not only men of ail ages prepared
for the approaching danger, but even women and chil¬
dren tore the pavement from the ftreets, carrying the
ftones up to the tops of the houfes, with a view of
rolling them down upon the enemy in caie they (hould
force their way into the town. About 80 women
and girls, dreffed in uniforms, offered to form them-
felves into a company for the defence of their country.
The committee of fafety accepted their fervic.es, and
placed them in a barrack lecured from the cannon of
the befiegers. The negatives were greatly alarmed at
this appearance of defperate refdfance j and fome of
the mod moderate among them endeavoured, but with¬
out fuccefs, to effedt a reconciliation. At the hour
in which it was txpedfed that the attack would begin,
the ramparts were filled with defenders j and thoug
the moft zealous of the popular party had calculated
only on 3000, upwards of 5000 appeared in the pub¬
lic caufe. The French general, however, juftly alarm¬
ed for the priloners, who were now in imminent dan¬
ger, again prolonged the period propofed for the ca¬
pitulation. By thefe repeated delays the ardour of the
]
GEN
Jsfew con-
tlitution e-
ftaiiiiliied.
defendants began to abate. The women firft began to
figure to themfelves the horrors of a town taken by
affault, and given up to an enraged and licentious fol-
diery j many timid perfons found means not only to
difguife their own fears, but to infpire others with
them under the pretence of prudence and caution : at
laft the committee of fafety themfelves, who had fo
ftrenuoufly declared for hoftilities, entirely changed
their mind. Being well apprized, however, that it
would be dangerous for them to propofe furrendering
in the prefent temper of the people, they affembled the
citizens in their refpeftive circles, reprefentmg, that
if the city fhould be attacked in the night, it would
be no longer pofiible to convene them : for which rea-
fon they recommended to them that each circle fhould
nominate feveral deputies with full authority to decide
in their Head ; adding, that they ought rather to ap¬
point thofe perfons who from their age and rtfpectable
charadfer were capable of atTifting their countiy by
their advice, while others were defending it by their
valour. Thus a new council, composed of about 100
citizens, was formed •, in which the chiefs, by various
manoeuvres, firft intimidating, and then endeavouring
to perfuade the members of the neeeflity of furrender¬
ing, at laft found means to take the thoughts of the
people entirely off the defence of the city, and engage
them in a fcheme of general emigration. A decla¬
ration was drawn up to be delivered to the fyndics with
the keys of the city, the chiefs fummoned the princi¬
pal officers from their pofts, ordered the cannon of
feveral batteries to be rendered unfit for fervice, and
at laft took care of themfelves by quitting the town.
The people were in the utmoft defpair j and left the
town in fuch multitudes, that when the Sardinians
entered it in the morning, they found it almoft de-
ferted. This was followed by the reftoration of the
former magiftrates, a complete fubjeflion m the po¬
pular party, and the eftabliftiment of a militaiy go¬
vernment.
The changes which took place on this occafion were
as follow t 1. An abolition of the right o£ re-election.
2. The abolition of that right by which the general ^
council nominated half the vacancies in the great coun- "
cil. 3. The right of remonftiating was taken from
the citizens at large, and veiled in 36 adjuncts, who
might be prefent in the great council the hrft Monday
of every month. rihey enjoyed a right of repreienta-
tion, and in confequence of that had a deliberative
voice ; but on the whole were fo mfignifieant, that
they were nicknamed Les Images, or “ ihe lhadows.”
4. The introduction of the grabeau, or annual con¬
firmation of the members ol the fenate and of the great
council, veiled entirely in the latter. By this law
part of the authority both of the fenate and general
council was transferred to the great council, and by
fubjedling the fenate to this annual revifion, its power
was greatly lefftned, and it w as made in fail depend¬
ent upon the general councils. 5. Ihe circles or clubs
in which it w as cuftomary to convene the citizens, and
all public affemblies whatever, were prohibited j and
fo rigoroufly was this carried into execution, that the
foci ay of" arts was prohibited from meeting. 6.
The militia were aboliihed *, firing at marks, even
with bows and arrows, was prohibited j and the town,
inftead of being guarded by the citizens, was now put
Geneva,
under the care of 1000 foreign loldiers, whole colonel
and major were both to be foreigners. Theie troops
were to take an oath of fidelity to the republic, and of
obedience to the great council and the committee of
war : but were under the immediate command mid in-
fpeftion of the latter, and lubject to the luperior con-
troul of the former. 7* •^° Pt'r^on permitted to
bear arms, whether citizen, native, or inhabitant. 8.
Several taxes were impofed without the conlent ot the
general council*, but in time to come it was provided,
that every change or augmentation of the revenue
{hould be fubmitted to that body. 9. Several privi¬
leges with regard to trade and commerce, formerly poi-
feffed by the citizens alone, were now granted both to
citizens and inhabitants.
it is not to be fuppofed that this revolution would
be agreeable to people who had fuch a ftrong fenfe of
liberty, and had been accuftomed to put kith a value
upon it, as the Genevans. From what has been already
related, it might feem reafonable to conclude, that an
almoft univerfal emigration w'ould have taken place :
but after their refentment had time to iubfide, moft of
thofe who fled at firft, thought proper to return ; and,
in the opinion of Mr Coxe, not more than 6cc finally
left their country on account of the revolution m
1782. The emigrants principally fettled at Bruffels
and Conftance, where they introduced the arts of
printing linens and watchmaking. Soon after the re¬
volution, indeed, a memorial, figned by above lOQO
perfons of both fexes, all of them etther poffeffed of
fome property or verfed in trade or manufadurts, was
prefented to the earl of Temple, then lord lieutenant
of Ireland, expreffing a defire to fettle in that kingdom. ?
The propofal met with general approbation j the Infh^emew
parliament voted 50,000!. towards defraying the ex-fetthng a
pence, of their journey, and affording them a proper
fettlement in the ifland. Lands were purchafed
8000I. in a convenient fituation near Waterford ^ part
of New Geneva was a&ually completed at the expence
of 10,0001. *, a charter was granted with very con-
fidcrable privileges the ftandard of gold was* alter-
GEN [4
Geneva, ed for the accommodation of the vv'atch manufa&urers 5
L * ' and the foundation of an academy laid upon an ufeful
and liberal plan. Seven Genevans landed in Ireland
in the month of July 1783 : but when the nation had
expended near 30,000!. on the fcheme, it was fud-
denly abandoned. This feems principally to have been
owing to the delays necellarily occalioned in the exe¬
cution of fuch a complicated plan; and in feme degree
alfo by the high demands of the Genevan commiflion-
ers, who required many privileges inconfillent with
the laws of Ireland. By thefe delays the Genevans,
whofe character !eems not to be perjeverance, were indu¬
ced to abandon the fcheme, and return to their former
place of refidence. Even the few who had already land¬
ed, though maintained at the public expence, wt redif-
contented at not finding the new town prepared for
their reception ; and as thofe among the propofed emi¬
grants who poflefled the greateft (hare of property had
already withdrawn their names, the remainder did not
choofe to remain in a country where they had not capital
fuffu ient to carry on any conliderable trade or manu¬
facture. A petition was then prefented by the Gene¬
van commiflioners, requefting that lo,oool. of the
50,300!. voted might be appropriated to the form¬
ing a capital: but as this had been voted for other
purpofes, the petition was of courfe rejected ; in con-
fequence of which, the Genevans relinquished the fet-
tlement by an addrefs, .and foon after quitted the
8 illand.
lution b °' 1 k® people of Old Geneva, though returned to their
1789. former place of abode, were far from being inclined to
fubmit to the yoke with patience. They were obliged
to pay heavy taxes for maintaining a military force ex-
prefsly calculated to keep themfelves in fubjeclion : and
fo intolerable did this appear, that in a few years every
thing feemed ready for another revolution. The fuc-
cefs of this feemed more probable than that of the for¬
mer, as France was not now in a condition to inter¬
fere as formerly. The general ferment foon role to
fuch a height, that government was obliged to call in
the aid of the military to quell a tumult which hap¬
pened in the theatre. This produced only a tempo¬
rary tranquillity ; another tumult took place on the
26th of January 1789, on account of the publication
of an ediCt railing the price of bread a farthing per
pound. On this the people inftantly rofe, plundered
the bakers (hops : and next day a carriage loaded wilh
bread and escorted by loldiers was plundered in its
way to the diltribution office. T he foldiers fired on
the populace, by which one man was killed and ano¬
ther wounded: but the tumult {till increafing, the
foldiers were driven away; and the body of the decea-
fed was carried in a kind of proceffion before the town
houfe. as a monument of the violence and oppreffion
of the ariftocratic party. The magiftrates in the mean
time fpent their time in deliberation, intlead of taking
any effectual method of quelling the infurreCtion. The
people made the belt ufe of the time afforded them by
this delay of the magiftrates ; thev attacked and car¬
ried two of the gates, dangeroufly wounding the com¬
manding officer as he attempted to allay the fury of
both parties. At laft the magi'h-ates defpatched agalnft
them a confiderable body of troops, whom they thought
the mfurgents would not have the courage to refill ;
but in this they found themfelves deceived. The
1 GEN
people had formed a ftrong barricade, behind which Geneva.
they played off two fire pumps filled with boiling wa-  
ttr and foap lyes againll the extremities of two bridges
which the military had to crofs before they could at¬
tack them. . The commanding officer was hilled and
leveral of his men wounded by the difeharge of fmall
arms from windows ; and the pavement w as carried up
to the tops of houles in order to be thrown down upon
the troops if they Ihould force the barricades and pe¬
netrate into the ilreets. The tumult in the mean time
continued to increafe, and was in danger of btec ming
univerfal; when the magistrates, finding it would be ;m-
poffible to quell the infurgents without a great effufion.
of blood, were reduced to the neceffity of complying
with their demands. One of the principal magiiirates
repaired in perfon to the quarter of Sc Gervais, pro¬
claimed an edia for lowering the pace of bread, grant¬
ed a genera] amnefty, and releafed all the infurgents
vho had been taken into cuflody. lous a momen¬
tary calm was produced ; but the leaders of the inlitr-
redlion, fenfible that the magiilrates were either unable
or unwilling to employ a fufficient force againft them
refolved to take advantage of the prefent opportunity
to procure a new change of government. A new in-
furre&ion, therefore, took place on the 29th of the
month, in which the foldiers were driven from their
pods, difarmed, and the gates feized by the people.
The magiilrates then, convinced that all oppofition
was fruitlefs, determined to comply with the demands
of their antagonills in their full extent; and the arif-
tocratical party fuddenly changing their fentiments,
renounced in a moment that fyftem to which they had
hitheito fo o ffiinately adhered. On the application
of the folicitor gen ral, therefore, for the recovery of the
ancient liberties of the people, the permiffion of bear¬
ing arms, re-eftablilhment of the militia, and of their
circles or political clubs, the removal of the garrifon
fi mi the barracks, and the recal of the reprefentants
who were baniflied in 1782; thefe moderate demands
were received with complacency, and even fatisfa&ion.
The preliminaries were fettled without difficulty, and*
a new edict of pacification was publilhed under the
title of Modifications a l'Edition de 1782, and approv¬
ed by the fenate, great council, and general council.
So great was the unanimity on this oecafion, that the
modifications were rtcc-iv<d by a majority of 1321
agamll 52 The pacification was inllantly followed by
marks of friendlhip betwixt the two parties which had
never been experienced before ; the Ions of the prin¬
cipal negatives freq ented the circles of the burghers-
the magiilrates obtained the confidence of the people •
and no monument of the military force fo odious to
the people will be allowed to remain. “ The barracks
of the town houfe (fays Mr Coxe) are already eva¬
cuated, and will be converted into a public library ; the
new barracks, built at an enormous expence, and more
calculated for the garrifon of a powerful and defpotic
kingdom than for a fmall and free commonwealth
will be converted into a building for the univerfity.
The reformation of the ftudies, which have fierce¬
ly received any alteration fince the time of Calvin,
is now in agitation. In a word, all things fiem at
prefent to confpire for the general good ; and it is
to be hoped that both parties, (hocked at the recol-
ledion of pad troubles, will continue on as friendly
3 Q. a terms
GEN
[ 492 1
GEN
Geneva, terms as the jealous nature of a free conftitution will
Geneva, as well as the whole of Switzerland, fell a
viaim to French rapacity in 1802. The following ob-
fervations, made by a traveller on the fpot, afford us
fome information of the confequences of this event to
Geneva, of its degraded ftate, and of the manners of
the inhabitants,
“ The population of Geneva is about 24,000 : more-
ever it contains at prefent between 1200 and 1400
French troops : the parties intermix but little, and have
had no difputes, although they certainly regard each
other with an eye of jealoufy. The Genevans do the
French foldiers the juftice to fay, that they have de¬
meaned themfelves in a very becoming manner during
their refidence here : they acknowledge themfelves to
be a conquered people, and dare not open their mouths,
except to an Englithman, againft the treacherous in¬
vaders of their country, and deftroyers of their liber-
tics* •
“ You are too well verfed in the kiftory of this peo¬
ple to require being told, that, notwithftanding t «r
prefent humiliated condition, Freedom is the goddds
they worlhip j and that, had there been any poffibility
ef fecuring her from violation, they would gladly have
bled before her altars. However various has been their
fuccefs, in the different revolutions which have agitated
this fecluded ftate, the Genevans have uniformly evin¬
ced a courage which awed their enemies, and a deter¬
mined bravery in defence of their rights, which in (hew¬
ing that they prized them highly, gave proof that they
were worthy to enjoy them.. j 1 • .c
“ The territory of Geneva is comprehended m the 1J
partment du Leman, which department contains about
16 fquare leagues of land: its population is eftimated at
600,000 perfons. It is divided into three cantons or
hundreds, the largeft of which has Geneva for its capital,
' and contains about 75,000 fouls, of which io,OOO.only
are Genevans, 20,000 are French, and the remainder
are Savoyards. The prefet, as in all the other depart¬
ments, is appointed by the Firft Conful, durante bene,
placito. The care of the high roads and public walks,
public finances, executive juftice, military affairs and
paffports, are under his immediate direction. A.1 mili¬
tary appointments are given to Frenchmen : one gene¬
ral commands the town, and another the country. At
the firft moment of the revolution all the old m.agii-
trates were difplaced, and fince that time the civil of¬
ficers have been ele&ed by the citizens at large, conle-
quently fome are Frenchmen, and fome Genevans : the
prefent mayor is one of the latter : he is a gentleman of
great refpeaability, and is much efteemed by b°th Pi¬
ties. Whenever a new code of laws (hall be eftablifti-
ed in France, its operations will be extended over the
territory of Geneva •, but at prefent the people here re¬
tain their old laws with fome trifling alterations only,
rather the form than the fubftance : thus, the guillotine
is now fubftituted for the gallows, and the pumlhments
jn general, without varying the degree, are infli&ed ac¬
cording to the French manner.
« ln their treaty with France, the Genevans ftipula-
ted, that their hofpital (hould not be obliged to receive
French foldiers : this hofpital was founded in the early
part of the laft century, by fome of the richeft citizens,
and is fo well fupported by legacies, and by annual fub-
a
fcriptions, that the fund enables the direftors to expend ^ 
two thoufand louis a year. In contempt of his treaty,
Bonaparte has infilled on the admiflion of French fol¬
diers, for whofe accommodation, however, hepromifed to
pay ? certain fum per diem : in contempt of his promiie,
again, he has withheld the payment ! An hofpital,
however, is now preparing at Carouge, a village m
Savoy, between Geneva and Grange Colonge, for
Frenchmen, to which, it is expefted, the foldiers wiU
be removed in May or June. Here is alio a general
hofpital, once the nunnery of St Clair ; it was founded,
together with many other ufeful inftitutions, by that ce¬
lebrated reformer, John Calvin, who fled from the per-
fecution of Francis 1. and found an afylum in Geneva.
The revenue arifing from the eftates of this hofpital has^
till within thefe laft few years, been commenfurale with
its expences: but, for fome time back, it has been
found neceffary to colleft almolt an additional fourth,
in order to fupply its diftmriements : twice in the year
the treafurer goes round-to every houfe, and folicitsthe
charitable contribution of its inmates.
“ Prior to the laft revolution, I learn, that 600,oco
French livres difcharged all the public expences : with
this very trifling fum were paid the (alaries of the ma-
giftrates, of the mafter of the town, of the mafter.of
the country, the expences of the academy, of repair¬
ing the roads, of cleaning and lighting the town ; in
(hort, thefe 600,000 livres were (ufficient to defray all
the ordinary expences of the government. Since that
too-memorable event, the citizens of Geneva have been
affeffed to the amount of 1,500,000 livres, the (alaries
of the inferior magiftrates are in arrears, the roads are
not kept in good repair, the town is very dimly Lghted,
and the ftreets, a few of the principal ones excepted
are left with all their dirty honours thick upon them .
The inhabitants go fo far as to affert, that, m confe-
quence ofthe negle£t which the public drains have iut-
fered, they have been affeaed with fevers and other
illnefl.es to which they had hitherto been ftrangers. .
“ I underftand, that the revenue of Geneva, fince it
has been annexed to the republic of France, ariles
chiefly from the following fources—An excife.duty is
laid on all provifions (wheat excepted), on wine and
merchandife of every defcription, which is brought in¬
to Geneva : the annual produce of this tax is about
120,000 French livres-, a land tax a tax on doors and
windows j a tax on the fale of eftates j a heavy tax on
the collateral inheritance of an eftate—where the inhe-
Geneva.
ritance is lineal and immediate, the tax is moderate.
To thefe taxes or contributions, as they are called, mult
be added la contribution mobihere, which is a fmall tax
on perfonal property, and produces annually about
*7 r 000 livres. The collectors of theie taxes are ap¬
pointed by the Firft Conful, and are paid very highly
for their trouble : the prefet, and all the principal pub¬
lic officers, are very regularly paid, but thofe in a iub-
ordinate fituation feldom get above one-third of their
" “ Divorces feem to be obtained here with too mucn
facility. But, in the firft place, as to marriages, they
mud be celebrated, according to the French lawq be¬
fore the municipality, at the maifon de. ville. Mar¬
riage in France, you know, is merely a civil ceremony,
the parties being obliged to fwear before an appointed
magifti-ate, that they are of age, and that th^have-
/
GEN [ 493 J GEN
Geneva, confented to become man and wife. The Genevans,
v ' however, do not confider this ceremony as fufficient:
but, as our Gretna Green couples, on their return to
Britain, think it neceflary, after the fervour of paflion
is abated, and the mercury is fallen, in the animal ther¬
mometer, fomething lower than blood heat, to have the
holy rites performed with the folemnity prefcribed by
law ; fo the Genevans, in addition to the civil ceremo¬
ny prefcribed by the laws of the republic of France,
voluntarily conform to the religious ordinance of their
own church. That a man (hould be able to obtain a
divorce from the wife who is unfaithful to his bed, is
highly reafonable ; but here, if a woman leaves her
huiband, and refufes to return to his habitation, after
beingXummoned by him for that purpofe, he can repu¬
diate her for difobedience. This doubtlefs was ground¬
ed on the prefumption, that, if a woman fled from her
huiband, and refilled his felicitation to return, it could
only be for the purpofe of cohabiting with fome other
man : but an advantage is taken of this prefumption 5
and now, when the parties, for whatever reafons, are
defirous of being divorced, the wife, with the know¬
ledge and confent of her hufband, generally goes into
Switzerland, where flie remains fix months, during
which time the huiband fummons her to return, flic re¬
fufes, and at the end of that term a divorce is declared
* Month, between them
Mag.iSot. Geneva Lake. This lake is in the lhape of a
crefcent •, along the concave fide of which Mr Coxe
travelled 54 miles. Switzerland forms the hollow, and
Savoy the convex part 5 the greatell breadth being,
about 1 2 miles. The country on the fide of Savoy is
full of high and craggy mountains j but from Geneva
to the environs of Laufanne it Hopes to the margin of
the lake, and is very rich and fertile. The banks rife
confiderably in the neighbourhood of Laufanne, and
form a molt beautiful terrace, with a rapid defeent a
few miles beyond the town. A plain begins in the
neighbourhood of Vevay, which continues for a great
way beyond the end of the lake, but contracting to-
Avards the water by the approach of the mountains.
The lake itfelf appears at a diltance of a beautiful blue
colour, and the water is very clear and tranfparent.
Near Geneva the coalt of the lake abounds with peb-
bl es j between that city and Laufanne it is fandy j
from thence to Chilon it is bounded by hard calca¬
reous rocks and the extremity of the fliores is a marih
formed by mud collected from the river Rhone. The
greateft depth of this lake found by M. de Luc is 160
fathoms. Here the birds called tippet grebes make their
appearance in December, and retire in February to
other places where they breed. They make floating
nefts of reeds \ but as the lake of Geneva affords none
of thefe, they are obliged to migrate to other places
where they grow. Their {kins are much efteemed,
and fell for 12s. or 14s. each. The lake of Geneva,
like all others fituated between mountains, is fubje&to
fudden ftorms.
Geneva, or Gin, among diftillers, an ordinary malt
fpirit, diftilled a fecond time, with the addition of fome
juniper berries.
Originally, the berries were added to the malt in the
grinding •, fo that the fpirit thus obtained was flavour¬
ed with the berries from the nrfl, and exceeded all that
could be made by any other method. At prefent, they Geneva
leave out the berries-entirely, and give their fpirits a ..
flavour by diftilling them with a proper quantity of oil
of turpentine; which though it nearly relembles the
flavour of juniper berries, has none of their valuable
virtues.
GENEVIEVE, fathers or religious of; the name
of a congregation of regular canons of the order of St
Augultxne, eflabliflied in France.
The congregation of St Genevieve is a reform of
the Aughftine canons. It was begun by St Charles
Faure, in the abbey of St Vincent de Senlis, of which
he was a member, in the year 1618.
In the year 1634, the abbey was made eledlive ; and
a general chapter, compofed of the fuperiors of 15
houfes who had now received the reform, chofe F.
Faure coadjutor of the abbey of St Genevieve, and
general of the whole congregation. Such were-its be¬
ginnings.
It has fince increafed very much, and it now' confifts
of above a hundred monafteries ; in fome whereof the
religious are employed in the adminiftration of the
parilhes and hofpitals : and in others, in the celebra¬
tion of divine fervice, and the inflrudtion of ecclefiaftics
in feminaries for the purpofe.
The congregation takes its name from the abbey of
St Genevieve, which is the chief of the order, and
Avhofe abbot is the general thereof. The abbey itfelf
took its name from St Genevieve, the patronefs of the
city of Paris, who died in the year 312^ Five years
after her death, Clovis eredled the church of St Ge¬
nevieve, under the name and invocation of St Peter,
where her relicks are ft ill, or were till lately preferved,
her ftirine vifited, and her image carried with great
proceffions and ceremonies upon extraordinary occa-
fions, as when lome great favour is to be entreated of
heaven.
G ENG IS KHAN, the renowned fovereign of the
Moguls, a barbarous and bloody conqueror. See
Jenghiz Khan, and (Hijlory of the) Moguls.
GENIAL, an epithet given by the Pagans to cer¬
tains gods who were luppofed to prefide over genera¬
tion.
The genial gods, fays Feftus, were earth, air, fire, and
W’ater. The twelve figns, together with the fun and
moon, were fometimes alfo ranked in the number.
GENII, a fort of intermediate beings, by the Ma¬
hometans believed to exift, between men and angels.
They are of a grofler fabric than the latter, but much
more adlive and powerful than the former. Some of
them are good, others bad, and they are capable of
future falvation or damnation like men. The orientals
pretend that thefe genii inhabited the w'orld many
thoufand years before the creation of Adam, under
the reigns of feveral princes, who all bore the common
name of Solomon ; that falling at length into an al-
moft general corruption, Eblis was fent to drive them
into a remote part of the earth, there to be confined ;
and that fome of that generation ftill remaining were by
Tahmurath, one of the ancient kings of Perfia, forced
to retreat into the famous mountain of Kaf; of whofe
fucceflions and wars they have many fabulous and ro¬
mantic ftories. They alfo made feveral ranks and de¬
grees among this kind of beings (jf they are not rather
different
GEN [49
Genii different fpecies) j Come being abfolutely called Jin ;
U. fome Pen, or fairies; fome Div, or giants j and others
Genius. 2'acw’ns, or fates.
' v GENIOGLOSSI, in Anatomy. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcleu
GENIOHYOIDiEUS, in Anatomy. Ibid.
GENiOSTOMA, a genus of plants belonging to
the pentandria clafs. See Botany Index. _
GENIPPA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 30th order, Contortce. See Botany Index.
GENISTA, Broom, or Dyers Weed, a genus of
plants belonging to the diadelphia clais ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 32dorder, Papiliona-
cece. See Botany Index.
GENITAL, an appellation given to whatever be¬
longs to the parts of generation. See Anatomy,
N° 107, 108.
GENITES, among the Hebrews, thofe defeend-
ed from Abraham, without any mixture of foreign
blood.
The Greeks diftinguifhed by the name of gemtes
fuch of the Jews as were iffued from parents, who, dur¬
ing the Babylonifh captivity, had net allied with any
gentile family.
GENITIVE, in Grammar, the fecond cafe of the
declenfion of nouns. I he relation of one thing confi-
dered as belonging in fome manner to another, has oc-
cafioned a peculiar termination of nouns called the ge¬
nitive cafe ; but in the vulgar tongues they make ufe
of a fign to exprefs the relation of this cafe. In Eng-
lifh they prefix the particle of, in French de or du, &c.
Though in ftridlnefs there are no cafes in either of
there languages j inafmuch as they do not exprefs the
different relations of things by different terminations,
but by additional prepofitions, which is otherwife in
the Latin,
GENIUS, a good or evil fpirit or daemon, whom
the ancients fuppoftd (et over each perion, to direct
his birth, accompany him in life, and to be his guard.
See Daemon.
Among the Romans, Feftus obferves, the name ge¬
nius was given to the god who had the power of do¬
ing all thing', deinn qui vim obt ne'et rerum omnium
gerendarum; which Voflius, de Idol, rather chooies to
read genendarum, who has the power of producing all
things*, by reafon Cenforinus frequently ufcs gerere for
gignere.
Accordingly St Auguftin, de Civitate Det, relates,
from Varre, that the Genius was a god who had the
power of generating all things j and prefided over them
when produced.
Feftus adds, that Aufuftius fpake of the genius as
the Son of God, and the Father of men, who gave
them life *, others, however, reprefented the genius as
the peculiar or tutelary god of each place ; and it is
certain, the laft is the moft ufual meaning of the word.
The ancients had their genii of nations, of cities, of
provinces, &c Nothing is more common than the
following infeription on medals, GENIUS populi ROM.
“ thr genius of the Roman people j” or GENIO POP.
ROM. “ to the genius of the Roman people. In this
fenfe genius and lar were the fame thing ; as, in effe£f,
Ceniorinus and Apuiius affirm they were. See Lares
and Penates.
1 ] GEN
The Platonifts, and other eaftern philofophers, fup- Genius,
pofed the genii to inhabit the vail region or extent of v~"""
air between earth and heaven. They were a fort of
intermediate powers, who did the office of mediators
between gods and men. They were the interpreters
and agents of the gods j communicated the wills of
the deities to men *, and the prayers and vows of men
to the gods. As it was unbecoming the majefty of the
gods to enter into fuch trifling concerns, this became
the lot of t\ie, genii, whofe nature was a mean between
the two j who derived immortality from the one, and
pa {lions from the other *, and who had a body framed
of an aerial matter. Moll of the philofophers, how¬
ever, held, that the genii of particular men were born
with them, and died j and Plutarch attributes the
ceafing of oracles partly to the death of the gtnii.—
See Oracle.
The heathens, who confidered the genii as the guar¬
dians of particular perfons, believed that they rejoiced
and were afflidled at all the good and ill fortune that
befel their wards. They never, or very rarely, ap¬
peared to them *, and then only in favour of fome per-
fon of extraordinary virtue or dignity. They likewife
held a great difference between the genii of different
men ; and that fome were much more powerful than
others : on which principle it was, that a wizzard in
Apptan bids Antony keep at a diftance from O&avius,
by reafon Antony’s genius was inferior to and flood in
awe of that of O^lavius. There were alfo evil genii,
who took a pleafure in perfecuting men, and bringing
them evil tidings : fuch was that mentioned by Plu¬
tarch which appeared to Brutus the night before the
battle of Philippi. Thefe were alfo called larvce and
lemures. See LaRVJE and LEMURES.
Genius, in matters of literature, &c. a natural ta¬
lent or difpofition to do one thing more than another *,
or the aptitude a man has received from nature to per¬
form well and eafily that which others can do but in¬
differently and with a great deal of pains.
To know the bent of nature is the moft important
concern. Men come into the world with a genius de¬
termined not only to a certain art, but to certain parts
of that art, in which alone they are capable of fuccefs.
If they quit their fphere, they fall even below medio¬
crity in their profeffion. Art and induftry add much
to natural endowments, but cannot fupply them where
they are wanting. Every thing depends on genius.
A painter often pleafes without obferving rules whilft
another difpleafes though he obferves them, becaufe he
has not the happinefs of being born with a genius for
painting.
A man born with a genius for commanding an army,
and capable of becoming a great general by the help
of experience, is one whole organical conformation is
fuch, that his valour is no obftruclion to his prefer.ee
of mind, and his prefence of mind makes no abate¬
ment of his valour. Such a difpofition of mind cannot
be acquired by art : it can be poffie fled only by a per-
fon who has brought it with him into the world. \\ hat
has been faid of thefe two arts may be equally applied
to all other profeffions. The adminiftration of great
concerns, the art of putting people to thofe employ¬
ments for which they are naturally formed, the ftudy of
phvfic, and even gaming itfelf, all require a genius.
Nature has thought fit to make a diflribulion of her
talents
GEN [4
Scir'us, talents among men, in order to render them neceffary
G"n0;1- to one another j the wants of men being the very firit
Jink of fociety : the has therefore pitched upon parti¬
cular perfons, to give them aptitude to perform rightly
feme things which Ihe has rendered impoffible to
others; and the latter have a greater facility granted
them for other things, which facility has been refufed
to the former. Nature indeed has made an unequal
diftribution of her blefiings among her children ; yet
the has dilinherited none ; and a man divefted of all
kinds of abilities, is as great a phenomenon as an uni-
verfal genius.
From the diverlity of genius the difference of incli¬
nation arifes in men, whom nature has had the precau¬
tion of leading to the employments for which ihe de-
figns them, with more or lei's impetuofity in propor¬
tion to the greater or leifer number of obftacles they
have to furmount in order to render themfelves ca¬
pable of anfwering this vocation. Thus the inclina¬
tions of men are fo very different, becaufe they follow
the fame mover, that is, the impulfe of their genius.
This, as with the painter, is what renders one poet
pleafing, even when he trefpaffes againft rules ; while
others are difagreeable, notwithflanding their ftridt re¬
gularity.
The genius of thefe arts, according to the abbe du
Bos, confilfs in a happy arrangement of the organs of
the brain ; in a juft conformation of each of thefe or¬
gans ; as alfo in the quality of the blood, which dif-
pofes it to ferment, during exercife, fo as to furnilh
plenty of fpirits to the fprings employed in the func¬
tions of the imagination. Here he imagines that the
compofer’s blood is heated ; for that painters and poets
cannot invent in cool blood ; nay, that it is evident
they muft be rapt into a kind of enthufiafm when
they produce their ideas. Ariftotle mentions a poet
who never wrote fo well as when his poetic fury hur¬
ried him into a kind of frenzy. The admirable pic¬
tures we have in Taffo of Armida and Clorinda were
drawn at the expence of a difpofition he had to real
madnefs, into which he fell before he died. “ F)oyou
imagine, (fays Gicero), that Pacuvius wrote in cold
blood ? No, it was impoftible. He muft have been in-
fpired with a kind of fury, to be able to write fuch ad¬
mirable verfes.”
GENOA, a city of Italy, and formerly capital of
a republic of the fame name, fituated in E. Long. 8.
36. N. Lat. 44. 2^.—By the Latin authors it is very
frequently, though corruptly called Janua ; and its pre-
fent territories made part of the ancient Liguria. The
era of its foundation is not known. In the time of the
fecond Punic war it was a celebrated emporium ; and
having declared for the Romans, was plundered and
burnt by Mago the Carthaginian. It was afterwards
rebuilt by the Romans; and with the reft of Italy con¬
tinued under their dominion till the decline of the
weftern empire in 476. Soon after, it fell under the
power of Theodoric the Oftrogoth ; who having de¬
feated the ufurper Odoacer, became king of Italy.
This happened in the year 498 ; and in a ftiort time,
the Goths being almoft entirely fubdued by Belifarius
the emperor Juftinian’s general. Genoa ivas reannexed
to the Roman empire. In 6^8, it was plundered and
burnt by the Lombards, whole king Protharis erefted
ft into a provincial dukedom.
5 1 GEN
The Lombards continued mailers of Genoa till the
year 774, when they were conquered by Charles the
Great, (on to Pepin king of France. He reduced
Liguria to the ancient bounds fettled by Auguftus,
and ere tied it into a marquifate : appointing his rela¬
tion Audemarus the firft count or margrave. Genoa
at this time being diftinguilhed for its wealth and po-
puloufnefs, began to give its name to the whole coaft ;
and continued under the dominion of thefe counts for
about too years, till the race of the Pepins became en¬
tirely extintl in Italy, and the empire was transferred
to tile German princes.—In the year 935 or 936
while the Genoefe forces were abfent on fume < xpedi!
tion, the Saracens furprifed the city, which they plun¬
dered and burnt, putting to death a great number of
the inhabitants, and carrying others into captivity.
Having embarked their captives, together with an im-
menfe booty, they fet fail for Africa; but the Ge¬
noefe immediately returning, purfued the invaders;
and having entirely defeated them, recovered all the
captives and booty, and took a great many of the ene¬
my’s Ihips.
About the year 950, the Franks having loft all au¬
thority in Italy, the Genoefe began to form themfelves
into a republic, and to be governed by their own ma-
giftrates, who were freely ele&ed, and took the name
ol Confuls. In order to fupport their independence,
they applied themfelves with great affiduity to com¬
merce and navigation; and being apprehenfive that
lome of the German emperors, who frequently entered
Italy as invaders, might renew their pretenlions to their
Hate, they confented to acknowledge Berengarius III.
duke of Friuli, who had been elected emperor by a
party of Italian nobles. Berengarius, who had much
ado to maintain himfelf in his new dignity, endeavour¬
ed by his conceflions to enlarge the number of his
friends and adherents; and accordingly made no diffi¬
culty to confirm the new republic in all its rights arid
privileges. After this the Genoefe began to extend
their commerce from Spain to Syria, and from Egypt
to Conftantinople : their veflels, according to the cu-
ftom of thefe times, being fitted for fighting as well as
merchandile. Having thus acquired great reputation
they were invited in 1017, by the Pifans, who had
like wife formed themfelves into a republic, to join with
them m an expedition againft Sardinia, which had been
conquered by the Moors. In this expedition they were
fuccefsful; the ifland was reduced; but from this time
an enmity commenced between the two republics, which
did not end but with the ruin of the Pifans.
Ihe firft war with Pifa commenced about 30 years
after the Sardinian expedition, and lafted 18 years*
when the two contending parties having concluded
a treaty of peace, jointly fent their forces againft the
Moors in Africa, of whom they are faid to have killed
igo.ooo. The Genoefe were very aftive in the time
of the crufades, and had a principal (hare in the tak¬
ing of Jerufalem. They alfo waged confiderable wars
with the Moors in Spain, of whom they generally got
the better. They alfo prevailed againft the neighbour¬
ing Hates; and, in 1 220, had enlarged their territories
beyond the Ikirts of the Apennines, fo that the reft
of Italy looked upon them with a jealous eye ; but in
1311 the fa ft ions which had for a long time reigned
in the city, notwithitanding all its wealth and power,
induced
Genoa
r F N [ 496 1 GEN
r u tlipvnfelves for 20 in? inftantly eclioed by the populace, he was firfl de-
induced the .nhab.tantt *“ f'*"",*1 em or J Qer- dLd Mol, then lord, end at lalt JM of Genoa,
years to the dominion of Henry X1’* em' , This new expedient did not at all anfvver the pur-
many. That emperor, howevei, ie n T ^ diffenfions continued as violent as ever,
and the vicar he had left foon after wen ’ ^ ^otwjtllftanding the power of the new magnates-,
on which the diffenfions in Genoa reyved ^ , , h ^ perpetual divifions the republic was at
fury than ever. In 1317, a quarrehhappened between and by theie perpetu ^ ^ T _ (lf France
Genoa.
the families of Spinola and Doria ; which came to
fuch a height, that both parties fought m the ftreets
for 24 days without intermiflion, raifed battering en-
tTne^go-mft each other’s houfes, and filled the cty
with blood. At laft the Spinolae quitted the city, and
retired to their territories in the Apennine mountains.
The civil v^ar continued till the year 1331 } J
the mediation of the king of Naples, U was concluded,
that all exiles Ihould return to the city ; that the r -
public Ihould be governed by the king s vicar, and
l\\ the offices of the date be equally divided between
the Guelfs and the Gibellines, the two contending
P1BySihis ruinous war, the coail of Genoa, formerly
adorned with palaces and vineyards " as now reduced
to the appearance of a barren wane. 1
the general defolation, that, according to I etrarch,
the fpeftators who failed along were ftruck with afto-
niffiment and horror. Villani, a cotemporary author
relates, that it was fuppofed by the learned t
greater exploits had not been performed at the fiege of
Troy ; and that the Ioffes each party had fuftained
would have been fufficient to have purchased a king¬
dom, the Genoefe republic being m his time the
richeft and moft powerful ftate in Ghriftendom I be
annalift Stella informs us, that, before the war, the
mod extravagant profufion and luxury prevailed among
the Genoefe : but that, towards the end, many noble
families were reduced to indigence and poverty J lo
that about 100 years after, it became/affiionable for
the nobles to live in a plain manner, without any (how
or magnificence. , . , •
In 1336, both parties, fufpendmg their mutual an-
mofities, fent two fleets of 20 galleys each into the
German ocean, to the affidance of the king of France
who was engaged in a war with Edward III. kpg of
England. This naval expedition proved the cauie ot
a mod remarkable revolution in the Genoefe govern¬
ment The failors of the deet, thinking tbemfelves
iniured by their officers, whom they accufed of de¬
frauding them of their pay, proceeded to an open mu¬
tiny, and, having expelled the admiral, and other com-
manders, feized the galleys. The king of France be¬
ing chofen arbitrator, decided in favour of the officers,
and imprifoned 16 of the chiefs of the mutineers. Up¬
on this feveral of the failors left the deet and return¬
ed to Genoa ; where they went round the coads, re¬
peating their mutinous complaints, which were grea-
jy hearkened to, upon a falfe report that the mutineers
who had been imprifoned were broke upon the wheel.
The faftious fpirit increafed : and at lad the Genoefe.
infided in a tumultuous manner for having an abbot o
their own choofing, and 20 of the people with the con-
fent of the captains of the republic affembled for that
purpofe. While the mob were impatiently expefHng
their decifion, a mechanic generaUy accounted a fool^
mounted a wooden bench, and called out ^aton
Simon Bucanigree diould be chofen abbot, this be-
and »y meie peipoi.ua. u.......... --r-.
lad fo much weakened, that in 1390 the king of France
was declared lord of Genoa. Under the French go¬
vernment, however, they foon became exceedingly
impatient j and, in 1422, the duke of Milan obtained
the fovereignty. With this fituation they were equally
difpleafed, and therefore revolted in 1436. twenty-
two years after, finding themfelves prefied by a power¬
ful deet and army fent by Alphonfo king of Naples,
they again conferred the fovereignty of their date
upon the king of France. In 1460, they revoked
from the French; and, four years after, put themfelves
again under the proteftion of the duke ol Milan: from
whom they revolted in 1478. He was again declared
fovereign ef the republic in 1488; and, 11 years after,
the city and territories of Genoa were conquered by
Louis XII. of France. r r 1 r
The almod unparalleled ficklenefs of the Genoele
difpofition was not to be correaed by this misfortune.
They revolted in 1506; but next year were again lub-
dued by Louis. Six years after, they again revolted *,
and in 1316, the city was taken and_ plundered by the
Spaniards. ‘In 1^28, Andrew Dona, a Genoele ad¬
miral in the fervice of the French, undertook to rei-
cue his country from the dominion of foreign princes,
and redore it to its liberty. Knowing well the fickle
difpofition of his countrymen, he took all occauons o
exciting difeontents among them againd th« g«V(fn;
ment. He perfuaded them, that the French (who had
again obtained the fovereignty) had left them only a
ffiadow of liberty, while they pretended to proteft
them from their enemies. To the nobility he repre-
fented the difgrace of fuffering the government to be
veded in the hands of foreigners lefs worthy of autho¬
rity than themfelves. Thus he foon formed a drong
faaion, and formed his plan j for the execution ot
which he took the mod proper time, namely when
almod three-fourths of the French garnfon had been
carried off by the plague. He advanced with 500
men-, and his friends having opened the gates of the
city to him, he feized the principal pods and thus be¬
came mader of it without drawing his 1 word J he
garrifon retired to the forts, where they loon after ca¬
pitulated, and being driven out of the city, Vona te-
edablifhed the ancient form of government. See D
RI The republic bath fince continued to preferve her
liberty, though greatly fallen/rom her ancient fpen-
dour, and now become a very mconnderable date. In
1684 the Genoefe had the misfortune to fall unoer
the refentment of Louis XIV. at which time the city
was almod dedroyed by a formidable bombardment.
In the year 1688, it was bombarded by Admiral Byng,
and fored to capitulate ; but there were at .tot vme
no views of making a permanent conqued of the city.
In 1730, the ifland of Corfica revolted from the Ue;
node, and could never afterwards be reduce., by them,
for which reafon it was fold to the French, who m the
year 1770 totally reduced it. ^
GEN
The Genoefe territories extend along that part of
the Mediterranean fea, commonly called the gulf of
GenoUy about 152 miles j but their breadth is very un¬
equal, being from eight to about 20 miles. Where
they are not bounded by the fea, the following dates
and countries, taking them from weft to eaft, are their
boundaries, viz. Piedmont, Montferrat, Milan, Placen¬
tia, Parma, the dukedom of Tufcany, and the repub¬
lic of Lucca. This tradt, though a great part of it
is mountainous, and fome of that barren enough, yet
produces plenty of excellent fruit, good pafture, wood,
garden ftuff, and mulberry trees, with fome wine and
oil, but little corn. What they want of the laft, they
have either from Lombardy, Sicily, or Naples.
Genoa Hands on the coalt of the Mediterranean fea,
at the bottom of a little gulf, partly on the flat, and
partly on the declivity, of a pleafant hill 5 in confequence
of which, it appears to great advantage from the fea.
It is defended on the land fide by a double wall, which
in circumference is about ten. Italian miles. Two of
the ftreets confift entirely of a double ftraight row of
magnificent palaces. The others, though clean and
well paved, are crooked and narrow. The palaces of
the nobility are almoft all of marble, and many of them
are painted on the outfide. That there fliould be fuch
a profufion of marble here, is not to be wondered at,
as the neighbouring hills abound with it. The city
contains a vaft number of palaces, churches, and con¬
vents, and feveral hofpitals. “I he palace where the
doge refides, and where the great and little council,
and the two colleges of the procurator! and governa-
tori aflemble, is a large ftone building in the centre of
the city. It contains fome fine paintings in frefco j
two ftatues of Andrew and John Doria in white mar¬
ble y and an arfenal, in which are faid to be arms for
thirty-four thoufand men, with a ftiield, containing
one hundred and twenty piftol barrels, and thirty-three
coats of mail, which, it is pretended, were worn by
as many Genoefe heroines in a croifade. Of the
churches, the fineft are thofe of the Annunciation, St
Mary Carignan, St Dominic, and St Martha. In the
cathedral is a difh made of a fingle emerald. All the
inhabitants here, except the principal ladies, who.are
carried in chairs, walk on foot, on account of the nar-
rownefs or fteepnefs of the ftreets. The fortifications
of the city, towards the lea, are remarkably ftrong.
There are two fine ftone bridges over the rivers Bon-
zerva and Bifagno, the firft whereof wafties the weft,
and the other the eaft fide of the city, within which
there is alfo a furprifing ftone bridge joining two hills.
I he harbour, though large, is far from being fafe $
but no care or expenoe has been fpared to render it as
fafe and commodious as poflible. The wind to which it
is mo ft expofed, is that called LabecciOy or the fouth-weft.
The place where the republic’s galleys lie, is called the
Darfena, where.are a great number of Turkifh flaves.
On a rock, on the weft fide of the harbour, is the fanal
01 lighthoufe, a high tower, on the top of which is a
lanthorn, containing thirty-fix lamps. The population
of Genoa is eftimated at 150,000, and the trade is
chiefly in velvets, datnalks, plulh, and other filks, bro¬
cades, lace, gloves, fweetmeats, fruits, oil, Parmt-fan
cheeie, anchovies, and medicinal drugs from the Le-
vapt; but the badnefs of the harbour, and the high
jince of commodities, greatly checks the commerce. In
IX. Part 1L
[ 497 3
GEN
Genoa was declared a free port for ten years,
under certain reftridions : in that called Porto Franco,
any merchant may have a warehoufe, and import or ex¬
port goods duty free j but fuch as are difpofed of in the
city, or on the continent, are taxed pretty high. The
nobility are allowed to trade in the wholefale way j to
cany on velvet, filk, and cloth manufactures} and to
have (hares in merchant Ihips^ and fome of them, as
the Palavicini, are a (finally the greateft merchants in
Genoa. Another very profitable article of trade carried
on by them is banking, and dealing in bills of ex¬
change.^ A new academy of painting, fculpture, civil
and military architecture, was initituted here in 1751.
One may walk the ftreets of Genoa in the night with
the greateft fafety, which is more than can be faid of
many cities in Italy. Lxceftive fplendour and luxury
aie, in feveral refpetfts, reftrain'ed by falutary laws.
No beggars are permitted to aik alms in Genoa, and
tbe inns are better than thofe at I urin. When a fin¬
gle perfon is buried, a kind of garland of all forts of
artificial flowers is placed on the coffin. The Genoefe
in general are eftcemed crafty, induftrious, and inured
to labour above the other Italians.
Amidft the political convulfions which agitated Eu¬
rope, in confequence of the unexampled French revolu¬
tion, it was fcarcely to be expected that Genoa would
efcape the fliock. Accordingly in the year 1798, by
the lorce and intrigues of the French republicans, its
political conftitution was totally fubverted, and changed
into what was afterwards denominated the Ligurian Re¬
public^ which. w as to be governed in a manner fimilar t«
that of their own, and the country alfo was divided into
departments. As the preceding campaign had termi¬
nated in tavour of the combined powers, and left them
in the polTeflion of every important place in Paly, this
only excepted, the capture of it became an objett of the
utmoft confequence to the contending parties. To re¬
gain it was the higheft ambition of the houfe of Auf-
tria, w hile the retaining of it was matter of folicitude ta
the French republic. The reafon is obvious. The con-
queft of it reitored to the emperor of Germany the
pofTeinon of all Italy, gave him the means of refuming
his former pofitions in the Maritime Alps, and rein¬
forcing his former pofition on the Rhine. To the
French it was a place of the utmoft confequence, be-
caufe while they were enabled to retain it in their own
hancis, they could eafily favour the operations of their
army in Switzerland, or their entrance into Italy by
the defiles of Piedmont.
As the allies were fully determined on its conqueft
for the reafons already affigned, as well as for others of
an inferior nature and magnitude, it is hut candid to ad¬
mit that the general by whom it was defended had in¬
numerable difficulties to ftruggle with, and obftacles to
furmuunt. When Maflena fucceeded Championet, the
army was reduced to the moll melancholy fituation.
Confined during the winter feafun to the bleak fummits
of the Apennines, it was reduced in numbers more than
one half, and a conftant prey to famine and difeafe.
To add to the difficulties which everywhere prefented
themfelves toMaflena, the higher claffesof the Geroefe
looked upon the French only as the deftroyers of then-
rank, commerce, and political importance} in confe¬
quence of which they fecretly aided every meafure by
which they might be driven from the country. Inftead
3 K of
Cfeno
0EN [
tten«a cf 6c,OSO men which he was promifed, Maffena had no
l)rt. more than 20,000 after all his unwearied exertions and
with thefe he had to defend an extent of country from
V Mount Cenis to the frontiers of Tufcany. He wilely
difmiffed all the former generals, independent of their
merit, becaufe the foidiers affociated with them the idea
of former mifery and difgrace. In ad^‘tu>P to lhe in'
perior ftrength of the Aultrian army, Mafiena found a
formidable infurreftion railed agamft him in the eailern
territory of the Genoefe republic. I he paffage by lea
was obftruaed by the Britifh fleet, and his expefted
fuccours from Marfeilles only reached him in part As
he could not meet the army in the field by which he
was blockaded, his only alternative was. to remain in
Genoa, every moment in dread of penlhing by famine,
if not fpee 'iiy relieved. . , , .
In the mean time, the Auftrian army had nothing to
do during the winter but tw remain in.a date of ooler-
vation ; the diftrefs to which the republican general was
reduced was unfpeakably great. After enduring a
number of hardihips with the moft undaunted fortitude
and finding the city no longer tenable, a principle of
humanity for his ditfreffed army and the ftarving inha¬
bitants induced him to furrender. , „ ,
In the progrefs of fubfequent hoftilities the French
ap-ain obtained poffeflion of it, and it is now ( i 806) fub-
jena to the dominion of a brother of Bonaparte’s, who
has affumed the title of king of Italy.
GENSING. See Panax, Botany Index.
GENTIANA, Gentian, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the pentandria clafs •, and in the natural method
ranking under the 20th order, Rotacea. See Botany
JticJcx+
GENTILE, in matters of religion, a Pagan, or
worfhipper of falie gods. T
The origin of this word is deduced from the Jews,
who called all thofe who were not of their name
rojm, i. e. gentes, which in the Greek tranflations of
the Old Teftament is rendered i6ix 5 in which feme
it frequently occurs in the New Teftament as in
Matth. vi. 32. “ All thefe things the nations or
Gentiles feek.” Whence the Latin church alfo uied
rentes in the fame fenfe as our Gentiles, efpecially in the
New Teftament. But the word gentes foon got another
fignification, and no longer meant all fueh as were not
jews: but thofe only who were neither Jews nor Chri-
ftians but followed the fuperftitions of the Greeks and
Romans, &c. In this fenfe it continued among the
Chriltian writers, till their manner of fpeech, together
with their religion, was publicly and by authority le-
ceived in the empire •, when gentiles, from gentes, came
into ufe : and then both words had two fignifications,
viz. in treatifes or laws concerning religion, they fig-
nified Pagans, neither Jews nor Chriftians ; and in
civil affairs, they were ufed for all fuch as were not
• Romans. , ,
Gentile, in the Roman law and hiftory, a name
which fometimes expreffes what the Romans otherw ife
called barbarians, whether they were allies of Rome
or not: but this word was ufed in a mare particular
fenfe for all ftrangers and foreigners not fubjeft to the
Roman empire.
GENTTLESCHI, Horatio, an Italian painter,
was born at Pifa in 1563. After having made him-
felf famous at Florence, Rome, Genoa, and other parts
498 ] GEN
of Italy, he removed to Savoy, from whence he went Caiulefthi
to France, and at laft, upon the invitation of Charles I. j!
came over to England. He was well received by F'' J
that king, wrho appointed him lodgings in his court,
together with a confiderable falary ; and employed
him in his palace at Greenwich, and other public
places. The moft remarkable of his performances in
England, were the ceilings of Greenwich and York
houfe. He did alio a Madona, a Magdalen, and Lot
with his two daughters, for King Charles 5 all which
he performed admirably, well. After the death of the
king, when his colledlion was expofed to lale, nine
pictures of Gentilefchi were fold for 600I. and are
now faid to be the ornaments of the hall in Marlbo¬
rough houfe. His moft efteemed piece abroad was
the portico of Cardinal Bentivoglio’s palace at Rome.
He made feveral attempts in face painting, but with
little fuccefs •, his talent lying altogether in hiftories,
with figures as big as the life. He was much in favour
with the duke of Buckingham, and many others of
the nobility. After 12 years continuance in England,
he died here at 84 years of age, and was buried in the
queen’s chapel at Somerfet-houfe. His print is a-
mong the heads of Vandyke, he having been drawn
by that great mafter. He left behind him a daughter,
Arternijia Gentilefchi, who was but little inferior to
her father in hiftory painting, and excelled him in
'■ portraits. ...
GENTILIS, Albericus, profeffor of civil law at
Oxford ; an Italian by birth. He had quitted Italy
with his father, on account of religion. He wrote fe¬
veral works j three books, in particular, Dejure belli,
which have not been unserviceable to Grotius. He
died at London in i6c8.
Gentilis, Scipio, brother to the former, and as ce¬
lebrated a civilian as he, forfook his native country
that he might openly profefs the Proteftant religion.
He was counfellor of the city of Nuremberg, and pro¬
feffor of law with uncommon reputation. He was a
great humanift 5 and in his kaures, as well as books,
mixed the flowers of polite learning with the thorns of
the law. He died in 1616.
GENTLEMAN. Under this denomination are
comprehended all above the rank of yeomen* whereby * See ^
noblemen are truly called gentlemen. m n )
A gentleman is ufually defined to be one, who,
without any title, bears a coat of arms, or vhofe an-
ceftors have been freemen : and by the coat that a
gentleman givelh, he is known to be, or not to be, de-
leended from thofe of his name that lived many hun¬
dred years fince.
The word is formed of the French gentilhsmme ; or
rather of gentil, “ fine, falhionable, or becomingand
the Saxon man, q. d. honefus, or honejlo loco natus.—
The fame fignification has the Italian gentilhuomo, and
the Spanilh * hidalgo, or hijo da (go, that is, the fon of
fomebody, or a perfon of note.—If we go farther
back, we ftiall find gentleman originally derived from
the Latin gentilis homo; which was ufed among the
Romans for a race of noble perfons of the lame name,
born of free or ingenuous parents, and whofe ancef-
tors had neyr been Haves or put to death by law'.
Thus Cicero in his Topics, “ Gentiles funt, qm inter fe
eodem funt nomine, ab ingenuis oriundi, quorum majorum
nemo fervitutemfervivit, qui capile non funt duninutif &c.
J ip—Some
GEN [ 499 ] GEN
Centlenwr, —Some hold that it was formed from gentile, i. e. pa-
_ Gentoos. gan . an(j t|lat t]le ancient Franks, who conquered
L * Gaul, which was then converted to Chriftianity, were
called gentiles by the natives, as being yet heathens.—
Others relate, that towards the declenlion of the Ro¬
man empire, as recorded by Ammianus Marcellinus,
there were two companies of brave foldiers, the one
called gentiles, and the other feutarii; and that it
was hence we derive the names gentleman and efquire.
See Esquire.—This fentiment is confirmed by Paf-
quire, who fuppofes the appellation gentiles and ecuyers
to have been tranfmitted to us from the Roman fol-
diery ; it being to the gentiles and feutarii, who were
the braved of the foldiery, that the principal benefices
and portions of land were afligned. See Benefice.
■—The Gauls obferving, that during the empire of the
Romans, the feutarii and gentiles had the bed tene¬
ments or appointments of all the foldiers on the fron¬
tiers of the provinces, became infenfibly accuftomed to
apply the fame names, gentilhommes and ecuyers, to fuch
as they found their kings gave the bed provifions or
appointments to.
Gentleman Ufher of the Black Rod. See Rod.
GENTLEMEN of the Chapel; officers whofe duty and
attendance is in the royal chapel, being in number 32.
Twelve of them are prieds \ the other 20, commonly
called clerks of the chapel, affid in the performance of
divine fervice. One of the fird I 2 is chofen for con-
feflbr of the houfehold ; whofe office is to read prayers
every morning to the houfehold fervants, to vilit the
fick, examine and prepare communicants, and admi-
nider the facrament. One of 20 clerks, well verfed in
mufic, is chofen fird organid, who is mader of the
children, to indru£t them in mufic, and whatever elfe
is neceffary for the fervice of the chapel ; a fecond is
likewife an organid ; a third, a lutanid ; and a fourth
a violid. There are likewife three vergers, fo called
from the filver rods they carry in their hands ; being
a ferjeant, a yeoman, and groom of the vedry 5 the
fird attends the dean and fubdean, and finds lurplices
and other neceffaries for the chapel •, the fecond has the
whole care of the chapel, keeps the pews, and feats of
the nobility and gentry j the groom has his attendance
within the chapel door, and looks after it.
GENTOOS, in modern hidory, according to the
common acceptation of the term, denote the profeflors
of the religion of the bramins or brachmans, who in¬
habit the country called Hindofan, in the Ead Indies,
from the word/?*»«, a “region,” znd hind or hindoo ;
which Feriffitah, as we learn from Colonel Dow’s tranf-
lation of his hidory, fuppofes to have been a fon of
Ham the fon of Noah. It is obferved, however, that
Hindoo is not the name by which the inhabitants ori¬
ginally dyled themfelves 5 but according to the idiom
of the Shanfcrit which they ufe, jumbodeep, from jum-
boo, a “ jackall,” an animal common in their coun¬
try ; and deep, a large portion of land furrounded by
the fea ; or bhertekhunt, from khunt, i. e. “ a conti¬
nent,” and bherrhut, the name of one of the fird In¬
dian rajahs. It is alfo to be obferved, that they have
affumed the name of Hindoos only fince the era of the
Tartar government, to diltinguifii themfelves from
their conquerors the Muffulmans. The term Gentoo or
Gent, in the Shanfcrit dialeft, denotes animal in gene¬
ral, and in its more confined fenfe mankind, and is ne¬
ver appropriated particularly to fuch as follow the doc¬
trines of Brama. Theie are divided into four great
tribes, each of which has its own feparate appellation ;
but they have no common or colleflive term that com¬
prehends the whole nation under the idea affixed by
the Europeans to the word Gentoo. Mr Halhed, in
the preface to his trantlation of the Code of Gentoo
Laws, conjectures that the Portuguefe, on their fird
arrival in India, hearing the word frequently in the
mouths of the natives, as applied to mankind in gene¬
ral, might ^dopt it for the domedic appellation of the
Indians themfelves, or perhaps their bigotry might
force from the word Gentoo a fanciful allulion to gen¬
tile or Pagan. The Hindoos, or Gentoos, vie with
the Chinefe as to the antiquity of their nation. They
reckon the duration of the world by four jogues, or
diilinCt ages ; the firft the Suttee jogue, or age of
purity, which is faid to have lafted about 3,200,000
years j during which the life of man was 100,000
years, and his dature 21 cubits i the fecond, the Tir-
tah jogue, or the age in which one-third of mankind
were reprobate 5 w'hich confided of 2,400,000 years,
when men lived to the age of 10,000 years : the third,
the Dwraper jogue, in which half of the human race
became depraved, which endured to 600,000 years,
when men’s lives were reduced to 1000 years : and
fourthly, the Collee jogue, in which all mankind were
corrupted, or rather diminithed, which the word collee
imports. This is the prefent era, which they fuppofe
will fubfid for 400,000 years, of which near 5000 are
already pad ; and man’s life in this period is limited to
100 years. It is fuppofed by many authors, that moil
of the Qentoo fmfers, or feriptures, were compofed
about the beginning of the Collee jogue : but an ob¬
jection occurs againd this fuppofition, viz. that the
diaders take no notice of the deluge 5 to which the
bramins reply, that all their feriptures were written
before the time of Noah, and the deluge never extend¬
ed to Hindodan. Neverthelefs, it appears from the
ihaders themfelves, that they claim a much higher an¬
tiquity than this j indances of which are recited by
Mr Halhed.
The doClrine of tranfmigration is one of the didin-
guidiing tenets of the Gentoos. With regard to this
fubjeCl, it is their opinion, according to Mr Hohvell,
that thofe fouls w'hich have attained to a certain de¬
gree of purity, either by the innocence of their man¬
ners or the feverity of their mortifications, are removed
to regions of happinefs proportioned to their refpec-
tive merits : but that thofe who cannot fo far furmount
the prevalence of bad example, and the powerful de¬
generacy of the times, as to deferve fuch a promotion,
are condemned to undergo continual punidnnent in the
animation of fuccefiive animal forms, until, at the da¬
ted period, another renovation of the four jogues ffiall
commence, upon the diffolution of the prefent. They
imagine fix different fpheres above this earth ; the
higheil of which called futtee, is the refidence of Bra¬
ma, and his particular favourites. This fphere is allb
the habitation of thofe men who never uttered a falfe-
hood, and of thofe women who have voluntarily burn¬
ed themfelves with their hufbands; the propriety of
which pradlice is exprefsly enjoined in the code of the
Gentoo laws. This code, printed by the Ead India
Company in 1776, is a very curious colle&ion ofHin-
3 R 2 doo
Cfentoo^.
GEN
[ 5°° 1
GEN
Centoos,
Genu¬
flexion.
doo jurlfprudence, which, was fele&ed by the mofl: ex¬
perienced pundits or lawyers from curious originals ^in
the Shanfcrit language, who were employed for this
purpofe from May 1773 to February 1775afterwards
tranflated into the Perfian idiom, and then into the
Engliih language by Mr Halhed.^ _
The feveral inftitutes contained in this collection are
interwoven with the religion of the Gentoos, and re¬
vered as of the higheft authority. The curious reader
will difeover an adonifhing limilarity between the in¬
ftitutes of this code and many of the ordinances of
the Jewith law : between the character of the bramms
or priefts, and the Levites j and between the ceremo¬
ny of the fcape goat under the Mofaic difpenfation,
and a Gentoo ceremony called the ajhummed jug, in
which a horfe anfwers the purpofe of the goat. Many
nbfolete cuftoms and ufages alluded to in many parts
of the Old Teftament, may alfo received illuftrations
'from the inftitutes of this code. It appears from the
code, that the bramins, who are the priefts and legifla-
tors of the country, have refigned all the fecular .and
executive power into the hands of another call or tribe j
and no bramin has been properly capable of thfe magi-
ftracy fince the time of the futtee jogue. The only pri¬
vilege of importance which they have appropriated to
themfelves, is an exemption from all capital punithment.
they may be degraded, branded, imprifoned for life, or
fent into perpetual exile j but it is everywhere exprefsly
ordained, that a bramin {hall not be put to death on any
account whatfoever.
We have already obferved, that the Hindoos are di¬
vided into four great and original tribes, which accord¬
ing to the Gentoo theology proceeded from the four
different members of Bram», the fuppofed immediate
ao-ent of the creation under the fpirit of the Almighty.
Thefe tribes are the Bramins, which proceeded from his
mouth, and whofe office is to pray, read,, and initruft j
the Chehteree, which proceed from his arms, whofe of¬
fice is to draw the bow, to fight, and to govern ; the
Bice, proceeding from th,e belly or thighs, who are to
provide the neceffaries of life by agriculture and traffic }
and the Soonder, from the feet, which are ordained to
labour, ferve, and travel.
Few Chriffians, fays the tranllator of the Gentoo
code, have expreffed themfelves with a more becoming
reverence of ihe grand and impartial defigns of Provi¬
dence, in all Pis works, or-with a more extenfive cha¬
rity towards all their fellow' creatures of every profef-
lion, than the Gentoos. It is indeed an article of faith
among the Bramins, that God’s all merciful power
wmuld not have permitted fuch a number of different
religions, if he had not found a pkafure in beholding
their varieties.
GENUFLEXION, (of genu, “ knee,” ^AjleBo
“ I bend,”) the aft of bowing or bending the knee j
ar„ rather of kneeling down.
The Jefuit Rofweyd, in his Onomafticon, (hows, that
genufluxion, or kneeling,has been a very ancient cuftom
in the church, and even under the Old Teftament dif¬
penfation •, and that this praftice was obferved through¬
out all the year, excepting on Sundays, and during the
time from Eafter to Whitfuntide, when kneeling was
forbidden by the council of Nice.
Others have fhown, that the cuftom of not kneeling
at}.Sunday had obtained from the time of the apoftleSj
as appears from St Irenaeus, and Tertubian •, anci tne
Ethiopic church, ferupuloufty attached to the ancient
ceremonies, ftill retains that of not kneeling at divine
fervice. The Ruffians efteem it an indecent pofture to
worftiip God on the knees. Add, that the Jews ufually
prayed {landing. Rofweyd gives the reafons of the pro¬
hibition of genuflexion on Sundays, &c. from St Bafib
Anaftafius, St Jultin, &c.
Baronius is of opinion, that genuflexion was not eft.a-
bliflied in the year of Chrift 38, from that paffage in
Afts xx. 36. where St Paul is exprei'sly mentioned to
kneel down at prayer j but Saurin (hows, that nothing
can be thence concluded. I. he fame author remarks,
alfo, that the primitive Chriftians carried the praftice
of genuflexion fo far, that fome of them had worn ca¬
vities in the floor where they prayed : and St Jerome
relates of St James, that he had contrafted a hardnefs
on his knees equal to that of camels.
GENUS, among metaphyficians and logicians, de¬
notes a 1 umber of beings which agree in certain ge¬
neral properties common to them all : fo that a ge¬
nus is nothing elfe but an abftraft idea, expreffed by
fome general name or term. See Logic and Meta¬
physics.
Genus, is alfo ufed for a charafter or manner appli¬
cable to every thing of a certain nature or condition:
in which fenfe it ferves to make capital divihons in di¬
vers fciences, as medicine, natural hiffory, &.c.
Genus, in Rhetoric. Authors diftinguifli the art of
rhetoric, as alio orations or difcourles produced there¬
by, into three genera or kinds, demonff rative, delibera¬
tive, and judiciary. To the demonftrative kind belong
panegyrics, genethliacons, epithalamiums, funeral ha¬
rangues, &c. To the deliberative belong perfuafions,
diffuafions, commendations, &c. To the judiciary kind
belong defences and accufations.
Genus, in Medicine. See Medicine, under the
Nofology. . ■ r i r
Genus, in Natural Hi/lory, a fubdivifion of any clals
or order of natural beings, whether of the animal, ve¬
getable, or mineral kingdoms,, which agree in certain
common charafters. See NATURAL H-iJlory.
■ Genus, in Mujic, by the ancients called genior melody,
is a certain manner of dividing and fubdividing the prin¬
ciples of melody ; that is, the confonant and diffonant
intervals, into their concinnous parts.
The moderns confidering the oftave as the moft
perfeft of intervals, and that whereon all the concords
depend, in the prefent theory of mufic, the diviiion of
that interval is confidered as containing the true divifion
of the whole feale. '
But the ancients went to work fomewhat different¬
ly : the diateffaron, or fourth, was the leaft interval
which they admitted as concord \ and therefore they
fought fir ft how that might be moft conveniently di¬
vided j from whence they conilituted the diapente and
diapafon.
The diateffaron being thus, as it were, the root and
foundation of the fcale, what they called the genera,
or kinds, arofe from its various divifipns j and hence
they defined the genus tnodulandi to be the manner of
dividing the tetrachord and difpofing its four founds as
to fucceflion.
The genera of mufic were three, the enharmonie,
chromatic, and diatonic. The two firit were yarioufly
fubdivided -j
Genu«,
GEO- f 501 T GEO
Ser.us fubdivided ; and even the lad, though that is common-
jj. ly reckoned to be without any fpecies, yet different au-
,, e_ -- thors have propofed different divifions under that name,
without giving any particular names to the fpecies as
was done to the other two.
For the characters, &c. of thefe feveral genera, fee
Enharmonic, Chromatic, and Diatonic.
GEOCENTRIC, in AJlronormj, is applied to a pla¬
net, or its orbit, to denote it concentric with the earth,
or as having the earth for its centre, or the fame centre
with the earth.
GEOFFRvEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
diadelphia clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 3 2d order, Papiiionacece. See Botany and
Materia Medic a Index
GEOFFREY of Monmouth, biihop of St A-
faph, called by our ancient biographers Gallofridus
Monumentenjis. Leland conjectures that he was educa¬
ted in a BenediCtine convent at Monmouth, where he
was born ; and that he became a monk of that order.
Bale, and after him Pits, call him archdeacon of Mon¬
mouth ; and it is generally afferted that he was made
bifliop of St Afaph in the year 1151 or 11 52, in the
reign of King Stephen. His hittory was probably fi-
nifhed after the \ ear 1138. It contains a fabulous ac¬
count of Britiih kings, from the Trojan Brutus to
the reign of Cadwallader in the year 690. But Geof¬
frey, whatever cenfure he may deferve for his credu¬
lity, was not the inventor of the dories he relates. It
is a tranflation from a manufcript written in the Bri-
tifh language, and brought to England from Armo¬
rica by his friend Gualter, archdeacon of Oxford
But the achievements of King Arthur, Merlin’s pro¬
phecies, many fpeeches and letters, were chiefly his
own addition. In excufe for this hiftorian, Mr Whar¬
ton judicioufly obferves, that fabulous hiftories were
then the faftwon, and popular traditions a recommenda¬
tion to his book.
GEOFFROY, Stephen-Francis, a phyfician emi¬
nent for his chemical and botanical knowledge, was
born at Paris in the year 1672, where his father kept
an apothecary’s (hop, and had been feveral times in the
luagillracy. He received a liberal education } and,
while profecuting the ftudy of medicine, he had con- Geoffrey,
ferences at his father’s houfe with Caffini, du Verney, Gto^raphi-
Homberg, and other men of dillinguilhed eminence. * .
At Montpellier he attended the leftures of the molt
able profeffors of phyfic, and afterwards vilited the fouth
of France, carefully viewing every objeft deferving of
his attention. He accompanied count de Tallard to
England in 1698, where he became acquainted with
the chief men of fcience, and was made a member of
the Royal Society. He next went into Holland, and
in 1700 he attended the abbe de Louvois in a tour to
Italy. He was, on his return, made bachelor of medi¬
cine in 1702, and, in two years after, he was created
M. D. O ne of his thefes was on the queftion, “ An
hominis pritnordia vermis?'" which was tranHated into
French for the fake of fome ladies of exalted rank, by
whom it was deemed interefting.
Geoffroy did not haftily commence the pra&ice of
medicine, continuing the profecution of his ftudies in re¬
tirement for fome years. He never appeared anxious to
pufh himfelf forward, although his knowledge made
him be often confulted by feveral gentlemen of the fa¬
culty. He was fo concerned for the recovery of his
patients, that it gave him an air of melancholy, which
at firit alarmed them, till they became acquainted with
the caufe. He was, in 1709, made profeffor of phyfic
by the king to the Royal College, vacant by the death
ol the celebrated Tournefort. He began with le&ures
on materia medica j and in 1712, M. Fagon refigned
to him the chemical chair : on both which topics Geof-
froy ledured with unwearied affiduity. He was twice
chofen to the office of dean by the faculty of Paris,, and
he filled a place in the Royal Academy of Sciences,
from the year 1699. His health at laft yielded to his
toils, and he died in January, 1731. He is known to
the chemical world by his table of affinities, far fupe-
rior to any which had appeared before his time. His
greateft work was his Hiitory of the Materia Medica,
which, in an unfinifhed Hate, was publiffied after his •
death in the year 1741, in 3 vols. 8vo.
GEOGRAPHICAL mile, the fame with the fea
mile •, being one minute, or the 60th part of a degree . 0
of a great circle on the earth’s furface.
GEOGRAPHY.
INTRODUCTION.
I
definition. /"N EOGRAPHY is that part of knowledge which
deferibes the furface of the earth ; its divifions,
extent, and boundaries ; the relative pofition of the fe¬
veral countries and places on the globe, and the man¬
ners, cuftoms, and political relations of their inhabi¬
tants. ’I he word is Greek from y5j or ys«,
terra, “ the earth,” and feribo, “ 1 write.” As
every thing that immediately contributes to the afeer-
taining of the fituation and limits of countries and places
on the furface of the earth, is within the province of
geography, this fcience includes the defeription and ufe
of globes, maps, and charts, with the methods of con-
ftructing them* .
This fcience has been divided into GEOGRAPHY pro-Divilfon 0p-
perly fo called, or a defeription of the lands of the geography,
globe, and PIydrography, or a defeription of the wa¬
ters ; but this divifion is of little coniequence, and is
now feldom employed. Geography has alio been di¬
vided into general and particulary terms which are va-
rioufly underitood by different writers on the fubjeiff.
By Varenius, one of the oldeil and beft modern w iters
on general geography, general or univerfal geography
is ufed to denote that part of the fubjefl which confiders
the earth in general, and explains its affeflions as a ter-
reftrial globe, without attending to its arbitrary divifion
into different regions j and by particular or ipecial geo¬
graphy, this writer underflands the defeription of the
particular regions of the earth : and he divides this lat¬
ter into two parts j chorography, deferibing fome con-
fiderable
5°2
geography.
Introcluc- fiderable parts of tlie earth, as of the quarters, and /o-
tion. povraphy, defcribing a particular province or diltnct.
  Geography may be conveniently divided into defcnp-
N the geography, or that part of the fcience which de-
fcribes the form, limits, extent, and variety of iurface_
of different countries, with the manners and cuftoras ot
their inhabitants j and physical geography , or that part
which teaches how to determine the fituations ot differ¬
ent places in the globe, and to lay down and delineate
their pofitions for the information of others. Descrip¬
tive geography is the more popular and entertaining
part of the fubjeft. It is ufually divided into ancient
or claflical geography, geography of the middle ages,
and modern geography. The firff branch of the iub-
ieft confiders the ftate of the earth fo far as it was
known or difcovered at different periods, previous to
the fixth century of the Chriftian era. The geography
of the middle ages extends from the fixth to the fif¬
teenth century, and modern geography from the fif¬
teenth century to the prefent time. One of the molt
ufeful fubdivifions of defcriptive geography is that em¬
ployed by Mr Pinkerton, who confiders the geography
of the feveral countries which he defcribes under four
different heads. I. Hifiorical or progrejjive geography ;
in which he treats of the names, extent, original popu¬
lation, progreffive geographical improvements, hifton-
cal epochs and antiquities of the countries. 2. Political
geography; under which he defcribes the religion and
ecclefiaftic inftitutions, government, laws, population,
colonies, military force, revenue, and political relations,
a. Civil geography, comprehending manners and cuf-
toms, language, literature, and the arts, education,
cities and towns, principal edifices, roads, manufactures
and commerce. And, 4. Natural geography, compre¬
hending an account of the climate apd feafons, face ot
the country, its foil, and {late of agriculture, its rivers,
lakes, mountains, and forefts, and an enumeration of the
natural productions and natural cunofities, which are
* Vid. PiV ufually found within each diftria *. Defensive geo-
terton's graphy is fometimes ftyled political geography, while
Geography, phyfical or general geography is called natural geo-
voL i. P 3- £hy>
Among the other departments of this ftudy we may
mention facred geography, or that which illullrates the
facred writings •, and ecclefiaftic geography, which de¬
fcribes the divifion of a country according to its church
government, as into archbifhoprics, bifhoprics, &.c.
Many writers of treatifes or fyftems of geography
give a detailed account of the hiftorical events and com¬
mercial concerns of the feveral countries which they de-
feribe 5 but we confider this as unneceffary in a pure
geographical work, as thefe departments belong rather
to History and Political Economy.
Some fyftematic writers on geography confidenng the
term in a very compreheiftive view, as including a de-
feription of the internal ftruftm-e of the earth, as well
as of its furface, have thought it neceffary to enter into
difcuffions refpe&ing the original formation of the earth,
and the minerals of which it is compofed. How far
they are right in this we fliall not pretend to determine.
In this work, thefe fubje&s will be treated of under
the articles Geology and Mineralogy.
Another fubjeft relative to the affe^ions of the earth,
refpedfts the phyfical and chemical changes that take
place in its atmofphere. Thefe properly belong to the
fcience of METEOROLOGY, and will be found under Introdac.
, . . tion.
that article. . , ■ - - 1
We propofe in this article to offer only an introauc- 3
tory outline of defcriptive geography, as the feveral 0bjea 0f
quarters of the globe, and their fubdivifions into em-thisuea-
pires, kingdoms, and ftates, are delcribed as particu-t'fe-
larlv as is compatible with the limits of tnis work, un¬
der'the feveral articles to which they belong in the ge¬
neral alphabet. _ r 1
Our attention will be chiefly dire&ed to phyfical
geography, efpecially that part of it which defcribes
the conftruaion and ufe of globes, maps, and charts.
4
Phyfical geography is properly a branch of mixed Of phyiica*.
mathematics, and its principles depend on geometry,g^graPh?-
and its kindred fciences, trigonometry and perfpeftive.
It is intimately connefted with aftronomy } and as thefe
two fciences mutually illuftrate each other, they are
commonly taught at the fame time. The phyfical
changes that take place on the earth, as far as it is con-
fidered in its general charafter of an individual of the
folar fyftem,have been already explained under Astro¬
nomy •, and we (hall have little here to add refpefting
them, except as they are modified by the fituation of
the obferver on different parts of the earth’s furface.
The principles and praftice of phyfical geography,
though ftriaiy dependent on pure mathematics, may
be, for the moft part, explained in a popular way, fo as
to be underftood by the generality of readers. This
popular view of the fubjeft we ftiall attempt in the pre¬
fent article, throwing every thing that is purely ma¬
thematical into the form of notes. It muft be evident,
however, that a reader who is converfant with mathe¬
matics will ftudy phyfical geography to more advan¬
tage *, and for this purpofe, it will be fuffieient to pol-
fefs a moderate acquaintance with arithmetic, the ele¬
ments of geometry, plane trigonometry, fpherics, and
perfpeftive. . 5
It is fear cel y neceffary to enlarge on the importance Importance
or utility of geography. It is one of thofe fciences, the^ W*'
of which is almoft conftantly required.
or Utility OI geograpny. it o uot, w! » h
knowledge of which is almoft conftantly required.
Without an acquaintance with the geography of the
countries that are the feenes of the aaions which he re¬
lates, the hiftorian muft either be extremely concile, or
his narration muft be obfeure and unintelligible. Geo¬
graphy affords the beft illuftration of hiftory, and is
equally neceffary to the hiftorian and his reader. To
the traveller, under which denomination we may clafs
the foldier, the failor, the merchant, as well as thofe
who travel for pleafure or curiofity, a previous know¬
ledge of the countries, through which he is to pafs,. is
always ufeful, and often indifpenfable. To the politi¬
cian a comprehenfive knowledge of geography is of the
higheft importance. If he is ignorant of the extent,
form, boundaries, appearances, climates, &c. of the
country with which he is at war, he will plan his hoftile
expeditions without effe&, and will fend his invading
armies only to perifh among the defiles of the enemy,
or to meet a more inglorious and deplorable fate from
the difeafes of the climate.
Even, if we confider geography as a ftudy of mere
amufement and curiofity, it forms one of the moft ra¬
tional and interefting ftudies in which we can engage.
Nothing can be more gratifying to the obkrvtr ot
mankind than to furvey the manners and cuftoms of va¬
rious
Part I.
Hiftory.
GEOGRAPHY.
rious nations, and to compare the relative ftate of civi¬
lization and improvement in countries widely remote
from each other. The itudent of geography can fit in
his clofet, and accompany the adventurous traveller in
his toilfome journey, through
     —<£ antres vaft, and deferts wild,
Rough quarries, rocks, and hills, whofe heads touch
heav’n !”
trace his progrefs over the boundlefs ocean, and draw
from his narration a delightful fund of inftru&ion and
amufement, free (except in imagination) from thofe pe¬
rils and hardfhips, which the writer had undergone.
At the end of this article, we fiiall offer a few re¬
marks on the beft method of teaching and learning
geography. We muft now take a brief view of the
origin and progrefs of the feience.
5° 3
Hiftory.
PART I. HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE OF GEOGRAPHY.
Hiftory of AN hifiorical account or geography would be ex-
geography. treme]y interefting, as it would include, not only the
progreffive improvements of the fcience, confidered as
a branch of mixed mathematics, but an account of the
fuccefiive difcoveries of different parts of the earth that
have been made by the more civilized communities.
Such an account in detail, however, cannot be expe&ed
here; and we (hall confine ourfelves principally to a
curfory view of the geographical difcoveries of ancient
and modern nations, referving the progreflive improve¬
ments of phyfical geography for thofe parts of the arti¬
cle to which they properly belong ; as they would nei¬
ther be fo interefting nor fo intelligible to a general
reader, before he has been made acquainted with the
y principles of the fcience.
Jngin. _ As foon as mankind had formed themfelves into fo-
cieties, and begun to eftablifti connexions with their
neighbours, they would find it neceflary to inform them¬
felves of the petition of the countries which bordered on
their own ; and very foon their curioiity would lead
them to defire to form an acquaintance with the extent
of the country in which they lived, and with many
particulars refpefting thofe which were remote from
them. I hus, we fee that fcarcely had the fciencesari-
len among the Greeks, before their philofophers began
to occupy themfelves in geographical purfuits. We are
told that Anaximander exhibited to his countrymen a
plan of Greece and the neighbouring countries, and in
this he was imitated by his countryman Hecateus of Mi¬
letus. Of the nature of thefe ancient plans or maps,
and their progrefiive improvements, we ftiall fpeak more
g at large hereafter.
ifeoveries Commerce, and the tafte for adventures, which ufual-
the Phce. ly accompanies it, were doubtlefs among the firft caufes
cans. of geographical refearches; but the Phoenicians are the
earlieft commercial people of whofe difcoveries we have
any correft accounts. This people feem firft to have
inveftigated the coaftson the Mediterranean; and their
navigators, extending their voyages beyond this fea,
through the. narrow channel which is now called the
Straits of Gibraltar, entered the Atlantic ocean, and
planted colonies in Iberia, a part of Spain, in the coun¬
try of Tharftiilh, which is probably the modern Anda-
lufia, and upon the \veftern ftiores of Africa.
I he learned Bochart, led by the analogy between
the Phoenician tongue, and the oriental languages, has
followed the tracks of the Phoenicians, both along the
ftiores of the Mediterranean, and thofe of the Atlantic.
JL hefe analogies are not always fure guides; but we can
fcarcely doubt .that the city of Cadiz was a Phoenician
colony, and it is not likely that this was the only one
formed by that enterprifing people.
In. the time of Solomon, Phoenician fiiips, employed Situation ef
y him, let fail from a port in the Red fea, calledOphir*
Azion-Gaber, and pafling from that fea through the
ftraits of Babelmandel, carried on their commerce in
the Indian ocean. The country of Ophir, to which
they failed^, muft have been at a confiderable diftance
from, the Kea fea, as we are told that a voyage thither
required three years. “ The king (fays the author of
tbe firft book of Kings) had a navy of Tharftiilh, with
the navy of Hiram. Once in three years came the navy
of Tharftiilh, bringing gold and filver, ivory, and apes
and peacocks.” Some have placed Ophir upon the coaft
of Africa, where the modern Sofala is fituated : Others
fappofe it was a port in the ifland of Ceylon, or in the
illand of Sumatra, in which latter illand there is ftill a
place called Ophir. The gold duft and ivory brought
from thence, feem to (hew that it was an African port.
(See Ophir). M. Montucla fuppofes that the Phceni- *Montucla
mans muft even at this period have failed round the *
continent of Africa, and that Ophir was fome place on Mathem'
the Gold Coaft (a). 1 tom-iv-
The Carthaginians, a Phoenician colony, imitated P‘ 59io
their predeceflbrs. We know that they failed into the^arthagi-
Atlantic ocean, as far as the coaft of Cornwall in Eng-nians‘
land, whence they procured large quantities of tin. The
fame people made feveral attempts towards a complete
furvey of the weftern coaft of Africa. Of thefe we
have an account only of one expedition, thatof Hanno,
of which we have already given an account under the
article Africa.
The Carthaginian navigators, if we may believe the
recital of Diodorus Siculus, (lib. xv.) difeovered a coun¬
try fituated in the Atlantic ocean, which furniftied all
the neceffaries and conveniences of life. Some pretend
that this country was America, but it is much more
probable that it was fome one of the Cape de Vcrd
illands
a. pi1 nr 0pi"i”"3 haV' hteIj bCe" ably Vincent
Circnmna- iiiltory ipea^s oi icv^ax ,
vigation of der of the kings of Egypt and of Perfia, for the purpoie
Africa.  ^vtp.nt of Africa ; and rierodotus re-
G E O G
iflaitds. The Carthaginian fenate, fearful that the re¬
lation of the Tailors who had difcovered fuch a country,
might be the means of producing frequent emigrations,
are faid to have ufed every endeavour to Hide the memo¬
ry of this expedition.
Hillory fpeaks of feveral voyages undertaken by ©r-
_ . J . r nr?1   3^C thp nnrnoie
R
Africa.
Voyage of
3JSatafpey.
of afcertaining the extent of Africa j and Herodotus r
lates that Pharaoh Necho,king of Egypt, employed fome
Phoenician navigators to fail along the coaft of Africa,
for the purpofe of taking a more exaft furvey ol it. bee
Goffelin, who has confidered the geography of
i the ancients in a very learned differtatmn, maintains,
that the different paffages of ancient writers, who have
always declared that the Phoenicians and the Greeks
circumnavigated Africa, are not fufficient to prove the
certainty of fuch a voyage. The paffage m Herodo us
has been difculfed by him at confiderable length, and he
feems to have proved his relation to be nothing more
than a romance, founded on the hiftorical knoule ge
of the Egyptians. M. Goffelin, however admits,
that many ancient voyages took place from thofe coun¬
tries in which geography had arrived at fome perfec¬
tion •, and there are numerous arguments proving that
all the (hores of the old continent had been failed
round. See Bai/tys Hi/fory of Afronomy, p. 3°7-
^ Xerxes^king of Perfia, according to Herodotus, gave
a fimilar commiffion about the year before Chrift 48 ,
to one of his fatraps named Satafpes, who bad been
condemned to die. Satafpes entered the Atlantic
ocean through the ftraits of Gibraltar, and bending his
courfe towards the fouth, he coafted the continent of
Africa, till he doubled a cape which was called byloco,
and which Riccioli confiders as the fame with the Cape
of Good Hope. He is faid to have continued his courie
to the fouth for fome time, and then to have returned
home affigning as a reafon for not proceeding farther,
that he had encountered a fea fo full of herbage, taat
his naffage had been completely obftruaed. Ihisrea-
fon appeared fo ridiculous to Xerxes, that he ordered
Satafpes to be crucified ; but m thisfentence he appears
to have been rather too precipitate, as it is certain that
in fome latitudes there grows fuch a quantity of lea
weed, that a veffel can fcarcely make way through it •,
as in that part of the fea which lies between the- Cape
de Verd iflands, the Canaries, and the coaft of Africa,
and is called by the Portuguefe the fea of Saragofla.
This (hews that the relation of Satafpes may have been
correct, as he might think it dangerous to attempt pro¬
ceeding where he found himfelf fo much entangled.
Herodotus has commemorated .another marine expe¬
dition, undertaken by Scylax, by order of Darius the
fon of Hvftafpes. and which probably took place about
the year 422 R. C. Scylax embarked upon the river
Indus the courfe of which he followed to its mouth,
from whence he failed in the courfe of 30 months ei¬
ther into the Arabian gulf, or the Red fea. his Scy¬
lax muft not be confounded vith a navigator of the
fame name, who, at a later period, made a voyage of
inveftigation round the Red fea.
14 , The°conquefts of Alexander the Great, if they aod-
.Ckograpfiy 1 happinefs of mankind, had at leaft the
CXL advantage of throwing confiderable light on the ftate of
%-U.
*3
^Expedition
•f Scylax.
A P H Y.
geography at that time, as they afforded to the Greeks
a more perfeft knowledge of the river Indus, and of
many parts of that vaft country which derives its name
from that river. Alexander does not feemtohave pene¬
trated to the Ganges, though’his expedition led the way
to the knowledge of that river-, for foon after he went
as far as Palibothra, a town fituated on the river Indus,
at its confluence with another river coming from the
weft. The followers of Alexander went down the In¬
dus, as far as its opening into the Indian ocean, where
they witneffed for the firft time the phenomenon of the
flux and reflux of the fea,—a phenomenon which excit¬
ed in them great aftonifhment and terror. It was after
this that Alexander detached, about the year 327 be¬
fore Chrift, two of his captains, Nearchus and Onefi-
critus, to inveftigate the coaft of the Indian fea. Near¬
chus was ordered to return by the Red fea, and this he
effefted. Some fragments of his voyage have Come
down to us, and upon thefe has been formed an excel¬
lent work by Dr Vincent, entitled the « Pen plus of
the Erythrean Sea.” This learned and valuable work
is iuft completed by the publication of the Second Part,
and affords much additional illuftration of the geogra¬
phical information and commercial enterpnfes of the an-
Oneficritus failed to the eaft, and if we may believe
the account that is left of his voyage, he gave us the
firft exaft information refpeaing the Aland of Ceylon.
The meafure given by Oneficritus, of the extent of the
Aland which heinveftigated, viz. 7000 ftadia does not
correfpond to Ceylon, whether we confider the length
or circumference of the ifland, (fee Ceylon) -, and it
we take it as the meafure of the length, it more nearly
cprrefponds to that of Sumatra. The relations of Near¬
chus and Oneficritus were extant in the time of Stra¬
bo, by whom the latter is faid to exceed, in point of ex¬
aggeration, all the other hiftorians of Alexander s ex¬
pedition. At the fame time, it muft; be acknowledged
that there are many things related by Oneficritus, as
quoted by Strabo, which fufficiently agree with what
we know of India, and the prodigious of that coun¬
try : for he fpeaks of the iugar cane, the cotton plant,
A^kbgstnigypt »ho fucceeded Alexander, took ByPtin,
confiderable intereft in the progrefs of geography. 1 he ?
fecond of thefe kings, Ptolemy Philadelphus, about the
ypar 280 before Chrift, fent into India two ambaffadors,
Megafthenes and Daimachus, accompanied by the ma¬
thematician Dionyfius, Megafthenes was fent to the
king of Palibothra cn the banks of the Ganges, and
Daimachus to another Indian potentate. No account
remains of the proceedings of Dionyfius and Daima¬
chus but Megafthenes left, an account of his journey,
which is frequently quoted by Strabo, by wh« m it is
confidered as a mixture of real adventures and impro¬
bable exaggerations. Thefe quotations of Strabo are
certainly all that remain of the relation of Megafthenes,
for the work publhhed under the name of Mega ft uen
is a literary impofture, fimilar to the works ol Bero.us,
Manetho and Ctefius.
In the reign of Ptolemy Lathyrus, about 115 years
before Chrift, other expeditions were undertaken, tor
the purpofe of failing round the continent of Africa
Eudoxus and Cyficus having incurred the difpleafure
of Ptolemy, were lent op this voyage of difcovery
*5
if
17
Voyage of
Pythias.
18
Kncient
[eogra-
hers.
G E O G
They paITed through the ft rails of Gibraltar, and cir¬
cumnavigating Africa, returned by the Red fea. Laft-
ly, in the reign of Ptolemy, furnamed Alexander, about
90 years before Chriit, Agatarehides, who had been
the king’s governor, -was fent to take a complete furvey
of the Red lea, and wrote an account of his voyage, of
which, however, there remain only a few extra&s that
are preferved by Photius, in his Bibliotheca, a work of
the ninth century.
Ihe extenfton of commerce feems always to have
been one of the principal objects of thefe voyages of
dilcovery. It is not furprifing, therefore, that the in¬
habitants of Marfeilles, which was early celebrated as
a commercial city, appear among the ancient naviga¬
tors who laboured to extend geographical knowledge,
i wo voyagers, Pythias and Euthymenes, undertook an
expedition about 320 years before the Chriftian rera.
Euthymenes entered the Atlantic through the ftraits
of Gibraltar, and turned towards the fouth, for the pur-
pofe of taking a furvey of the coaft of Africa. This is
all tnat we know of his route } but Pythias fleered
northward, and after reconnoitring the coafts of Spain
and Gaul, failed round the ifland of Albion, and ftretch-
ing ftill farther to the north, difcovered an ifland which
is believed to be the modern Iceland, or the Thule of
the ancients, terrarum ultima Thule. Perhaps, how¬
ever, this was only one of the Ferro iflands. Strabo,
who appears to have been prejudiced againft Pythias,
treats his relation as fabulous, founding his opinion
principally on the number of incredible circumftan-
ces that occur in his narration. Taking thefe cir-
cumftances, however, not according to their literal
meaning, but in a figurative fenfe, they reprefent pretty
veil the ftate of the lea and fky in thefe countries which
are fo little favoured by nature. Pythias certainly feems
to have been one of the firft Greek navigators who en¬
tered the Baltic.
We have thus traced the progrefs of geographical
difeoveries to very nearly the period w hich we aftigned
as the limit of ancient geography ; and (hall now notice
very briefly fome of the principal Icientific geographers
of antiquity, whofe names or writings have defeended to
pofterity, and (hall afterwards give a fummary fketch of
the knowledge which the ancients feem to have poiTeffed
of the habitable globe.
As geography is a branch of knowledge intimately
connected with geometry and aftronomy, it became an
obje£t of confideration with many of the ancient geo¬
meters and aftronomers. We have already mentioned
the names of Anaximander of Miletus, and his coun¬
tryman Hecateus. Strabo alfo notices Democritus,
Eudoxus of Cnidos, and Parmenides, to the laft of
whom he attributes thedivifion of the earth into zones.
Thefe were followed by Eratofthenes, who lived about
240 years before the Chriftian tera, and Hipparchus,
who flouriftied about 80 years afterwards \ Polybius,
Geminus, and Poflidonius. Eratofthenes wrote three
books on geography, of which Strabo criticifes fome
paflages, though he frequently defends him againft Hip¬
parchus, who often affefts an oppofite opinion. Poly¬
bius wrote on geography as well as hiftory, and, as well
as Geminus and Poffidonius, is frequently quoted by
Strata), Polybius and Geminus^rgue with confiderable
acutenefs for the pofliblity of the torrid zone being in¬
habited, a eircumftance which was generally difbelieved
Vol. IX. "Part II. 3
R A P H Y. 505
by the ancients; and they even adduce arguments which Hiftory.
are very plaufible, to prove that the climate of the
countries under the equator is more temperate than that
of thofe which are fituated near the tropics.
We muft not here omit a geographer and mathema¬
tician who lived about the time of Alexander the Great.
1 his was Dicearchus of Meflina, the difeiple of Theo-
phraftus, who wrote a defeription of Greece in iambic
verfes, of which fome fragments yet remain. What ren¬
ders this work moft remarkable is, that it contains tho
height oi feveral mountains meafured geometrically by
Dicearchus. Thus, for inflance, the height of Mount
Cylene is ftated at 15 ftadia, and that of Satabyce at
about 14. Taking the ftadium at 944- toifes, we have
for the latter of thefe heights, at moft 1400 toifes,
whereas many of the ancients afligned 300, 400, or even
500 ftadia, as the height of fome of their mountains.
VVith Dicearchus we may mention another geometer
noticed by Plutarch in his life of Paulus Emilius; viz.
Xenagoras, a difciple of Ariftotle, who alio employed
himfelt in meafuring mountains, and has aftigned only
15. ftadia, which is equal to about 1417 toifes, as the
height of Mount Olympus. In fome of the later pe¬
riods previous to the Chriftian aera, we find the names
of feveral geographers, as Artemidorus of EphTus,
who wrote a geographical work in eleven books, of
which nothing remains j Scymnus of Chio, author of a
defeription of the earth in iambic verfes, which remains
in a very mutilated ftate j Ifidorus of Charax, who left
a defeription of the Parthian empire, and Scylax of
Caryades, author of a voyage round the Mediterranean
fea, which is ftill extant.
I he works of all thefe geographers, however, arestrabs.
trifling when compared with the geography of Strabo,
a w ork in 16 books, which has come down to us en¬
tire. I his is one of the moft valuable works of anti¬
quity, both from the fpirit of difeuflion which runs
through it, and the number of curious obfervations
which the author has collected of difl'erent geographers
and navigators who preceded him j and of whofe works
nothing remains except thefe extrafts. Strabo lived in
the reigns of Auguftus and Tiberius, and was nearly
cotemporary with Pomponius Mela. This latter geo- Pomponm
grapher wrote a work de Jitu orbis, which is little more Mela,
than a bare fummary, though it is valuable, as it gives
us a Iketch of what was known in his time refpedling
the ftate of the habitable globe. Pomponius Mela was
followed by Julius Solenus, who has alfo treated of geo¬
graphy in his Polyhiftor, a compilation which is fuffi-
ciently valuable from the number of curious obferva¬
tions which are there cellefted. 2r
Of all the ancient geographers, pofterity is moft in- Ptolemy,
debted to Ptolemy, who produced a work much more
fcientific than had ever before been written on this fei-
ence; a geography in eight books, which muft ever be
confidered as one of the principal monuments of the la¬
bours of its author. In this work there appear, for
the firft time, an application of geometrical principles to
the conftru&ion of maps ; the different proje&ions of
the fphere, and a diftribution of the feveral places on
the earth, according to their latitudes and longitudes.
This work muft have been the refult of a great many
relations both hiftorical and geographical, that had
been coJlefted by Ptolemy. It has paffed through nu¬
merous editions.
3 S Som'ft
22
Dionyfius
the Pcne-
getic.
23
Hudfos’s
colleflion.
24
25
Geographi¬
cal know¬
ledge of the
ancients.
26
Europe.
vj
Aha.
Some time after Ptolemy, lived Dionyfius the Afri¬
can, commonly called the Penegettc, from the txtle of
a work that he compofed in verie, containing a deicnp-
tion of the world, which may be conlidered as one of
the moft correa fyItems of ancient geography, and was
by Pliny propoied to himlelf as a pattern. 1 his work
was afterwards tranflated into Latin verfes by Prilcian,
and by Avienus, the latter of whom alfo wrote a de-
fcription of the maritime coafts in iambic verfes, of
which there remain about 700. Among the lateft geo¬
graphers of this period are reckoned Marcianus and
Agathemares, of whom little is known, except that the
latter was author of two books on geography.
The fcattered works of moft of thefe authors being
difficult to procure, were collefted by Hudfon into one
work, and publiffied by him in four volumes oftavo, in
the years 1698, 1702, and 1712, under the title of
Geographic? veteris fcriptores Credo: minores, together
with a Latin tranflation and notes and differtations on
each by Dodwell. In this work we find the remains
of Hanno, Scylax, Nearchus, Agatarchides, Arrian,
Marcianus, Dicearchus, Ifidore of Charax, Scymnus,
Agathemares, Dionyfius the Periegetic, Artemidorus,
Dionyfius of Bifance, Avienus, Prifcian, and fome frag¬
ments of Strabo, of Plutarch, of Ptolemy, of Abulfeda,
and of Ulug Beg. This is a moft valuable colledlion,
and as it had become extremely fcarce, was a few' years
ago reprinted at Leipfic.
The above is a hafty Iketch of the names and cha-
rafters of moft of the geographical writers within the
period which we have affigned to the ancient hiftory of
the fcience. We ftiall have occafion to make fome iur-
ther obfervations on the more eminent of thefe geogra¬
phers in a future part of this article.
With refpeft to the knowledge of the globe that was
poffeffed by the ancients, there have been various opi¬
nions 5 fome have confidered them as very extenfively
acquainted with almoil every part of it, not excepting
fome portion of America j while others have confined
their geographical knowledge within very narrow li¬
mits. The following obfervations are chiefly drawn
from M. Montucla, an eminent judge in every thing
that relates to the hiftory of the mathematical Iciences.
As to the knowledge which the ancients poffeffed of
the habitable globe, it is certain that they were well
acquainted with Europe, or at leaft all that part of it
which had been made fubjeft to the Roman empire, as
far as the banks of the Rhine and the Danube. They
were tolerably well acquainted with Germany and Sar-
matia. They had fome knowledge of the Baltic fea, as
a fleet had been fent by Auguftus, which failed as far
as the peninfula then called the Cimbrian Cherfonefus,
the modern Jutland. The Baltic was at that time ce¬
lebrated for the produftion of ambergrife. They had
acquired a knowledge of the ifland of Britain, from the
expeditions of Julius Caelar, and Claudius •, but the
northern parts of this ifland, and the whole of Ireland,
were to them nations of rude, uncivilized favages. The
boundary of their knowledge of Europe to the north,
was the Thule of Pyihias, or Iceland j at leaft if it is
certain, as is the general opinion, that this ifland is the
ultima Thule.
With refpeft to Afia, they feem to have furvey-
ed the country as far towards the eaft as the river
Ganges j and the immenfe extent of country compre-
GEOGRAPHY. Part I.
hended between the Indus and the Ganges, was called Hiftory.
by them India on this fide the Ganges. Further on to¬
wards the north of China, in the neighbourhood of the
mountains where thefe rivers derive their fource, they
placed feveral nations of people, of whom they related
the moft ridiculous fables. Beyond thefe, ftill more
towards the eaft, they placed the Seres, and upon the
coaft of the gulf, which is now' the bay of Cochin Chi¬
na, called by Ptolemy the Great Bay, were fituated the
Sinte, fo called by Ptolemy, though they are not men¬
tioned by Strabo, Pomponius Mela, or Solinus. The
Seres were probably the inhabitants of the northern
parts of China, and the Sinae, thofeofthe fouthern parts
of China, who very early occupied Cochin China, Ton-
quin, &.c. countries which in the fequel they have en¬
tirely fubjugated. They maintained a commerceby land
with the Seres, and their route is pointed out in one of
Ptolemy’s maps. Beyond the Seres, according to Stra¬
bo and Pomponius Mela, lay between the Oriental
fea, though Ptolemy, for want of certain intelligence
refpefting that part of Afia, confiders the point as un¬
decided, and places there feveral unknown countries.
The ancients carried this extremity of Afia much far¬
ther to the eaft than it is found to extend by modern
geographers \ for, according to them, the Seres and the
Sinae were fituated about the longitude of 1 8o°, wffiile
the meridian of Pekin, or about the middle of the Chi-
nefe empire, reaches no farther than to 1340, reckoning
the longitude from the moft diftant of the Canary
iflands, as was done by Ptolemy. Io the north of the
Indus the ancient geographers placed the Scythians,
and Hyperboreans (the Tartars and Samoides of more
modern date) and fome other nations to an indefinite
extent, who were fuppofed to form on that fide an in-
furmountable barrier, having behind them an ocean of
ice, which was believed to communicate with the Caf-
pian fea, though this was at leaft at the diftance of 45®
leagues.
The boundary of Afia, affigned by the ancients to
the fouth, was the Indian ocean, and they were ac¬
quainted with its communication with the Red fea, by
means of a ftrait, the figure of which is very ill ex-
preffed in their maps. This is alfo the cafe with the
Perfian gulf, with which they were acquainted, but
which in the ancient maps has nearly the form of a
rhombus, one fide of which, towards the mouths of the
Indus, was pretty well knowm to them, but the fide
next the mouths of the Ganges is very inaccurately de¬
lineated, being continued nearly in a ftraighf line. It
is even probable that the ifland which Ptolemy calls
Taprobana, w'as only the peninfula of India very much
disfigured in the delineation. 28
The fituation of this ifland of Taprobana, fo cele-Situation
brated among the ancients, is a problem in geography 0^t^f
that is yet unfolved. It is commonly fuppofed to be^ana^p
the modern ifland of Ceylon ; but the dimenfions of it
as laid down by ancient geographers, render this fup-
pofition doubtful, and there are fome who rather be¬
lieve it to be the modern Sumatra. The ancients had
alfo fome obfeure knowledge of the peninfula of Ma¬
lacca, which they called the Golden Cherfonefus, and
they feem to have examined the gulf formed by that
land, which is now the gulf of Cochin China, or com¬
monly called the gulf of Tonkin. It is fomewhat ex¬
traordinary that they do not feem to have been ac¬
quainted
29
Africa.
jo
G E O G
quainted with Java, Borneo, and that numerous group
of iilands which form, in that quarter, the greateif Ar¬
chipelago in the world. It is equally Angular that the
Maldives had efcaped the obfervation of thefe naviga¬
tors. This feems to prove that they never ventured out
into the open lea, but kept clofe along the lliore. Pto¬
lemy indeed fays, that his iiland of Taprobana was fur-
rounded with many hundreds of fmaller iflands, to fome
of which he gives names} 'but all this is involved in
impenetrable obfcurity.
Of Africa, the ancients knew only thofe parts which
lay along the coaft, and to a very fmall diftance in¬
land, if we except Egypt, with which they w'ere well
acquainted, at lead as far as the catara&s of the Nile,
and a little beyond them, as far as the illand of Meroe,
towards the 20th degree of north latitude. Their
knowledge of the coalts of Africa on the fide of the Red
fea, extended no farther than the fhoresof that fea, ex¬
cept that part which was dependent on Egypt; the in¬
terior of the country being inhabited by ferocious and
untraftable people. They were Hill lefs acquainted
with the countries which lay beyond the firait, and
Ptolemy appears to have given no credit to the navi¬
gators who were faid to have failed round that part of
the world, for he has left the continent of Africa im-
perfeft towards the fouth. Strabo and Pomponius Mela
were, however, decidedly of opinion that Africa was a
peninfula, and that it was joined to the relt of the con¬
tinent only by that narrow' neck of land which is now
called the ifthmus of Suez. The ancients feem to have
had no knowledge of that large and beautiful illand of
Madagafcar, unlefs we fuppofe that Ptolemy had fome
imperfeft acquaintance with it, under the name of the
ifland Menuthius. The coaft of Africa upon the Medi¬
terranean fea, was once covered with towns, dependent
on the Roman empire, flourilhing and polilhed, while
it prefents at prefent nothing but a neft of pirates,
whom the jealoufy of the great commercial nations fup-
ports, to the difgrace and prejudice of civilized ftates.
Proceeding from the ftraits of Gadez or Gibraltar, they
had become acquainted with the coaft as far as a cape
which they called Hefperion-Keras, probably the mo¬
dern Cape de Verd, or the cape that lies a little to the
weft of it, though in the maps of Ptolemy it is thrown
a little back inland. The Fortunate iilands, or the
Hef] derides, at prefent the Canaries, better known by
fame than in reality, feem to have been the boundaries
of ancient geography to the weft, as the Seres and Si¬
nge were to the eaft. It appears, however, that the
Cape de Verd iflands w'ere not entirely unknown to the
ancients, and they are probably the fame with what
were then called the Gorgades or Gorgones, w'hich
were fuppofed to be two days fail to the weft of He-
fperion-Keras.
“ There is little doubt (fays Mr Pattefon) concern¬
ing the names by which moft of the principal countries
of Europe were known to the ancients; nor is there
any difficulty in difpofing the chief nations, which an¬
cient writers have enumerated in the fouth-weft part of
Alia or on the African coaft of the Mediterranean j but
with the north and north-eaft parts of Europe, about
two-thirds of Alia towards the fame quarters, and nearly
the fame proportion f Africa towards the fouth, they
appear to have been wholly unacquainted. Of America
they did not even fufpeft the exiftence; and if it ever
R A P H Y.
happened, as fome writers have imagined, that Phoe¬
nician merchant Ihips were driven by ftonns acrofs the
Atlantic to the American ftiores, it does not appear that
any of them returned from thence to report the dif-'
covery.
The names of provinces, fubdivifions, and petty
tribes, mentioned by ancient authors, in thofe countries
which were the chief fcenes of Roman, Grecian, or
Ifraelitifh tranfaclions, are almoft as numerous as in a
modern map of the fame countries ; and the fituations of
many of them can be very nearly affigned : but the li¬
mits of each, or indeed of the ftates or nations to which
they belonged, can, in very few inftances, be precifely
fixed. I. hus the fouthern boundaries of the Sarmatee
in Europe, cannot be afcertained within a degree at the
neareft ; and in France, neither the limits of the peo¬
ple called the Belgae, Celtge, and Aquitani; nor thofe
of the Roman divifions, viz. Belgica, Lugdunenfis,
Aquitania, Narbonenfis, and the Province, can be laid
down, in many places, but by a hardy conje&ure. The
fame obfervation may be juftly applied to the Tarra-
conenfis, Lufitania, and Betica of Spain y to the Cauci,
Catti, Suevi, &c. of Germany ; and, above all, to the
Britannia prima et fecunda, and other divifions of the *Pattefon's
Roman government in Britain : of which not only the AtLas' Part
limits, but the fituations are ftill in difpute*.” pagj 27‘
During the middle ages geography, as well as moft Geography
other arts and fciences, feems rather to have gone back-ot the “id-
wards than advanced. The weaknefs of the Romandle a£e*-
emperors, the relaxation of military difcipline, the
boundlefs paflion for luxury and pleafure, and the con¬
tinual incurfions of the barbarous nations, while they
contributed to haften the fall of the weftern empire,
alfo acceltrated the ruin of the arts. It feems as if
thefe deftru&ive hordes of barbarians, the Goths, the
Huns, and the Vandals, had enveloped the whole world
in one profound and univerfal ignorance. This dark-
nefs, which overfpread the whole of Europe, did not per-
mit geography to make any advances for a very con-
fiderable time. There were indeed fome navigators
who inveftigated countries that were ftill little, known,
but they were fo ignorant, that they afford us very little
new light. There was one named Cofmas, who made
a voyaye to India, which procured him the name of
Indo-Pleuftes, and who gave an account of his voyage
under the title of Sacred Geography. This man was lb
egregiouily ignorant, as to believe that he had difeo-
vered that the earth was a plane, and that the diverfity
of the feafons, and the inequality of the days and
nights, were owing to a very high mountain fituated
to the north, behind which the fun let to a greater or
lefs depth.
The voyages of the Arabians to the Eaft Indies Difcoverles
(fee. the hiftory of Commerce), contributed to throw of the Ara-
farther light on that extenfive part of the globe. Con-^ans*
querors of the countries on the Red fea, and enthufi&f-
tic propagators of their religion, they carried their
arm* as far as the extremity of India. We fee them in
the 9th century extending to China 5 and Renaudot has
publifhed two of their narrations, in which we can trace
with tolerable accuracy, the places vifiied by their au¬
thors. _ The ifland of Serendib, Co celebrated in their
tales, is certainly the modern Ceylon ; for dib or dit, in
the Malay language, fignifies ijland, fo that Serendib,
fignifits the ifland of Seren or Selan. Farther, thefe
3 S 2 relations
508
Hiftory.
Modern
difcoveries.
GEOGRAPHY.
relations do not give us as favourable an idea of tne
Chinefe as we derive from their own hiftory ; on the
contrary, if we may believe thefe Arabian travellers,
this people were, even at that time, in a ftate not \ery
civilized.
We are now arrived at the modern period ot our
hiftory, during which the moft important difeoyeries
have been made, and our knowledge of the habitable
globe more than doubled. Che difcoveries and im¬
provements during this period are fo numerous, that it
will be impoflible to give here any thing more than
a chronological view of the moft remarkable, referring
for a detailed account of them to the geographical and
hiftorical articles in this work.
The tafte for voyages of difcovery began in Europe
foon after the revival of literature in the i jth centm},
juft before the commencement of which, namely, in the
reign of Henry III. king of Spain, about the year
1395, the Canary illands were more fully furveyed than
at any former period.
1415. Prince Henry III. fon of John king of Por¬
tugal, failed round the coaft of Africa.
1417. The Canary illands were fubdued by Bethan-
court, nephew of the admiral of France.
1420. XThe ifland of Madeira was examined by John
Gonfalvo and Triftan Vaz, two Portuguefe.
1446. Cape de Verd was difcovered by Dennis Fer¬
nandez.
14S7. The Cape of Good Hope was dimovered
by Barthelemi Diaz. The difcovery of this cape led
the way to that of the new world. This great event,
which gave a new flight to the genius of mankind, is
one of the moft important in the hiftory of geography.
A particular account of this difcovery will be found
under the article America. The following are the
dates of the principal geographical difcoveries which
have taken place between that of Columbus, and tire
voyages of our celebrated navigator Cook.
1496. Florida, by Sebaftian Gabot, an Englilhman.
1498. The Indies, by Valeo di Gama.
1499. The river of Amazons, by Yanez Pinion.
1500. Brazil, by Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguefe.
1504. Newfoundland, by fome Normans.
1518. Mexico, by Ferdinand Cortes
1519. The ftraits of Magellan, South fea, and
Phillippine illands, by Ferdinand Magellan.
1525. Canada, by Jean Verrazan, a Florentine, fent
by Francis I. of France.— Peru, by F. Pizarro of Spain.
1527. New Guinea, by Alvaro de Salvedra.
1334. Chili, by Diego Almagro.
1335. California, by Ferdinand Cortes.
1367. The illands of Solomon, by Alvaro de Men¬
doza.
1618. New Holland, by Zechaen.
1642. Van Dieman’slandjby Abel Janfen Tafman.
3643. Brower’s land.
1634. New Zealand.
1678. Louifiana, by Robert Cavelier de Lafalle,
governor of Frontiniac.
1700. New Britain, by Dampier, an Englilhman.
j 739. Cape Circumcifion, contefted between the
French and Englilh. Said by Montuela to be difco¬
vered by two French veffels.
1767. The ifland of Taiti, by Wallis, an Englilh-
man.
Part I,
1778. The Sandwich iflands, by Cook. Hiftory.
Within this period there are reckoned 25 voyages '    
round the world, viz. thofe of Magellan, Drake, Ca-34
vendilh, Noort, Spilburg, Lemaire, L’Hermite, Cle-f0“!)‘bJof:
pington, Carreri, Shelvack, Dampier, Cowley, Woodes round the
Rogers, Le Gentil, Anfon, Wallis, Roggewein, Rou-world,
gainville, Sarville, Dixon, three voyages of Cook, La
Peyroufe, Marchand, Vancouver, and Pages.
Within thefe few years, very confiderable light has 35
been thrown on the ftate of our geographical know¬
ledge, by feveral valuable voyages and travels that
have lately appeared. The difcoveries that have been
fucceflively made in the great South fea, and in other
parts of the world, efpecially the extenfive ifland of
New Holland, are now fo fully eftablilhed, as to add
confiderably to the certainty of our geographical know¬
ledge j and the voyages of Cook, La Peyroufe, and Van¬
couver, have afforded us more exaft furveys of the
coalts of thefe countries than we could, fome years ago,
have dared to hope for. The accounts of the late em-
baflies to China, Tibet and Ava, afford many authentic
materials for a modern fyftem of geography, the place
of which muft have been fupplied by more remote and
doubtful information. From the latter of thefe accounts
we are become familiarly acquainted with an empire
(that of the Birmans), which a fhort time ago was
fearcely known (fee Asia, 81—152.). Our know¬
ledge of Hindoftan and the neighbouring countries has
been greatly extended by the refearches of the Afiatie
Society, and fome other late works; while our ac¬
quaintance with the interior of Africa has been render¬
ed lefs imperfedl by the exertions of the African So¬
ciety, and by the travels of Park, Brown, and Bar-
row 3 and the northern boundaries of America, even
as far as the fea which appears to furround the northern
extremity of that vafl continent, have been more
fully difclofed by the journeys of Hearne and Mac¬
kenzie.
The late voyage of Turnbull, however infignificant it
may be in other refpefts, has at leaft the merit of en¬
larging our knowledge of the manners and political
tranfaftions of the South fea iflanders, and ot intro¬
ducing to our acquaintance, in the perfon of'lamaha-
ma, the chief of Owhyhee, a fovereign, who, in am¬
bition and defire of improvement, bids fair to vie with
Peter the Great j and to transform a nation of favages,
to a civilized people. 3$
With all the advantages which geography has lately present de-
received, the fcience is ftill far from being perfeiff j and fedb ot geo.
the exclamation which D’Anville is faid to have madegr!1l)1J•
in his old age, a Ah ! mes amis, il y a bien d’erreurs
dans la geographic”—Ah l my friends, there are a great
many errors in geography, may ftill be applied with con¬
fiderable juftice. Many points in the fcience have
been but very lately afeertained. Thus, the extent
of the Mediterranean fea was almoft unknown at the
beginning of the 17th century, although it is now' al-
moft as exaftly afeertained as tflht of any country in
Europe. In a book publifhed by Gemma Frifius, de or-
bis divijione, in 1530, we find the difterence of longitude
between Cairo in Egypt and Toledo in Spain ftated
at 330 inftead of 33°, and other meafures of extent are
proportionally erroneous. Not many years ago there
was an uncertainty with refpe£t to the extremity of the
Black fea and the Cafpian, to the amount of 30 or 4 >
3
fart I.
and To lately as tlie year 1769, the longitude of
Gibraltar and of Cadiz was not known within half a
degree.
Many parts of the geography of Europe are {fill
very defective 5 Spain and Portugal have bqenbut im¬
perfectly explored, and European Turkey is ftill lefs
known. It may appear extraordinary that we have yet
no correft chart of the Britifh channel, though we are
allured by Major Renncl that this is the cafe •, and it
has been proved by the trigonometrical furveys of Bri¬
tain that have yet been publidied, that there are many
grofs errors in our belt county maps. We have had oc-
calion to remark that geography has fometimes been
retrogreffive, and there cannot be a greater proof of
the truth of the obfervation, than that in a map of the
Shetland illands, publilhed not long ago, by Prefton,
they are reprefented as too large by one third, both in
length and breadth, and their relative politions are
very inaccurate, though in the maps of the fame illands
publilhed before the year 1750, they are laid down
with much greater accuracy, as appears from fur¬
veys made by order of the late king of France, and
from the maps publilhed by Captain Donelly, and at
Copenhagen, in the year 1787.
In Alia we are imperfeCtly acquainted with Tibet,
and fome other central regions j and even Perlia, Ara¬
bia, and Aliatic Turkey, are but little known. Of
Aultralafia, or New Holland, and New Guinea, almoft
nothing is known except the coalts, and a great part of
them towards the fouth has been but imperfeCtly ex¬
plored. Of Polynefia, or the numerous illands in
the South Pacific ocean, we are alfo very ignorant j
and in the Pacific oeean, particularly towards the
fouth pole, many difeoveries probably remain to be
made.
Our ignorance of the central parts of Africa is no¬
torious, and the improvement of our geographical
knowledge in that quarter has, for fome years, been a
favourite objefr. It may admit of doubt, however,
whether this objeft will be fpeedily attained, as the ob-
Itacles to inveftigation in thofe inhofpitable tracts, leem
nearly infarmountable by human prudence and courage.
Even the Ihores of Africa have not been complete¬
ly furveyed, efpecially thofe towards the fouth and
ealt.
America has of late been much more fully explored
than at any former period : but ftill the weftern parts
of North America, and the central and fouthern regions
of South America are very little known ; and the Spa-
nifti fettlements towards the north are fcarcely known,
except to their own inhabitants.
The fcience of geography will probably be never
perfeflly underftood, as, befides the numerous obftacles
which oppofe the progrefs of the traveller, it is fcarcely
poflible that exa£t trigonometrical furveys of every
place and country, the only certain method of afeer-
taining their exa6t fituations and relative pofitions, can
be made.
Political geography muft ever remain the moft un¬
certain part of the fcience. New changes are perpetu¬
ally taking place in the relations of neighbouring ftates,
according as ambition, tyranny, or commercial conveni¬
ence diftates. Territory is transferred, by ceftion or by
conqueft, from one nation to another. Whoever will
compare the relations of the European ftates, as they
509
appear in the prefent maps, and in thofe publiflied half Hiftory.
a century ago, will fcarcely recognife the countries to "‘'“v 1
be the fame. The great divifions indeed remain as be¬
fore, but the boundaries of moft: of them are entirely
changed. A number of independent ftates, and in one
inftance, a large kingdom, have been fwallowed up by
the unjuftifiable ambition of their more powerful neigh¬
bours, and their names may be blotted from the map
of Europe. The republics of Holland, of Switzer¬
land, of Venice, are no more : the kingdoms of Po¬
land and Sardinia have ceafed to exift ; the lucceflbr
of St Peter, who once gave law's to princes, and governed
Europe with unbounded fway, is now a wretched exile,
and his dominions are doomed to increafe the already
overgrown power of defpotic upftarts. Whether the
prefent generation of emperors and kings, erefted by
the mighty Napoleon, will remain as long as did the
ftates on whole ruins they have been raifed, or are ra¬
ther ephemeral productions, doomed to perifti at the fet-
ting of that fun which now gives them live and vigour,
is a queftic/n which future experience alone can deter¬
mine.
The limits preferibed to this article do not permit us
to enter on a critical examination, or even a charac-
teriftic Iketch of the geographical works that have
appeared in the modern period of the hiftory of the
fcience •, and a bare enumeration of names would be
equally tirefome and uninterefting. Some of the beft
modern works will be mentioned in the fequel ; at pre¬
fent we lhall conclude this Part in the words of an able
judge of the prefent ftate of the fcience.
“ The Spaniards and Italians (fays Mr Pinkerton)
have been dormant in this fcience ; the French works
of La Croix and others are too brief 5 while the Ger¬
man compilations of Bufching, Fabri, Ebeling, &c.
are of a moft tremendous prolixity, arranged in the
moft taftelefs manner, and exceeding in dry names, and
trilling details, even the minutenefs of our gazetters.
A defeription of Europe in 14 quarto volumes, may
well be contrafted with Strabo’s defeription of the
world in one volume : and geography feems to be that
branch of feience, in which-the ancients have eftablilh-
ed a more clafiical reputation than the moderns. Every
great literary monument may be faid to be erefted by
compilation, from the time of Herodotus to that of
Gibbon, and from the age of Homer to that of Shake-
fpeare •, but in the ufe of the materials there is a wide-
difference between Strabo, Arrian, Ptolemy, Paufanias,-.
Mela, Pliny, and other celebrated ancient names, and
modern general geographers 5 all of whom, except*
d’Anville, feem under graduates in literature, without
the diftinguifhed talents or reputation^ which have ac¬
companied almoft every other literary exertion. Yet
it may fafely be affirmed, that a produ&ion of real
value in univerfal geography requires a wider extent
of various knowledge than any other literary depart¬
ment, as embracing topics of the moft multifarious
defeription, There is, however, one name, that of
d’Anville, peculiarly and juftly eminent in this fcience
but his reputation is chiefly derived from his maps,
and from his illuftrations of various parts of ancient
geography. In fpecial departments Goffelin, and o-
ther foreigners, have alfo been recently diftinguilh-
ed ; nor is it neceflary to remind the reader of the great *
nierit of Rennell and Vincent in our own country t0,2,s Ge°-
PART^kW’
GEOGRAPH Y.
GEOGRAPHY.
510
Principles
and
Pradlice-
PART IT. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF GEOGRAPHY.
Part II.
Principles
and
Pradlice.
33 Chap I. Of the Surface and General Diviftons of
_ the Earth.
IT has been fuppofed, by the lefs enlightened part
of mankind in all ages, that the furface of the earth is
nearly a plane, bounded on all fides by the fky. It
•was Ihewn, however, in the article Astronomy,
(N0 269—272.) that the earth is of a fpherical figure,
and an account was there given of the manner in which
the true form of it was determined. Independently of
the confiderations there detailed, the fpherical figure of
the earth may be inferred, in a popular view, from the
„0 following fa£ts.
Proofs of I. When we Hand on the fea-lhore while the fea is
the fpheri- perfectly calm, we eafily perceive that the furface of the
cal form of vvater is not quite plain, but convex or rounded ; and
the earth. ^ we are on one p1(je 0f a broad river or arm of the fea,
as the frith of Forth, and with our eyes near the water,
look towards the oppofite coaft, we lhall plainly fee the
vvater elevated between our eyes and the oppofite Ihore,
fo as to prevent our feeing the land near the edge of
the water.
2. When we obferve a fhip leaving the fhore, and
going out to fea, we firft lofe fight of the hull, then of
the fails and lower rigging, and laftly of the upper part
t>f the mafts. Again, when a (hip is approaching the
fliore, the firft part of her that is feen from the land is
the topmaft, then the fails and rigging appear, and laft¬
ly the hull comes gradually into view.. Thefe appear¬
ances can arife only from the ihip’s failing on a convex
furface •, as, if the furface of the fea was plain, a Ihip on
its firft appearance would be vifible, though very fmall
in all its parts at the fame time, or rather the hull
would firft appear, as being moft diftinguifliable; and,
in going out of fight, it would in the fame manner dif-
appear at once, or the hull would be the laft part of
which we ftiould lofe fight.
3. Many navigators fent on voyages of difcovery,
have, by keeping the fame courfe, at length arrived at
the port from which they fet out, having literally fail¬
ed round the globe. This could not happen if the fea
were a plain.
4. When we travel to a confiderable diftance, in a
direction due north or duefouth, a number of new ftars
fucceflively appear in the heavens, in the quarter to
which we are travelling •, while many of thofe in the
oppofite quarter gradually and fucceflively difappear,
and are feen no more till we return in a contrary direc¬
tion.
In an eclipfe of the moon, which has been fhown
(Astronomy, N° 199 ) t© be owing to the obfcurati n
of the moon’s furface by the fliadow of the earth, the
boundary of the obfcured part of the moon is always
circular. Now, it is evident that no body, which is
not fpherical, can, in all fituations, caft a circular Iha-
dow.
The diameter of the earth is generally computed
of the at 7958 miles, though Mr Vince makes it 7930,
earth. nearer the medium derived from a comparifon of the
polar with the equatorial axis. Taking this laft, there¬
fore, as the mean diameter, the circumference will be
= 24,912 miles, and confequently the extent of the fu-
perfices will be = 197,552,160 miles, of which it is
computed that at leaft two-thirds are covered with wa¬
ter.
In the above computation no account is taken of the
mountains and other eminences on the furface of the
globe ; for, although thefe are of confiderable confe-
quence in a geographical point of view, as they confti-
tute the molt natural and remarkable boundaries of
countries, and by their influence on the foil and climate
of the different regions, contribute in a great degree
to form thofe {hades of diftin&ion which diverfify the
inhabitants of the feveral quarters of the earth, they are,
howevever, too trifling when compared with the diame¬
ter of fo great a body, to make any fenfible error in the
calculation. _ 41
The furface of the earth is exceedingly diverfified,Divifions
almoft everywhere riling into hills and mountains, or^ti'e
finking into valleys •, and plains of any great extent areeartl1,
extremely rare. Among the moft extenfive plains, are
the fandy deferts of Arabia and Africa, the internal
part of European Ruflia, and a tradl of confiderable ex¬
tent in the late kingdom of Poland, now called Pruflian
Poland. But the moft remarkable extent of level
ground, is the vaft platform of Tibet in Alia, which
forms an immenfe table, fupported by mountains run¬
ning in every direftion, and is the moft elevated tradl
of level country on the globe. The chief elevations or
mountains that occur, with their elevation, &c. will be 43
mentioned under Geology. The greateft concavities Oceans,
of the globe are thofe which are occupied by the wa¬
ters of the fea, and of thefe by far the largeft forms the
bed of the Pacific ocean, which ftretching from the
eaftern (hores of New Holland to the weftern coaft of
America, covers nearly half the globe. The concavity
next in fize and importance, is that which forms the
bed of the Atlantic ocean, extending between the new
and the old -worlds ; and a third concavity is filled by
the Indian ocean. Smaller colleftions of water, though
ftill large enough to receive the name of oceans, fill up
the remaining concavities, and take the names of Arc¬
tic and Antarflic oceans. _ ^
Smaller colle&ions of water that communicate freely Seas.
with the oceans, are called fens, (vid. A \ fig. 1.), and of p!ate
thefe the principal are the Mediterranean, the Baltic, CC;xXX
the Black fea, and the White fea. Thefe feas fome-
times take their names from the country near which
they flow •, as the Irifti fea and the German ocean.
Some large bodies of water which appear to have no
immediate connexion with the great body of waters,
being everywhere furrounded by land, are yet called
feat; as the Cafpian fea. _ 44
A part of the fea running up within the land, fo as Ravs or
to form a hollow, if it be large, is called a bay or .ulfs,
gulf; as the bay of Bifcay, gulf of Mexico: if Imall,
a creek, road, or haven. _ 4,.
When two large bodies of water communicate by Rgtraits.
narrow pats between two adjacent lands, this pafs is
called
iPart H.
Principles
and
Practice.
47
Lakes.
Rivers.
49
Continents,
SO
Wands.
called a Jlrait, or Jlraits (C, fig. i.) as the ftraits of Gib¬
raltar, the {traits of Dover, of Babelmandel, &c. I he
water ufually flows through a ftrait with confiderable
force and velocity, forming what is called a current,
and frequently this current always flows in the fame di-
re&ion. Thus, in the {traits of Gibraltar there h a
conftant current from the Atlantic into the Mediter¬
ranean, though the fur face of the latter never fee ms to
be elevated beyond its ufual level. There is always a
current round Cape Finitterre and Cape Ortegal, fettmg
into the bay of Bifcay, and it has been dilcovered by
Major Kennel, that this current is continued in a di-
re&ion N. W. by W. from the coaft of France to the
weftward of Ireland and the Scilly iflands. Hence he
draws this ufeful praftical inftruaion for navigators
who are entering the Englilh channel from the Atlan¬
tic, viz. that they fhould keep no higher latitude than
48° 45', left they fliould be carried by the current
upon the rocks of Scilly. For want of this neceffary
precaution, it is laid that many {hips have been loft on
thefe rocks. i
A body of frelh water, entirely furrounded by land,
is called a /ah, loch, or lough (as D, fig. 1.), with the
exception of the fea above mentioned ; <is the lake of
Geneva, Lake Ontario, Lake Champlain, Loch Lo¬
mond, &c.
This term, or its fynonimes, loch or lough, is fome-
times applied to what is properly a gulf or inlet of the
fea, as Loch Fyne in Scotland, and Lough Swilly in
Ireland.
A confiderable ftream of water rifing inland, and
running towards the fea, is called a river j a fmaller
ftream of the fame kind is called a rivulet or brook.
Vid. E, fig. 1.
The great extent of land which forms the reft of the
globe, is divided into innumerable bodies, fome of which
are very large, but the majority extremely fmall. There
are three very extenfive tradfs of country, which may
all be denominated continents, though only two of
them have hitherto been diftinguiflied by that appella¬
tion. The moft confiderable of thefe continents is what
has been called the old world, comprifing Euiope,
Afia, and Africa. The fecond comprehends North
and South America, or what has been denominated the
new world, and is little inferior in extent to the former.
The third great divifion forms the country called New
Holland. .
A body of land entirely furrounded by water is called
an ijland, (vid. a, fig* I.) *** Britain, Ireland, Jamaica,
Madagafcar, &c. According totheftridf meaning of this
definition, the large divifions juft mentioned are iflands j
for it is almoft certainly afcertained, that the continent
of North America is everywhere bounded by the fea,
and it has long ceafed to be doubtful that New Holland
is in the fame circumftances, and it is generally called
the largeft ifland in the world. But perhaps it would
be better to confine the term to thofe numberlefs fmaller
iflands that appear above the furface of the waters.
When a number of fmaller iflands are fituated near each
other, the whole aflemblage is commonly called a group
of iflands, as b, b. The large affemblages of iflands
that have been difcovered in the South Pacific ocean,
have lately been comprehended under the name of
Polynefia, conftituting a fixth divifion of the whole
earth j the other five being Europe^ Afia, Africa,
GEOGRAPHY. ... 511
America, and the iflands of New Holland and Now
Guinea, under the name of Auitralafia. Piadtice.
A body of land that is almoft entirely furrounded by „—y »
water is called a peninfula, as c, fig. 1. J as the penin- 51
fula of Malacca, the Morea, or Grecian Peloponnefus, Peninfula.
&c. Indeed the continent of Africa may be eonfidered
as a vaft peninfula, being united to Afia only by the
fmall ifthmus of Suez. £»
The narrow neck of land which joins a peninfula to Ifthmus.
the main land, or which connefls twro trails of country
together, is called an i/lhmus, as d. The moft remark¬
able iithmules are the ifthmus of Darien, connecting the
continents ot North and South America, and the ifthmus
of Suez, joining Africa to Afia. __ 53
A narrow trait of land ftretching far out into the Promontory,
fea, being united to the main land by an ifthmus, is and Cape,
called a promontory, and its extremity next the fea, is
called a cape, as*/, fig. 1. The moft remarkable
capes are the Cape of Good Hope, at the fouthern ex¬
tremity of Africa j Cape Horn at the fouthern extre¬
mity of South America •, the North Cape at the north¬
ern extremity of Europe } and Cape lalmara, at the
northern extremity of Afia.
It may aflift the memory of the young geographer,
to compare together the above divifions of land and
w ater. We may remark that the large bodies of land,
called continents, correfpond to the extenfive traits of
water called oceans j that iflands are analogous jo lakesj
peninfulas to feas or gulfs j ifthmufes to ftraits ; pro¬
montories to creeks, &c.
The inhabited parts of the earth are. calculated to
occupy a fpace of 3^j990»5^9 Iftuare miles, of which
the four quarters into which the globe is ufually divid¬
ed are fuppofed to have the following proportions :—
Europe, AA5^f°^5
Afia, 10,768,823
Africa, 9>654>8o7
America, 14>IIO>874
The whole population of the earth has been comput¬
ed at 700,500,000 fouls *, and of thefe
Afia is fuppofed to contain 500,000,000
Europe, 150,000,000
Africa, 30,000,000
America, 20,000,000
and Aullralafia and Polynefia, &c. 500,000
Hence the proportional number of inhabitants to
every fquare mile in each quarter is as follows -
In Afia 46
Europe 34
Africa 3
America 3 to every two fquare miles.
Chap. II. Of the ConJlruBion and Ufe of the Globes.
SECT. I. Defcription and Lfe of the Ter ref rial Globes.
54
For the purpofe of reprefenting more accurately the Nature of
globe which we inhabit, geographers have long had re- the globes,
courfe to fpherical balls, on the face of which are
drawn the various divifions of the earth, and which are
fitted up with fuch an apparatus, as enables us to illuf-
trate and explain the phenomena preduced by the mo¬
tions
and
Practice
5I2 G E O G R
Principles tiofts of tlie earth, and the different lituations of its
various inhabitants. The ball thus prepared, is called
, an artificial globe, and what we have defcribed is pro¬
perly the temejlrialglobe, fo called to dirtinguiih it from
another of a limilar form, and furnidled in a fimilar
manner, but the furface of which reprefents the various
affemblages of ftars or conftellations that appear in
the heavens, and therefore this is called the celejlial
Circles on In order to afcertain the relative pofitions of places
-the globes, and countries on the earth, certain circles are fuppofed
to be drawn on its furface, analogous to thofe which
were mentioned in Astronomy, as fuppofed to be
drawn in the heavens. As thefe circles are really re-
prefented on the artificial globes, it will be proper here
to confider a little more particularly their nature and
ufes.
Axis and As the earth turns about on an imaginary axis, once
poles. Jn 24 hours, the artificial globe is furnilhed with a real
axis, formed by a wire pading through the centre, and
on which the globe revolves. The two extremities of
this axis are its poles, the one being called the north,
r- and the other the fouth pole.
Equator or A great circle drawn on the globe, at an equal didance
?equinoctial. from both poles, is the equator or equinoctial line, and
reprefents on the globe a fimilar circle, fuppofed to be
drawn round the earth, and didinguifhed by the fame
names. By failors this is commonly called the line,
and when they pafs over that part of the water, where
it is imagined to be drawn, they often make ufe of va¬
rious fuperditious ceremonies. The two parts of the
globe into which it is divided by the equator, are called
the northern andfouthern hemifpheres.
The equinoCtial line on the earth paffes through the
middle of Africa, in the almod unknown territories of
Macoco, and Monemugi, traver-fes the Indian ocean,
paffes through the idands of Sumatra and Borneo, and
the immenfe expanfe of the Pacific ocean j then extends
over the province of £tuito in South America, to the
mouth of the river Amazons. ... 0
As every circle is fuppofed to be divided into 360 ,
fo the equator is thus divided on the artificial globe.
Meridians. Through every 150 of the equator there is drawn on
the globe a great circle pading through the poles.
Thefe circles are called meridians, becaufe when the
fun in his apparent courfe from eaft to wed reaches
the correfponding circle in the heavens, it is noon on
that part of the earth over which the meridian is fuppo¬
fed to pafs. Properly fpeaking, every place on the
earth has its own meridian, though to prevent confu¬
sion, thefe circles are drawn on the artificial globe,
A P H Y. Part II.
only through every 150 of the equator. To fupplytfie Principles
place of the other meridians, the globe is hung in a
drong brazen circle, which is called the brazen men- ■ 
dian, or fometimes only the meridian. Ihe brazen
meridian, like the equator, is divided into 360 , Brazen me.
thefe are marked by nineties on each quandrant, being ridian.
on one half of the meridian numbered from the equa¬
tor to the poles, and on the other half from the poles
to the equator. On the oppofite fide of the brazen
meridian there are two concentric fpaces, which are
divided into degrees correfponding to the months and
days of each month, the degrees being marked on con¬
centric fpaces from the north pole to about 2^° both
ways. The ufe of thefe divifions will appear here¬
after (b). go
Through every tenth degree of the meridians, there parai]eiSt
are drawn on the globe circles parallel to the equator, of latitude,
which, for a reafon that will appear prefently, are called
parallels of latitude.
Before we proceed in deferibing the other circles,
&c. of the artificial globe, we fliall here make a few
remarks on the ufes of the equator, the meridians and
parallels (c). > 6t
The equator ferves to meafure the ditlance of one of latitude
place from another, either to the eaftward or weftward,ard lonSi.
and this diftance is called the longitude of the place, tude.
The meridians ferve in like manner to meafure the dil-
tance of one place from another in a direft line north
or fouth of the equator, and the diftance of the place
thus meafured is called its latitude.
The longitude and latitude of places may be illuftrat-
ed in the following manner. Let PEP'Q, (fig. 3-) rePre-
fent the earth or the globe, (fuppofed to be tranfverfe)
whofe axis is PCP', the north pole being P, and the
fouth pole P'; and let EACH reprefent a circle paf-
fing through the centre C, in a direftion perpendicular
to the axis PP'. This circle correfponds to the equa¬
tor, and it divides the earth of the globe into two hemi¬
fpheres, EPQ^ being the northern, and EP'O the
fouthern hemifphere. Let G, I, K, reprefent the fitua-
tions of three places on the furface of the globe,
through which let the great circles PKP\ PIP, and
PGP', be drawn, interfering the equator E^, in
72, 772, a, refpeftively. The circles are the meridians of
the places K, I, G. As every circle is iuppofed to be
divided into 360°, there muft be 90° from each pole t.o
the equator. Hence the latitude of the place K is
meafured by the degrees of the arc intercepted between
K and 72, and the latitudes of G and I are meafured by
the degrees of the arcs intercepted between G and a,
and I and 772 refpeaively. Thefe latitudes will be called
north
(b) The meridians are properly only femicircles, reaching from pole to pole, and of thefe there are twenty-
f0U(c) In Geography, as in other fciences, there are two methods of conveying inftruaion. One is, to lay down
the principles of the fcience firft, and afterwards apply thefe to the practice of it; the other method is, to combine
the principles and praftice in one view. The former is ufually confidered as the more fcientitle, but w me m-
ed to think that the latter is often to be preferred, as being lefs dry and tedious, efpecially to a g^eral reader.
We have here, therefore, chofen to explain the nature of latitude and longitude, and the problems re!priding ,
before completing the defeription of the globe. We fhall proceed in the lame manner, uniting as far as poflible
the principles and praedice in one view. Making, therefore,. the terreftrial globe our text book’^ ^ ^
explain the principles of geography, rather than detail thefe in a feparate feetion, an a* erviar s
ibj the globe.
Part II. G E O G li
Principles north latitudes, becaufe the places lie in the northern
ami hemifphere. Let there be two other places, WV, in
Praftice. fouthern hemirphere j the latitude of W will be
meafured by the degrees of the arc intercepted between
W and a ; and the latitude of V by the arc intercepted
between V and and thefe will be called fouth la¬
titudes. Further, let the circle c, e d, v, G, be drawn
parallel to the equator j this circle is called a parallel
of latitude, and as it does not pafs through the centre,
it is evidently lefs than the equator, or it is a fmall
circle. Now, all the arcs, fuch as R, e, a, G, &c. in¬
tercepted between the parallel and the equator, mull; be
equal, fince the circle is parallel to the equator-, and
hence every point in this parallel, or every place on the
earth through which it is i'uppofed to pafs, has the fame
latitude.
Latitude is the fame all over the earth, being con-
ftantly meafured from the equator to the poles.
The longitude of a place is meafured by the degrees
of an arc of the equator, intercepted between fome par¬
ticular meridian, and the meridian palling through the
place. Thus, fuppofe G to reprefent the particular
meridian, and m to reprefent the place whofe longitude
is required $ the longitude of m is meafured by the
arc ma of the equator, intercepted between tf, the
point where the meridian of G meets the equator, and
m the point of the equator where it is cut by the me¬
ridian of the place tn. The particular meridian from
which we begin to reckon the degrees of longitude is
called the prime or fir ft meridian, and it is different in
different countries.
The method of eftimating the diftances of places by
longitudes and latitudes,is of confxderable antiquity, and
was employed by Eratofthenes, who firft introduced a
regular parallel of latitude, which began at the ftraits
of Gibraltar, paffed ealtwards through the illand of
Rhodes to the mountains of India ; all the intermedi¬
ate places through which it paffed being carefully not¬
ed. Soon after drawing this parallel through Rhodes,
which was long confidered with a degree of preference,
Eratofthenes undertook to trace a meridian, palling
through Rhodes and Alexandria, as far as Syene and
Meroe. Pythias of Marfeilles, according to Strabo,
confidering the ifland of Thule as the molt weftern
point of the then known world, began to count the
longitude from thence, while Marianus of Tyre placed
their firft meridian at the Fortunate iftands, or the Ca¬
naries ; but they did not determine which was the
weftermoft of thefe iftands, and confequently which
ought to ferve as a firft meridian. Among the Ara¬
bians, Alfragan, Albategnus, Naflir Eddin, and Ulug
Beg, alfo reckoned from the Fortunate iftands ; but A-
bulfeda began to reckon his longitude from a meridian
10° to the eaftw-ard of that of Ptolemy, probably be¬
caufe it paffed through the weftern extremity of Africa,
where, according to him, were fituated the pillars of
Hercules; or becaufe it paffed through Cadiz, which
was at that time rendered famous by the conquefts of
the Moors in Spain.
When the Azores w-ere difcovered by the Portuguefe
in 1448, fome geographers made ufe of the illand of
Tercera as the firft meridian. Other geographer?,
at Bleau, father and fon, placed the firft meridian at
the Peak of Teneriffe, a mountain fo far elevated above
the fea, that it may Be eafily known by navigators j
' Vol. IX. Part Iff.
A P H Y. 513
while others have made the iftand of St Philip, fine of Principles
the Cape de Verds, the firft meridian, becaufe they con- praa^ice>
ceived this to be the place where the magnetic needle ■ ^ — j
had no variation. For a long time it was cuftomary to
reckon the longitude in molt countries from the ifle of
Ferro, one of the Canary iftes j but it is now' cuftomary
for each nation to reckon the longitude, either from
the metropolis of the country, or from the national ob-
fervatory fituated near it. Thus in France, Paris is the
firft meridian, and in Great Britain, the Royal Obler*-
vatory of Greenwich. As in feveral good maps, the
ifle of Ferro is ftill ufed as a firft meridian, it may be
proper to remark, that the obfervatory at Greenwich ^
lies 170 45' to the eaft of Ferro. Hence it is very jyietpocj of1
eafy to reduce the longitude of Ferro to that of Green-reducing
wich j for if the longitude required be eaft, we have longimdei
only to fubtra£t I7°45' from the longitude of Ferro,
and the remainder is the longitude eaft from London j
on the other hand, if the place be weft from Ferro, we
obtain the longitude weft from London by adding to
that of Ferro 1 70 45'. If the place lies between Ferro
and London, its longitude from London will be ob¬
tained by fubtrafting its longitude, eaft from fferro from
170 45'. It is evident that by the reverie of this me¬
thod, we may reduce the longitude from London to
that of Ferro.
In the diagram referred to above, if G reprefent-the
obfervatory of Greenwich, a will be the point from
which we begin to reckon the degrees of longitude,
and all places fituated to the eaft of a, fuch as R, m,
will have eaft longitude, while thofe fituated to the
weft, as n, will have weft longitude. In reckoning the
longitude, we fometimes number the degrees only as
far as 1800, but at other times they are numbered all
round the equator from the point a ; for inftance, 180°,
till we come to a again j hence reckoning in the di-
redlion a, R, m, we flrould fay that every place was in
fo many degrees eaft longitude, while if we reckon in
the direction n, E, we ftiould fay that all the places
had fo many degrees weft longitude all round the equa¬
tor. ff-'o accommodate the globes to both thefe modes
of reckoning the longitude, the equator is ufually di¬
vided both ways, in a continued feries from o at the
firft meridian to 3606.
It is evident, that as the parallels of latitude become
fmaller as they approach the poles, the arcs of thefe
parallels intercepted between the fame two meridians
will be alfo fmaller as we proceed from the equator to
the poles, though in fa£l they confift of the fame abfo-
lute number of degrees. Hence it w-ill be eafy to fea
that a degree of longitude muft be fmaller towards the
poles than at the equator, and muft become gradually
fmaller and fmaller till we arrive at the poles, where it
will be equal to nothing, ff'hus the arc G v. contains
fthe fame number of degrees as the arc <7, in, though the
former arc is much fmaller than the latter. As a de¬
gree of longitude is therefore different at every degree
of latitude, it becomes neceffary to afcertain the rela¬
tive proportion between the two $ and for this purpofe
the following table has been conftrudted, which Ihews
the abfolute meafure of a degree of longitude in geo¬
graphical miles and parts of a mile for every degree of
latitude, taking the degree of longitude at the equator,
equal to 60 geographical miles.
3T
Taels
3*4
Principles
and
Pradlice.
GEOGRAPHY.
Table I. Shewing the length of a degree of longitude for every digree of latitude, in geographical miles.
Part II.
Principles
and
Practice.
As it is ofteamore convenient to eftimate degrees of longitude in Englilh ilatute miles* we have added the
following
Table II. Shewing the length of a degree of longitude for every degree of latitude, in Englifh fatute miles.
Method of Hence it appears that the degrees of latitude are all
reducing equal, and that a degree of longitude at the equator is
degrees to equal to a degree of latitude, as each is yfo'th of a
miles, and great circle.. In the fecond of the above tables, a de-
^ r°'' gree of longitude at the equator is eftimated at 69.3
Englifh miles, or about 69J. The length of a degree
in miles is ufually eftimated at 6()i, but this is too
much. Hence, to reduce degrees of latitude, and thofe
of longitude near the equator, to Englifh miles, it is
neceffary to multiply them by 69.2, or, if great accu¬
racy is not required, by 70.
Problems Problem I. To find the latitude and longitude of a
on latitude given place.
and longi-
:"ds' Bring the place below the graduated edge of the
4,
brerzen meridian, and the degree of the meridian that
lies immediately over the place is its latitude. Oblerve
where the meridian cuts the equator, and that degree
will be the longitude of the place.
Example. To find the latitude and longitude, of Edin¬
burgh. Bringing Edinburgh below the meridian, we
find over it nearly the 56th degree of north latitude
(55° 5%')> and Point w^ere t1ie merid5an cuts tlie
equator is nearly 3^ (30 12' W. Long,) degrees weft
from London.
N. B., The longitude and latitude of places cannot
be afeertained exaftiy by the globes, as thefe are not
calculated to fhow the fractional parts of a degree ; but
they may be found with fufficient correCtnefs for ordi¬
nary purpofes. _ .
Corollary i. The difference of latitude and Ion*
gitude
IPart H-
geography.
Principles nitude between two places is found by fubtraftmg the
and fefs from the greater, if they lie the fame way, i. e. north
Startice. or eaft or weft •, or by adding the two together, if
-’"v ' they lie in a different direftion.
CoR. 2. Thofe places that have the fame latitude
with any given place are found, by bringing the
given place to the meridian, and obferving what places
pafs under the fame degree, while the globe is turned
round. .
Cor. 3. Thofe places which have the fame longitude
with a given place, are found by bringing the place to
the meridian, and obferving what other places lie under
the graduated edge, while the globe is at reft.
Problem II. T/ie latitude and longitude of a place
being given, to find the place itfelf on the globe.
Turn the globe till the given longitude comes under
the brazen meridian j then mark the given latitude on
the meridian, and immediately below it is the place
required. . xt r
Example. What place is fituated in 48° 23' N. Lat.
and 40 29' E. Long, from Greenwich ? Anf. Breft m
Ebmputa- As the fun, in his apparent motion round the earth,
tion of Ion-jneafures a great circle in about 24 hours, or in one
gitude in paffes over ^th of fuch circle, or 150; it is evident
tune* that all places which lie 15° weft of any meridian, muft
have noon or any other time of the day, an hour later
than thofe fituated under that meridian 5 and that all
places which lie 150 eajl of any meridian, muft have
the fame times of the day an fooner. Hence, be-
caufe the meridians drawn on the globe make a differ¬
ence of an hour each in the time bf places, they are
fometimes called hour-circles j and the longitude of
places is fometimes reckoned in time as well as in
degrees. .
Degrees of longitude are reduced to hours and mi¬
nutes, and v. v. by allowing an hour for every 150, and
four minutes for every degree.
« 66 . Though the meridians on the globe are fometimes
horary circles, this name is generally confined to
a fmall brafs circle, which is adapted to one or each pole,
and graduated into twice twelve hours ; fo that an index
fixed to the axis, or the meridian, points out the feveral
hours of day and night as the globe revolves.
In globes of the old coni!ruftion the hour circles are
fixed on the outfide of the meridian, but this prevents
the meridian from being moved quite round, which is
required in fome problems.
Mr Jofeph Harris, formerly affay-mafter of the mint,
contrived an ingenious method of remedying this incon¬
venience. He placed two horary circles between the
meridian and the globe, one at each pole, and they were
fixed tightly between two brafs rollers, placed about the
axis, fo that when the globe was turned, they were
carried round with it, while the edge of the brazen
meridian ferved as an index to cut the horary divifions.
A alobe, thus furnifhed, ferves univerfally and readily
for performing problems in both northern and fouthern
latitudes j and alfo in places near the equator j whereas,
in globes of the old conftruftion, the axis and horary
•circle prevent the brazen meridian from being moved
<mite round in the horizon.
The conftruftion of the hour circles was rendered
fomewhat more fimple by Mr G. Vv right of London.
In his globes, there are engraved two hour circles, one _
at each pole, on the map of the globe, each circle being
divided into a double fet of 12 hours, as in the ufual
hour circles j but here the hours are numbered both to
the right and left. (See fig. 4.). The hour hand, or
index, is placed below the brazen meridian, in fuch a
way that it may be moved at pleafure to any required
part of the circle, and remain there fufficiently fteady
during the revolution of the.globe on its axis, being
entirely independent of the pole. In this manner
the motion of the globe round its axis, carrying the
hour circle, the time is pointed out by the ftationary
index.
In the globes conftrudled by the late Mr "George
Adams, the equator is made to anfwer the purpofe of
an hour circle, by means of a femieircular wire placed
in its plane, (fee Q F, fig. 5.) and carrying two indices
F, one on the eaftern, the other on the weftern, fide of
the brazen meridian. The method of ufing thefe in¬
dices will be ftiewn prefently. In thefe globes the
equator is alfo marked with twice ‘12 hours, which in-
creafe from eaft to weft, the hours to the weft of the
firft 12 being afternoon hours.
515
Principles
and
Practice.
*7
Problem III. The hour at any p'ace being given, to P-oVems
find what hour it is at any other place. relating trf
time.
a. By the ordinary globes.
Bring the place at which the hour is given to the
meridian, and fet the index of the hour circle to the
given hour. Then turn the globe till the other place
comes under the meridian, and the index will now point
to the hour required.
N. B. Where there is no index, the edge of the me*
rkiian will in both cafes point out the hour.
b, By Adams’s globes.
The fteps are here the reverfe of the former. Bring
the place at which the time is required to he
brazen meridian, and fet the index to the given 0 r.
Then turn the globe till the other place comes below
the meridian, and the index will fliewr the time re¬
quired.
N. B. In the ordinary globes, where the hour circle
is ufually marked with two lets of figures, it is pr< per,
in performing this problem, to make ufe of that fet
which increafes towards the right hand, obferving that
whichever XII. is fixed on for noon, the hours to the
right or eafl of this ar hour'- P. M and thofe to the
left or wejl are hours A. M. On Adams’s globes the
contrary of this takes place, from the hours being
marked on the equator. They increafe from eaft to
weft, and, of courfe, thofe to the eaft of XII. are
morning hours, and thofe to the weft of it afternoon
hours.
Example I. When it is noon at London, what hour
is it in the Society ifles ? Anf. Two A. M.
F.x- 2. Wfien it is 3 P. M. at Edinburgh, what
hour is it at D dhi in Hindooftan ? AnJ. Thirty minutes
paft eight P. M.
3 T 2 Problem
5*6
Principles
and
Practice.
«3
Antceci.
6p
Periceci.
*70
Antipodes
Problem IV. Having the hour at any place given^ to
find all tkoje places where it is noon.
a, By the ordinary globes.
Bring the given place to the meridian, and fet the in¬
dex to the given hour. Then turn the globe till the
index point to 12 at noon, and the places then under
the meridian are thole required.
b, By Adams’s globes.
Bring the given place to the meridian, and fet the
index to 12 at noon. Then turn the globe till the in¬
dex fhall point to the given hour $ and all the places
then under the meridian have noon at that time.
Ex. I. It is now 30 min. paft 10. A. M. at Edin¬
burgh ; In what places is it noon ? Anf. Near Stock¬
holm •, at Dantzic, Brellaw, Freiburg, Vienna, Pofega,
Ragufa, Tarento, and the Cape of Good Hope.
Ex. It is now midnight at London •, Where is it
noon ? Anf. In the north-eaft parts of Afia, in the
middle of Fox ifles-, at the Friendly .illes (nearly), and
at the call cape of New Zealand.
From the different fituatian of places with refpe£l to
latitude and longitude, the inhabitants of thefe places
received from the ancients denominations that are Hill
retained.
Thus, thofe places which have the fame longitude,
or are fituated under the fame meridian, but are in op-
pofite latitudes, the one lying as many degrees to the
north of the equator as the other lies to the fouth of it,
are faid to be antoeci to each other. From this defi¬
nition it is evident, that thofe places fituated under the
equator have no antoeci.
The appearances arifing from the changes of the
heavenly bodies are different in the oppofite places.
Thus, I. The days ef the one are equal to the nights of
the other, and vice verfa; but they have noon, mid¬
night, and all the other hours at the fame time.
2. They have contrary feafons at the fame time : when
it is fummer at one place it is winter at the other, and
fo of fpring and autumn. 3. The liars that never fet
at one place, never rife at the other, and vice verfa.
Again, thofe places that have the fame latitude, or
are under the fame parallel, but are in oppofite longi¬
tudes, i. e. lie under oppofite arcs of the fame meridion¬
al circle, or 180° from each other, are laid to be peri-
OECI to each other, Thofe places which may be fitu¬
ated at the poles, have evidently no periceci.
The celeilial appearances to the perioeci are as follow.
1. The length of the day or night is the fame to both
places ; but the hours, though diftinguilhed by the
fame numbers, are contrary, noon at the one being mid¬
night at the other; and any hour in the forenoon at the
one being the fame of the afternoon to the other.
2. Both places have the fame feafons of the year at the
fame time. 3. The fame liars that never rife or fet to
one place, alfo never rife or fet to the other. 4. The
heavenly bodies rife in the fame point of the horizon at
both places, and continue for the fame interval above
or below it.
Lallly, Thofe places which are fituated direftly op¬
pofite to each other, by a dillance equal to the diame¬
ter of the earth, are faid to be antipodes to each
GEOGRAPHY. Part II.
other. If we conceive a line through the centre of the Principles
and
Pra&ice.
earth, and terminated in two points of its furlace, thefe
extreme points are antipodes to each other. Thus, the
city of Lima in Peru is nearly the antipodes to Siam in ' ^
the Eall Indies ; and Pekin in China has for its an¬
tipodes Buenos Ayres in South America. Thefe
places are always in oppofite longitudes, and (except
under the equator) in oppofite latitudes.
The celeilial appearances to the antipodes are thefe.
I. The hours are contrary, as to the perioeci. 2. The
days of the one are of the fame length with the night*
of the other; hence the longed, day to one is the Ihort-
ed to the other, and vice verfa. 3. They have contra¬
ry feafons at the fame time. 4. Thofe dars which, at
one place are always above the horizon, are, to the
other, always below it. 5. When the heavenly bodies
are rifing at one place, they are fetting at its antipodes,
and vice verfa. For various opinions refpedting the an¬
tipodes, fee the article Antipodes.
The antipodes of any place are the perioeci to the an¬
toeci of that place ; and the antoeci to their perioeci.
This will account for the method prefently dtfcribed of
finding the antipodes on the globe.
Problem V. To find the antceci to any given place. probkm%
Bring the given place to the meridian, and thus af-
certain its latitude. Then count from the equator to¬
wards the oppofite pole as many degrees as are equal to
the latitude of the place ; and the point where this
reckoning ends is the place required.
Ex. 1. Where are the antceci to the Cape of Good
Hope ? Anf. At Malta nearly.
Ex. 2. What people are the antceci to the inhabitant*
of Quebec in North America ? Anf. The inhabitants
of Patagonia in South America.
Problem VI. To find the perioeci of any given place.
Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and
fet the horary index to the upper XII. Then turn the
globe till the index point to the lower XII. The place
which is then below' the meridian in the fame latitude,
with that of the given place, is the fituation required.
E.x. 1. Where are fituated the periceci of Newcaftle
upon Tyne ? Anf. In the Aleoulki or Fox iflands.
Ex. 2. Required the perioeci to California in North
America. Anf. Near the mouth of the river Indus.
Problem VII. To find the antipodes to any given place.
Find the antceci of the given place (by Problem V.)
and then find the perioeci oi the latter (by Problem VI.).
This laft is the place required.
E.x. 1. It is required to find the antipodes of London.
Anf. The latitude of London is 510 31' N. the antoeci
to this, or 31° 31' S. on the prime meridian, is in the
fouth Atlantic ocean; the perioeci to this is in 1 8o° W.
Long, and 510 31' S. Lat. a little to the fouth of the
illands of New Zealand. The inhabitants of the fouth-
ern bland of New Zealand are therefore the neareft an¬
tipodes to London.
Several other circles befides thofe which we have
mentioned are defcribed on the artificial globe, and are
fuppofed to be drawn on the earth. Thefe we (hall
now proceed to defcribe, and explain their geographical
ufes. '
Th*
Fart II.
Principles
and
Fra&ice.
tropics.
Polar cir«
^ies.
75
Solures.
Zones.
G E O G R
The 'EcV.ptic ( Astronomy, N° 43.) is a great circle
drawn on the globe, croffing the equator obliquely m
two points, called the equinoctial points. (ASTRONOMY,
N° 44.). This circle extends on each fide of the equa¬
tor to the latitude of 230 28', and is divided into 1 2
great parts correfpondmg to the 12 figns of the zodiac
(fee Astronomy, N° 52.), and marked with their cha-
ra£lers, and each fign is fubdivided into 30 degrees.
The ecliptic has alfo its poles, which are two points
that are diftant 90° every way from the circle on each
fide. As the ecliptic declines from the equator 230
28', its poles are confequently diftant from thofe of the
equator, or of the globe, by the fame meafure. 1 his
circle properly belongs to the celeftial globe, but as it
is extremely ufeful in performing many geographical
problems, it is always drawn on both globes, and re¬
quires to be noticed here, fince it determines the po-
fition of feveral of the circles which we are about to
mention.
Through thofe two points of the ecliptic, where it
is at the greateft diftance from the equator, there are
drawn on the globes two circles parallel to the equator,
called tropics. That in the northern hemifphere is
called the Tropic of Cancer, as it pafl’es through the
fign Cancer ; and, for a fimilar reafon, that which is in
the fouthern hemifphere is called the Iropk oj Capri¬
corn. The two points through which they are drawn
are called foljlitiai points. The imaginary line which
correfponds to the tropic of Cancer on the earth palfes
from near Mount Atlas on the weftern coaft of Africa,
part Syene in Ethiopia: thence, over the Red fea, it
paffes to Mount Sinai, by Mecca the city of Mahomet,
acrofs Arabia Felix to the extremity of Perfia, the Eaft
Indies, China, over the Pacific ocean to Mexico, and
the ifland of Cuba. The tropic of Caprico n takes a
much lefsinterefting courfe, palling through the country
of the Hottentots, acrofs Brafil, to Paraguay and Peru.
If the poles of the ecliptic be fuppofed to revolve
about the poles of the earth, they will defcribe two
circles parallel to the equator, and 230 28' diftant from it.
Two fuch circles are drawn on the globes, and are call
ed Polar Circles, that in the north being called the
ArBic Polar Circle, or merely the ArBic Circle, while
that in the fouth is called the AntarBic Polar Circle,
or AntarBic Circle.
Both the tropics and the polar circles are marked on
the globes by dotted lines, to diftinguilh them from the
other parallels.
The meridional circles that pafs through the equinoc¬
tial and folftitial points are called Coheres; the form¬
er being called the PLquinoBial and the latter the Sol/h-
tial Colure.
For an account of the variety of day and night in
different parts of the globe, fee Astronomy, Part II.
ch. i. feft. 2.
By means of the tropics and polar circles, the earth
is fuppofed to be divided into five fpaces, to which the
ancients gave the name oi Aones, or Belts. Ihus the
fpace included between the two tropics was called the
Torrid Zone, becaufe it was fuppofed to be fo much
heated or roa/ltd by the vertical fun, which there pre¬
vails, as to be uninhabitable. The ancient terms are
ftill occafionally ufed, but the countries between the
A p H Y. . SI7
tropics are now more commonly called the Intratropi- Principle*
cal Regions. The two fpaces included between each
tropic and its correfponding polar circle w’ere called
Temperate Zones, and were diftinguiihed according to
their pofition into Northern and Southern 1 emperate
Zones. Laftly, The fpaces between the polar circles
and the poles were calfed the northern and fouthern
Frigid Zones, and were fuppofed uninhabitable from ex-
ceflive cold. Thefe laft are ufually denominated the
Polar Regions. 7?.
The countries lying between the tropics are the Countries
greater part of Africa, the fouthern parts of Arabia, ^
the eaftern and weftern peninfulas of India j all thofe
clufters of iflands lying between the fouthern continent
of Alia and New Holland, called the Sunda, Molucca,
Philippine, Pelew, Ladrone, and Carolina illands j the
northern half of New Holland, New Guinea, New
Britain j moft of the groups of iflands in the Pacific
ocean, as the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, the
Friendly and Society illes, the Sandwich and Navigators
iflesj the Weft India iflands j the greater part of South
America 5 the Cape de Verd iflands, and thofe of St
Helena, Afcenfion, St Matthew, and St Thomas. See
the map of the world in Plate CCXXXVI. or the plain
chart in Plate CGXXXVII.
All places fituated between the tropics have the fun
vertical twice in the year, at noon j but the time of the
year when this happens is different in the different lati¬
tudes } at the equator, the fun is vertical when he is in
the equinoftial points, or when he has no declination.
The inhabitants of the other intratropical regions have
the fun vertical when his declination is equal to their
latitude, and on the fame fide of the equator. Ihus,
the inhabitants of New Caledonia, about 20° S. Eat.
have the fun vertical when his declination is 20° S.
To illuftrate this, it will be fufficient to obferve that,
as the ecliptic is that circle in the heavens in which the
fun is fuppofed to move, the fun’s rays are perpendicu¬
lar fucceflively to every point of the earth which lies be¬
low that point of the ecliptic in which the fun happens
to be, and he will therefore be vertical to all the places
through which the ecliptic (continued to the earth)
paffes fucceflively. # 7s.
The inhabitants of the torrid zone have their fliadows Amphifdi.
at noon day fometimes to the fouth, i. e. when the fun’s
declination is north, and fometimes to the north, i. e.
when the fun’s declination is fouth. They were there¬
fore called by the ancients Amphfch, from alout,
and GTtut,Jhadcw. bee Amfhiscii and Ascii. 7p
In the north temperate zone are fitualed the whole of Countries
Europe except Lapland ; Barbary, and part of Egypt, in the tem-
in Africa 5 nearly the whole continent of Afiaj a grcatPeiatezone*
part of North America ; the Azores, and the Canary
and Madeira illands.
In the fouth temperate zone lie the fouthern part of
Africa, the fouthern half of New Holland, New Zea- ’
land, and the fouthern part of South America.
In the temperate zones the fun is never vertical, and
the length of the days and nights differs much more
than in the torrid zone. gj,
The inhabitants of thefe regions have their fhadows Heterofvii-
at noon always in the fame direction j thofe in the
north temperate zone having them direfted to the
nortjv
5l8 - ' G E O G R
Principles north, and thofe in the foutliern zone, towards the
^ ard fouth. They were hence called by the ancients He-
, Ffa<y:'cl!'-, terofcii. See Heteroscii.
8i The countries that are fituated in the northern frigid
Countries zone, are Lapland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, the
in the fri- northern parts of Aha and America, and part of Green-
gid zones. Jand> _
Noland has yet been difcovered within the fouth po¬
lar circle, though it was long fuppofed that a large conti¬
nent was fituated there, which was called Terra Au-
Jlralis Incognita. Our celebrated navigator Cook
made many attempts to penetrate the icy fields which
abound in thefe feas, in fearcl) of this imaginary con¬
tinent, but without fuccefs, he having penetrated no
farther than 7 2°. See Cook’s Difcoveries, N° 49. and
71,
Within the polar circles the fun does not always rife
or fet every 24 hours as in the other zones ; but for a
certain number of days in fummer he never fets, and
for a certain number of days in winter he never riles j
the number of days during which the fun is prefent or
abfent increaling from the polar circles to the poles, fo
that at the poles he never fets for fix months, nor rifes
gj during a like period.
Perifcii. When the fun continues above the horizon more
than 24 hours, the inhabitants of the polar regions ha\e
their (hadows call all around them j and hence they
83 have been called Perifcu. See Periscii.
Climates. The ancients did not employ regular parallels of la¬
titude, but they divided the fpaces between the equator
and the poles into fmall zones correfponding to the
length of the longeft day in each divifion. To thefe
fubdivilions they gave the name of climates, the fitua-
tion and. extent of which they determined in the follow¬
ing manner. As the day at the equator is exaflly 2
hours throughout the year, but the longeft day in-
creafes as we approach the poles, the ancients made the
firft climate to end at that latitude where the longeft-
day was 12^ hours, which by obfcrvation they found to
be in the latitude of 8° 25'. The fecond climate ex¬
tended to latitude 160 25', where the longeft day ns 13
hours, and thus a new climate extended, fo as to divide
the whole traft between the equator and the poles into
24 climates, in each of which the longeft day was long¬
er by half an hour than in that nearer the equator.
The fpace between the polar circles and the poles they
divided into fix climates, in each of which the length
of the longeft day increafed by a month, till at the
poles it was fix months long. Hence, the 24 climates
between the equator and the polar circles are called
Hour Climates ; and the fix between the polar circles
and the poles are called Month Climates. For further
particulars refpe&ing this ancient divifion of the globe,
jand a table of the climates by Ilieciolus, fee Cliaiaie.
As the table given under that article is calculated on¬
ly for the middle of each climate, and neither men¬
tions the breadth of f*ach, nor is extended to all the
climates, we ftiall here i'ubjoin one in which are given
the latitude at which each climate terminates, its
breadth in degrees, and the length of the longeft day
the parallel terminating each.
A P H Y.
Climates.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI '
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
XXI
XXII
XXIII
XXIV
Hovr Climates.
Latitude.
8° 25'
16 25
23 5°
3° 25
36 28
41 22
45 29
49 < 1
52
54 27
5<5 37
58 29
59 38
61 18
62 25
63 22
64 6
64 49
6c 21
65 45
66 6
66 20
66 28
66 31
Breadth.
Longed: Days.
8° 25'
8
25
3s
54
7
S2
57
29
10
58
29
20
7
52
44
43
S2
26
!9
M
8
3
12h 30®
!3
13 30
J4
H 3°
15
’5 30
16
16 30
17
17 3°
18
18 30
J9
19 30
20
20 30
21
21 30
22
22 30
23
23 3°
24
Part II.
Principles
and
Practice.
Table of
climates.
Month Climates.
Climates
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
Latitude.
670 21/
69 48
73 37
78 30
84 5
90
Breadth
5°'
2° 27
49
8
35
55
Longeft Da\
1 month.
2
3
4
5
6
As the divifion of the globe into climates, though Places in
now almoft difufed, is of fervice in (hewing the length the norta.
of the longeft day in different countries, we (hall here^"1^*
enumerate the principal places in each northern climate,
thefe being belt known and moft interefting.
I. The Gold and Silver Coafts in Africa j Malacca
in the Eaft Indies; and Cayenne and Surinam in South
America.
II. Abyflinia in Africa } Siam, Madras, and Popdi-
eherry, in the Eaft Indies *, the ifthmus of Darien j
Tobago, the Grenades, St Vincent, and Barbadoes, in
the Weft Indies.
III. Mecca in Arabia *, Bombay, part of Bengal, m
the Eaft Indies ; Canton in China •, Mexico and the
bay of Campeaehv, m North America } and Jamaica,
Hifpaniola, St Chrittopher’s, Antigua, Martinique, and
Guadaloupe, in the Weft Indies. ^
I
Part H-
principles
and
pra&ice.
GEOGRAPHY.
IV. Egypt and the Canaries in Africa:*, Delhi, the
capital of the Mogul empire, in Afia ; m(>ft of the gulf
of Mexico, and Eait Florida, in North America j and
the Havannah in the Weft Indies.
V. Gibraltar j part of the Mediterranean fea ; the
Barbary coaft in Africa Jerufalem, Ifpahan, capital
of Perfia, and Nankin, in China, in Ana *, and Cali¬
fornia, New Mexico, Weft Florida, Georgia, and the
Carolinas in North America. .
VI. In Europe, Lilbon, Madrid, the iflands ot Mi¬
norca and Sardinia, and part of Greece or the Morea 5
in Afia, Alia Minor, part of the Cafpian fea, Samar-
cand, Pekin, Corea, and Japan *, and in North America,
Maryland, Philadelphia, and Williamftmrgh in Virgi-
VII. In Europe, the northern provinces of Spain,
the fouthern provinces of France, Turin, Genoa; Rome,
and Conftantinople j in Afia, the reft of the Cafpian,
and part of Tartary ; and in North America, Bofton
and New York.
VIII. Paris and Vienna, in Europe j and New Scot¬
land, Newfoundland, and Canada, in North America.
IX. London, Flanders, Prague, Drefden, Cracow, in
Europe * the fouthern provinces of Ruflia, and the mid¬
dle of Tartary in Afia *, and the northern part of New¬
foundland, in America.
X. Dublin, York, Holland, Hanover, Warfaw ; the
weft of Tartary, Labrador, and New South Wales, in
North America.
XL Newcaftle, Edinburgh, Copenhagen, and Mof-
cow.
XII. Southern part of Sweden j and Tobollk in Si¬
beria.
XIII. Stockholm *, and the Orkney ifles.
XIV. Bergen in Norway, and St Peterlburgh.
XV. Hudion’s Straits in North America.
XVI. Moft of Siberia; and the fouthern parts of
Greenland.
XVil. Drontheim in Norway.
XVIII. Part of Finland in the Ruffian empire.
XIX. Archangel on the White fea.
XX. Iceland.
XXL Northern parts of Ruffia in Europe, and Si¬
beria in Afia.
XXII. New North Wales, in North America.
XXIII. Davis’s Straits, in North America.
XXIV. Samoieda in Afia.
XXV. Northern parts of Lapland.
XXVI Weft Greenland
XXVII. Southern part of Nova Zembla.
XXVIII. Northern part of Nova Zembla.
XXIX Spitzbergen.
XXX. Unknown.
The only parts of the terreftrial globe that we have
yet to deferibe and illuftrate are the Quadrant oj AAi-
tude, and the Wooden Horizon ; and thefe it is neceffary
5-19
Principles
and
to explain, before we proceed to confider the remain
ing problems performed with this globe. PraAice.
The Quadrant of Altitude is a thin flexible flip of 
brafs, graduated into 93°> and made to fix on any part 86
of the brazen meridian by means of a nut and fcrew. QAadratlt
Round this nut it moves on a pivot, and by its flexibi-ot aitltu e‘
lity may be applied clofe to the furface of the globe.
The quadrant of altitude is ufed to meafure the di-
ftances of places from each other on the terreftrial
globe, and to afcertain the altitudes of the iun, ftars,
&c. on the celeftial globe.
To meafure the dijlance between two places on the
globe, nothing more is required than to ftretch the gra¬
duated edge of the quadrant between them, and mark
the number of degrees intercepted. 1 hefe reduced to
geographical, or to Englifti miles (by N° 63O gjve the
abfolute diftance between the places. It is moft con¬
venient to bring one of the places to the zenith, which
may be done by rectifying the globe for the latitude
of that place as immediately to be explained, and then
to ftretch the quadrant to the other place, the diftance
marked, fubtraded from 90°, gives the true diftance in
degrees. If the diftance required be greater than 90°,
it is proper to reftify the globe for the antipsdes of the
given places, and add the diftance oblerved to 90 ^ the
fum is the diftance required.
It has been very generally ftated that the bearing of
one of the places from the other may be found by' ob-*
ferving, on the wooden horizon, in what point of the
compais the quadrant of altitude, thus fixed in the zenith,
cuts the horizon, This is confidered by Mr Pattefon as
a miftake : “ For (fays he) fuppofing one of the places
to lie due eaft of the other, they are in the fame paral¬
lel of latitude, and confequently it is impyffible that
the prime vertical of either of them (that is, a circle
cutting the eaft and weft points of the horizon), Ihould
pafs through the other, unlefs they both lay under the
equator. A line Ihewing the bearings of places is call-
ed a rhumb line. The lines of north and fouth on the
globe, being meridians, and thofe of eaft and weft be¬
ing parallels of latitude, are confequentty circles} but
all the remaining rhumbs are a kind of Ipiral lines.^ „
The globes are fupported by a- wooden frame ending w00tjen
above in a broad flat margin, on which is parted a pa-honzom -
per marked with feveral graduated circles. This broad
margin is called the wooden horizon, and repreients the
rational horizon of the earth, or the limit between the
vifible and the invifible hemifpheres. On the paper
•with which the wooden horizon is covered, are drawn
four concentric circles. The innermoft of thefe is
divided into 360 degrees, divided into four quadrants.
The fecond circle is marked with the points of the com-
pafs, i. e. the four cardinal points, eaft, weft, north, and
fouth (D), each being fubdivided into eight parts or
rhumbs, (fee Compass). The circle next to that juft
mentioned contains the twelve figns of the zodiac,
diftinguiftied by.their proper names and charadlersj
and
(d) The cardinal points of the compafs are thus determined. The two points in which the meridian of any
place when produced fo as to pafs through the neareft pole, cuts the horizon (ufing this m an aftronomical eiuo
fee Astronomy,) are the noAh and fouth points j the former being that point where the
horizon in the northern hemifphere, and the fouth, that where it firit meets thehonzon m the fouth^
Again, the two points where a great circle, palling through the zenith at rig ang cs 1 called
520
Principles
and
Practice.
G E 0 G R A P H Y.
83
To redlify
the globe.
89
®blique
fphere.
and each fign is divided into 30 degrees.^ I he laft
circle (hews the months and days correfponding to each
fxgn.
This wooden ring can reprefent the rational horizon
of any place marked on the terretlrial globe only, when
that place is fituated in the zenith •, and the method of
bringing the place into this iituation is called reStifyxng
the globe.
Problem VIII. To rettify the globe according to the
latitude of any place.
Find the latitude of the place, (by problem I.) and
lee whether it be north or fouth. Ihen elevate the
pole of the globe which is in the fame hemifphere with
the latitude, as far above the wooden horizon as is
equal to the latitude ; bring the given place to the bra¬
zen meridian, and it will be in the zenith.
Example. To reflify the globe for the latitude of
Edinburgh. The latitude of Edinburgh is 550 58' N.
therefore raife the north pole 550 58'above.the horizon,
-and bring Edinburgh below the brafs meridian.
It is for the purpofe of more ealily rectifying the
globe, that one half of the brazen meridian is graduated
from the poles to the equator; as, where this is not
done, it is neceffary to take the complement of the la¬
titude, or the difference between it and 90°, which in
fome cafes requires a calculation.
The place being brought below the meridian, when
the pole is elevated to the proper degree, it is evidently
in the zenith, or 90° diftant every way from the hori¬
zon. Thus, in the above example, if we count the de¬
grees from that part of the meridian below which
Edinburgh is fituated, we (hall find that they amount
to 90° each way *, for counting from Edinburgh along
the meridian to the north pole, we have 34 j
"which added to 35° elevation of the poles, gives
90° on that fide. Again, counting from the fame point
of the meridian towards the fouthern part of the hori¬
zon, we have 35° as ^ar as ectua^01» und 34^
from thence to the horizon, making, as before, 90 ,
and as the graduated edge of the meridian is 90° both
from the ealtern and w'eflern fide of the horizon, Edin¬
burgh, in this fituation of the globe, is in the zenith.
When either of the poles of the globe is thus ele¬
vated above the horizon, fo as not to be in the zenith,
the globe is faid to be in the pofition of an oblique
fpherey in which the equator and all its parallels are un¬
equally divided by the horizon. . This is the moft com¬
mon fituation of the earth, or it is the fituation which it
has with refpeft to all its inhabitants, except thofe at the
equator and the poles, lo the inhabitants of an ob¬
lique fphere the pole of their hemifphere is elevated
above the horizon as many degrees as are equal to their
latitude, and the oppofite pole is deprefied as much be¬
low the horizon, fo that the ftars only at the former
are feen •, the fun and all the heavenly bodies rife and
fet obliquely, the feafons are variable, and the days and
nights unequal. This pofition of the fphere is repre¬
fen ted at fig. 6. where the equator EQ, and the paral-
Part II,
1 els cut the horizon HO obliquely, and the axis PS is Principles
inclined to it. Hence this pofition is called oblique.
If the globe is placed in fuch a pofition that any ra
point of the equator is in the zenith, it is faid to be in
the pofition of a right or direB fphere, becaufe the equa-Right
tor and its parallels are vertical, or over the horizon atfPhere>
right angles. This pofition is ieen at fig. 7. where the
axis PS is in the plane of the horizon, and the equator
EQ^ is in a plane perpendicular to it. The inha¬
bitants of fuch a fphere, which are the inhabitants of
the earth below the line, have no elevation of the poles,
and confequently no latitude : they can fee the ftars at
both poles-, all the ftars rife, culminate, and fet to
them and the fun always moves in a curve at right
angles to their horizon, and is an equal number of hours
above and below it, making the days and nights always
equal. . . 91
If the globe be fo placed that one of the poles is m Parallel
the zenith, and confequently the other in the nadir, it fphere,
is in the pofition of parallelfphere ; fo called becaufe
the equator Ef) (fig. 8.) coincides with the horizon,
and the parallels are of courfe parallel to it vdiile all
the meridians cut the horizon at right angles. The in¬
habitants of a fphere, in this pufition, have th« greateft
poflible latitude ; the ftars, which are fituated in the
hemifphere to which the inhabitants belong, never fet,
but deferibe circles all around ; while thofe of the con¬
trary hemifphere never rife : the fun is above the hori¬
zon for fix months, during which it is day, and is be¬
low the horizon for an equal interval, when it ia
night.
The wooden horizon is a neceffary part of the appa¬
ratus of both globes ^ but it has been ftiewn, that in the
terreftrial globe, it can reprefent the rational horizon of
a place, only when the globe is re&ified for the latitude
of that place. In the celeftial globe, it reprefents the
rational horizon in all pofitions.
In Adams’s globes there is a thin brafs femicirele
NHS (fig. 3.) that is moveable about the poles, and
has a fmall thin circle N Aiding on it. This femicircle
is graduated into tw’o quadrants, the degrees of which
are marked both ways from the equator to the poles in
the terreftrial globe : this femicircle reprefents a move-
able meridian and the fmall Aiding circle, which is
marked with a few of the points of the compafs, is
called a vifible horizon, the ufe of which will appear
prefen tly.
Before we proceed to the remaining problems on the
terreftrial globe, it will be proper to take notice of fome
geographical principles that are connedled with the ho¬
rizon.
It is evident, that the extent of the fenfible horizon
of an obferver depends on the height of his eye above
the level furface of the earth. An eye placed on the
furface of the earth fees fcarcely any thing around it j
but if it is elevated above that furface, it fees farther in
proportion to its elevation, provided always that its
view is not ob ft rafted by intervening objefts. Thus, m
an extenfive plain, the eye can fee farther, it elevated
r to
called the prime vertical) cuts the horizon, are the eaft and weft points the former being on the left hand of
perfon facing the fun at noonday, while the latter is on his right hand.
Principles
and
Practice
Part II. G E O G R
to a proper height, than it can from the fame height in
a town or amo g hills } and, at iea, where the lurface
is perfe&ly equal, the view is in proportion to the height
of the eye. It becomes an interelting problem to afcer-
tain the extent of the vifible horizon, or the diftance to
which a perfon can fee at any given height of the eye j
as, when this is known, we can calculate pretty accu¬
rately ihe diftance of an object feen from fuch a height,
as land feen from the topmaft of a (hip at fea.
For folving this problem, it mull be remarked, that
the diftance of an obferver from the boundary of the ho¬
rizon, or from a diftant obje£t, is different when mea-
fured along the furface of the earth, and when meafured
in a diredt line. To illuftrate this, let HDN ffig. 9*)
reprefent a feftion of the earth, of which C is the cen¬
tre, and let D be the fituation of an obferver, whole
eye is elevated to B. The lines BA, BE, tangents
to the curve at H and E, reprefent the limit ol the vi¬
fible horizon, or the radii of the circle circumfcribing
vilion. If the eye were elevated ilill higher, as to G,
it is evident, that the extent of the vifible horizon will
be inereafed, being now reprefented by the tangent GF.
The length of the tangent BA, or GF, is eaiily found
by plane trigonometry (e).
It was remarked above, that the vifible horizon is
moft diftinft at fea, from the abfence of thofe objefts
which obftruft vilion on land. Hence the lenfible ho¬
rizon is fometimes called the horizon of the fea, and
this may be obferved by looking through the fights of
a quadrant at the moft diftant part of the fea. In mak¬
ing this obfervation, the vifual rays BA, or GF, by
reafon of the fpherical furface of the fea, always extend
a little below the true fenfible horizon SS, and confe-
quently below the rational horizon HN, which is paral¬
lel to it. Hence the quadrant (hews the depreftion of
the horizon of the fea lower than it really is j and it is
obvious from the figure, that the higher the eye is fitu-
ated, the greater muft be this depreffion. Ihus, the
depreflion, when the eye is at G, marked by GF, is
evidently much greater than that marked by BE, when
the eye is at B. The depreflion of the horizon of the
fea is not always the fame, though there be no variation
in the height of the eye j but the difference in this caie
Vol. IX. Part II.
A P H Y.
521
.93
Horizon of
the fea.
is very fmall, amounting only to a few feeonds, and is
owing to a difference of the degree of refraction in the pr^-ce>
atmolphere. Were there no refvadtion, the vifual ray
would be BE (when the eye is at B), and E would be
the moft diftant point but, by reafon of the refraction,
a point on the iurface of the earth beyond E, as F,
may be leen by an eye fttuated no higher tnan B 5 and
if the refradtion were (till greater, a ftill more diftant
point might be obferved. 94
It will be neceffary here to anticipate a few remarks
refpeCting the difference between the apparent and true ^ appa_
levels j a fubjeft that will be more tally difeuffed under rent and
Levelling. Two or more places are on a true level, true level,
when they are equally diftant from the centre of the
earth, and one place is higher than another, or above
the true level, when it is farther from the centre ot the
earth. A line that is equally diftant in all its points
from the centre, is called the line of true level, and it
is evident that this line muft be curved : and either
make part of the earth’s furface, or beconcentrical with it.
Thus the line DAO, which has all its points, D, A, O,
equally diftant from the centre C, is the line of true
level. But the line of fight DMP, as given by the ope¬
ration of a level, is a ftraight line, which is a tangent
to the earth’s furface at D, always lifing higher above
the true line of level, according as it extends to a
greater diftance. This ftraight line is called the line
of apparent level. Thus MA is the height ol the ap¬
parent level above the true at the diftance DA, and
OP is the excefs of the apparent above the true level,
at the diftance DO.
The following table was conftruCIed by Caflini, for
the purpofe of (hewing the excefs of the apparent above
the true level at various diftances from the point of ob¬
fervation. It confifts of three columns, in the firfl: of
which the diftance of the obferved objeCl from the place
of obfervation is given, from one fecond to 60 minutes,
or a degree. In the fecond is given the length of the
arc meafured on a great circle of the earth, that corre-
fponds to the obferved diftance, in feet and inches 5 and
in the third is given the height of the apparent above
the true level in feet and inches, corref'ponding to each
obferved and real diftance of the objeft.
3U
(E) In the right-angled triangle ACB (fig. 9.), the length of CB is given, fuppofing the height of the eye
BD to be 6 feet ; for adding 6 feet to 19,943,400 feet, the length of the femidiameter of the earth, we have
19,943,406 feet for the length of EC. Then, making the hypothenufe CB radius, we (hall have, As radius to
the fine of the angle BCA, fo is CB to BA ; a id this will be nearly the fame as the arc DA. Again, without
finding the quantity of the angle at C, B A may be found, by confidering that B A* is equal to the difference of
the fquares of CB and CA, i. e. BA*=CB*-CA*= (CB + CA) X (CB—CA)=CB+CA into BD •, and
hence BA=V/(CB + C A) x BD. , _ . r . 'rt, + c a
To illuftrate the laft in numbers, we have €6=19,943,406 feet, and CA_19,943,400 feet. Then, to find
BA, we have 19,043,406+19,943,400 (=39,886,806) X i9>943>4°6—19>943>400 (—6) — 239,320,8365
whence BA =^7239,320,836= 15470 feet nearly, or about three miles.
The dittance, to which a perfon can fee, is found to vary as the fquare root of the altitude of the eye. !•
find a general expreflion for this quantity,
let a be the altitude of the eye in feet,
d the diftance at that altitude in miles 5
then we have s/Z : = 3 X y/a=1.2^ X n/2. Hence, we deduce this general rule :
tie fquare root of tie height of theaje in feet by 1.2247, and the frojud will be the dijlanee to which we can fee
522
Principles
and
Practice.
GEOGRAPHY.
Seconds.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
I 2
*4
16
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
2J
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Feet. Inch.
IOI
202
3°4
406
507
609
710
812
9J4
1015
1117
1218
13:0
1421
1523
1625
1726
1828
1929
2031
2122
223 4
2336
2437
2539
2640
2742
2843
2945
3°47
3M8
3250
3351
3453
3554
3656
3757
3859
3961
4062
4J64
4265
4367
4468
457°
4672
4773
4875
4976
5078
5179
5281
5383
5484
5586
5687
5789
5890
5992
6094
6.8
1.6
8.4
S-2
10.0
4.8
11.6
6.4
1.2
8.0
2.8
9.6
4.4
11.2
6.0
0.8
7.6
2.4
9.2
4.0
10.8
5-6
0.4
7*2
2.0
8.8
3.6
10.4
5-2
0.0
6.8
1.6
8.4
3-2
10.o
4.8
11.6
6.4
1.2
8.0
2.8
9.6
4.4
11.2
6.0
0.8
7.6
2.4
9.2
40
10.8
5*6
0.4
7.2
2.0
8.8
3-6
10.4
5-2
0.0
Inch.
O.O74
O.296
l.l86
2.670
4.746
7.409
10.680
Minutes.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
J3
14
15
16
17
18
*9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Feet.
6094
I 2188
18282
24376
3°470
36564
426 58
48752
54846
60940
67034
73128
79222
85316
91410
97504
103598
109692
115786
121880
127974
134068
140162
146256
'52350
158444
164538
170632
176726
182820
188914
195008
201102
207196
213290
219384
225478
23*572
237666
243760
249854
255948
262042
268136
274230
2803 24
286418
292512
298606
304700
310794
316888
322982
329076
335*7°
341264
347358
353452
359546
365640
Feet. Inch.
O
3
7
14
22
3*
42
56
7*
88
107
127
149
*73
199
226
255
286
3*9
354
390
428
468
5*o
553
599
646
694
745
797
85*
907
965
1024
1085
1148
*213
1277
*348
14*7
1496
1569
1638
1716
*794
1875
1958
2042
2128
2215
2305
2396
2489
2584
2681
2779
2880
2982
3085
3*9*
10.680
6.580
**•853
1.8 12
I. 932
II.412
5-436
9-384
9.876
7.728
2.94O
7-5*2
9-444
8.736
4.320
9.264
11.568
11.232
7.188
0.504
4.248
5-352
10.224
6.084
11.232
1.776
1.680
10.944
5.568
8.484
9.828
8.532
3-528
7.884
9.600
8.676
5.*12
10.908
2.064
1.764
II. 388
10.452
9.084
0.108
11.424
7.032
0.000
2.328
2.016
6.792
5-472
9.240
10.368
8.856
4.704
9-9*2
0.480
0.408
8.628
2.208
Part II.
Principles
and
Pra£lice.
, , • r • 7 "F vamnlp T et the height of the eye be 49 feet. Multiply the fquare root of 49 (’r 7*
b™ M47,ld wehave 8.57^9 « ^ miksfcr Atones ^ich the eyeeanfce at the height of 49
Part II. C; E 0 G
Principles The above table will anfwei- feveral ufeful purpoles.
anti In the firft place, the height of the apparent level above
France. the true may be found by it at any diftance, from one
^ v fecond to one degree, or 6g^o- miles. J-hus, at the di¬
ftance of 30'=about 35 miles, we have 1.82020 feet for
the length of the arch of a great circle on the earth,
and correfponding to this we have 797 feet 8 inches
484 parts for the excefs of the apparent level above the
true. 2. The extent of the viiible horizon correfpond-
ing to any height of the eye, may be found from the
table by obfervation. The femidiameter of the horizon
does not fenfibly differ from an arc of a great circle on
the earth, containing as many minutes and feconds as
are equal to the angle of depreflion obferved, and the
number of feet contained in fuch an arc may be found
in the table. Thus, if the depreflion, as obferved by
obfervation, be 40", its femidiameter is alfo about 40",
and the length of the arc correfponding to it is 243,760
Feet.
The following table, alfo taken from Caflini, fliews
the different depreflionsof the horizon of the fea at dif¬
ferent heights of the eye, both by obfervation and cal¬
culation •, with the difference betwixt the two occafion-
ed by refraftion.
R A P H Y.
Tfie heigh of the eye above
the furface of the fea.
Feet. Inches.
ii57 6>9
The deprefjion of the ho¬
rizon of the fea.
32 30 by obfervation
36 18 by calculation
Difference by refraflion 3 48
775 2>3
Difference by refraflion
{
27 o by obfervation
29 36 by calculation
2 56
571 11,0
Difference by refraftion
24 o by obfervation
25 25 by calculation
1 25
387 3>4
Difference by refraction
{
19 45 by obfervation
20 54 by calculation
288 4,3
Difference by refraCtion
{
15 o by obfervation
17 1 by calculation
523
Principles
and
The height of the eye above The depreffon of the ho- Practice.
the furface of the fea. ri%on of the fea.
Feet.
187
Inches.
0,9
C 13 o by obfervation
"£14 41 by calculation
Difference by refraction
41
9 7>3
Difference by refraction
f 3 20 by obfervation
l 3 *
[8 by calculation
In the above table, the depreflion, as eftimated by
calculation, is greater than that by obfervation in every
cafe except the laft, in which the latter is greater by
two feconds than the former \ but this difference was
too fmall to be difeovered by the inftrument that Caf-
fini employed.
Refraftion leffens the angle of depreflion, by raifing
the objefts obferved } but as this refraftion is i (elf va¬
riable, the depreflion and extent of the horizon alfo
vary. We are informed by Caflini, that even in the
fineft weather he obferved the refradlion to differ at the
fame hour of different days, and at different hours of
the fame day. The truth of this obfervation may be
eafily afeertained by looking through a telelcope fur-
niflied with crofs hairs, and fixed in fuch a pofition that
fome highly elevated objett, as the weathercock of a
fteeple, may be feen through it ; for, on obferving the
weathercock at different times of the day, it will be
feen fometimes on the centre of the objedt-glals; fome-
times above, and fometimes below it. A fimilar expe¬
riment may alfo be made with plane fights fixed on a
crofs-ftaff. It has long been obierved, that the top of
a diftant hill may fometimes, when the refraftion is
very great, be diftin&ly feen from a fituation from
which, at other times, when the refraftion is much lefs,
it is not difcernible, even though the iky be very clear.
Many of the following problems may feem to belong
to the celeftial rather than the terreftrial globe j but as
they may be halved equally w ell by means of both, and
as perfons not uncommonly poffefs a terreftrial globe
without its ufual companion, we thall throw as many
problems as poflible under this head.
Problem IX. To find the fun's place in the ecliptic for prob?f5ms
any given time. refptcling
the fun.
Find the day of the month in the calendar on the
wooden horizon; and oppofite to it, in the adjoining
circle, will be found the fign and degree in which the
3 U 2 fun
From the above, it is eafy to deduce the method of computing the diftance of any objeft feen in the horizon
from a certain height. Thus, fuppofe a man at the maft-head, 130 feet above the water, fees land or a pd
coming in fight. We know, that, at this height, an eye can fee 14 miles, confequently the objtdt feen will be
about 14 miles or about five leagues diftant. If the objeft is within the horizon, or nearer the place of obferva¬
tion, its diftance may be calculated pretty exadlly, by defeendmg from the maft-head till the object juft comes
to the horizon ; meafuring the height at which this takes place, and thence computing the dmance.
3
524
G E O G R
Principles fun \s on ^ g;ven day. Then look for the fame fxgn
onrl « • i r.i i* J   
and
Pradtice.
and degree in the circle of the ecliptic drawn on the
globe, and that is the fun’s place at noon for the given
time.
Ex. i. What is the fun’s place on the 4th of June ?
j4uf. In 130 57' of the fign Gemini.
Ex. 2. Required the fun’s place for the firil day of
every calendar month ?
For January
February
March
April
May
June
11
12
11
11
11
11
0 23'
35
9
56
14
3
July S3 9
Auguft fl 9
September it# 9
Oftober ^3 8
November nq 9
December f 9
0 42'
18
9
27
16
33
Problem X. To find the fun's declination for any given
time.
Find the fun’s place for the given day by Prob. X.
and bring it to the brazen meridian. The degree,
marked on the meridian immediately over the place is
the declination required.
Ex. Required the fun’s declination for 18th March ?
The fun’s place for the given day is 20° 7'of K, and
this being brought to the meridian, will be immediate¬
ly below^3° 54' S. which is therefore the declination
re<From the above example, it is evident that the me¬
thod of finding the declination of the fun correfponds to
that of finding the latitude of a place on the globe, gi¬
ven in Problem I. the fun’s declination being meafired
in the fame way by an arc of the meridian interpofed
between the equator and the fun’s place in the eclip¬
tic (F).
Problem XI. To reBify the globe for the fun's place
and the day of the month.
Find the fun’s declination for the given day, by
Problem XI. * then elevate the pole that is in the fame
hemifphere with the degree of declination, as many de¬
grees as are equal to the declination.
5 Ex. Re&ify the globe for the fun’s place on the 6th *
Offober ? Anf. The fun’s declination on that day is
50 S. therefore the fouth pole mull be elevated 50 above
the horizon.
Rectifying the globe for the fun’s decimation corre¬
fponds to the rectifying of it for the latitude of a given
place. See N° 88.
Problem XU. To find the time of the fun's rifing and
fetting at a given place, for any given day.
ReCtify the globe for the declination on the given
day. and bring the given place to the meridian, and
let the index of the hour circle at XII. Turn the
globe, till the given place come to the eaftern edge of
the horizon, and the time of funrife will be (hewn by
the pofition of the index. Then turn the globe till the
given place come to the weftern part of the horizon,
and the polition of the index will point out the time of
funfet.
A P H Y. Part II.
To perform the fame problem by Adams’s globes. Principles
ReClify the globe for the declination, bring the gi- bn(!
ven place to the meridian, and fet the horary index at P‘a<^‘C8,
12 as before j then turn the globe towards the weft,
till the given place reach the weftern edge of the hori¬
zon, and the index will point to the time of funrife.
The time of funfet will be known, in like manner, by
bringing the place to the eaftern lide of the horizon.
If the hour circle in the ordinary globes has a double
row of figures, the fun’s rifing and fetting may be found
at the fame time j for if the place be brought to the
eaftern part of the horizon, the time of funnfe will be
ftiewn by the index, in that circle where the hours in-
creafe towards the eaft ; and the time cut by the index
in the circle where the hours increafe towards the weft,
will fhow the time of funlet.
Ex. 1. Required the time of the fun’s rifing and fet¬
ting at London, on the 29th Auguft ? Anf. The fun
riles at nine minutes after five, and fets nine minutes
before leven.
Ex. 2. Required the time of funrife and funfet at
Edinburgh on the ifi: of June ? Anf. For funrife, 27
minutes after three j for funfet, 33 minutes after eight.
Corollary. From this problem we may eafily find
the length of the day and night for any given time j
for, having found by the globe the time of funrife and
funfet, the double of the latter is the length of the day,
and the double of the former the length of the night.
Problem XIII. To find the fun's meridian altitude on
any given day, at a given place.
ReCtify the globe for the latitude of the given place,
by Problem VIII.-, find the fun’s place on the given
day by Problem IX and bring it to the brazen meri¬
dian. ^Then fix the quadrant of altitude in the zenith,
or over the given place, and bring it over the fun’s
place *, and the degree of the quadrant lying over the
fun’s place will fliew the meridian altitude.
If the globe has no quadrant of altitude, the fun’s
meridian altitude may be found by counting the num¬
ber of degrees on the meridian, between the horizon
and the fun’s place.
Ex. Required the fun’s meridian altitude at Edin¬
burgh on the 21ft of June? Anf. 570 30', or the
greateft poffible, this being the fummer folftice.
Corollary. It may be known whether the fun’s
meridian altitude be north or fouth, by the following
obfervations. When the fun’s declination and the lati¬
tude of the place are of different names, i. e.. the one
north and the other fouth, the meridian altitude is of
the fame name with the declination. If the declina¬
tion and latitude be both north or both touth, the alti¬
tude is of the fame name with the declination, if the
latter be the greater j but, otherwife, the altitude is of
an oppofite name.
Problem XIV. Having the latitude of the place and the
day of the month given, to find the fun's altitude for
any given hour.
ReClify the globe for the latitude ; find the fun’s
place, and bring it to the meridian, and fet the horary
index
(f) For a table of the fun’s declination correfponding to his true place, iee Vol, XU. p- 17°*
!,art IT
'’nnriples
and
IPraftice
GEOGRAPHY.
525
index to noon *, turn tKe globe till the index point to
the given hour, then fix the quadrant cf altitude in the
zenith, and bring its graduated edge over the fun’s
place, and the degree cut by the fun’s place will be the
altitude required. .
Ex. What will be the fun’s altitude at IC> o’clock
A M. on the 30th of November at Edinburgh ?
Anf. 8° 50'.
\ #
Problem XV. Having the fun's meridian altitude gi¬
ven at any place^ to find the latitude of the place.
Bring the fun’s place for the given day to the meri¬
dian, and move the globe in the horizon till the dif-
tance between the fun’s place and the northern ov fouth-
ern edge of the horizon, (according as the cafe may re¬
quire), be equal to the given altitude. The degree of
elevation of the pole will (hew the latitude required.
Ex. The fun’s meridian altitude obferved at a cer¬
tain place on 5th Auguft is 740 24' N. What is the
latitude of the place ? Anfi. iL 3^
Problem XVI. The latitude of the place and the day
of the month being given, to find when the fun is due
eafi or due wefi.
Reflify the globe for the latitude of the place, bring
the fun’s place to the meridian, and let the index to
XII. Fix the quadrant of altitude in the zenith, and
if the fun’s declination be of the fame name with the
latitude, bring the graduated edge of the quadrant to
the eaftern fide of the horizon ; but if the declination is
of a different name from the latitude, bring the qua-,
drant to the weftern part of the horizon. Turn the
globe till the fun’s place in the ecliptic come below' the
edge of the quadrant, and the index will point to the
hour when the fun is due eald. Subtract this fiom XII.
and the remainder (hews the time when the fun is due
weft.
Ex. At what hours is the fun due eaft and weft at
the fummer and winter folfticeat Greenwich i1 Anf. At
the fummer folftice he is due eaft at 20 minutes paft
feven, and due weft at 20 minutes before five. At the
winter folftice he is due eaft at 20 minutes before five,
and due weft at 20 minutes paft Even.
Corollary. When the declination and latitude
are of the fame name, the (un is due eaft alter riling ;
but when the declination and latitude are of different
names, he is due ea t before riling. As it is not con¬
venient to obferve on the globe when the fun is due
eaft before rifing, or while he is under the horizon, it
is better to bring the oppolite point of the ecliptic due
weft, and then the index Ihews the time when he is due
eaft.
Problem XVII. Having a place in the torrid •zone
given, to find on what two days of the year the fun is
vertical at that place.
Find the latitude of the given place, and keeping
that in view, turn the globe round, noting the two
points at the ecliptic that pafs below the degree of la¬
titude. Find in the calendar circle of the horizon the
days correfponding to thofe points of the ecliptic ; and
thefe are the days on which the fun is vertical at the
given place.
Ex. 1. On what days is the fun vertical at St He¬
lena, in latitude 150 5 j' S. ? Anf. On 6th February Pii™Ples
and 6th November. _ # _ Pradtke.
Ex. 2. Required the days on which the fun is verti- > t j
cal at Tobago, in latitude 11° 29' N. ? An). On April
19. and Auguft 23.
Problem XVIII. To find thofie places in the torrid
zone where the fun is vertical on a given day.
Find the fun’s place for the given day, and bring it
to the brazen meridian j then turn the globe, and note
all the places which pals under that point of the meri¬
dian : thefe will be the places to which the fun is ver¬
tical on the given day.
Ex. \. In what places is the fun vertical at the fum-
mer folftice ? Anf. At Canton in China, at Calcutta
in Bengal, at Mecca in Arabia, and at the Havau-
nah.
Ex. 2. To what places is the fun vertical on the 16th
of May and 29th of July ? Anf. At Bombay, Pegu,
in the northern part, of Manilla, in the middle of the
Ladrone iflands, at Owhyhee, Mexico, in Hifpaniola, .
and at Tombudtoo in the central parts of Africa.
Problem XIX. Having the day and hour at any given
place, to find where the Jun is then vertical.
Find the fun’s declination by Problem XL and the
places where it is noon at the given time, by Problem
III. *, then any of thofe places wdiere it is noon, whole
latitude is the lame as the lun’s declination, will have
the fun vertical at the given time.
Ex. On the 1 ft of Auguft at Edinburgh, it being
35 minutes paft four, P. M. it is required to find where
the fun is vertical ? Anf. Ihe lun’s declination on that
day is 18° 14' N. and the place where it is noon at the
given time, that lies neareli in latitude to the declina¬
tion, is Kingfton in Jamaica : this, therefore, is the
place required.
Problem XX. A place in the northern frigid zone
be my given, to find when the Jun begins to appear
above the horizon, and when to di/anpear ; as alfo the
length of the longefi day and night.
Rectify the globe for the latitude, and bring the
afeending figns of the zodiac (fee Astronomy, N° 52.)
to the fouthern part of the horizon •, obferve whal de¬
gree of the ecliptic is interfedded by that point of the
horizon, and in the calendar circle find the day of the
month anfwering to that degree. That will (hew the
time of the fun’s firft appearance above the horizon at
the given place, and this is the end of the longed night
in that latitude. Then bring the defeendmg figns to the
fame part of the horizon, and oblerve the day which
anfwers to the degree of the ecliptic interfered ; this
will (hew the time of the fun’s dilappearance, or the
beginning of the longtft night. Now bring the af-
cending figns to the northern part of the horizon, and
obferve the degree of the ecliptic, and the correfpond¬
ing day as before, which will give the time when the
fun begins to (bine continually, or the beginning of
the longeft day. Again, bring the defending figns to
the fame point, and thus will be given the time when
the fun ceales to (hine continually, or the end of the
longeft day.
Ex. At what time does the fun begin to appear
above
526
Principles
and
Practice.
96
Problems
refpe (fling
the cli¬
mates.
GEOGRAPHY. Part II
above tbe horizon at North Cape in Lapland, the lati¬
tude of which is 720 N. ? When does he difappear, and
how long is he entirely abfent during the longeft night ?
Anf, He begins to appear on the 26th of January, and
entirely difappears on the x6th of November j he is
therefore ablent for 71 days.
Cor. From the fun’s firft appearance at the end of
the longeft night to the beginning of the longeft day,
and from the end of the longeft day to the fun’s total
difappearance at the beginning of the longeft night, he
rifes and fets every day.
Problem XXL To find in what part of the northern
frigid •zone the fun begins to Jhine continually on a
given day.
Find the fun’s declination for the given day, and
fubtraft this from 90°, the remainder will ftiew the la¬
titude required.
Note. The given day muft be between the 2lit of
March and the 21ft of June, as at no other time does
the fun begin to Ihine continually in the northern frigid
Ex. Required the latitude in which the fun begins
to thine without felling on the x ft of June ? Anfi The
fun’s declination for that day is 22° N. and this fubtract-
ed from 90° leaves 68° N. the latitude required.
Problem XXII. The length of the longefi day in any
piace being given, to find the latitude of that place.
Bring the xft degree of Cancer to the meridian, and
fet the horary index at noon. Then turn the globe
towards the weft, till the index point to the hour of fun-
fet, or half of the length of the given day ’, raiie or
deprefs the pole, till the fun’s place m the ecliptic is
exactly in the weftern edge of the horzion. I he eleva¬
tion thus obtained will be equal to the required latx-
tU In Adams’s globes, after bringing the^firft degree of
Cancer to the meridian, and letting the index to noon,
the globe muft be turned towards the weft, till the in¬
dex Ihew the time of funfet, and the fun’s place muft
be brought to the eaftern fide of the horizon.
Ex. In what latitude is the longeft day 18 hours
long ? Anfi In latitude 58° 30' N.
By this problem the limits of the hour climates may
be pretty nearly afcertained.
Problem XXIII. To find the latitudes of thofe places
in the frigid zone where the fun is continually above
the horizon for a given number of days.
Count from the firft degree of Cancer towards the
neareft equinoaial point, as many degrees as is equal
to half the given number of days } bring the point thus
obtained below the meridian, and note the degree of
the meridian which it interfeas. _ This fubtraaed from
900 will leave a remainder that is nearly equal to the
latitude of the place. r j •
Ex In what latitude does the fun never let during
76 days ? Anf. In latitude 71® 30', or very near the
fouthern part of Nova Zembla.
EJ0te, This problem cannot be performed accurately
by the* globe j for as the fun requires 365 days fix
hours to move through the whole 360° of the ecliptic,
he does not advance quite a degree in 24 hours.
By this problem the limits of the month climates may Principle,;
be pretty nearly afcertained.
Problem XXIV. The hour and day being given at any Y 1
place, to find in what places the fun is rifing, and in
what he is felting ; where it is noon, and where mid¬
night.
Find by Problem XIX. the place to which the fun
is vertical at the given time; redify the globe for the
latitude of that place, and bring tbe place below the
meridian. In this pofition of the globe all tbofe places
that lie within the weftern edge of the horizon will
have the fun rifing, and all thofe which are in the
eaftern edge of the horizon will have it fetting.. Again,
to thofe places which lie under the upper femicircle of
the brazen meridian, it will be noon) and to thofe
which lie below the lower femicircle, it will be mid¬
night.
Ex. Suppofe it be four o’clock P. M. on the 4th
of June at London j where is the fun at that time
rifing, and where is he fetting ) to what places is it
noon, and to what midnight ? Anf. The north-eaftem
part of Siberia, Kamtfchatka, the moft weftern of the
Sandwich ifles, and the moft eaftern of the Society ifles,
are within the weftern edge of the horizon, and confe-
quently to thele the fun is rifing. At J obollk, in the
Cafpian fea, in the defert of Arabia, in the middle of
the Red fea, in Abyflinia, in tbe central parts of A-
frica, and in the country of the Hottentots, the fun will
be fetting, as thefe places lie within the eaftern edge of
the horizon. New Britain, the iftands of Martinique
and Trinidad, and the middle part of South America,
which lie below the upper femicircle of the meridian,
have noon j and Chinete i. artary, the eaftern part of
China, the Philippine ifles, and the weftern part of
New Holland, which are fituated below tbe under edge
of the femicircle, have midnight.
As the remaining problems on tbe terreftrial globe 0n
chiefly refpeft the continuance of twilight, it is proper, i;ght.
before we proceed, to make a few remarks on this fub-
je£L For the explanation of theterm, leeCREPUSCULUM
and Twilight.
The Crepufcuium, or Twilight, it is fuppofed, ufually
begins and ends when the fun is about j 8 below the
horizon •, for then the ftars of the 6th magnitude dif¬
appear in the morning, and appear in the evening. It
is of longer duration in the folftices than in the equinoxes,
and longer in an oblique fphere than in a right one j
becaufe in thofe cafes the fun, by the obliquity of his
path, is longer in afcending through 180 of latitude. ^
Twilight is occafioned by the fun’s rays rtfra&ed in
our atmofphere, and reflected from the particles of it to
the eye. For let A (fig. 10 ) be the place of an ob
ferver on the earth ADL, AB the fenfible horizon,
meeting in B the circle CBM bounding that part of
the atmofphere which is capable of iclraifting and re-
flefting light to the eye. It is plain that when the lun
is under the horizon, no diredt rays can come to the
eye at A : but tbe fun being in the refradted line CG,
the particle C will be illuminated by the diredt rays
of the fun j and that particle may refledt thole rays
to A, where they enter the eye of the fpedlator. And
thus the fun’s light illuminating an innumerable multi¬
tude of particles, may be all reiieaed to the fpeftator at
::,art II.
Principles
an<l
iPradlice.
GEOGRAPHY.
527
A. From B draw BD touching the circle ADL in
D, and let the fan be at S in the line AD ; then the ray
SB will be reflected into the fituation BA, and will
enter the eye, becaufe from a principle in optics the
angle of incidence DRC is equal to the angle of re¬
flexion ABE. See Optics. This ray SB, or BA,
will therefore be the fir it that reaches the eye at dawn
in the morning, and the lait that falls on the eye at
right, when twilight ceafes, becaufe as the fun gets
lower down, the particles of the air at B will no longer
be illuminated.
The depth of the fun below the horizon at the begin¬
ning of the morning or end of the evening two light, is
determined by obferving the moment when the air firft
begins to (hine in the morning, or ceafes to fhine in the
evening *, then finding the fun’s place for that time,
and hence the time till his rifing in the horizon, or af¬
ter his difappearance below. Xhis depth of the fun
belowr the horizon has been varioufly ftated by different
aftronomers, but it is now' generally eftimated at 180.
Accordingly in Mr Adams’s globes there is a circu¬
lar wire fixed 180 below the horizon, toreprefent the li¬
mits of the crepufculum (fee PWY, fig. 5.).
As the caufe of twilight is not conftant, its limits
muft continually vary ; for if the exhalations in the
atmofphere be more copious or more extenfive than
ufual, the morning twilight will begin fooner, and that
of the evening laft longer than ordinary ; as the more
copious the exhalations, the more rays will be refledted
from them, and confequently the more they will fhine,
and again, the higher they are, the fooner they will
be iliuminated by the fun. From this circumftance
the evening twdlight is commonly longer than the morn¬
ing, at the fame time, and in the fame place. The re-
fraXion is alfo greater according as the air is more
denfe, and not only is the brightnefs of the atmo-
fphere variable, but the fame takes place in its height
above the earth ; therefore, the twilight is longeft in
hot weather, and in hot countries, all other things be¬
ing equal. The chief differences, however, arife from
the different fituations of places on the earth, or^ from
the difference of the fun’s place in the heavens. Thus,
the twilight is longed v/hen the earth is in the pofition of
a parallel fphere, and fhorteft in that of a right fphere
(fee N° 90.): and in an oblique fphere, the tw'ilight
continues longer at any place, in proportion as that place
is nearer to either of the poles j a circumdance which
affords condderable relief to the inhabitants of the
northern countries in their long winter nights. Twi¬
light continues longed in all places of north latitude,
when the fun is in the tropic of Cancer, and to thofe in
fouth latitude when he is in the tropic of Capricorn.
The time of the thorted twilight alfo varies in different
latitudes; thus, in England, the diorted twilight is
about the beginning of OXober and of March, when
the fun is in =Ch and X ; hence, when the difference
between the fun’s declination and the depth of the
equator is lefs than 18°, fo that the fun does not. de-
fcend more than 180 below the horizon, the twilight
will continue through the whole night, as happens in
Britain from the 22d of May to the 22d of July.
In the latitude of 490 N. twilight continues for the
whole night, only on the 2ld of June, or the time of
the fummer folftice : but at all places further to the
north it continue^for a certain.' number of days before Principles
and after the dimmer foldice. . _ Practice.
Near the north pole there is continual twilight from , , <
the 22d of September, the time of the fun’s permanent
abfence, to the 12th of November. It then- ceafestill
about the 30th of January, when it again appears, and
continues till the 2ill of March, the time ot the fun’s
permanent appearance. Hence the inhabitants of thofe
places neared the pole, though they never fee the fun
for nearly fix months, have, however, the benefit of
twilight for above the half of that time, and are entire¬
ly excluded from the fun’s light little more than I 2
weeks, during fix of which the moon is condantly above
the horizon. 9s
Were it not for the gradual change from light to ufes of
darknefs, and vice verfa, which is the confequence of twilight,
twilight, much inconvenience would arife. A hidden
change from the darknefs of midnight to the full (plen-
dour of the fun, and the reverfe, would injure the fight,
and would, in many cafes, be produXive of much dan¬
ger to travellers, who would be overtaken by utter
darknefs before they had time to prepare for its ap-
proach.
99
Problem XXV. To find where it is twilight at any Problems
given time. refpedting
twilight.
Find where the fun is vertical at the given time, and
reXify the globe for the latitude of that place. Ob-
ferve what places are within the limits of twilight, or
not quite 180 below the horizon. To thofe w hich are
dtuated within the wedern zone, between the horizon
and the parallel of 180, it will be twilight in the morn¬
ing ; and thofe which are in the eadern zone will have
it twilight in the evening.
This problem may be more conveniently performed
by reXifying the globe for the antipodes of the place
which has the fun then vertical, and obferving what
places are dtuated in the zone formed above the hori¬
zon, between it and a parallel circle of 18®.
Ex. It is required to find where it is twilight on the
4th of June, when it is three o’clock P. M. at London..
j4nf. Kamtfchatka, the Sandwich ides, and the Mar-
quefas, have twilight in the morning ; and the inhabi¬
tants of Madagafcar, of Tibet, and the eadern part of'
Perda, have twilight in the evening.
Problem XXVI. To find the duration of twilight at
a given place on any given day.
ReXify the globe for the latitude of the place ; find
the fun’s place for the given day by Problem X. and
bring it below the meridian, and fet the horary index
to XII. Turn the globe till the fun’s place be jud
within the circle that marks the limit of twilight, and
the index will drew the beginning of twilight.. Sub-
traX the time of the beginning of twilight from the
time of funridng at the given place (found by Problem-;
XII.) and'the remainder will drew the duration of twi¬
light at the given place..
Note.—The above rule will anfvver both for the or¬
dinary globes, and for thofe of Adams, except that in
the latter the fun’s place mud be brought below the
w'edern part of the horizon. A more convenient way
in both globes w-iil be, to bring that point of the
ecliptic which is oppofite to the fun’s place, 18° above
the-.
528
Principles
and
Pradbce.
too
Caufe of
day and
night.
tot
Problem
on lunar
eclipfes.
G E O G R
the wedern horizon, and the index ^vill then drew the
beginning of twilight.
Ex. How long will twilight continue at London on
the following days : March 2d j September 25th and
December 26th ? dnf. On the 2d of March it will
continue one hour and fifty minutes ; on the 25 th of
September two hours*, and on the 26th of December,
two hours ten minutes (G).
Problem XXVII. To /lew the caufe of day and
night by the globe.
It will have appeared, from the confideration ot the
caufe of day and night given under the article Astro¬
nomy, that only that half of the earth wnich is oppolite
to the fun, is illuminated by his rays, while that which
is turned from him is involved in daiknefs. As the
earth revolves on its axis from welt to ealt, in the (pace
of 24 hours, every place on the tarth in the courle of
that time alternately enjoys the light of the fun, and is
deprived of it.
To illuftrate this by the globe, reftify the globe for
the fun’s declination, fo as to place the fun in the ze¬
nith, and the horizon will reprefent the boundary be¬
tween light and darknefs *, that hemifphere which is
above the horizon being illuminated by the fun’s rays,
and that which is below the horizon being deprived of
light. If now a patch is put on the globe, fo as to repre¬
fent any place, and if the globe oe made to revoive from
weft to eaft 5 when the place is brought to the weftern
edge of the horizon, the fun will appear to the inhabi¬
tants of that place to be rifing in the eaft, though, in
faift, the appearance arifes from the place itfelf coming
beyond the limit of darknefs. As the globe continues
to turn, the place rifes towards the meridian, and this
produces the appearance as if the fun were advancing
towards the meridian in a contrary direftion. When
the place comes below the meridian, it is noon to that
place, and the fun appears to have attained its greateft
height.
As the place proceeds towards the eaft, it gradually
recedes from the meridian, and the fun appears defeend-
ing in the weft. When it reaches the eaftern edge of
the horizon, and is proceeding below the boundary of
light and daiknef’s, the fun appears to be fetting *, and
during the whole time that the place is moving below
the horizon, the fun will not appear till the place once
more rifes in the weft.
Problem XXVIII. To fnl at what places an eclipfe
of the moon is vijibie at any given time.
Find the place to which the fun is vertical at the
given ! ime, and rtftify the globe for the latitude of
that place. As the moon is oppofite to the fun, which
illuminates the fuperior hemifphtre of the globe, the
102
A P H Y. .Part I]|
eclipfe of the moon will be vifible to all the places that
lie below the horizon.
As the places below the horizon are not eafdy exa¬
mined, this problem may be more conveniently ptr-
formed by rettitying the globe for the antipodes oi the
place to which the lun is vertical at the given time, ra¬
ther than for the place itfelf; as in this latter polition
of the globe the moon being in oppofition to the iun,
will be vertical to the place below the zenith, and
its eclipfe will be vifible at all the places now above
the horizon.
Ex. 1. On the 4th of January 1806, at 5!, minutes
paft 11 P. M. reckoning the time ai Greenwich, ti ere
was an ecliple of the moon. It is required le- find thofe
places to which the eclipfe was vifible ? AnJ. '1 hruugh
the greateft part of Africa, in li me part of Lurope,
in Afia, South America, and a great part oi Xorth
America.
Ex. 2. On the 10th of May 1808, when it is eight
o’clock A. M. at Greenwich, the moon will be totally
eclipfed. In what places will the ecliple be vifible ?
Anf. in moil parts of America ; in the iflands of the Pa¬
cific ocean, and on the eaftern coaft ot New Holland.
Sect. II. Of the Vfe of the Celeftial Globe.
The celeflial globe, with relpedt to the circles that Celeftial
are deferibed on it, and the apparatus with which it isg^obe.
furnifhed, fcarcely differs from the terreftrial. globe,
which has been fo fully deferibed in the preceding lec¬
tion. The furface of the celeftial globe is made to re¬
prefent all the itars that are commonly vifible to the
naked eye, arranged under their conftellations, and
bounded by the figures which have been given to thefe
conftellations by the early aftronomers. (See fig. 5.).
In Adams’s celeftial globe the moveable femicircle
(N° 91.) turning round the poles reprefents a circle of
declination, and the fmall circle on it, an artificial lun
or planet.
Both the globes are often furnilhed with a mariner’s
compafs, which is ulually placed in the lower part of
the frame.
It mull here be remarked, that the reprefentation of
the heavens on the celeftial globe, though probably
much more accurate than that ol the earth on the ter-
reftrial, is not fo natural as the latter ; for, in viewing
the ftars on the external furface of a globe, the fpt&a-
tor fees them in an oppofite pofition to that in which he
obferves them in the heavens, fo that to form a juft
conception of their exaft lituation, he muft fuppofe his
eye to be feated in the centre of the globe. Hence, if
a large hollow hemifphere were made of glafs, and if
the ftars in the correfponding hemifphere of the firma¬
ment were painted in tranlparent colours on its fur¬
face } an eye fituated in the centre of fuch a hemi¬
fphere
(C) If we have the latitude of a place, and the fun’s declination given, we may find the beginning of the morn¬
ing and the end of the evening twilight by calculation. Thus, in the oblique-angled fpherical triangle ZPN
ffip- 11.) we have given ZP the co-latitude 5 PN the co-declination, and ZN=io80 being the fum of 90 the
quadrant, and 180 the depreflion at the extremity of twilight. I hen by fphencal trigonometry we may calculate
the triangle ZPN, the hour angle from noon, and this.reduced to time, at the rate of 15 per hour, gives the
•time from noon to the beginning or end of twilight. For the mode of calculation, fee SniERics.
iPart II-
Principles fphere would fee the ftars exaflly as they appear m the
and heavens.
Praaice. The great ufe 0f tiie celeftial globe is to perform a
l—" variety of problems with refpedt to the ftars, and the
motions of the heavenly bodies through the fpace which
they occupy.
Problem I. To place the celejlialglobe in fuch actua¬
tion at that it Jhall exhibit an accurate reprefentation
of the face of the heavens at any given place, and at
any given time.
Rectify the globe for the latitude of the place, as in
Problem VIII. of the terreftrial globe, or by fetting the
pole of the celeftial globe pointing to the pole of the
earth, by means of the compafs that is ufually annexed
to the globes •, find the fun’s place in the ecliptic j
bring this to the meridian, and fet the horary index at
noon. Again, make the globe turn on its axis till
the index point to the given time, and in this pofition
the globe will exa&ly reprefent the face of the hea¬
vens, correfponding to the given time and place \ every
conftellation and ftar in the heavens anfwering in pofi¬
tion to thofe on the globe. Hence, by examining the
globe, it will immediately be feen what ftars are above
or below the horizon, which are on the eaftern and
weftern parts of the heavens, which have juft rifen
above the horizon, and which are about to fink be¬
low it.
As this problem will be found extremely ufeful to
the ftudent of aftronomy, we (hall here quote the exam¬
ple given in illuftration of it by Meflrs Bruce of New-
cartle.
“ Required the fituation of the ftars for the lati¬
tude of Newcaftle, on October 6th, at eight o’clock in
the evening ?
“ In our prefent furvey of the heavens, W'e {hall com¬
mence at the north point of the horizon, and proceed
round eaftward; noticing the different conftellations,
and the relative fituation of the principal ftars in thefe
conftellations.
“ The firft ftar which ftrikes the eye of the obfer-
ver, in the north-eaft part of the heavens, is Capella, in
the conftellation Auriga, or the Waggoner : It is of the
firft magnitude, of the altitude of 230, or nearly the
fourth part of the diftance from the horizon to the ze¬
nith. There are two ftavs of the fecond magnitude,
which form with Capella a triangle Ihe ftar which
forms the lliort fide of the triangle is in the right {boul¬
der of Auriga, and is marked73 ^ it lies at the diftance
of about 8° from Capella, further to the north •, its al¬
titude is 18°:—The ftar forming the longer fide of
the triangle is in the Bull’s northern horn ; its diftance
from Capella is more than 26° -, its altitude not more
than 50, and azimuth N. E. There are. three ftars of
the fourth magnitude, a little to the fouth of Capella,
that bear the name of the Kids.
“ If a line be drawn through the tw'o ftars that form
the upper fide of the triangle, and continued to the
horizon, it will point out Caftor,«, in Gemini juft riling,
azimuth E. N. E : it is between the firft and fecond
magnitude. The other ftars in this conftellation have
not yet rifen.
“ A line drawn between Caftor and Capella, and con¬
tinued higher in the heavens, will point out Perfeus, in
which there are three ftars, one of the fecond magni-
Vol. IX. Part II.
.
tude, «, named Algemb, and two of the third inagni- Principles
tude, one on each fide of Algenib, at the diftance of pi™*ce
about 50: they form a line a little curved on the fide .’ .
next Auriga. The altitude of Algenib is 37° i azl~
muth N. E. by E
“ A little to the fouth of Perfeus is the Head of Me-
dufa, which Perfeus is holding in his hand. Befides two
or three fmall ftars, it contains one of the fecond, and
one of the third magnitude. The name of the brighteft
is Algol altitude 330, azimuth E. N. E Algol is
only io° diftant from Algenib.
“Directly below the Head of Medufa, about 140
above the horizon, are the Pleiades or feven ftars :
They are feated in the (boulder of Taurus, and are fo
eafily known, that no defcription is neceffary. Alde-
baran, a ftar of the firft magnitude, whiohforms the py»
of Taurus, is juft rifing 5 azimuth E. N. E. A vertical
circle drawn through Algol w ill point to it. i here
are twro ftars of the third magnitude, and feveral Imaller
very near Aldebaran, which form with it a triangle.
The whole duller is called the Hyades.
“ A line drawn from Aldebaran through Algol, and
continued to the zenith, will dire£t to Cafliopeia. 1 his
contains five ftars of the third magnitude, befides feveral
of the fourth: it is in form fomething like the letter Y,
or, as fome think, an inverted chair. It is fituated
above Perfeus, within 3C’°of the zenith, lire altitude
of the brighteft ftar, «, called Schedar, is 6o° ; azi¬
muth, E. N. E,
“ Below Caffiopeia and weft of Perfeus is Andromeda,
which contains three ftars of the fecond magnitude. A
line from Algenib, parallel to the horizon towards the
fouth, w ill pais very near thefe three ftars •, and, as they
are all of the fame magnitude, and placed nearly at the
fame diftance of 150 from each other, they may eafily
be known. The name of the ftar neareft Perfeus, and
which is in the foot of Andromeda, marked y, is Al-
maak: its altitude is 490 5 azimuth E. 1NL E. The
name of /3, in the girdle, is M'rach : its altitude 440 }
azimuth E. The altitude of a, in the head of Andro¬
meda, is 46° j azimuth E. S. E.
“ About 18° below Mirach are two ftars in Aries, not
more than f diftant from each other, forming with
Mirach an ifofceles triangle : the moft eaftern ftar, «, is
of the fecond magnitude ; the other, /3, of the third, at¬
tended by a fmaller ftar, marked y, of the fourth mag¬
nitude. A line drawn from Mirach, perpendicular to
the horizon, will pa!'s between the two, and befides,
will point to a ftar of the fecond magnitude, dire&ly E.
not above 30 from the horizon.
“ This ftar is the firft of Cetus, marked a, and is of
the fecond magnitude : it is named Menkar. A line
drawn from Capella through the Pleiades will alfo point
to it. Cetus is a large conftellation, and contains eight
ftars of the third magnitude , they all lie to the weft of
Menkar •, /3, a ftar in the tail, is more than 40° diftant
from it. The azimuth of /3 is S. E. by E j altitude
nearly the fame as Menkar.
“ The conftellation Pifces is fituated next to Aries ; it
contains one ftar of the third magnitude, marked «e:
its altitude is io°, azimuth E. by S. It is diftant from
Menkar 150. A line drawn from Almaak, through
« in Aries, will point to it.
“ If we return again to «. in the head of A.ndromeda,
we {hall find threeother ftars nearer the meridian, which,
3 X with
GEOGRAPHY.
530
f'rinciplts
and
Practice.
G E 0 G R
with it, form a fquarc. 'Thefe ftars are in P^gafus, and
are placed at the diftanee of 150 from each other j they
are all of the fecond magnitude. The two ftars form¬
ing the weftern ftde of the fquare are called- the
upper one Scheat, which is marked f&, and which is
in the thigh of Pegafus ; the under one Markab, v\hich
is marked «e, and which is in the wing} the loweft ftar
in the eaftern fide of the fquare is in the tip of the wing,
and is marked y. The altitude of Scheat is 55 5 azi¬
muth S. E. i E. Altitude of Markab, 430 } azimuth
S. E. by S , E. .
“ A line drawn through y and /3 (the diagonal m the
fquare of Pegafus) and continued to the meridian, will
point out Cygnus, a remarkable conftellation in the
form of a large crofs, in which there is a ftar of the
fecond magnitude, named DeT/eb^ or Arided$ it is mark¬
ed «, and is almoft direflly upon the meridian at the
altitude of 8o°. Cygnus contains fix ftars of the third
magnitude. The conftellation Cepheus, which contains
no remarkable ftars, is fituated between Cygnus and the
north pole. 4 .
“ Below Pegafus, and nearer the meridian, is Aqua¬
rius, containing four ftars of the third magnitude. A
line drawn from «e in Andromeda, through Markab,
will point to <* in Aquarius. Its altitude is 320 } azi¬
muth S. S. E. AVI
“ A bright ftar of the firft magnitude named lomel-
haut, in Pifces Auftralis, is then upon the horizon} azi¬
muth S. S. E. _ -
“ Delphinus is a fmall conftellation, fituated about 30
below Cygnus upon the meridian} it contains five ftars
of the third magnitude, four of them being placed clofe
together, and forming the figure of a rhombus or lo¬
zenge. A line drawn through the two under ftars
of the fquare will point to it. Its altitude is about
5°°. . , . r
“ A little to the weft of Delphinus, but not quite 10
high, is Aquila, containing one very bright ftar of the
firft magnitude, named Atair: It may very eafily be
known from having a ftar on each fide of it of the third
magnitude, forming a ftraight line. I he length of the
line is only about 30 } altitude of Atair 40° } azimuth
s. s. w. .
“ Confiderably above Atair, and a little to the V\ .
of Cygnus, is Lyra, containing a ftar of the firft mag¬
nitude, one of the moft brilliant in the firmament. It
is called Lyra or Vega, and is 350 to ^
Atair} altitude 600} azimuth W. S. W. Lyra,
Atair, and Arided, form a large triangle. .
“ We come now to notice three conftellations, which
occupy a large fpace in the weftern fide of the heavens.
thefe are Hercules immediately below Lyra } Serpenta-
rius between Hercules and the horizon, extending a lit¬
tle more towards the fouth } and Bootes, reaching from
the horizon W\ N. W\ to the altitude of 45 g
“ Hercules contains eight ftars of the third magni¬
tude } the ftar in the head, «, named Ras Algethi, is
within 50 of * in the head of Serpentarius. This laft
is a ftar of the fecond magnitude, and is named Ras
Alhague: its altitude is 30° } azimuth, S. W. by
"VV. W. A line drawn from Lyra, perpendicular
to the horizon, will pafs between thefe two ftars. The
other ftars in Hercules extend towards the zenith, and
thofe in Serpentarius towards the horizon.
and
Practice.
A P H Y. Part II,
“ The conftellation Bootes may eafily be known from Principles
the brilliancy of Arfturus, a ftar of the firft magnitude,
and fuppofed to be the neareft to our fyftem of any in
the northern hemifphere : it is w ithin 10° of the ho¬
rizon } azimuth W. N. W. Bootes alfo contains
feven ftars of the third magnitude, moftly fituated high¬
er in the heavens than Anfturus. The ftar immediate¬
ly above Ar&urus is called Mezen Mirach, and is
marked t. The ftar in the left ftioulder, named Se- j|
ginus, forms with Mirach and Arfturus a ftraight
line. # , .
“ Between Serpentarius and Bootes is Serpensy con¬
taining one ftar of the fecond magnitude, and eight of
the third : « in Serpens is nearly at the fame diitance
from the horizon, as Ar&urus} azimuth W.
“ Above Serpens, and a little to the eaft of Bootes, is
the Northern Crown, containing one ftar of the fecond
magnitude, named Gemma, and feveral of the third,
which have the appearance of a femicircle. A line
drawn from Lyra to Arfturus will pafs through this
conftellation.
“ We come now to Urfa Major, a conftellation
containing one ftar of the firft, three of the fecond, and
feven of the third magnitude. It may eafily be diitin-
guiftied by thofe feven ftars, which, from their re-
(emblance to a Swaggon, are called Charles’s V' ain^
The four ftars in the form of a long fquare, are the
four wheels of the waggon } the three ftars in the tail
of the Bear, are the three horfes, which appear fixed to
one of the wheels. The two hind w'heels, « named
Dubhe, and 0, are called the pointers, from their al¬
ways pointing nearly to the north pole. Hence the
pole ftar may be knowrn. The altitude of Dubhe is
300} azimuth N, by W. 4- W- The diftance between
the two pointers is 50; the diftance betvveen the pole
ftar and Dubhe, the upper pointer, is 30 .
“ Urfa Minor, befides the pole ftar of the fecond
magnitude, fituated in the tail, contains three of the
third, and three of the fourth magnitude. Ihefe form
fome refemblance to the figure of Charles s W ain in¬
verted, and may eafily be traced.
“ Draco, containing four ftars of the fecond and fe¬
ven of the third magnitude, fpreads itlelf in the heavens
near Urfa Minor : the four ftars in the head are in the
form of a rhombus or lozenge : the tail is between the
pole ftar and Charles’s Wain.
“ Befides thefe conftellations, there are a number ol
others, which, as they contain no remarkable ftars, we
have not defcribed } an enumeration of thefe w ill. fuf-
fice. The Lynx, between Urfa Major and Auriga }
Camelopardalus, between Uria Mqjor and Caftiopeia }
Mufca, and the Greater and Lefs Triangles between
Aries and Perfeus, Aculeus, clofe to the head of Pe¬
gafus } Sagittarius fetting in the fouth-weft } Antinous
and Sobieiki’s Shield below Aquila} the Fox and
Goofe between Aquila and Cygnus} the Greyhounds
and Berenice’s Hair between Bootes and Uria Major, ^
and Leo Minor below Urfa Major *.”
The aftronomical terms that we muft here employ
in defcribing the method of performing the proWems.^^.
on the celeftial globe, will be found explained m the^ J/Zro-
article Astronomy, or under their proper heads in the boot?, 2
general alphabet of this work. See ASCENSION, Azi-«l. P-
muth. Declination, &c.
’ Problem
Part II
principles
and
Pra&ice.
103
Problems
refpe&ing
the ftars.
G E O G R
Problem It. To find the right ofcenfion and declination
of any given far.
Bring the given ftar below the brazen meridian, and
mark the degree of the meridian under which it lies.
That degree (hews the declination of the ftar, and the
degree of the equator cut by the meridian gives the
ftar’s right afcenfion.
The right afeenfion of a ftar may alfo be Found by
placing the globe in the pofition of a right fphere and
then bringing the ftar to the eaftern part of the hori¬
zon *, for that point of the equator which comes to the
horizon at the fame time with the ftar, marks its right
afcenlion. See Astronomy, N° 249, 250. .
Ex. 1. What is the right afcenfion and declination
of the ftar Sirius ? Anf Its right afcenfion is 990, and
its declination 16° 27'S. , , .
Ex 2. Required the right afcenfion and declination
of Aldebaran, or the ftar in the Bull’s Eye parked * ?
j4nf. Its right afeenfton is 66°, and its declination 16
5'N.
Problem III. Having the right afcenfion and decimation
of afar given, to find the far on the globe.
Bring the degree of the equator which marks the
right afcenfion below the brazen meridian, and count¬
ing along the meridian towards the north or louth, as
far as the degree of declination, the required ftar will
be there found. . , 0
Ex. 1. The right afcenfion of a certain ftar is 102
15' and its declination is 57°27'N. j What is the
name of the ftar ? Anf. The lower pointer of Urla
Major, marked 0. „ A _ . 0 ,
Ex 2. The right afcenfion of Ar&urus is 211 30,
and its declination is 20° 13' N.: it is required to find
it on the globe. . , ,
This problem is extremely ufeful in difeovermg the
names and relative fituations of the different ftars.
Problem IV. To find the latitude and longitude of a
given far.
Bring the folftitial colure (fee N° 7J-) ^
brazen meridian, and there fix the quadrant of altitude
over the pole of the ecliptic which is in the fame he-
mifphere with the given ftar. Then, keeping the globe
fteady bring the graduated edge of the quadrant over
the given ftar, and the degree of the quadrant cut by
the ftar, counted from the ecliptic, marks its latitude,
and the degree of the ecliptic that is cut by the T-13*
drant is the longitude of the given ftar (h). See AS¬
TRONOMY, N° 252, 253. r a rx
Ex. I. What is the latitude and longitude ot Arttu-
rus ? * jnf. Lat. 3 x° N. Long. Libra 2o\
Ex. 2. What is the latitude and longitude ot La-
pella ? Anf Lat. 230 N. Long. Gemini 180 30'.
Problem V. Having the day of the month given, to find
at what hour any far comes below the meridian.
Find the fun’s place, and bring it to the meridian,
and fet the horary index to X1L} turn the globe till the
given ftar come below the meridian, and the index will
point out the hour.
A P H Y, . „ .531
To know whether the hour is in the forenoon or Pn™|les
afternoon, it is neceffary to obferve, that if the ftar be pra(g.jce;
to the eaft of the fun, it will reach the meridian later ^ »
than the fun, but if it be to the weft of that luminary,
it will come to the meridian fooner: hence, in the
former cafe, the hour will be P. M. and in the latter
A. M.
Ex. 1. At what hour-does Sirius come to the meri¬
dian on the 9th of February > Anf. At 7 minutes
paft 9 P. M.
Rx. 2. Required the hour when Caftor panes the
meridian on the fame day. Anf. At 52 minutes paft;
9 P. M.
Problem VI. Having any far given, and a given hour,
to find on what day the far will come to the meridian
at a given hour.
Bring the given ftar below the meridian, and fet the-
horary index to the given hour. Make the globe re¬
volve till the index come to twelve at noon; and the
day of the month which correfponds to the degree of
the ecliptic then below the meridian, found in the ca¬
lendar circle of the wooden horizon, will be the day re¬
quired.
Ex. 1. On what day does Algenib, _the firft ftar of
Perfeus, come to the meridian at midnight ? Anf. On
the 13th of November.
Ex. 2. On what day does AnElurus come to the me¬
ridian at 9 o’clock P. M. Anf. On the 10th of June.
PROBLEM VII. Having the latitude, the day of the month
and the hour of the night given, to find the altitude and
azimuth of any given far.
Re&ify the globe for the given latitude ; bring the
fun’s place below the meridian, and fet the horary in¬
dex at XII. then turn the globe till the index point at
the given hour. Fix the quadrant of altitude at 90®
from the horizon, that is, in the zenith, and bring its
graduated edge over the place of the ftar : the degree
of the quadrant intercepted between the horizon and
the ftar is the altitude required > and the diftance be¬
tween the foot of the quadrant and the ^eareft part of
the horizon, will be the azimuth.
It is evident that this problem on the celeftial globe
is exaftly fimilar to Problem XIII. on the terreftrial
globe, for finding the altitude of the fun.
Ex. I. What will be the altitude and azimuth of
Cor Hydrse on the 2ift of December at London, at
4 o’clock A. M. ? Anf. The altitude 30°, the azi¬
muth S. 140 W.
Ex. 2. Suppofe an obferver at the Cape of Good
Hope, on the 21 ft of June at midnight j required the al¬
titude and azimuth of Ar&urus to him ? Anf. Altitude
120, azimuth N. 550 W.
Problem VIII. Having given the a%imuthof any given
far, and the day of the month in a given latitude; to
fnd the hour of the night, and altitude of the far.
Re&ify the globe as in the laft problem •, fix the
quadrant of altitude in the zenith, and bring it to the
given aziumth. Turn the globe till the ftar comes be-
3X2 low
(Hi It nrnft be remembered that the longitude of the heavenly bodies is not eftimated in degrees and minute,
like their right afcenfion, but in f.gns, degree,, and minute,, as the fun s plate is reckoned.
532
Principles low tlie graduated edge of tlie quadrant, when the
*int^ horary index will point out the hour, and the altitude
^Prafhce. q£ t^e ftar wj^ feen by tbe quadrant.
",II_ Ex. Suppofe the azimuth of Dubhe to be N. 230 W.
at London on the firft of September j it is required to
find the altitude of the ftar, and the hour of the night?
Anf. The altitude of Dubhe at that time is 310, and
the hour is 9 o’clock P. M.
Problem IX. The latitude of the place, the altitude of
a far, and the day of the month, being given ; tofnd
the a%imuth and the hour of the night.
Rectify the globe as before, and having fixed the
quadrant of altitude in the zenith, turn the globe and
quadrant of altitude till the latter comes over the liar
at the given degree of altitude. In this pofition the in¬
dex will {hew the time of night, and the pofition of the
quadrant at the horizon will {hew the azimuth of the
liar.
In the fame way the hour of the night and the
azimuth of the fun may be found, by fixing a patch on
the globe in the fun’s place, and bringing it to the
quadrant as direfted for the ftar.
As the fun and ftars have the fame altitude twice in
the day, it is proper to know whether they are to be
eaft or weft of the meridian ; or whether the hour re¬
quired be in the evening or the morning.
^ Ex. At Edinburgh, on the 25th of December, in
the forenoon, when the fun’s altitude is ^ 2c/, requir¬
ed the hour and the fun’s azimuth? An/. It is 10
o’clock A. M. and the fun’s azimuth is S. 270 30' E.
Problem X. Having the azimuth of the fun or a far,
the latitude of the place, and the hour of the day given ;
to find the altitude and day of the month.
Redlify the globe for the latitude of the place, fix
the quadrant in the zenith, and bring its edge under
the given azimuth. Bring the fun’s place or the ftar
to the edge of the quadrant, and fet the index at the
given hour. The degree marked in the quadrant v\ ill
fliew the altitude j and if the globe be turned till the
index points to twelve at noon, the day of the month,
anfwering to that degree of the ecliptic which is in¬
ter fe died by the brazen meridian, is the day required.
Ex The azimuth of the ftar a. in the Northern Crown
wasobferved at London at 9 o’clock P. M. to be S. 89°
W.; required the altitude and day of the month ?
Anf. Altitude 38° \ day of the month ift of September.
Problem XL Having obferved two fans to have the
fame at&'tnuth ,■ to find the hour of the night.
Redlify the globe as before •, turn the globe and
move the quadrant till the edge of the latter comes over
both ftars, and the horary index in this pofition of the
globe will give the hour required.
The following is a fimple and eafy method of finding
when two ftars have the fame azimuth. Hold a fmall
line with a plummet at its lower extremity between the
eye and the two ftars, and if both ftars fall within the
line, they have the fame azimuth. The fame may be
done by obferving when any two ftars p fs behind the
perpendicular edge of a wall at the fame time
Ex. Vega and Atair were obferved to have the fame
azimuth at London on the i ith of May } required the
hour of the night ? An/ 15 minutes paft 2 A. M,
Part II,
This problem may be applied to the regulating of Principles
clocks and watches, by reducing apparent to real time, ai^
as explained under Astronomy. . 'a'^ lce^
Problem XII. To find the rifing, fetting, and cul¬
minating of any far or planet, its continuance above
the horizon, its oblique afcehfion and defcenfion, and
its eafern and wejlern amplitude ; the place and day
being given.
Redlify the globe as in the foregoing problems-, bring
the given ftar or the given planet (finding its place in
an ephemeris for the given day, and marking it by a
patch on the globe) to the ealtern part of the horizon,
and the index of the hour circle will point out the time
of rifing : the degree of the equator that comes to the
horizon with the given ftar or planet, marks its oblique
afcenfion, and the eaftern amplitude is {hewn by the di-
ftance of the ftar or planet from the eaftern part of the
horizon.
Bring the ftar or planet to the meridian, and the in¬
dex will point to the time of its culminating.
Move the globe till the ftar or planet come to the
weftern part of the horizon, and the time of its fetting^
its oblique defcenfion, and its weftern amplitude, may
be found in the fame manner as diredled above $ for its
rifing, oblique afcenfion, and eaftern amplitude, the
number of hours pafltd over by the index, while the ftar
or planet is moving from eaft to weft, will {hew the time
of its continuance above the horizon.
Ex. I. Required the above circumfiances with refpedl
to Sirius on the 14th of March at London. AnJ. It
rifes at 24 minutes paft two P. M. ; comes to the meri¬
dian, or culminates, at 57 minutes paft fix P. M. ; and
fets at half-paft eleven P. M. Hence it remains above
the horizon nine hours and fix minutes. Its oblique
afcenfion is 1 20° 47', its oblique defcenfion 770 17', and
its amplitude 270 S.
Ex. 2. It is required to find the fituation of the feve-
ral planets on the 19th of January l8c6. Anf. Mer¬
cury is about 22° to the weft of the fun, and rifes fouth-
eaft by eaft, at 20 minutes before feven A. M. Venus
is an evening ftar, and fets about half pafl eight. Mars
is a very little to the eaft of the fun, and riles and fets
fo near the fame time with the ftm, that he cannot be
feen. Jupiter is a morning ftar, and rifes about fix
o’clock. Saturn is a little to the eaft of the ftar Spica
Virginis, and rifes about half an hour after midnight.
Herfchel is very near Saturn, and rifes about the fame
time.
PROBLEM XIII. To fndtho/efiars which never rife, and
thofe which never jet, in a given latitude.
Reftify the globe for the latitude of the place ; then,
holding a black lead pencil fo as to touch the fur face of
the globe at the northern point of the horizon, turn
the globe, fo that the pencil may defcribe a circle °.
all the ftars which are between this circle and the ele¬
vated pole, never fet. Again, holding the pencil at
the fouthern point of the horizon, turn the globe fo as
to defcribe another circle there, and all the flars that
are betw een that circle and the pole, below the horizon,
never rife.
If the place is in fouthern latitude, the ftars that ne¬
ver fet are found by defcribing a circle at the fouthern
point
GEOGRAPHY.
Part II
Principles
and
Pradlice.
IC3
Harveft
nioon il-
luftrated.
G E O G R
point of the horizon, and thofe that never rife by a fi-
milar circle at the northern point (i).
Throughout almoft the whole year, the moon rifes
later every fucceffive day, by above three quarters of an
hour ; but at a confiderable diftance from the equator,
as in the latitude of Britain, France, and fome other
countries, a remarkable anomaly takes place in the
moon’s motion about the time of harveft. At this fea-
fon, when the moon is about full, fhe rifes for feveral
nights fucceflively at about 17 minutes later only than on
the preceding day. This is attended with confiderable
advantage, for as the moon rifes before twilight is well
ended, the light is as it wxre prolonged, and thus
an opportunity given to the induftrious farmer to conti¬
nue longer in the field, for the purpofe of gathering in
the fruits of the earth. From the advantage derived
from the full moon at the feafon of harvert, it has been
called the harveft moon. The following problem has
been contrived for the purpofe of illuftrating the pheno¬
menon by means of the globe.
Problem XIV.
Re&ify the globe for any confiderable northern lati¬
tude, fuppofe that of London. As the angle which the
moon’s orbit makes with the ecliptic is but fmall, we
may fuppofe, without any confiderable error, her orbit
to be reprefented by the ecliptic. In September the
fun is in the beginning of :0=, fo that the moon, when
full, being in oppofition to the fun, muft be in or near
the beginning of Put a patch, therefore, in the
globe at the firft point of <Y> in the ecliptic j and as the
moon’s mean motion is about 130 in a day, put another
patch on the ecliptic 130 beyond the former, and it
•will point out the moon’s place the night after it is full.
A third and fourth patch, put at the diftance of 130
further on, will Ihew the moon’s place on the fecond
and third nights after full, &c. Now, bring the firft
patch to the horizon, and obferve the hour pointed out
by the index 5 turn the globe till the fecond patch
comes to the horizon, and it will appear by the index
that there are only 17 minutes between the time of the
firft patch rifing, and that of the fecond. This fmall
difference in the motion of the moon evidently arifes
from the fmall angle which her orbit makes with the
horizon. The remaining patches will come to the ho¬
rizon wfith a little greater difference of time, and this
difference will gradually increafe as the moon advances
in the ecliptic \ but for the firft week after the full
moon at harveft the difference will not be more than
two hours. If patches be continued on to the firft point
in is, it will be found that the time of their rifing, or
coming to the horizon, will increafe confiderably till
the laft will be above hour later in coming to the
horizon, becaufe that point of the ecliptic makes the
greateft angle with the horizon.
The point of the ecliptic, which makes the leaft
angle with the horizon at rifing, makes the greateft
angle at fetting j and, confequently, when the differ-
A P H Y. 533
ence is leaft at the time of rifing, it is greateft; at the Principles
time of retting. Pr*aice.
Problem XV. To explain the equation of time bij the 104
globe. Equation ef
time il--
The difference between apparent time and mean or luftiate^’
equal time, has been explained in Astronomy, from
N° 50 to 60 ; and the method of computing the equa¬
tion of time is alfo there defcribed.
To explain the equation of time on the globe, make,
with a black lead pencil, marks all round the equator
and ecliptic, beginning with <T, at equal diftances
from each other, fuppoie about 150. Then, on turn¬
ing the globe, it will be feen that all the marks on the
firft quadrant of the ecliptic, reckoning from <Y’ to ss,
come to the brazen meridian fooner than the coiTefpond-
ing marks on the firft quadrant of the equator. Now,
as the former marks reprefent time as meafured by the
fun, or a dial, and the latter reprefent it as meafured
by an accurate clock, it will be evident, that through
the firft quarter the dial is fafter than the clock.
Still turning the globe, it will be leen that the marks
on the fecond quarter of the ecliptic, reckoning from
25 to £=., come to the meridian later than the
correfponding marks of the equator j confequently in
this quarter the fun or the dial is flower than the clock.
By moving the globe round, and marking the approach
of the dots in the third quadrant, it will be feen that,
as in the firft, the dial now precedes the clock, and in
the fourth quadrant, that it is behind it, according to
the explanation given in ASTRONOMY.
Sect. III. Of the ConfruElicn of Globes.
The conftrufiion of globes is of confiderable import- Generai
ance ; as, in performing the problems in which they are conftruc-
employed, very much depends on the accuracy withtlon °*
which they have been conftrufted. We (hall here,§lobtS'
therefore, defcribe pretty minutely the methods in
which the artifts of Britain and France make their
are certain general cireumftances which are
attended to in the conftrudtion of every globe.
There is firft provided a wooden axis, fomewhat lefs
than the intended diameter of the globe, and to the
extremities of this axis, which is the bafis of the whole
fucceeding ilrudture, there are fixed two metallic wires,
to ferve as poles. Now, two hemifpherical caps form¬
ed on a wooden mould or clock, are applied in the axis.
Thefe caps are compoled of pafteboard, or folds of pa¬
per laid one over another on the mould, till they are of
the thicknefs of a crown piece j and after the whole
has flood to dry, and has become a folid body, an inci-
fion is made with a (harp knife along the middle, and
the two caps are thus flipped off the mould. Thefe
caps are now to be applied on the poles of the axis, as
they were before on thofe of the mould j and to fix
them
(1) This problem may be performed without the globe, by the following method. Find the latitude of the
place in a table, and fubtraft it from 90° j the remainder will be the complement of the latitude. Then, if the
decimation of the given ftar be of the fame name with the co-latitude, and exceed it in quantity, it will never
fet. If it be of a contrary name, and exceed it, it will never rife,
2
534
principles
and
Praftice
G E
them firmly on tlie axis, the two edges are fewed to¬
gether with packthread.
When the rudiments of the globe are thus laid, the
artift proceeds to ilrengthen the work, and make the
furface fmooth and equal. For this purpofe, the two
poles are fixed in a metallic femicircle, of the. propofed
lize $ and a compofition made of whitening, mixed with
water and glue, heated, melted, and incorporated to¬
gether, is daubed all over the papdr furface. While
the plafter is applied, the globe is turned round in the
femicircle, the edge of which pares away all the matter
that is fuperfluous and exceeds the proper dimenfions,
and fpreads the reft over thofe parts that require it.
After this operation the ball ftands to dry, and when
it is thoroughly dried, it is again put in the femicircle,
and frefti plafter applied to it; and thus they continue to
apply compofition and dry the ball alternately, till the
furface accurately touches the femicircle in every point,
when it becomes perfectly firm, fmooth, and equal.
When the ball of the globe is thus finilhed, the map,
containing a delineation of the furface of the earth, is
to be pafted on the globe. For this purpofe, the map
is engraved in feveral gores or guflfets, fo that when
thefe are accurately joined together on the fpherical
furface, they may cover every part of the ball, without
-overlapping each other. i.he greateft nicety is required
in forming thefe engraved guffets, as well in the accuracy
of the engraving, as in the choice and fhape of the paper
employed. The method of defcribing the gores or guffets,
ufually employed by the Britifh artifts, is as follows..
1. From the given diameter of the globe there is
found a right line AB (f*§* J 2.), equal to the circum¬
ference of a great circle correfponding to that diame¬
ter j and this line is divided into 12 equal parts.
2. Through the feveral points of divifion, I, 2, 3> 4>
&c. with a diftance equal to ten of the divifions, arches
' are defcribed crofting each other as in D and E •, and
thefe figures are pafted on the globe, fo as when joined
together to cover its whole furface.
3. Each part of the line AB is divided into 30
equal parts, fo that the whole line, which may reprefent
the equator, is divided into 360°.
4. From the points D and E, which reprefent the
poles, with a diftance = 23!°, there are defcribed arches
ab,ab, (fig. 13.) which form twelfth parts of the po¬
lar circles.
5. In a fimilar manner about the fame poles D and
E, with a diftance =66|°, reckoned from the equator,
there are defcribed other arches, c </, c </, which are the
twelfth parts of the tropics.
6. In forming the celeftial globe, through the point
of the equator marked e (fig. 13.) reprefenting the
right afcenfion of a given flat, and through the two
poles D and E, there is drawn an arch of a circle ;
and if the complement of the declination from the pole
D be taken in the compaffes, and an arch be. defcrib-
ed, interfering the former in the point this point *
will be the place of the given ftar.
7. In this way all the ftars of each conftellation are
laid down, and the circumfcribing outline of the conftel¬
lation is drawn as figured in the tables of Bayer, Flam-
ftead, &.c. #
8. In the fame manner are determined the declinations
and right afcenfions of every degree of the ecliptic, d,g.
The above is the method defcribed by Mr Chambers,
Part II,,
of laying down or delineating the gores of a celeftial Principles
globe. Thofe of the terreftrial globe are delineated in
much the fame manner, only that every place is laid *
down on the gores, according to its longitude and lati¬
tude, determined hy the interfeiEtion of circles j and then
the outline of the coafts, boundaries of countries, See.
are added, like the figures of the conftellations above
mentioned.
9. When the furface of the globe has been thus pro¬
jected on a plane, the guffets are to be engraved on
copper, to fave the trouble of making a new projection
for every globe.
10. In the mean time, a ball of paper, plafter, or
the like, of the intended diameter of the globe, is pre¬
pared in the manner above defcribed, and by means of
a femicircie and ftyle, great circles are. drawn on its
furface, fo as to divide it into a number of equal parts,
correfponding to the number of guffets j and fubdivid-
ing each of thefe according to the other lines and divi¬
fions of the globe. When the ball is thus prepared,
the gullets are to be accurately cut from the printed
engraving, and pafted on the ball.
When the papers have been thus pafted on, and fuf-
fered to dry, nothing remains’but to colour and illumi¬
nate the globe, and to cover it with a thin layer of the
find! varnilh, that it may the better refill dull and
moifture. The ball of the globe is now finilhed, and
is to be hung in a ftrong brazen meridian furnilhed
with hour circles and a quadrant of altitude, and fitted
into a ftrong wooden horizon. . . 10g
The method employed by the French artifts in pro- Method 0!
ieCting the guffets of globes, is thus defcribed by M. forming th
La Lande. _ . . Sore5*
“ To form celeftial and terreftrial globes, it is necef-
fary to engrave gores, which are a fort of projeClion or
developement of the globe. The length PC (fig. 14.)
of the axis of the curve, is equal to a fourth part of the
circumference of the intended globe $ the intervals of
the parallels on the axis PC are all equal ; the radii of
the circles K D I, which reprefent the parallels, are
equal to the co-tangents of the latitude, and the arches
of each, fuch as KI, are nearly equal to the number of
degrees that correspond to the breadth of the gore
(ufually 30°), multiplied by the fine of the latitude :
thus, there will be found no difficulty in tracing them;
but the principal difficulty proceeds from the changd
which thofe parts of the gores undergo, when they are
glued upon the globe ; as, in order to adjuft them to
the fpace wffiich they ought to occupy, it is neceffary to
make the paper lefs on the fides than in the middle,
becaufe the fides are too long.
“The method employed by artifts for engraving
thefe gores, is thus defcribed by Bion (Ufagedes Globes,
tom. iii J, and by Robert de Vaugondy in the feventh
volume of the Encyclopedic, and this method is iuffi-
cient for pra&ica] purpofes.
“ Draw on the paper a line AC, equal to the chord
of 150, to make the half breadth of the gore; and a
perpendicular PC, equal to three times the chord of
30°, to make the half length : for thefe papers, the
dimenfions of w'hich will be equal to the chords, be¬
come equal to the arcs themfelves when they are pafted
on the globe. Divide the height CP into nine parts,
if the parallels are to be drawn in every 10 ; divide alft>
the quadrant BE into nine equal parts; through each di_
vifion
O G R A P H Y.
and
Praftice
:?art II. G E O G R
Principles vifion point of the quadrant, as G,_ and through the
correfponding point D of the right line CP, draw the
perpendiculars HGF and DF, the meeting of which in
F gives one of the points of the curve BFP, which will
terminate the circumference of the gore. When a fuf-
ficient number of points are thus found, trace the out¬
line PIB with a curved rule. By this conftru&ion are
given the gore breadths, which are on the globe, in
the ratio of the cofines of the latitudes, fuppoling thofe
breadths taken perpendicular to CD, w'hich is not very
exaft •, but it is impoflible to prefcribe a rigid operation
fufficient to make a plane which (hall cover a curved fur-
face, and that on a right line AB (hall make lines PA,
PC, PD, equal to each other, as they ought to be on
the globe. To defcribe the circle KDI, which is at
the diftance of 30° from the equator, there mull be ta¬
ken above O, a point that (hall be diftant from D the
value of the tangent of 6o°, which may be taken either
from tables, or may be meafured on a circle equal to
the circumference of the globe that is to be drawn ;
this point will ferve as a centre for the parallel DI,
which ought to pafs through the point D 5 for it is
fuppofed equal to that of a cone circumfcribing the
globe, and which would touch it at the point D.
“ The meridians are traced to every 1 o°, by divid¬
ing each parallel, as KI, into three equal parts at the
points L and M, and drawing from the pole P, through
all thefe points of divilion, curves which reprefent the
intermediate meridians lying between Px\ and PB, fuch
as BR and ST (fig. 15.).
“ The ecliptic AQ (fig. 15.) is traced by means of
the known declination, from different points of the
equator, as found in the tables; for 10® it is equal to
3° 58'} for 20o=7° 5o'=BQ 20 ; for 30°=ii0 29',
&c.”
In general, it is obferved that the paper on which
maps are printed, fuch as that called in France colombiery
contracts itfelf TV,or a line in fix inches, upon an average,
when it is dried after printing ; hence it is necelfary to
prevent this inconvenience in engraving the gores : if,
however, notw'ithftanding this, the gores are ilill found
too (liort, it mud be remedied by taking from the fur-
face of the ball a little of the white with which it is
covered; thus making the dimenfions of the ball cor-
refpond to thofe of the gores as they are printed. But,
what is Angular, in drawing the gore, moiftened with
the pafte to apply it on the globe, the axis GH length¬
ens, and the fide AN fhortens in fuch a manner that
neither the length of the fide ACK, nor that of the
axis GEH of the gore are exactly equal to the quarter
of the circumference of the quarter of thd globe, when
compared to the figure on the copper, or to the num¬
bers (hewn on the fide of fig. 15.
“ Mr Bonne having made feveral experiments on
the dimenfions which the gores take after being covered
with pafte in order to apply them to the globe, efpe-
eially of the paper called jefus, which had been em¬
ployed in covering globes of a foot in diameter ; found
that it was neceffary to give to the gore engraved on
copper the dimenfions laid down in fig. 15. Suppofing
that the radius of the globe contains 720 parts, the
half of the breadth of the gore AG=i88.5; the dif¬
tance AC for the parallel of io° taken on the ftraight
line LM is m 28.1, the fmall deviation from the paral¬
lel of io° in the middle of the gore ED is 4, the
A P H Y.
535
line ABN is a ftraight line, the radius of the paral- Principles
lei of io° or of the circle CET, is 4083, &c. Ihe pr^ce<
fmall circular cap which is plated under H, has its.
radius 233, inftead of 2475 which it would have if
the fine of 20° had been the radius of it*.” _ * La Lande
Globes are made of various fizes, from a diameter AJlroncmie,
of three inches, to that of as many feet; but their ^
moft ufual diameter is that of 18 inches, which are
fufiiciently large for moft; of the purpofes for which
globes are employed. Some large globes were made
about 100 years ago, in b ranee, by P. Coronelli, a
Francifcan monk, which were in confider-able reputa¬
tion. They were engraved, and the plates are ftill to
be feen at Paris, at the houfe of M. Defnos, in the
Rue St Jacques. There are fume large globes at
Cambridge, which were drawm by the hand; but
the largeft globes of which we have any account, are
thofe which were made for the late unfortunate Louis
XVI. and were kept in the palace of Marly. Ihey
were 12 feet in diameter, and we believe, are ftill ex-
ifting at Paris, where they occupy four entire rooms,
each of them being partly in an upper room, and part¬
ly in that below it, the fioor of the upper room forming
the horizon.
The account which we have given of the method of
conftrudfing globes, will be ufeful to thole who pur-
chafe thefe inftruments; but to aflift them ftill further,
we (hall fubjoin the following pra&ical rules for the
choice of globes. t0j
1. T he papers fhould be well and neatly pafted onRu]es f0p
the globes, which may be known by the lines andchoofing
circles meeting exaftly, and continuing all the way globes
even and whole ; the circles not breaking into feveral
arches, nor the papers either coming ftiort, or lapping
over one another.
2. The colours fhould be tranfparent, and not laid too
thick upon the globe, to hide the names of the places.
3. The globe ftiould hang evenly between the brazen
meridian and the wooden horizon, not inclining either
to the one fide or the other.
4. The globe (hould move as clofe to the horizon
and the meridian as it conveniently may, otherwife
there will be too much trouble to find againft what
part of the globe any degree of the meridian or hori¬
zon is.
5. The equinoflial line {hould be even w ith the hori¬
zon all round, when the north or fouth pole is elevated
90° above the horizon.
6. The tquino&ial line {hould cut the horizon in the-
eaft and weft points, in all the elevations of the pole
from o to 90°.
7. The degree of the brazen meridian marked o,
{hould be exattly over the equinoftial line of the
globe.
8. Exa&ly half of the brazen meridian {hould be
above the horizon, which may be known by bringing
any of the decimal divifions on the meridian to the
north point of the horizon, and finding their comple¬
ment to 90° on the fouth point.
9. When the quadrant of altitude is placed as far
from the equator, or the brazen meridian, as the pole
is elevated above the horizon, the beginning of the
degrees of the quadrant Ihould reach juft to the plane
furface of the horizon.
10. When the index pf the hour circle paffes from
•ne
536
Principles
and
Prafti'-e
joS
109
Mr Senex’s
improve¬
ment in ths
globes.
G E O G
one hour to another, 15 degrees of the equator muft
pafs under the graduated edge of the brazen meri¬
dian.
11. The wooden horizon (hould be made fubftan-
tial and ftrong ; it being generally obferved, that, in
moft globes, the horizon is the firft part that fails, on
account of its having been made too (light,
In ufing a globe, the eaftern fide of the horizon,
fliould be kept towards the obferver, (unlefs in parti¬
cular problems which require a different pofition) 5 and
that fide may be known by the word eaji on the hori¬
zon. In this pofition the obferver will have the gra¬
duated fide of the meridian towards him, and the qua¬
drant of altitude direttly before him ; and the globe
■will be exaftly divided into two equal parts by the
graduated fide of the meridian.
In performing fome problems, it will be neceffary
to turn about the whole globe and horizon, in order
to look at the weft fide *, but this turning will be apt
to difturb the ball, fo as to ftrift away that degree of
the globe which was before fet to the horizon or
meridian. This inconvenience may be avoided by
thrufting the feather end of a quill between the ball
of the globe and the brazen meridian, and thus, with¬
out injuring the furface of the globe, it will be kept
from turning in the meridian, while the whole is
moved round, fo as to examine the weftern fide.
We have already mentioned fome improvements
which have been made on the globes, for the pur-
pofe of remedying the defeft in the old conftruftion,
of placing the hour circles on the outfide of the bra¬
zen meridian. Some other improvements and modifi¬
cations have been contrived by various artifts; but of
thefe we (hall only mention thofe of Mr Senex, Mr B.
Martin, Mr Smeaton, and Mr Adams.
Mr John Senex, F.R.S. invented a contrivance for
remedying thefe defe£ts, by fixing the poles of the di¬
urnal motion to two (boulders or arms of brafs, at the
diftance of 23-^° from the poles of the ecliptic. Thefe
{boulders are ftrongly faftened at the other end to an
iron axis, which paftes through the poles of the ecliptic,
and is made to move round with a very ftiff motion •,
fo that when it is adjufted to any point of the ecliptic
which the equator is made to interfeft, the diurnal
motion of the globe on its axis will not difturb it.
When it is to be adjufted for any particular time,
either paft or future, one of the brazen (boulders is
brought under the meridian, and held faft to it with
one hand, while the globe is turned about with the
other *, fo that the point of the ecliptic which the
equator is to interfeft may pafs under the o degree of
the brazen meridian ; then holding a pencil to that
point and turning the globe about, it will defcribe the
equator according to its pofition at the time required 5
and transferring the pencil to 234 and 664- degrees
on the brazen meridian, the tropics and polar circles
will be fo defcribed for the fame time. By this con¬
trivance, the celeftial globe may be fo adjufted, as to
exhibit not only the rifing and fetting of the ftars in
all ages and in all latitudes, but likewife the other
phenomena that depend upon the motion of the diur¬
nal round the annual axis. Senex’s celeftial globes,
efpecially the two greateft, of 27 and 28 inches in
diameter, have been conftrufted upon this principle *,
fo that by means of a nut and fcrew, the pole of
It A P H Y.
Part II.
the equator is made to revolve about the pole of the P incipies
ecliptic. . Pradic
To reprefent the above appearances in the moft na-
tural and eafy manner, Mr B. Martin applied to the
contrivance of Mr Senex a moveable equinoctial and
folftitial colure, a moveable equinoCtial circle, and a
moveable ecliptic 5 all (o conneded together as to re¬
prefent thofe Jmaginary circles in the heavens for any
age of the world. no
In order to the performance of the problems which Improve,
relate to the altitudes and azimuths of celeftial objeCts,™®11^?
Mr Smeaton, F.R.S. has made fome improvements ap-t0^ mea'' ,
plicable to the celeftial globe; and to give fome idea
of the conftruftion, they may be defcribed as follows:
Initead of a thin flexible flip of brafs, which generally
accompanies the quadrant of altitude, Mr Smeaton
fubftitutes an arch or a circle of the fame radius,
breadth, and fubftance, as the brafs meridian, divided
into degrees, &c. fimxlar to the divifions of that circle,
and which, on account of its ftrength, is not liable to
be bent out of the plane of a vertical circle, as is
ufual with the common quadrant put to globes, l hat
end of this circular arch at which the divifion begins,
refts on the horizon, being filed off fquare to fit and
reft fteadily on it throughout its whole breadth ; and
the upper end of the arch is firmly attached, by means
of an arm, to a vertical focket, in (uch a manner that
when the lower end of the arch refts on the horizon,
the lower end of this focket {hall reft on the up¬
per end of the brafs meridian, direftly over the zenith
of the globe. This focket is fitted to and ground
with a ft eel fpindle of the length, fo that it will turn
freely on it without {baking ; and the fteel fpindle has
an apparatus attached to its lower end, by which it can
be faftened in a vertical pofition to the brafs meridian,
with its centre direftly over the zenith point of the
globe. The fpindle being fixed firmly in this pofition,
and the focket which is attached to the circular arch
put on it, and fo adjufted that the lower end of the
arch juft refts on and fits clofe to the horizon ; it is evi¬
dent that the altitude of any objeft above the horizon
will be (hewn by the degree which it interfedts on this
arch, and its azimuth by that end of the arch which
refts on the horizon.
Befides this improvement, Mr Smeaton propofes that,
inftead of fixing the hour index, as is ufually done, on
one end of the axis, it be placed in (uch a manner
that its upper furface • may move in the plane of the
hour circle rather than above it. Jo effedt this, he
diredts the extremity of the index to be filed off fo asto
form a circular arc, of the fame radius with the inner
edge of the hour circle, to which it is made to fit ex-
adtly, and a fine line is drawn in the middle of its up¬
per iurface, to point out the hour, inftead of the taper¬
ing point ufually employed. By this contrivance, if
the hour circle be made four inches in diameter, tne
time may be (hewn to half a minute. For a more par¬
ticular account of Mr Smeaton’s improvements, we re¬
fer the reader to the 791b volume of the Philofophical
Tranfadtions. _
Another improvement of the celeftial globe, by which
it is better adapted to aftronomical purpofes, is defcrib¬
ed in the article Astronomy, Vol. III. p. 178. m
Befides the modifications in the conftrudtion of globes, Adams’s
introduced by Mr Adams, and which have been p^e^ents.
art II
'i Adam ('
I Lectures,
ol. iv.
199.
G E O G E.
ready defcribed, there are forae others which we muft
briefly mention, refpefting principally the placing the
globe in an inclined pofition, and fitting it with a move-
able or floating meridian and horizon.
The globes conftrudled after this manner do not
hang in a frame like the ordinary globes, but are fix¬
ed on a pedeftal, and fupported by an axis which is
inclined 664° to the ecliptic, and is of courfe always
parallel to the axis of the earth, fuppofmg the orbit of
this planet to be parallel to the ecliptic. On the pe-
deftal below the globe is a graduated circle, marked
with the figns and degrees of the ecliptic; and adjoin¬
ing to this is a circle of months and days, anfwering
to every degree of the ecliptic j and within this is a
third circle (hewing the fun’s declination for every day
of the month. There is a moveable arm on the pe¬
deftal, which being fet to the day of the month, im¬
mediately points out the fun’s place and declination.
Round the globe there is a circle reprefenting the
horizon of any place, and at right angles to this is fix¬
ed a femicircle, ferving for a general meridian. The
middle point of this femicircle ferves to reprefent the
fituation of any inhabitant on the earth •, for this purpofe
there is fixed a fteel pin over the middle point of this
femicircle,
Mr Adams alleges that only one fuppofition is ne-
ceflary for performing every problem with this globe,
namely, that a fpherical luminous body will enlighten one
half of a fpherical opaque body, and confequently that a
circle at right angles with the central folar ray, and di¬
viding the globe in half, will be a terminator (hewing
the boundary of light and darknefs for any given day.
For this purpofe, at the end of the moveable arm,
oppofite to the fun, there is a pillar, from the top of
which projefts a piece carrying a circle that furrounds
the globe, dividing it into equal portions, and feparat-
ing the illuminated from the dark parts ; and 180 be¬
hind this there is another circle parallel to it, reprefent¬
ing the limit of twilight.
There are two plates below the globe, which are
turned by the diurnal revolution of the globe, each of
them being divided into twice 12 hours, and on the
cntfide being marked with the degrees of longitude
eorrefponding to every hour j fo that thefe circles give
at fight the hour of the day at any two places on the
globe", and he correfponding difference of longitude.
The celeftial globe is mounted in a fimflar manner,
except that it is fixed on the axis, and the ecliptic ex-
aftly coincides with the fun’s apparent path from the
5 earth *.
SECT. IV. Of the Armillary Sphere.
Y. SS7
1. The equino£lial A A, which is di- Principles
trmillary If a machine he conftru&ed that is compofed only
phere. 0f the circles of the fphere, and made fo as to revolve
like a globe, a great many of the moft ufeful prob¬
lems relating to the heavenly bodies may be folved by
it. An inftrument of this kind is called an armillary
fphere, and of thefe there are Various forms. One of
the moft convenient is that contrived by the late Mr
James Fergufon, and is thus defcribed in his Lectures.
It is reprefented at fig. 16.
The exterior parts of this machine are a compages
of brafs rings, which reprefent the principal circles of
Voe. IX. Part II. - .
A P H
the heaven, viz.   ^ _ .
vided into 360 degrees, (beginning at its interfedtion pr“^c-ce<
w ith the ecliptic in Aries) for (hewing the fun’s right v, 
afcenfion in degrees j and alfo into 24 hours, for (hew¬
ing his right afcenfion in time. 2. The ecliptic BB,
which is divided into 1 2 figns, and each fign into 30
degrees, and alfo into the months and days of the year,
in fuch a manner, that the degrees or points of the
ecliptic in which the fun is on any given day, (lands over
that day in the circle of months. 3. 'Ihe tropic of
Cancer, CC, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of
Cancer in e; and the tropic of Capricorn DD, touch¬
ing the ecliptic at the beginning of Capricorn in f;
each 23J degrees from the equinodtial circle. 4. Ihe
Ardlic circle E, and the Antardlic circle F, each 23^
degrees from its refpedlive pole at N and S. 5. ,lhe
equinodlial colure GG, paffing through the fouth and
north poles of the heaven at N and S, and through the
equinodlial points Aries and Libra, in the ecliptic.
6. The folftitial colure HH, palling through the poles
of the heaven, and through the folftitial points Cancer
and Capricorn, in the ecliptic. Each quarter of the
former of thefe colures is divided into 90 degrees, from
the equinodlial to the poles of the world, for (hewing the
declination of the fun, moon, and ftars j and each quar¬
ter of the latter, from the ecliptic at eand/^ to its poles
b and d, for (hewing the latitude of the liars.
In the north pole of the ecliptic is a nut b, to which
is fixed one end of a quadrantal wire, and to the other
end a fmall fun Y, which is carried round the ecliptic
BB, by turning the nut : and in the fouth pole of the
ecliptic is a pin at d, on which is another quadrantal
wflre, with a fmall moon Z upon it, which may be
moved round by hand ^ but there is a particular con¬
trivance for caufing the moon to move in an orbit which
croffes the ecliptic at an angle of 5} degrees, in two
oppofite points called the moon’s nodes 5 and alfo for
(liifting thefe points backward in the ecliptic, as the
moon’s nodes ftiift in the heaven.
Within thefe circular rings is a fmall terreftrial globe
I, fixed on the axis KK, which extends from the north
id fouth poles of the globe at n and to thofe of the
cmeftial fphere at N and S. On this axis is fixed the
flat celeftial meridian LL, w hich may be fet diretflyovet
the meridian of any place on the globe, and then turn¬
ed round with the globe, fo as to keep over the fame
meridian upon it. 1 his flat meridian is graduated the
fame w'ay as the brafs meridian of a common globe,
and its ufe is much the fame. To this globe is fitted the
moveable horizon MM, fo as to turn upon two ftrong
wires proceeding from its eaft and welt points to the
globe, and entering the globe at oppofite paints of its
equator, which is a moveable brafs ring let into the
globe in a groove all around its equator. The globe
may be turned by hand within this ring, fo as to place
anv given meridian upon it, direflly under the celeftial
meridian LL. The horizon is divided into 360 de¬
grees all around its outermoft edge, within which are
the points of the compafs, for (hewing the amplitude of
the fun and moon, both in degrees and points. . The
celeftian meridian LL, paffes through two notches in the
north and fouth points of the horizon, as in a common
globe 5 but here, if the globe be turned round, the hori¬
zon and the meridian turn with it. At the fouth pole
3 Y of
538
G E O G R A P H Y.
Part II.
Princ pies of the fphere is a circle of 24 hours, fixed to the rings,
and and on the axis is an index which goes round that cir-
■Rrafhce ^ •£ gl0be be turned round its axis.
V'"rr-'r" The whole fabric is fupported on a pedeftal N, and*
xnay be elevated or depreffed upon the joint O, to any
number of degrees from o to 90, by means of the arc
.P, which is fixed into the ftrong brafs arm Q,, and Hides
in the upright piece R, in which is a fcrew at to fix
it at any proper elevation.
In the box T are two wheels and two pinions, whofe
axes come out at V and U \ either of vhich may be
turned by the fmall winch W. When the winch is
put upon the axis V, and turned backward, the teiref-
trial globe, with its horizon and celeftial meridian,
keep at reft •, and the whole fphere of circles turns round
from eaft, by fouth, to weft, carrying the fun Y, and
moon Z, round the fame way, caufing them to rife above
and fet below the horizon. But when the winch is-
put upon the axis U, and turned forward,, the Iphere
with the fun and moon keep at teft •, and the earth,
with its horizon and meridian, turn mund from weft,
by fouth, to eaft ; and bring the lame points of the
horizon to. the fun and moon, to which thefe bodies
come when the earth kept at reft, and they ^vere tar¬
ried round it*, {hewing that they, rife and fet m the
fame points of the horizon, and at the fame times in the
hour circle, whether the motion be in the earth or in
the heaven. If the earthly globe be turned, the hour
index goes round its hour circle \ but if the. fphere be
turned, tire hour circle goes round below the index.
And fo, by this conftruftion, the machine is equally-
fitted to ftiew either the real motion of the earth, or the
appareat motion of the heaven.
To reftify the fphere for ufe, firft flacken the fcrew
in the upright ftem R, and taking hold of the arm
Q, move it up or down until the given degree of lati¬
tude'for any place be at the fide of the ftem R j and
then the axis of the fphere will be properly elevated, fo
as to ft and parallel to the axis of the world, if the
machine be fet north and fouth by a fmall compals 5
this done, count the latitude from the north pole upon
the celeftial meridian LL, down towards the north notch
of ’the horizon, and fet the horizon to that latitude 5
then turn the nut b until the fun Y comes to the
sriven day of the year in the ecliptic, and the fun
will be at its proper place for that day ; find the place
of the moon’s alcending node, and alio the place of
- the moon, by an Ephemeris, and fet them right ac¬
cordingly *, laftly, turn the winch W,.until either the
fun comes to the meridian LL, or until the meridian
comes to the fun (according as you want the fphere or
the earth to move), and fet the hour index to the XII.
marked noon, and the whole machine will be rectified.
Then turn the winch, and obferve when the fun or
moon rife and fet in the horizon, and the hour index
will ftiew the times thereof for the given day.
Thofe who have made themfelves acquainted with
the ufe of the globes, as defcribed in the firft and fe-
cond feftions of this chapter, will be at no lofs to per¬
form many problems refpe&ing the motions of the
heavenly bodies by means of this fphere.
y. Dr Long, fome years ago, conftru&ed an armillary
fetLre?0 3 fphere of glafs, in Pembroke hall at Cambridge. It
was 18 feet in diameter, and could contain below it
more than 30 perfons, fitting in fuch a manner with¬
in the fphere, as to view from its centre the reprefen- Principles
tation of the heavens drawn in its concavity. The
lower part of the fphere, or that part which is not lril
vifible in the latitude of Britain, is wanting ; and the
whole apparatus is fo contrived, that it may be turned
round with as little exertion as is requifite to wind up
a common jack. Dr Long has given a delcription of
this fphere, accompanied with a figure, in his Aftro-
nomy.
The invention of the armillary fphere is thought by
La Lande to be as ancient as that of aftronomy itielf.
It has been attributed to Atlas, to Hercules, to Anar
ximander, and Muleus j while others have fuppofed
that it originated in Egypt. The fphere of Archi¬
medes, which became fo celebrated, appears to have
been fomething like that of Dr Long, as it was certain¬
ly compofed of a globe of glafs> which, befides con¬
taining the circles of the fphere, ferved as a plane¬
tarium, and reprefented the motions of the planets*
Claudian has celebrated it in lome beautiful lines. See
Archimedes.
A combjnation of the armillary fphere with a plane¬
tarium was conftrufted by the late Mr George Adams,
and is figured in Plate XIII. fig. 1. of his Aitronomi-
cal and Geographical Eflays.
Ch ap. III. Of the ConfruBlon atid Ufe of Maps and
Charts.
Sect. I. Defcription of Maps and Charts.
It has been feen, that the furface of the earth may Diftindioa
be delineated, in the moft accurate manner, on the fur-0f maps and
face of a globe or fphere. This mode of delineation, charts,
however, can be employed only for the purpofe of
reprefenting the general form and relative proportions
of countries on a very confined fcale j and is, befides,
from its bulk and figure, not well luited to many of
the purpofes of the geographer. To obviate thefe in¬
conveniences, recourfe has been had to maps and..
charts, or delineations of the earth’s lurface on a plane j
where the form and boundaries of che ieveral countiies,
and the obje£Is moft remarkable in each, whether by
fea or land, are reprefented according to the rules of
perfpeftive, fo as to prelerve the remembrance that
they are parts of a fpherical i’urface. In this way, the
feveral countries or diftrias of the earth may be re¬
prefented on a larger fcale, and delineations of this kind
admit of more eaiy reference. # 115
In maps, the circles of the fphere, and the boundaries Defcriptios
of the countries within them, are drawn as they would of a map.
appear to an eye fituated in fome point of the fphere,
or at a conliderable diftance above it. In maps ot any
confiderable extent of country, the meridians and pa¬
rallels of latitude are circular lines, but, if the map re-
prefents only a fmall diftri£t, as a province or county,
thofe circles become fo large, that they may, without
any confiderable error, be reprefented by ftraight lines.
In charts, which are alfo called hydrographical maps, as
they are representations rather of the water than land, .
the meridians and parallels are ulualiy reprelented by
ftraight lines, erofliug each other at right angles, as in
the fmaller maps*, and, in particular parts, there are
drawn lints diverging from ieveral points, in the di¬
rection of the points of the compais, in order to mark
ths
artH. 'GEOGE
nciples the bearings of particular places. In maps the inland
face of the country is chiefly regarded in the delmea-
A P H Y. 539
and if thefe figures are placed in a row, they denote Princuiles
and itide ui cii'-' »*^ ^ j ~—j o ~
adtice. t;on. but in charts, which aredefigned for the purpoies
^ 0f navigation, the internal face of the land is left nearly
blank, ^nd only the fea coail, with the principal ob-
ie6ts on it, fuch as churches, light-houfes, beacons,
&.c. are accurately delineated •, while particular care is
taken to mark the rocks, flioals, and quickfands in the
fea, that may endanger the fafetyof veffels •, the depths
6r foundings of the principal bays and harbours, and the
diredlion of the winds, where thefe are ftationary or pe¬
culiarly prevalent. Another diftinftion of maps and
charts is, that in the former, the fea-coaft is {haded on
the fide next the land, while, in the latter, it is {haded
towards the fea. . , . .
In maps the upper fide reprefents the north, the
lower fide the fouth ; that on the right hand the call,
and that on the left hand the weft. All the margins
of the map are graduated •, the upper and lower {bowing
the degrees of longitude, and the right and left margins
the degrees of latitude. (See fig. i. to which the
reader muft refer in going over the following defenp-
tion). If the map is on a fmall fcale, only every ten
degrees of longitude or latitude are marked on the
margin ; but, if the map is drawn on a large fcale, every
degfee is numbered, and fometimes every half degree
is marked with the number 30 in fmaller figures. The
fpace included between every ten degrees in fmall maps,
or between every two degrees in thofe on a larger fcale,
' is ufually divided into ten fpaces, which are alternately
left blank, and marked with parallel lines, to denote
the fubdivifions of fingle degrees or minutes. Through
every ten degrees of latitude a line is drawn, reprefent-
ing a parallel of latitude ; and through every ten degrees
of longitude, or at fmaller intervals in each, where the
fize of the map will admit of it, there are drawn lines re-
prefenting meridians. In fome maps thefe lines are conti¬
nued from fide to fide, or from top to bottom, acrofs both
fea and land •, but inothermaps, they are fometimes only
drawn acrofs the fea. The firft meridian, however, and
the principal circles of the fphere, as the equator, tropics,
&c. ftiould always be drawn dire&ly acrofs the map.
In moft maps, it is marked on the margins, whether
the longitude is eaft or weft, and the latitude north or
fouth •, but, if this is wot marked, it may eafily be known,
by obferving towards what part of the map the degrees
increafe. If the degrees of latitude increafe from the
lower to the upper part of the map, the country deline¬
ated lies in north latitude ; but if they increafe from
above downwards, it lies in fouth -atitude. Again, if the
degrees of longitude increafe towards the right, the
countries are in eaft longitude *, but if towards the left,
they are in weft longitude.
The principal objedls that diverfify the face of the
country delineated in the map, fuch as rivers, mountains,
forefts lakes, roads, cities, towns, forts, &c. are marked
in fuch a manner as that they may be moft eafity dif-
tinguiftred. A river is denoted by a black crooked
line drawn very flue towards .tbe fource or bead of tbc
river, and gradually becoming broader as it approaches
towards the mouth ; and the lefler rivers or rivulets,
which unite their waters with thofe of their principal
ftream, are denoted by fimilar lines appearing to branch
(Off from the firft.
Mountains arereprefented by the figures of little hills j
a ridge of mountains running acrols the land. If a
mountain is a volcano, it is denoted in the map by the
appearance of fmoke iffuing from its fummit. Woods
or forefts are reprefented by a number of little trees or
(hrubs, placed in a group. Lakes are denoted by a
circumfcribed fpot {haded with dark lines and bays or
fens by a more regular fpot of the fame kind, more
lightly {haded, or, where the map is coloured, painted
of a light green. Roads are repreiented in a map by
two ftraight lines drawn parallel to each other, for the
principal roads, or by a fingle ftraight line for the lefler
or crofs roads 1 Cities are denoted by a large houfe, or
the figure of a church with the fteeple in the middle j
and if the city is the metropolis of the country, this is
denoted by a white circular fpace in the middle of the
houfe or church. Small towns are ufually reprefented
by circles ; and where a fmall church with the fteeple at
one end occurs, it denotes a parifti. YV here tne map is
on a large fcale, or reprefents only a fmall diitiitt, the
towns are denoted by a group of fmall houfes, or more
commonly by a number of fmall lhaded fpots on each
fide of the road. A fort, caftle, or fortified town, is
denoted by a femicircular {pace furrounded by an an¬
gular edge reprefenting baftions. I he ftioals upon the
coaft are veprefented by fmall dots •, the depth of water
in bays and harbours by figures, denoting the number
of fathoms, among which is fometimes drawn the figure
of an anchor, to fliew that in that place there is good
anchorage for fliips. . .
rJ['he boundaries or limits that divide countries fiom
each other are diftinguilhed in maps by dotted lines
drawn round each country or diftrnff, in fueh a direftion.
as to {hew its proper form. Where the map is coloured,
the countries or diftrifts are diftinguilhed from each
other by the fide of the boundary next each being
{haded by a different colour from that of the adjoining.
Thus, in a map of Europe the boundary of France may
be {haded green, that of Spain red, that of Italy yellow,
that of Germany blue, &e. In one corner of the map
there is ufually drawn a fcale divided into a number of
equal parts, bv which the number of miles or leagues
from one part of the map to another may be mealured.
Sometimes the parts irito which the fcale is divided are
ufed to denote geographical mites, of 60 to a degree j
but more commtmly they correfpond to the miles in ufe
in the country where the map is made, as, m Britain,
to Britiih ftatule miles o! 69^ to a degree.
To maik more diftin&ly the bearings of different
parts df the map, there is ufually added in fome blank
fpace a circle with four radii, marking the four cardinal
points of the compafs’*, the north point being diftinguifh-
ed by the figure of ’d.jleuv de /w, and the eaft point by
3 crofs.
Till 0f late, the only diftintfion between the land
and water in maps and charts, was afforded b) the
{hading of the fea-coaft, as mentioned above. _ in this
way However, tbe eye cannot eafily and expeditioufly di-
ftinguifti the form and extent of the land •, and, where the
(hading is carried much beyond the boundary of the coaft,
as is often done, efpeeially in engraving fmal: iflandy he
land is made to appear much larger than it really is.
The ingenious Mr Y/Vilfon Lowry having lately
contrived an mftrument for engraving parallel ftraight
lines in a much more clear and commodious way
’ 3 Y 2 than
and
Practice.
-540
GEOGRAPHY.
Part II,
Principles than could be done by the common graver, it occurred
PradHce t0 Pinkerton> while preparing his Modern Geogra-
  phy, that this invention might be applied with ad¬
vantage to the improvement of maps. A fet of maps
was accordingly engraved by Mr Lowry for Pinker¬
ton’s Geography, in which the water was marked by
dark parallel lines to difcriminate it from the land.
Thefe lines are drawn horizontally 5 and Mr Pinker¬
ton propofed that, in engraving charts, the land
fhould be marked with fimilar lines drawn in a per¬
pendicular dire£tion, while the water Ihould be left
blank. This improvement has fince been adopted by
other conftru&ors of maps and charts, and bids fair
to be generally ufed. The effect is pleating ; and the
progrefs of inilruftion will be greatly facilitated by the
new method, as the extent and bearings of the feveral
countries are feen, as it were, with a glance of the eye.
In many of thefe maps which we have feen, however,
the lines are drawn too ftrongly, which renders the fea
fo dark, that the names of itlands and places on the fea
coaft can with dithculty be perufed. As the line of
coalt in thefe maps is ftrongly marked, the parallel
lines denoting the fea ftiould be engraved in a light
and foft ftyle ; and in this way Mr Lowry’s firft fpe-
cimens are executed.
Sect. II. Of the ConflruBion of Maps and Charts.
The conftruftion of maps confifts in making a pro¬
jection of the furface of the globe on the plane of fome
one of its circles, fuppofing the eye to be placed in
fome particular point. The defcribing of thefe pro¬
jections depends on the principles of perfpedtive, and
the projeftion of the fphere. The general principles
will be explained under thofe articles, but the parti¬
cular mode of drawing maps properly forms a part of
the prefent treatife.
The methods of conftru£ting maps vary according to
the fize or fcale of the map, and to the projection em¬
ployed in conftruCting it.
There are three projections employed in conftruCting
maps, the orthographic, the fereographic, and the gloku-
proje&ions.jn orthographic projection the eye is fuppofed
to view the part of the globe to be projected, from an
infinite diftance. In this projection the parts about the
middle of the map are very well reprelented, but thofe
jig towards the margin are too much contracted.
Stereo- In the ftereographie projection, the eye is fuppofed
graphic tQ be fituated in the furface of the globe to be re-
p.ejections. prefente{}? an(l looking towards the oppofite furface.
This is the method ufually employed in conftruCting
moft maps, efpecially maps of the world, or planifpheres.
In conftruCting a map of the world, as well as moft
partial maps, the part of the fphere to be reprefented
is fuppofed to be in the pofition of a right fphere (fee
N3 90.). In this mode of projection, the hemi-
fphere to be reprefented is fuppofed to be delineated
on the plane of that meridian by which it is bounded,
in the fame manner as its concave furface, conceiving
the fphere to be tranfparent, would appear to an eye
placed in the oppofite hemifphere, where the equator
croffes a meridian •, that is 900 diftant from that which
forms the plane of the projection. In a delineation of
this kind, the meridians and parallels of latitude are re¬
prefented by arches of circles, except the equator and the
central meridian, which are ftraight lines} and each paral-
116
Conltruc-
tion of
maps.
117
Ortho¬
graphic
lei or meridian forms an arc ef a gi'eater circle', in pro- Principles
portion as it approaches nearer to the centre of the map. anc|
By either of thefe projections only half the globe Pra<^iCe*
can be reprefented in one projection } but in the map
of the world, the two hemifpheres are ufually drawn on
the plane of the fame circle, adjacent to each other.
By Mercator’s projection, uliially employed for charts,
and to be deferibed prefently, the whole globe may be
reprefented in one projection, but much diftorted.
If the projection of a map of the world be formed on
the plane of a meridian, the two projections will repre-
fent the eaftern and weftern hemifpheres of the globe.
When the projection is made on the plane of the
equator, in the fituation of a parallel fphere, the pro¬
jections reprefent the northern and fouthern hemi¬
fpheres, which appear as their concave furface would
be feen by an eye placed at the oppofite pole. In this-
way the meridians become ftraight lines diverging from
the fame centre, and the parallels are circles having
the fame common centre.
The following is the method of conftruCting a map
of the world, on the plane of a meridian, according to
the globular projection. (See fig. 17.). n<j
About the centre C, with any radius as CB, deferibe Globular
a circle, reprefenting the meridian that is to form the projedb'on
plane of the hemifphere. Draw the diameters NS,0^1111^^
and AB, crofting each other at right angles, and thetne
former of thefe will be the central meridian, and th&
latter the equator. Divide each femidiameter into nine
equal parts, and divide each quadrant of the circle alfo
into nine equal parts, each of which will be equal to j i°.
If the fcale of the map be fufficiently large, each of
thefe may again be divided into ten equal parts or de¬
grees. The next objeCt is to deferibe the meridians
palling through every 10° of the equator. Suppole we are
todrawthemeridianof 8o° weftof Greenw ich. We have
here three points given, the two poles and the point 8o°
on the equator, and it is eafy to delcribe a circle that lhall
pafs through thefe three points. This arch will be the me¬
ridian. The methodofdrawingacirclethroughany three
points is, in this cafe, as follows: About the centre S,
with the radius SC, deferibe a circular arch, as XX; and
about the centre N, with the fame radius, deferibe the
arch ZZ •, then about the centre 8o° with the fame di¬
ftance, deferibe arches I, I, 2, 2, crofting the former,
and draw lines from 2 to 1 on each fide of AB, eroding
each other, and AB produced, in D. D is the centre
of the circular arc, reprefenting the meridian of 8o°
weft from Grcenw ich •, and with the fame radius the me¬
ridian of 140° wreft longitude may be drawn. All the
other meridians are to be drawn in a fimilar manner by
defcribing a circular arch through three points N, S,
and the required degree. (See Geometry).
For defcribing the parallels, fuppofe that of 6o° N.
Lat.; about the centre O, w ith any radius, deferibe the
circle FGH, and about the points 6o°, 6o°, in the pri¬
mitive circle, with the fame diftance, deferibe the arcs
cc, dd, cutting the circle FGH: through the points of
interfe&ion draw ftraight lines, and the point where
thefe lines meet in NS produced, as in I, is the centre
of the arch that w ill reprefent the parallel of 6o°. The
other parallels are drawn in a fimilar manner, obferving
that the firft circle, fuch as FGH, muft have for its
centre that point in the central meridian through which
t’ne parallel is to be drawn. Fig. 18. reprefents this
3 proje&ioa
IPart II.
Principles projection with all tile meridians and parallels cotn-
ancl pleted.
Fradice^ jjr ^ map ;s very ]argej an(l the paper on which it
is to be drawn does not admit of fo many circles, the
centres of the meridians and parallels are more eafily
found in the following manner. Having divided the
femi-diameters and quadrants, each into 9 equal parts,
find, from a fcale of equal parts, the length of the half
chord of each arc, and the verfed fine of half the fame
arc ; then add together the fquare of the half chord,
and the fquare of the verfed fine, and divide the fum by
the verfed fine j the quotient is equal to the diameter,
and i of this to the radius of the circle required. In
this manner the radii of all the meridians and parallels
may be found.
As, in drawing maps on a large fcale, compafles of
an ordinary fize will not anfwer for defcribing the cir¬
cular arcs, it is convenient to have fome other mechani¬
cal contrivance for this purpofe j and it is found that a
thin flexible ruler of tough wood, called a bow, may
be fo bended as to form a curve, very nearly circular,
that will pafs through the three points that are to de¬
termine the meridian or parallel. In this way the
circles on maps on a large fcale are ufually drawn by
engravers and iludents of geography ) and where the
circle is of very large radius, the method is fufficiently
accurate ; but it ought by no means to be employed
where compalfes of a proper fize can be procured, or
conveniently ufed.
The following is the method given by Dr Hutton,
for defcribing a globular projection of the earth on the
plane of the equator. For the north or fouth hemi-
1'pheres draw AQBE, for the equinoctial (fig. 19.), di¬
viding it into the four quadrants EA, A£), QB, and
BE ; and each quadrant into 9 equal parts, reprefenting
each 10° of longitude ; and then from the points of di-
vifion, draw lines to the centre C, for the circles of
longitude. Divide any circle of longitude, as the firft
meridian EC, into 9 equal parts, and through thefe
points defcribe circles from the centre C, for the pa¬
rallels of latitude, numbering them as in the figure.
In this method equal fpaces on the earth are reprefent-
ed by equal fpaces on the map, as nearly as any pro-
jeftion will.bear •, for a fpherieal furface can in no way
be reprefented exaftly upon a plane. Then the fe-
veral countries of the world, feas, itlands, fea-coafts,
towns, &c. are to be entered in the map, according to
their latitudes and longitudes.
To draw a Map of any particular Country.
rao
fconftruc- There are three methods of doing this,
tion of par- For this purpofe its extent muft be known as to
srlu!.” latitude and longitude *, as fuppofe Spain, lying betw een
the north latitudes 36° and 440, and extending from
lo° to 230 of longitude, fo that its extent from north to
fouth is &°, and from eaft to weft 130.
D raw the line AB for a meridian pafiing through
the middle of the country (fig. 20.), on which fet off
8° from B to A, taken from any convenient fcale j
A being the north and B the fouth point. Through A
and B draw the perpendiculars CD, EF, for the ex¬
treme parallels of latitude. Divide AB into eight
parts, or degrees, through which draw the other paral¬
lels of latitude parallel to the former.
For the meridians, divide any degree in AB into 6o
54**
equal parts, or geographical miles. Then, becaule the Principles
length in each parallel decreafcs towards the pole, p,^ce
from the table (hewing this decreafe given in p- 514. ^ ‘ "h
take the number of miles anfwering to the latitude of
B, which is 484- nearly, and fet it from B, feven times
to E, and fix times to F ; lb is EF divided into de¬
grees. Again, from the lame table take the number of
miles of a degree in the latitude A, viz. 434. nearly j
which fet off from A, (even times to C, and fix times to
D. Then from the points of divifion in the line CD,
to the correlponding points in the line EF, draw in-
many right lines for the meridians. Number the de¬
grees of latitude up both fides of the map, and the de¬
grees of longitude on the top and bottom. Alfo in
fome vacant place make a fcale of miles, or of degrees,
if the map reprefent a large part of the earth j tofcrve
for finding the diftances of places upon the map.
Then make the proper divilions and fubdivifions of
the country 5 and having the latitudes and longitudes
of the principal places, it will be eafy to fct them dow n
in the map ; for any town, &c. muft be placed where
the circles of its latitude and longitude interfetl. For
inftance, Gibraltar, whofe latitude is 36° iF, and lon¬
gitude 12° 27', will be at G ; and Madrid, w hofe lati¬
tude is 40° 10', and longitude 140 44', will be at M.
In the fame manner the mouth of a river may be fct
down ; but to defcribe the whole courfe of the river, the
latitude and longitude of every turning, and of the towns
and bridges by which it paffes, muft alfo be marked down.
The fame is neceffary for woods, forefts, mountains,
lakes, caftles, &c. The boundaries are defcribed by
fetting down the remarkable places on the fea coaft,
and draw ing a continued line through them all. This
method is very proper for fmall countries.
2d Method. Maps of particular places are but por¬
tions of the globe, and may therefore be drawn in the
fame manner as the whole globe, either by the ortho¬
graphic or ftereographic projection of the fphere. But
in partial maps a more eafy method is as follows. Fla¬
ying drawn the meridian AB in the lait figure, and
divided it into equal parts as before, draw lines through
all the points of divifion j put them together to AB, to
reprefent the parallels of latitude. Then to divide thefe,
fet off the degrees in each parallel; diminilh after the
manner directed for the two extreme parallels CD and
EF, and through all the correfponding points draw the
meridians, w hich will be curved lines j thefe w ere right
lines in the laft method, becaufe only the extreme pa¬
rallels were divided according to the table. This me¬
thod is proper for a large traft, as Europe, &c. in
which cafe the parallels and meridians need be drawn,
only through every 50 or ic°. This method is much
ufed in drawing maps, as all the parts are nearly of
their due magnitude, except being a little diftorted to¬
wards the outfide, from the oblique interfeftion of the
meridians and parallels.
3d Methods Draw PB of a convenient length, for
a meridian *, divide it into nine equal parts, and through
the points of divifion, defcribe as many circles for the
parallels of latitude, from the centre P, which repre-
fents the pole. Supppfe AB (fig. 21.) the height of the
map $ then CD w ill be the parallel palling through
the greateft latitude, and EF will reprefcnt the equa¬
tor. Divide the equator EF into 9 equal parts of the
iaine fize as thofc in AB, both ways beginning AB*
divide
GEOGRAPHY.
54-2
iai
Principles divide alfo all tlie parallels into tire fame number of
anc^ equal parts, but leffer, in proportion to the numbers for
Practice. ^ fe^eral latitudes, as direfted in the laft method for
the reftilineal parallels. Then through all the corre-
fponding divifions draw curved lines which will repre-
fent the meridians, the extreme meridians being EC and
FD. Laitly, number the degrees of latitude.and longi¬
tude, and place a fcale of equal parts, either in miles or
degrees, for meafuring diltances. ^ .
When the place of which a map is to be made is
but fmall, as when a county is'to be delineated, the me¬
ridians will be fo nearly parallel to one another, and
the whole will differ fo little from a plane, that the
map may be laid down in a much more eafy manner
than what is given above. It will be here fufficient to
rneafure the diftances of places in miles, and note them
down in a plane reftangular manner. The method of
dtdineating fuch partial maps is the province of the lur-
veyor. See Surveying.
Mercator’s Mercator’s projeftion is chiefly confined to charts for
|r ejection the nurpofes of navigation. In tms projection the me¬
ridians, parallels, and rhumbs, are all ftraight lines j
but inftead of the degrees of longitude being everywhere
equal to thofe of latitude, as is the cafe in plain charts,
the degrees of latitude are increafed as we approach to-
•. wards either pole, being made to thofe of longitude in
the proportion of radius to the fine of the diflance from
the pole, or cofine of the latitude, or, what is the fame
thing, in the ratio of the fecant of the latitude to radi¬
us. Hence all the parallel circles are reprefented
by equal and parallel ftraight lines, and all t"e.meri-
dians are parallel lines alfo j but thefe increafe indefi¬
nitely towards the poles. _ , f , r .1
From this proportional increafe 01 the degrees of the
meridian, it is evident that the length of an arc of the
meridian beginning at the equator s proportional to
the fum of all the fecants of the latitude j or that the
increafed meridian bears the fame proportion to its true
arc- as the fum of all the fecants of the latitude to as
many times the radius. The increafed meridian is alfo
analogous to a fcale of the logarithmic _ tangents,
though this is not at firft very evident It is not cer¬
tain by whom this analogy was firrt difeovered, but the
difeovery appears to have been made by accident. It
was firft publifhed and introduced into the pradhee of
navigation by Mr Henry Bond, by whom this property
is mentioned in an edition of Norwood s Epitome of
Navigation, printed about 1645. This analogy, though
it had been found true by aftual meafurement, was not
accurately demonftrated. Nicholas Mercator offered to
difclofe, for a fum of money, a method which he had
difeovered for demonftrating it; but this was not ac¬
cepted and the demonftration was, we believe, never
difdofed. See Nicholas MERCATOR. About two
years after, however, the demonftration was again dil-
covered, and publiftied by James Gregory. .
The meridian line in Mercator’s fcale is a fcale of
logarithmic tangents of the half colatitudes. I he c 1 -
* ferences of longitude on any rhumb, are the logarithms
of the fame tangents, but of a different fpecies ; thole
fpecies being to each other as the tangents of the apgles
made with the meridian. Hence any fc ale of logarithmic
tangents is a table of the differences of longitude, tole-
veral latitudes, upon fome one determinate rhumb •, and
therefore as the tangent of the angle of fuch a rhumb
GEOGRAPHY. Part II.
is to the tangent of any other rhumb, fo is the differ- Principles
ence of the logarithms of any two tangents, to the dif- Pr3ftkei
ference of longitude on the propofed rhumb, intercept-
ed between the two latitudes, of whofe half comple¬
ments the logarithmic tangents were taken.
It w'as the great ftudy of our predeceffors to contrive
fuch a cdiart in piano, with ftraight lines, on which all
or any parts of the world might be truly fet down, ac¬
cording to their longitudes and latitudes, bearings, and
diftances. A method for this purpofe was hinted at by
Ptolemy, near 2000 years fince, and a general map in
fuch an idea, was made by Mercator: but the princi¬
ples were not demonftrated, and a ready way ftiown
of deferibing the chart, till Wright explained how to
enlarge the meridian line by the continual addition of
fecants, fo that all degrees of longitude might be pro¬
portional to thofe of latitude, as on the globe j which
renders this chart, in feveral rel'peds, far more conve¬
nient for the navigator’s ufe, than the globe itfelf, and
which will truly Ihew the courfe and diftance from place
to place, in all cafes of failing.
For further particulars refpeaing the conftruftion,
and for the ufe of charts, fee Navigation.
In choofing maps, it is proper to examine particular¬
ly whether the curved lines of thofe that ought to have
the meridians and parallels arches of circles be truly cir¬
cular. If the map is compofed of more than one Iheet,
the Iheets ftiould be fo joined together as that the cor-
efponding meridional lines and parallels be each in one
‘ • 11 • »T>1   1  • mone OQ ivas
continued line. The colours in painted maps, as was
obferved with refpeft to globes,. Ihould be fine and
tranlparent, and not laid on too thickly.
Maps folded for the pocket anfwer very well for
travelling, in fo far as they point out the relative fitua-
tion of places j but owing to the intervals at which the
parts are parted on the canvas, the diftances between
places cannot be afeertained with any degree of ac¬
curacy.
Sect. III. Of the ufe of Maps.
Maps are of great utility in the ftudy of geography
and hiftory ; and if they are accurately drawn, many of
the problems that are ufually performed on the globes,
may be folved mechanically by means of maps.
In confulting a map, it is not fufficient to find out in
it the name of the place of which you defire to know the
fiiuatkm, although this is frequently all at which the
conlulter of a map aims : it is, befides, proper for the
ftudent to inform himfelf refpeaing the relative pohtion
of the place, with regard to its vicinity to other places ;
its bearings and diftance from the principal places in
the fame or neighbouring diftrifls; whether it is near
the fea-ftiore, and is near a convenient harbour 5 whether
it be leated on fome principal river, and on what tide
of the river ; whether it is in the neighbourhood of a
confiderable canal •, whether it be near a lake, moun¬
tain, foreft, &c. and many other little particulars that
will readily fuggeft themfelves to an attentive reader.
The problems that are ufually performed by means
of maps, are the following.
Problem I. To fad the latitude and longitude of any
given place. m
In maps on a large fcale, or where the meridians and Ufeofmaf
parallels of latitude are ftraight lines, the latitude of the
Fart II. G
principles place may be eafily found by ftretcbing
and the place, fo that it may crol's the lame degree of lati-
Praftice. tuje on fljjg 0f t^g map j anci the degree croffed
* will be the latitude required. Or, with a pair of com-
pafles meafure the fliorteft diftance of the place from
the neareit parallel, and apply this diilance to either
fide of the map, fo as to keep one point of the compat-
fes on the fame parallel 5 then the other point will Ihew
the degree of latitude as meafured on the graduated
margin, counting from the parallel north or fouth, ac¬
cording as the place is in north or fouth latitude.
The longitude of the place may be found in a fimilar
manner, by ftretching the thread over the place, or
laying a ruler acrofs it, fo as to cut the fame degree of
longitude on the top and bottom of the map, and that
is the degree required.
The above methods anfwer very ■well in plain charts or
in maps of counties y but when the meridians and paral¬
lels are curved lines, we mull find how often the di¬
fiance of the place, meafured by the compaffes from the
nearell parallel, will reach the next parallel in a ftraight
direction, and from thence the latitude may be found
with fufficient exadlnefs. Thus, fuppofe we are requir¬
ed to find the latitude of Berlin, the capital of Pruffia*
The nearefi parallel is that of 50° north latitude y the
diilance. of Berlin from this parallel will reach the pa¬
rallel of 6o° in four times, meafuring on the map of
Europe. The fourth part of ten, or two and a half,
added to 50, gives the latitude required, or 52^.
To find the longitude on fuch maps, meafure how often
the diftance of the place from the neareft meridian will
reach the next meridian. Thus-, in the fame inftance,
the diftance of Berlin from the meridian of 10, which
is the neareft towards the eaft, taken three times, will
extend a little beyond the meridian of 20. Add to 10
the third part of this diftance, which is about three and
a half, and we have i303o' for the longitude of Ber¬
lin eaft; from London.
Problem II. The latitude and longitude of a place being
given y to find the place on the map.
E O G K A P H Y. , 543
a thread over Problem III. The latitude of a place being given; to Principles
find all thofie places on the fame map that have the a"d
fame latitude. , Pra“ice‘ ,
If a parallel of latitude happen to be drawn on
the map through the given place, this problem is eafily
folved, by tracing along the parallel, and feeing what
other places it pafles through. If a parallel is not
drawn through the given place, take with a pair of
compaffes the diftance of the place from the neareft pa¬
rallel ; then keeping one foot on the parallel, and the
other in fuch a polition as to defcribe a line parallel to
the parallel of latitude, move the compaffes, and all the
places over which the point that is not on the parallel
paffes, have the fame latitude with the given place.
This method will not fucceed in maps on which
large tradl of country is delineated on a fmall fcale.
Problem IV. Given the longitude of a place; to find
on the map all thofe places that have the fame longi¬
tude.
Find the longitude of the given place, and if a meri¬
dian paffes through it, obferve all the places that lie
under this meridian y or, if a meridian does not pafs
through the place, find by the compaffes, as in the 3aft
problem, thole places that are fituated at the fame pa¬
rallel diftance with the given place from the neareft
meridian. Thefe places have nearly the lame longitude
with the given place.
Problem V. To find the antceci of a given place.
Find the latitude and longitude of the place by Pro¬
blem I. and find another place of the fame longitude,
whofe latitude is equal to that of the former, but in a
contrary direftion. The inhabitants of this latter place
are the antoeci to the latter.
Ex. Suppofe a ihip to be in the Indian ocean, in
lat. 130 S. and long. 8o° E. it is required to find the
anteeui to her prefent fituation ? Anf. ihe place
w’hich has nearly the fame longitude, and an equal la¬
titude in a contrary diredlion, viz. 130 N. is Madras,
Where the meridians and parallels are ftraight lines,
this is done by ftretching one thread from the given la¬
titude on one fide of the map to the fame latitude on
the other fide y while another thread is ftretched be¬
tween the correfponding degrees of longitude. The
interfecling point of the two threads Ihews the-place re¬
quired. Thus, fuppofe we are required to find the
place whofe latitude is 340 29' S and longitude 180
23' E. Stretching one thread between the given lati¬
tudes, and another between the given longitudes, we
Ihall find that they crofs over the Cape of Good Hope,
vhich is therefore the place required.
When the meridians and parallels are curved lines^
ihe moft accurate way will be to defcribe a circle of la¬
titude through the given degree of latitude on each fide,
and a circle of longitude through the correfponding de¬
grees of longitude, and the interfeftion of thefe circles
will (hew the place. An caller method will be, know¬
ing between' what two parallels of latitude and longitude
the place lies, and confequently by what four lines it is
bounded, to find the place by trial, by conlidering the
proportional diftance of it from each line,
4
Problem VI. To find the periceci of a given plate.
Find the longitude of the given place, and fubtrafl
it from 1800: the remainder will be the longitude in
an oppolite direction of the periceci. Then find a place
having an equal longitude with this laft, and having
the fame latitude with that of the given place : this
latter is the fituation required.
Ex. It is required to find the perioeci to the inhabi¬
tants of the gulf of Siam. Anf. The longitude of Siam
is ioo° 50' E. which, fubtrafted from 180°, leaves
790 Io' W. Now, the place that has this longitude,
and the fame latitude with Siam, viz. about I4°'N. is
the ifthmus of Darien.
Problem VII. To find the antipodes of a given place.
This problem is folved on maps in the fame manner
as on the globe.
PROBLEM VIII. Having the hour at any place given ; to
find what hour it is in any part of the world.
Find the difference of longitude between the two
places, and reduce this to its equal value in time, by
N°
544
Principles Add tliis X'alue to tlie given hour, if the place
a’1' where the time is required be*to the ealtward of the gi-
raC'’Ce‘ yen place, and the fum is the time required. If the
place at which the time is required lie to the weft ward
of the given place, fubtraft the difference of longitude
in time from the given hour, and the difference is the
time fought.
AToA?.—If, after adding, the fum is found greater
than 12, 12 muft be cancelled, and the hours muft be
changed from A. M. to P. M. and vice verfa ; and if,
on fubtrafting, the difference in time between the two
places happens to be greater than the given hour, 12
muft be added to the given hour, and the hours changed
as before mentioned.
Ex. Suppofe it to be at prefent 9 A. M. at Lifbon,
what time of the day is it at Pekin in China ? Anf.
The difference of longitude between Pekin and Lifbon
is 1250 33', which reduced to time gives 8 hours 22
minutes } and fince Pekin lies to the eaft of Lilbon,
this muft be added to 9, the given hour, giving a fum
of 17 hours, 22 minutes; but as this is greater than 12,
we muft take 12 away, and the difference, 5 hours 22
minutes, changed from morning to afternoon hours, is
the time required. It is therefore 22 minutes paft five
P. M. at Pekin.
Problem IX. To Jind tJiofe places in the torrid ‘zone to
which the fun is vertical on any given day.
Pind in an ephemens, or nautical almanack, the fun s
declination for the given day ; then obferve, in the map
of the wrorld, all thofe places which lie under that pa¬
rallel of latitude, which is the fame with the declina¬
tion, and thefe will be the places required.
Ex. It is required to find at what places the fun will
be vertical on the 20th of March and 23d of Septem¬
ber ? Anf. The fun’s declination on the 20th of
March,- is 19' S. and on the 23d of September 6' N.
ISIow the principal places that lie near the parallel of
19' S. and 6' N. are the ifland of St Thomas, the mid¬
dle part of the iflands of Sumatra and Borneo ; the
Gallipagos ifies, and Quito in South America.
„ f23 The Analemma, or Orthographic Projeaion deline-
*"^7 ated in Plate CCXXXy. will folve many of the moft
-geographi- curious problems, and with the atiiftance of maps will
sal pro- be almoft equivalent to a terreftrial globe. The paral-
jaienis. jej jjnes ^awn on this figure reprefent the degrees of
the fun’s declination from the equator, whether north
or fouth, amounting to 234- nearly. On thefe lines are
marked the months and days which correfpond to fuch
and fuch declinations. The fize of the figure does not
admit of having every day of the year mferted ; but
by making allowance for the intermediate days, in pro¬
portion to the reft, the declination may be gueffed at
with tolerable exaftnefs. The elliptical lines are de¬
signed to (hew the hour of funrifing or funfetting before
«r after fix o’clock. As 60 minutes make an hour ef
time, a fourth part of the fpace between each of the
hour-lines will reprefent 15 minutes; which the eye can
readily guefs at, and which is as great exaflnefs as can
be expe&ed from any mechanical invention, or as isne-
ceffary to anfwer any common purpofe. The circles
drawn round the centre at the diftance of ii^eaeh,
-{hew the point of the compafson which the fun rifes and
fcts, and on yvhat point the twilight begins and ends.
Part II.
In order to make ufe of this analemma, It is only 1 Principles
neceffary to conlider, that, when the latitude of the Pr”^ce
place and the fun’s declination are both north or both , ^ 'j
fouth, the fun rifes before fix o’clock, between the eaft
and the elevated pole ; that is, towards the north, if
the latitude and declination are north ; or towards the
fouth, if the latitude and declination are fouth. Let us
now fuppofe it is required to find the time of the fun’s
rifing and fetting, the length of the days and nights,
the time when the twilight begins and ends, and what
point of the horizen the fun rifes and fets on, for the
Lizard point in England, Frankfort in Germany, or
Abbeville in France, on the 3°th of April. I he la¬
titude of thefe places by the maps will be found nearly
50° N. Place the moveable index fo that its point
may touch 50° on the quadrant of north latitude in the
figure; then obferve where its edge cuts the parallel
line on w-hich April 30th is written. From this reckon
the hobr-lines towards the centre, and you will find that
the parallel line is cut by the index nearly at the di¬
ftance of one hour and 15 minutes. So the fun rifes at
one hour I <; minutes before fix, or 45 minuets after
four in the morning, and fets 15 minutes after feven in
the evening. The length of the day is 14 hours 30
minutes. Obferve how far the interieftion of the edge
of the index with the parallel of April 30th is diftant
from any of the concentric circles, which you will find
to be a little beyond that marked two points of the
compafs, and this (hews that on the 3(-)^1 April the
fun rifes two points and fomewhat more from the eaft
towards the north, or a little to the northward of eaft-
north-eaft, and fets a little to the northward of weft-
north-weft. To find the beginning and ending of the
twilight, take from the graduated arch of the circle
j degrees with a pair of compaffes ; move one foot of
the compaffes extended to this diftance along the paral¬
lel of April 30th, till the other juft touches the edge
of the index, which muft (till point at 50.. The place
where the other foot refts on the parallel of April 3 -th,
then denotes the number of hours before fix at which
the twilight begins. This is fomewhat more than three
hours and a half, which (hews that the twilight then
begins foon after two in the morning, andlikewife that
it begins to appear near five points from the eaft towards
the north. The ufes of this analemma may be varied
in a great number of ways ; but the example juft now
given will be fufficient for the ingenious reader. .
Sect. IV. 0/the Origin and Progrefs of Maps.
The firft map of which we have any certain record. Origin of
is that of Anaximander, about 560 years before the maps.
Chriftian era. This is mentioned by Strabo, book i.
£lnd is fuppofed to be that referred to by Hipparchus,
under the name of the ancient map.
It has been alleged, that Sefoftris, king of Egypt,
on his return from his boafted expedition, after having
traverfed great part of the earth, recorded his march in
maps, of which he gave copies, not only to the Egyp¬
tians, but to the Scythians, to the great admiration of
both people. This is the relation of Euftathius ; but
M Montucla confiders it as a very improbable dory,
and thinks that the invention of maps cannot be dated Hifl- <ie
prior to Anaximander *. Some have fuppofed that the Matben.
Jews laid down the holy land in a map, when they
inbuted v
GEOGRAPHY.
GEOGRAPHY.
PLATE CCXXXI.
T
'.Cczi/j?
GEOGRAPHY.
PLATE CCXXXll.
IirArc/t /6a /•/ .fcu/p 1
W?A/-chil>alfl Sctdp.1
CEOCxRAPHY.
PLATE CCXXXIV.
B
WAr'c/u/’uId Sailp ■'
geography:
PLATE CCXXXV.
WiArchiba/d fculp
%
PLATE CCXAMT
u
ge ography:
PLATE CCXXXVI.
PLATE CCJXXVn
GEOGRAPHV
PLATE CCXXXVII
J&ArcflilretZd \ftuljp*
Part II. G E O G K
principles tributed the different portions to the nine tribes at Shi-
and loh} a fuppofition which is derived from Joiliua’s ac-
Practice. coun^ they were fent to walk through the land,
L ~* and that they defcribed it in feven parts in a book. Jo-
fephus alfo relates, that when Jofhua fent people from
the different tribes to meafure the land of promife, he
fent with them men well {killed in geometry. All this,
however, is no proof that thefe perfons drew' a {ketch
of the country, according to our idea of a map j but
probably only wrote down, for the fatisfadffion of their
employers, the extent, boundaries, and general charac-
teriftics of the divifions of the land.
Herodotus has given a minute defcription of a map
conftru&ed by Ariftagoras, tyrant of Miletus, an
abridgement of which will ferve to give fome notion of
the maps of thofe times. It was drawn upon brafs or
Copper, and feems to have been merely an itinerary
containing the route through the countries which were
to be traverfed in a march which Ariftagoras propofed
to Cleomenes, king of Sparta, for the purpofe of attack¬
ing the king of Perfia at Sufa, that he might thus aflift
in reftoring the lonians to their liberty. The rivers
Halis, Euphrates, and Tigris, which, according to He¬
rodotus, muft have been croffed in that expedition, were
laid down in this map; and it contained one ftraight
line, called the royal road or high way, which com-
pTehended all the hations or places of encampment,
from Sardis, the beginning of the route, to Sufa, a dif-
tsnce of 13,500 ftadia, or 16874- Roman miles of 5000
feet each. The number of encampments in this whole
route was 111.
Ptolemy of Alexandria, the celebrated geographer
mentioned in N° 21. conftrufted maps to illuftrate his
defcription of places, and thefe are the firft that have
regular meridians and parallels, the better to define and
determine the fituation of places. Ptolemy acknow¬
ledges that his maps, with the addition of fome improve¬
ments of his own, the principal of which was certainly
the introduction of meridians and parallels, were copied
from previous maps made by Marianus Tyrius, &c.
They are, however, often Very inaccurate.
According to Atheneus, a work which feems to have
contained maps, was written by Baeton, under the title
of Alexander’s march j and a work on the fame fubjeCl
is mentioned as the produCHon of Amynthus. We are
informed by Pliny, that this Baeton was one of the fur-
veyots of Alexander’s marches •, and he quotes the ex-
afl number of miles of th^fe marches, according to Bae-
ton’s menfuration, and confirms their authenticity by
the letters of Alexander. Pliny alfo remarks, that a
copy of this conqueror’s furveys was given by Zenobius,
his treafurer, to the geographer Patrocles, who was ad-
125 miral of the fleets of Seleucus and Antiochus.
Peutinge- Among the moft celebrated of the ancient maps, are
nan table, Peutingerian tables, fo called, becaufe publiftied by
Peutinger of Augfburg. Thefe tables contain an itine¬
rary of the whole Roman empire 5 all places except feas,
wood, and deferts, being laid down according to their
meafured diftances, though without any mention of la¬
titude, longitude, or bearing. A particular defcription
of this monument of antiquity is given in the 18th vo¬
lume of the Hiftory of the Academy of Infcriptions,
and in the Hiftory of the Academy of Sciences for
1761, from w'hich M. Montucla has drawn up the fol¬
lowing account. The map of Peutinger, as it is in the
Vot. IX. Part II.
A P H Y.
original in the imperial library, Is exaftly one French
foot in height, and 20 feet eight inches in length, ac¬
cording to meafures taken by Buache, from a copy of
the fplendid edition given by Scheele in 1753. It com¬
prehends the whole extent of the Roman empire, from
Conftantinople to the ocean, and from the (bores of
Africa to the northern parts of Gaul j but the table
which it affords of this vaft extent of country is by no
means calculated to give us an idea of its figure, lince
the 350 of longitude which it comprehends, occupy 20
feet 8 inches, while the 13° of latitude are comprifed
within the {pace of one foot; thus the countries repre-
fented are fo disfigured, that the Mediterranean appears
only like a broad river, and all the countries are fo
diftorted, towards the north and fouth, that they can¬
not be recognifed.
Moft of thofe w'ho have feen this ancient map, have
confidered it as the rude and bungling work of a man
little conVerfant with geography, and ftill lefs fo with
mathematics *, but Edmund Brutz confiders the diftor-
tion of this map as fimilar to what we fee in fome pieces
of perfpedtive, and that it ought to be examined from
fome certain near point in order to perceive the objedts
in their natural proportion.
Buache fuppofed long ago, that this map was con-
ftrudted with more fcientific {kill than it appears to be
at the firft glance j and that the apparent irregularities
which we obferve in it, might have been introduced de-
fignedly, for the purpofe of deriving greater advantages
as to what was intended for the principal object. In
fadt, as the Roman routes extended almoft entirely
from eaft to weft, they paid more attention to the mea¬
fures in this diredtion than thofe between north and
fouth j and the map in this way might have had the
greater convenience- of being more eafily rolled up, and
confequently more portable.
Thus far Buache hazarded no more than conjedturej
but a labour undertaken by him with a very different
view, led him to the true defign of the map'of Peutinger.
He had been tracing a fcale of climates, and of the
length of the days and nights, for the purpofe of attach¬
ing it to fmall maps of the different countries of Europe.
As the fpace occupied by the fcale was pretty much
extended in height, but had very little breadth, he
formed the idea of drawing a kind of map upon two
fcales, one pretty much extended for the latitude, and
the other very much contracted for the longitudes, pre-
ferving the hollows of the coafts and boundaries of each
ftate. As this difpofition of his mtip ftrangely disfigu¬
red the countries which it was intended to reprefent, he
was led to imagine that this map might be the reverfe
of that of Peutinger. This was fufficient to engage
him to conftruft another map upon the fame principle 5
but in which the (bale of longitudes Was much greater
than that of the latitudes. He then faw that he had
been right in his fuppofition, and that the map which
he had laft conftrubled had a confiderable refemblam e
to that of Peutinger. This latter is in fabl only a plain,
chart, conftrubted upon two fcales, of which that of the
longitudes is very great, and that of the latitudes much
fmaller.
One difficulty alone arofe. By fuppofing that he ob-
ferved in this map a cuftom at prefent eftabliftied among
geographers, of feprefenting the meridians by lines
drawn perpendicular to the bafe of the charts and the
3 Z parallels
54S
Principles
and
54.6
GEOGRAPHY.
Part II.
Principjes
and
Practice.
* M. Mon-
tiicla, tom.
iv. p. 599.
126
Catalogue
•f the bed
maps.
parallels to the equator by ftraigbt lines drawn parallel
to this fame Safe, Buache found a confiderable error.
, The bottom of the gulf of Venice and Rome did not
then appear, as they ought to do, under the fame meri¬
dian. He foon, however, faw the folution of this diffi¬
culty. The method of drawing the meridians parallel
to the fides of the chart, is a matter of pure agreement,
and had probably not been obferved in the map of
which we are fpeaking. The ancient Roman geogra¬
phershaving considered that Italy was naturally divided
by the Appenines, according to its length, into two
parts that were nearly equal, had therefore delineated
the length of Italy from Trent to the end of the penin-
fula, parallel to the lower margin of the map, and had
afterwards arranged the other parts which the map was
to contain, conformably to this dilpolition j and as the
length of Italy is not in a direction parallel to the equa¬
tor, it would happen neceflarily that the meridians and
parallels, if they had been drawn on this map, would
have been parallel neither to the fides nor to the low er
margins of the map, and that the vertical line palling
through Rome mufc interfeft the gulf of Venice at
about the middle : but this line is not a meridian.
Thus, this map is not fo rude a work as has been
imagined, but has been entirely conftru&ed according
to rule } and it even appears that the author had em¬
ployed pretty good materials in its compilation, as the
pofitions are laid down in a manner that differs little
from modern obfervation*.
From the time of Ptolemy till about the 14th centu¬
ry, no new maps were publilhed j and the firft maps of
any efteem among the moderns were conftru&ed by
Mercator, to whom, we are indebted for the projection
according to which marine charts are conftru£tcd.
Mercator was followed by Ortelius, who undertook to
eonftruft a new fet of maps with the modern divifions of
countries and names of places, for want of which the
maps of Ptolemy were become almoft ufelefs. After
Mercator and Ortelius, many others publifhed maps,
which were chiefly copied from thofe above mentioned,
till about the middle of the 17th century, when Blaeu
publilhed his large atlas, or Cofmographie blaviane, in
which is a pretty accurate defeription of the earth, the
fea, and the heavens, comprifed in I 2 folio volumes.
About the fame time an atlas in two folio volumes was
publilhed in France by M. Sanfon, the maps of which
are in general very correct, containing many improve¬
ments of the travellers of thofe times. The maps of
Blaeu and Sanfon were copied with little variation both
in England, France, and Holland, till from later ob-
fervations De Lille, Robert, Wall, &c. publilhed Hill
more accurate and copious fets of maps.
The works of recent travellers and navigators have
confiderably improved the conftrudtion and accuracy of
our maps and charts j but there is Hill much to be done,
efpecially with refpedt to trigonometrical furveys, be¬
fore any high degree of correttnefs can be acquired.
Among the lateft maps and charts, thofe conftru&ed
by Mr Arrowfmith are in the greateft eflimation.
As a collection of good and accurate maps is of the
greatelt importance in the lludy of geography and hif-
tory, we fhall here fubjoin a lilt of fome of the belt
modern maps that have been publilhed.
Thofe maps which may be collected for the purpofe
*f forming an atlas, have been arranged under three
heads, according to their fize, or the extent of their Principles
feale. lit, Thofe which confilt of more than fix Iheets, pra^jce
fuch as De Bouge’s map of Europe in 50 half Iheets, ■ d ^ ‘j
and Caffini’s map of France in 183 Iheets. zdly,
Thofe from fix to four Iheels, to which clafs belopg fe-
veral maps of kingdoms. And, 3dly, Thofe from one
ffieet to four, which is the fmallelt fize that can anfwer
the purpofe of an atlas. We lhall briefly notice the
belt maps of each fize.
Planifpheres, or Maps of the World.—We know of
no very large map of the world that can at prefent be
confidently relied on : the belt is that of Mr Arrow’-
fmith in four Iheets j and Faden has publiffied very good
maps in one Iheet.
Maps of Europe.—lit Size. That of De Bouge, pub¬
lilhed at Vienna, or that by Sortzmann in 16 Iheets,
which is the better of the two. 2d Size. Arrowfmith’s
in four Iheets. 3d Size. That by Faden in one Iheet.
Maps of England.—I. The trigonometrical furveys
of the counties, publilhed by Bindley and Gardner, and
by Faden. II. Cary’s atlas of the counties, and his
England and Wales in 81 Iheets. III. Faden’s map in
one Iheet.
Maps of Wales.—I. That of Evans in nine Iheets.
III. The maps in Pennant’s Tours, and Evans’s Cam¬
brian Itinerary.
Maps of Scotland.—I. The furveys of the feveral
counties. II. Ainllie’s nine fheet map. III. An ex¬
cellent map by General Roy, and Ainllie’s reduced
map in one Iheet.
Maps of Ireland.—I. Survey of counties. III. A
valuable map by Dr Beaufort in two ffieets, or Faden’s
in one Iheet.
Maps of France.—I. Caffini’s mentioned above, and
the atlas nationale in 85 Iheets. III. Faden’s one Iheet
map, and a map, in departments, by Bellycime in four
Iheets.
Maps of the Netherlands.—I. Ferran’s map in 25
Iheets. II. Atlas de Department Belgique. III. Fer-
rari’s map reduced by Faden.
Maps of Holland.—II. Kep’s maps of the United
Provinces. III. Faden’s map of the Seven United
Provinces in one Iheet.
Maps of Germany.—II. Chauchard’s map of Ger¬
many. III. A map of the Auftrian dominions, in one
Iheet, by Baron Liehtenftern.
Maps of PruJJia.—I. Sortzmann’s atlas in 21 Iheets.
III. Sortzmann’s reduced, in one ffieet.
Maps of Spain.—Lopez’s atlas, not, however, very
accurate. II. A map of Spain in nine Iheets by Mon-
telle and Chanlaire. III. Faden’s map in one Iheet,
Maps of Portugal.—II. Geoffry’s improved by Rainf-
ford, in fix Iheets. III. De la Rochette’s chorogra-
phical map in one ffieep, publithed by Faden.
Maps of Italy.—I. The maps of the feveral Hates..
III. D’Anville’s map of Italy improved by De la Ro-
chette, in four Iheets, publilhed by Faden.
Maps of Turkey in Europe.—III. Arrqwfmith’s map
of Turkey in two ffieets. De la Rochette’s map of
Greece in one {beet..
Maps of Switzerland.—I. Weifs’s atlas, publiffied at
Straiburgio 1800. III.Weifs’sreducedmapinonelbeet,.
Maps of Denmark.-r-l. Maps of the provinces, un¬
der the direction of Bygge. 111. Faden’s maps of Den¬
mark, Sweden, aad Norway, in one Iheet.
Maps
Appendix.
GEOGRAPHY.
Maps of Sweden.—Atlas of the Swedifli provin¬
ces, by Baron Hermelin. III. De la Rochette’s, by
Faden, in one fheet.
Maps of Afia.—The belt general map of Alia is that
by Arrowfmith in fourfheets, publiflied in 1801 ; and
D’Anville’s, in fix flieets, may fiill be confulted with
advantage.
There are few good maps of the individual coun¬
tries ; but the following are efteemed among the beft.
Of China.—D’Anville’s atlas, and a map by Anow-
fmith.
Of Tartary.—A map by Witfen, in fix flieets, and
©ne by De Witt in one ftieet.
Of Japan.—Robert’s map in one Iheet.
Of the Birman Empire.—The maps publiflied in Mr
Symes’s embafly.
Of Hindojlan.—Rennell’s map in four flieets. His at¬
las of Bengal, and his map of the fouthern provinces.
Of Perfa there is no good modern map •, but La
Rochette publiflied a beautiful one, to illuftrate the ex¬
pedition of Alexander the Great.
Of Arabia there are fome good partial maps in Nie¬
buhr’s journey.
Of the Afatic Ifands there is an excellent chart by
Arrowfmith, in four flieets.
Of Aujiralafia, or New Holland, the belt drawing
is contained in Arrowfmith’s chart of the Pacific
ocean.
Maps of Africa.—The befi: general map of Africa is
Hill that of D’Anville, though fome little additions
may be made to it, derived from the journeys of Park
and Browm. Major Rennell’s partial maps may be con¬
fulted with advantage.
Of Abyfjbiia there is a good map in Bruce’s travels.
Of Egypt, the belt maps are that of the Delta
by Niebuhr, and that of Lower Egypt by la Ro¬
chette.
Of the Mahometan States, the belt maps are thofe by
Shaw, and a chart of the Mediterranean in four Iheets,
by Faden.
the Cape of Good Hope, the bell is Barrow’s
Maps of America.—There is no modern general
map of America that can be relied on. The belt
is that of D’Anville, in five flieets, publiflied in 1746
and 1748.
Mr Arrowfmith has publiftied an excellent map of
North America, on a very large fcale, but has omitted
the Spanifli dominions.
Of the United States, the belt map is Arrowfmith’s
in four flieets, publiflied in 1802; and there are very good
maps of the individual provinces in Morfe’s American
Geography.
Of the BritiJJ} Po/feJJions in America, befides Arrow¬
fmith’s map above mentioned, there is a good map of
Upper Canada by Smith, in one Iheet.
Of the Wejl India Ifands, the belt map is that of
Jefferys in 16 flieets, from which a fmaller one in one
flieet has been reduced.
Of South America, the beft map is that publiflied by
Faden in 1799, in fix flieets, from an engraving done at
Madrid fome years before.
Of
furvey
547
APPENDIX.
I47
Obferva- BEFORE we conclude this article, we muft make a
nonsscn the fewobfervations on the method to be followed for acquir-
geomphy. *ng or imparting geographical knowledge.
0 As fome knowledge of geography, as wrell as of chro-
nology, is abfolutely neceffary, before hiftory can be pro¬
perly underftood, the rudiments of thefe fciences Ihould
be learned, as foon as the capacity of the pupil w ill al¬
low'. It happens fortunately, that fome of the moft ufe-
ful parts of geography, thofe which confider the rela¬
tive fituations, extent and boundaries of countries, with
the manners and cuftoms of their inhabitants, are highly
interefting ; and provided that a knowledge of them
be conveyed to a child in a pleafing manner, they are
well fitted to intereft his curiofity, and awaken his at¬
tention. The more fcientific parts of geography, and a
detailed account of the minute circumftances refpefting
each country, though extremely ufeful, and indeed ne¬
ceffary to the more advanced ftudent, may be with¬
held for a little without any great lofs, till his age
and judgment permit him to fee their utility and ap¬
plication.
In teaching geography to very young children, their
chief attention fliould be direfted to thofe circum-
ftances which are moft interefting ; and even with this
limited view much may be learned at a very early pe¬
riod. For this purpofethe diffedted maps that are ufu-
ally fold at toy ftiops, may be employed with confider-
able advantage ; but it is to be regretted, that the maps
ufed in preparing thefe are feldom taken from the moft
correft copies. Thofe worksalfo which, under the dif-
guife of fidlitious voyages and travels, are intended to
convey a geographical knowledge of various countries,
afford a very pleafing and profitable method of inftruc^
tion. A late work of this kind, by M. .Taufret, enti¬
tled the Travels of Rolando, may be advantageoufly put
into the hands of young people } and, as they are far¬
ther advanced, the travels of Anacharfis the younger
by the abbe Barthelemi will give them confiderable
information refpefting the manners, cuftoms, and hifto-
rical events of ancient Greece.
When the young ftudent is fufficiently advanced to
profecute the iludy of geography on a more extenfive
and fcientific plan, it would be defirable that he fliould
begin by reading fome elementary treatife on aftronomy,
fuch as that of Mr Bonnycaftle, or the SpeBacle de la
Nature; or, if he has acquired a proper degree of ma¬
thematical knowdedge, he may read Laplace’s Syfeme
du Monde, the aftronomical part of Robifon's Mecha¬
nical Philofophy, or the aftronomical article in this
diftionary.
It may happen, that, from a defeft of early educa¬
tion, or w'ant of time, a preliminary courfe of aftrono¬
my cannot be commanded. Still, however, confider¬
able progrefs may be made in geography, by the me¬
chanical means of maps and globes. The ftudent fliould,
therefore, provide himfelf with a pair of the beft globes,
chofen according to the dire&ions laid dow n in N° 107 ;
and with a few good maps of thofe countries which
3 Z 2 are
G E O G R
are mofl interefting, particulaily maps of Europe, Afia,
Africa, and North and South America, the Britifh
illands, France, Germany, Italy, Ruffia, and Den¬
mark, which mav be colle&ed from the lift given at
N° 126.
Being provided with thefe materials, the ftudent
fhould hrft read over Chap. I. of Part II. of this trea-
tife, or a ftmilar part of fome elementary work in geo¬
graphy. On the elementary principles of geography
we would recommend the general principles prefixed to
Mr Pattefon’s general and claflical Atlas j and for
teaching the ufe of the globes, Bruce s Introduftion to
Geography and Aftronomy. For a complete account
of modern geography we cannot refer to a better work
than that of Mr Pinkerton •, and for a combined ac¬
count of ancient and modern geography, the pupil may
have recourfe to a work on that fubjedt by Dr Adam of
Edinburgh.
After reading over the preliminary part above men¬
tioned, the pupil may go through the iecond Chapter
of Part II. folving all the problems as he goes along
on the terreftrial globe •, and thus he may proceed pro-
greffively through the whole article, leaving that part
of Part I. which treats of the hiftory of geography for
the laft objedft of his enquiry.
In ftudying the particular circumftances of each
country, the pupil fhould always have the map of
the country before him ; and, as he goes along, ftiould
trace there the fituation of each particular place j of
the principal mountains, lakes, the fources and direc¬
tions of the rivers, th« form and bounding of the fliores,
&e. In his progreflive view of particular geography,
it will be proper for the pupil to begin with the coun¬
try in which he refides } and, after having made him-
felf mafter of that, to proceed fucceflively to thofe which
border on it, or whofe connexion with it is the molt in-
terefting.
Thus an inhabitant of thefe illands, after having
taken a view of Europe in general, fhould make him-
felf acquainted with Britain and Ireland (by peruf-
ing the articles England, Scotland, and Ireland
in this Diftionary or in other works)} whence he may
proceed to France and its dependencies in the NE¬
THERLANDS, Switzerland, Italy j thence to Ger¬
many and the Austrian territories, Prussia, Swe¬
den, Denmark, and Russia-, whence he may return
to the fouthof Europe to Spain, Portugal, and Tur¬
key, &c. After Europe, the United States of Ame¬
rica will probably be found the moft interefting *, the
pupil may therefore ftudy the geography of North
America before that of Asia. From Asia he may
proceed to Australasia and Polynesia thence to
Africa,andfoconcludewithSouTHAmerica. Nothing
will contribute more to the advancement of geographi¬
cal ftudies than the conftru&ion of maps. If the pupil
has time therefore he fhould early be inftrufted in this
A P H Y. Appendix.
part of the fubje6l by at firft drawing a map of the
world according to the direftions laid down in N° 118.
then one of Europe, and fo of other quarters and coun¬
tries. In conftru&ing this map, it will be proper firft to
lay down thofe places which are near the coaft, in order
to form the outline of the maritime part of the country,
and only the moft remarkable places inland, efpecially
thofe which are fituated in the courfe of the principal
rivers. In every map the moft prominent feautures of
the country, as the mountains, lakes, rivers, and prin¬
cipal cities and towns, fhould firft be attended to, and
from thefe the pupil may be introduced to the other
places in the order of their magnitude or importance..
The moft agreeable and interefting method of ftu-
dying particular geography, after having become ac¬
quainted with the elementary principles of the fcience,
would be to perufe the beft books of voyages and tra¬
vels-, for from thofe, where the traveller can be depend¬
ed upon,, the moft correct fyitems of geography are com¬
piled. Many of thefe, however, are too prolix and par¬
ticular to be put into the hands of moft young people,
and a judicious abridgement of the beft of them will
anfwer every purpofe } and perhaps Dr Mayor’s col¬
lection may be recommended, as the beft of the kind
in the Englifh language. For thofe whole time and
convenience will admit of their reading the beft writers
of voyages and travels, there is no want of fuch worksj
and Mr Pinkerton has given at the end of his excellent
work, a lift of the beft in moft languages. We fhall
here only notice a few of the beft and lateft.
Pennant’s Tours in Britain.
Young’s Tours in the Britifh ifles.
Saintfond’s Travels in England and Scotland,
Young’s Travels in France.
Holcroft’s Tour in France.
Spallanzani’s Travels in the two Sicilies,
Cox’s Travels in Ruffia, &c.
Pallas’s Travels in the Ruffian empire.
Carr’s Northern Summer.
Staunton’s Account of China.
Barrow’s Travels in China.
Percival’s Account of Ceylon.
Syme’s Embafiy to Ava.
Collins’s Account of New South Wales.
Bruce’s Travels in Abyffinia.
Barrow’s Travels in Africa.
Park’s Travels in the. interior of Africa^
Brown’s Travels in Africa.
Sonnini’s Travels in Egypt.
Percival’s Cape of Good Hope.
Mackenzie’s Journey in North America.
Davis’s Travels in America.
Mackinnon’s Tour in the Weft Indies; with the
voyages of Anfon, Byron, Cook, Phipps, Bligh, WJI-
fon, Wallis, La Peyrcufe, &c. &c.
INDEX.
[index.
GEOGRAPHY
549
INDEX.
A.
j^DAMS'S improvement of the
globes, N° in
Africa, circumnavigation of, I I
Alexander the Great improves geo¬
graphy, 14
Altitude, quadrant of, 86
Amphifcn, 7 ^
Analemma for folving geographical
problems, 123
Anaximander, the inventor of maps, 124
Ancients, geographical knowledge of, 25
in Europe, 26
Afia, 27
Africa, 29
Antipodes, . 7°
Antceci, 68
Arabians, difcoveries of, 32
Armillary fphere, Fergufon’s, 112
Long’s, 113
B.
Rays defined, 44
BuaclAs elucida t ion of the Peutinger ian
tables, 125
C.
Cape defined, 53
Carthaginians, difcoveries of, 10
CeleJUal globe deferibed, 102
Climates, divifion of the earth into, 83
table of, 84
northern, places in the, 85
problems relating to the, 96
Colures explained, 75
Continents defined, 49
Currents defined, 46
D.
Day and night, caufe of, illuilrated by
the globe, 100
Dionysius the Periegetic, 22
E.
Earth, fpherical form of, how proved, 39
magnitude of, 40
divifions of, 41
population of, 53
Eclipfes, lunar, problem refpe&ing, 101
£e/r/>//c explained, 72
Equation of time illuftrated by the
globe, 104
F.
Ferguforps armillary fphere,
112
Geographers, ancient, enumerated, 18
Hudfon’s colledlion of, 23
Geography, definition of, I
divilion of,. 2
Geography, phyfical, N° 4
importance of, 5
hiftory of, p. 503
origin of, N° 7
improved by Alexander the
Great, 14
by Ptolemy Phila*
delphus, 95
of the ancients, 25
middle ages, 31
modern difcoveries in, 33
prefent defedts of, 36
general obfervations on the
mode of liudying, 127
' Globes, nature of, 54
circles on the, 55
axis and poles of, 56
equator of, 57
meridians of, 58
brazen meridian of, 59
parallels of latitude, 60
horary circles of, 66
ecliptic on the, 72
tropical circles of, 73
polar circles of, 74
colures of, 75
quadrant of altitude, 86
wooden horizon of, 87
celeftial, deferibed, 102
general conftrudtion of, 105
gores of, how formed, 106
rules for choofing, 107
ufing, 108
improvement of, by Senex, 109
by Smeaton, no
by Harris, 66
by Wright, tb.
Gulfs defined, 44
H.
Harris's improvement on the hour-
circle of the globes, 66
Harvejl moon illuftrated by the globes, 103
Heterofcii, 80
Horary circles on the globe, 66
Hori%on, wooden, of globes, 87
of the fea, explained, 93
depreflion of, how
eftimated, p. 523
I.
Ijlands defined, N° 50
IJlImus defined, 5 2
L.
Labes defined, 47
Latitude and longitude explained and
illuftrated, 61
parallels of, 60
introduced by Eratof-
thenes, 61
problems on, 64
I<evel, true and apparent, N® 94
table for eftimating
the difference of, p. 522
Long's armillary fphere, N° 113
Longitude how reduced to any fingle
meridian, 62
how reduced to miles, 63
how computed in time, 65
M*
Maps, and charts, diftinftion of, 114
defeription of, 115
conftrudtion of, 116
by the orthographic
projeftion, 117
by the flereographic
proje£tion, 118
of the world, how projefted by
the globular projeftion, 119
particular conftruftion of, 120
ufe of, 122
origin of, 124
Peutingerian, 125
catalogue of the befly 126
Memr/or’j-projection, 121
Meridians on the globe, 58
brazen, • 59
prime or firft, 5*3
Oblique fphere, N° 89;
Oceans defined, 42
Ophir, fituation of, difeuffed, 9
P.
Parallel fphere, 91
Peutingerian table deferibed, 125
Peninfula defined, 31
Periceci, 69
Perifcn, 82
Phoenicians, difcoveries of, 8
Polar circles explained, 74
Pomponius Mela, an ancient geogra¬
pher, 20
Problems on latitude and longitude, 68
I. To find the latitude and
longitude of a given
place, p. 314
" II. Latitude and longitude
given, to find the place, ^13
refpeCting time, N° 67
III. Hour at any place be-
ing given, to find the
hour at any other place, p. 515
IV. Hour at any place be¬
ing given, to find, where
it is noon, 316
refpeCting the antceci, &c. N°7i
V. To find the antceci of a
given place, P- 516
VI. To find the periceci, ib.
Problems
55®
Problems on the terreftrial globe.
VII. Tofind theantipodes, p. 51^
VIII. To rectify the globe
for the latitude, N° 88
refpe&ing the fun, 95
IX. To find the fun’s place, ib.
X. To find the declination, p. 5 24
XI. To rectify the globe
for the fun’s place, ib.
XII. To find the time of fun-
rife and funfet, ib.
XIII. To find the fun’s meri¬
dian altitude at a given place, ib.
XIV. To find the fun’s alti¬
tude for a given hour, ib.
XV. Sun’s meridian altitude
given, to find the latitude
of the place, 525
XVI. To find when the fun
is due eaft or weft, ib.
XVII. 1 To find when the
XVIII. i- fun is vertical in
XIX. j the torrid zone, ib.
XX. To find when the fun
begins to appear, &c. in
the northern frigid zone, ib.
XXL To find when he be¬
gins to ftiine continually
there, 52^
XXII. To find the limits of
the hour climates, ib.
XXIII. Month climates, ib.
XXIV. To find where the fun
is rifing, fetting, &c. at a
given time, ib.
XXV. To find where it is
twilight at a given time, 527
XXVI. To find the duration
of twilight, &c. ib.
XXVII. To fhew the caufe
of day and night by the
globe, 52^
GEOGRAPHY.
XXVIII. To find where an
eclipfe of the moon is vifi-
ble, p. 528
Problems on the celeftial globe, 529
I. To place the globe fo as
to reprefent the heavens
for any evening in any
latitude, ib.
II. Tofind the rightafcenfion
and declination of a ftar, 531
III. Having the right afcen-
fion and declination given,
to find the ftar, ib.
IV. To find the latitude and
longitude of a given ftar, ib.
V. 1 To find on what day a
VI. j given ftar comes to
the meridian at a
given hour, ib.
VII. To find the altitude and
azimuth of a given ftar, ib.
VIII. The azimuth, &c.
given, to find the altitude, ib.
IX. To find the azimuth and
hour of the night, 532
X. Azimuth and latitude
given, to find the altitude
and day of the month, ib.
XI. Obferving two ftars to
have the fame azimuth, to
find the hour of the night, tb.
XII. To find the rifing, fet¬
ting, &c. of a ftar or pla¬
net, 533
XIII. To find thofe ftars
which never rife, or never
fet, ib.
XIV. To illuftrate the phe¬
nomena of the harveft
moon, 534
XV. To illuftrate the equa¬
tion of time, tb.
Index.
Problems performed by maps, N° 122
Promontory defined,
Ptolemy's work on geography, 21
Ptolemy Philadelphus improves geo-
graphy, 15
Pythias, voyage of, m
R.
Right fphere, pa
Rivers defined, 4*
Satafpes, voyage of, 12
Scylax, expedition of, 13
Seas defined, 43
Senex's improvement of the globes, 109
Smeaton's improvement of the globes, no
Sphere, oblique, 89
right, 90
parallel, 91
armillary, by Fergufon, 112
by Long, 113
invention of, ib,
Strabo's work on geography, 19
Straits defined, 43
Sun, problems refpe&ing, 95
T.
Taprobana, fituation of, 28
Time, problems relating to, 6)
Tropics explained, 73
Twilight explained, 97
ufes of, 98
problems refpe&ing, 99
W.
Wright's improvement of the hour cir¬
cle of the globes, 66
Z.
Zones, divifion of the earth into, ^6
Zone, torrid, countries in, 77
temperate, places in, 79
frigid, countries in, 8t
GEOLOGY.
Introduc- INTRODUCTION.
tion.
npH AT part of natural hiftory which treats of the in-
Definltion ternal ftru&ure of the ea«:th, as far as we have been
and objedt able to penetrate below its furface j of the arrangement
ef geology. Gf materials of which it is compofed, and of the
changes which have taken place in thefe, is called Ge¬
ology, from yu, the earth, and Zoye£, a difcourfe.
This fcience has been called by Werner, Geognosy,
and is by him defined to be that part of mineralogy
which confdering minerals as a part of our globe, treats Introduc.
chiefly of their bearings and pofltions with refpeB to each t U0I]- ,
other (a). Till of late this department of literature^ ygurn
was called phyfical geography, but at prefent the terms j/phyfique
Geology and Geognosy are generally adopted-, oftom.lv.
thefe we have preferred the former, as being equally p-444-
expreflive and more familiar j under this head we
propofe to include every thing that is ufually compre¬
hended under what have been called theories of the
earth.
Geology differs from Cosmogony as a part from
the
(&\ Werner has probably made this trifling change from a defire of novelty j.and feme of his admiring pupils
have attempted to difplay in very pompous but puerile terms, that it is of great value and importance.
GEOLOGY.
Introduc.
tion.
Bivifiou.
Importance
of the
fcience
4
to the na-
rwalift;
;o the min-
t;{
tho ^vhole j the object of the latter is to give an account
of the creation of the univerfe, while the former con¬
fines itfelf to the confidcration of the planet which we
inhabit.
Geology is intimately connected with mineralogy,
and may indeed be faid to depend on this as its very
foundation. Werner, as we have feen, confiders Geog-
nofy as a part of Mineralogy; but we are difpofed to
concur with Mr Kirwan, who, fpeaking of mineralogy
with refpedt to its relation to geology, calls it “ the
alphabet of the huge and myflerious volume of inani¬
mate nature.
Geology may be divided into defcriptive and fpecu-
lative $ the former giving a general account of the ma¬
terials of which the globe is compofed, and of their
arrangement while the latter is Itridtly confined to
what may be called a theory of the earth, or an attempt
to explain the manner in which the Itrudture and ar¬
rangement have been brought about, and the changes
that have taken place in the difpofition of the component
parts of the earth.
The fcience of geology is of cpnfiderable importance
in many points of view.
1. The lludent of natural hiftory cannot but derive
a great fund of profit and advantage from a fcience,
which makes him acquainted with fo large a depart¬
ment of nature. Mineral bodies, whether we confider
them as individuals of nature, or as collected into thofe
maffes which form the llrata of the earth, and the
mountains that rife above its furface, are peculiarly in-
terefting to the naturalitt, as well from the variety of
form and beauty of appearance which fome of them
prefent, as the ufeful purpofes to which many of them
are applied. The other kingdoms of nature delight us
with the difplay of order and delign exhibited in their
organization, or intereft us from the intimate connexion
which fubfifts between many of them and ourfelves.
Thefe are objedts of the beautiful; while the Itupendous
mountain, the awful volcano, the towering cliff, the
gloomy mine, and the majeltic cavern, are objedts of
the grand and the fublime.
2. To the miner, and all thofe who are employed
in fearching the bowels of the earth for the treafures
which they contain, geology, as well as mineralogy,
forms an effential qualification. Experience has fheun
that certain minerals and metals are found more fre¬
quently attached to fome of the ftony materials of the
earth than to others, and that a few of them are only
found in particular ftrata. Examples of this kind will
be given prefently. We have alfo learned that the
arrangement of the materials in the earth is fo far re¬
gular and uniform, that when we know the particu¬
lar materials near which certain metals and mine¬
rals are commonly found, and the ufual difpofition in
thefe places j and when we find in another fituation the
fame materials difpofed in a fimilar manner, we are
pretty certain that the metal or mineral of which we
are in fearch is not far diitant. We are therefore en¬
couraged to profecute the fearch with every probability
of fuccefs. Thofe who undertake to diredl an invefli-
gation of this kind, or to carry on the operations re-
quifite for the obtaining what is fought would do well
to inform themfelves beforehand of fuch fadts as are
well eltablilhed refpedting the diilribution of the mate-
551
rials of the earth, and the fubflances ufually found con- Introduc-
nedted with them. For want of this neceffary informa- , tlon, .
tion, we often fee projedtors impofe on the credulity,
and impoverilh the finances, of gentlemen of landed pro¬
perty, who are led to fuppofe that they poffefs on fome
part of their eftate a rich vein of metal, feam of coal,
&c. the working of which will confiderably improve
their income. ^
3. The failure of undertakings of this kind, partly to the land-
from the villany of the projcdlor, and partly from the ed proprie-
ignoranee of his employer, thews the advantages thattori
gentlemen of landed ellates would derive from the
lludy of geology. An acquaintance with this fcience
would guard them againll the artifices of defigning
men, and prevent them from embarking in uncertain
and expenlive projedls, the iffue of which is too often
ruin and difappointment. ^
4. But the ftudy of geology boafts a ftill higher ad-and to the
vantage. Nothing has more contributed to demonftrateChriftian.
the truth of the divine writings, and to clear up many
doubtful paffages in them, than the difeoveries that
have lately been made in the ftru&ure and formation
of the earth. The original date of the globe is fa
intimately connedled with that which it at prefent ex¬
hibits, that we cannot properly underftand the latter
without referring to the former 5 and recent experience
has Ihewn that the obfeurity in which the philofophical
knowledge of this fubjeft was involved, has been high¬
ly favourable to thofe fyftems of atheilm and infidelity
which prevailed in the laft age. Much of this obfeuri¬
ty is now removed j and the inveftigations of White-
hurfl, Werner, Kirwan, Howard, and fome other geo-
logiils, by proving that the fuppofition of a deluge is
the only hypothefis on which we can account for the
prefent date of our globe, have contributed as much to
the advancement of true religion as of philofophical
knowledge.
“ So numerous indeed, and fo luminous, have been
the more modern geological refearches, and fo obvioully
connedted with the objedf we have now in view, that
fince the obfeuration or obliteration of the primitive
traditions, drange as it may appear, no period has oc¬
curred fo favourable to the illudration of the original
date of the globe as the prefent, though fo far removed
from it. At no period has its furface been traverfed in
fo many different directions, or its drape and extent
under its different modifications of earth and rvater been,
fo nearly alcertained, and the relative denlity of the
whole fo accurately determined, its folid condituent
parts fo exadtly didinguiihed, their mutual relation, both
as to pofition and compofition, fo clearly traced or pur-
fued to fuch confid^'rable depths, as within thefe lad
thirty years. Neither have the tedimonies that relate^
to it been ever fo critically examined and carefully
weighed, nor confequently fo well underdood, as with-^^.'j-
in the latter half of the 18th century*.”
Geological refearches ieem at fird view to be attend-Difficulties
ed with almod inlurmountable difficulty. It is evi-?tt£nf*'nS
dent that the part of the earth which it is in our powerthe
to examine, is infinitely fmall when compared to that mountable,
which is entirely beyond our reach : and even much of
tire elevated parts, that appear above the furface, would
feem to be fo completely cut off from us by inacceffible
precipices, and the ice and fnow with which the fum-
jaits
552
•Introduc¬
tion.
9
Principal
impri vers
of geology.
10
Method of
ftudying
geology.
G E O L
nuts of fome of them are perpetually covered, that our
knowledge of their ftrufture and compohtions mult for
ever remain imperfedt. Much of thefe difficulties,
however, is rather apparent than real. It is true that
■our refearches can extend but a very little way below
the furface; but fo far as our experience has yet
tauvht us, any farther inveftigation would be rather a
matter oftcuriofity than utility. Thofe metab and mi¬
nerals which prove of moft fervice to mankind, are
found at no very great depth in the earth, and fome of
them almoft on its furface j and when we have pene¬
trated beyond thefe, the materials difcovered are of a
nature fo uniform, and of a texture fo firm and hard,
that it is poflible they may extend even to the centre.
Again, the inveftigations of Sauffure, De Luc, Dolo-
mieu, and Humboldt, have proved that the moll dan¬
gerous precipices, and the higheft fummits of thofe im-
menfe mountainous chains which traverfe the earth in
fo many direftions, oppofe but feeble barriers to per-
fevering induftry and philofophic ardour.
The diverfity which occurs in the ftru&ure and lo¬
cal arrangement of fubterraneous fubftances, feems to
throw another difficulty in the way of the geologill j
but the farther his refearches are extended, the more
will this apparent diverfity be dimimlhed. I he prac¬
tical Ikill which fome miners poffefs in many parts ot
the world, proves that the mazes of this labyrinth are
not without a clue ; and we may fafely conclude, that
when our knowledge of the ftru£lure of the earth, and
the difpofition of its materials, (hall be Hill farther ex¬
tended, the greater part of the obfcurities under which
the fubjedl is now veiled, will be entirely removed.
Multiplied obfervations of later years have enabled us
to form certain general conclufions, and lay down cer¬
tain general laws, which mull materially affift future
obfervers. . , ^
In the modern improvements of geology the Ger¬
mans led the way, and Lehmann may be confidered
as the father of the fcience. Eminently Ikilled in ge¬
neral phyfics, praftical mining, mineralogy, and che-
miftry, and fully acquainted with the circmnltances at¬
tending the relative fituation of moft mineral bodies in
very extenfive traftsof different countries which he ex¬
amined, he was enabled to deduce, from a long fenes
of obfervations, fome general conclufions,^ which have,
with fome exceptions, been fince verified in every part
ef the world.
Lehmann was followed in his own country by Ber¬
ber Gmelin, Born, and Werner; in Sweden by Berg¬
man, Cronftedt, and Tilas; in Italy by Ardumi; in
Switzerland, by Sauflureand De Luc; in Ruffia, by Pal¬
las ; in France, by Delametherie, SarintEond, Dolomieu,
and Lavoifier •, and in Britain, by Hutton and Kirwan,
names whi ffi^muft ever be held in the higheft eftima-
tion by the cultivators ef this part of natural hiftory.
Before entering on the ftudy of geology, it L ne-
ceffary to acquire a competent knowledge of chemillry,
and a pretty extenfive acquaintance with mineralogy,
as thefe fciences form an effential introduflion to tne
more general refearches refpeaing the of the
earth. The former fupplies the means of alcertaining
the nature of the fubftances met with ; and the latter
mull be well underftood, before we can arrange thefe
fubftances under their proper heads, and before we
O G Y.
can comprehend the terms employed by geological Introdwc.
writers. . d
The ftudy of this fcience, like that of fome other y
parts of natural hiftory, particularly botany, can be
profecuted with but little advantage in the clofet. The
Undent mult examine the declivities of hills, the beds
of rivers, the interior of caverns and of mines, the re-
cefles of the ravine, and the utmoft fummits of the
mountain, before he can obtain that degree of know¬
ledge which is neceffary to conftitute a Ikilful and phi¬
lofophic geologift. While making thefe perfonal. ob¬
fervations, he Ihould ftudy the works of the belt writers,
and compare the fafts related and defcribed by them,
with thofe which he himfelf has obferved. The writ¬
ings on this fubje£t may be divided into two principal
claffes, one comprehending thele works which contain
a fyftematic account of the whole, or fome part of the
fubjedt ; fuch as Bergman’s Phyfical Geography, the
Geological Effays of Kirwan, the Theorie de la Terre
of Delametherie, the writings of Werner, &c. : and
the fecond comprifing thofe works which treat of the
geology of particular countries in the familiar ftyle of
travels; as Born’s Travels in Hungary, Eerber’s Tra¬
vels through Italy, Sauffure’s Voyage dam les Alpes,
Pallas’s Travels, Jar’s Voyages Metaliurgiques, Saint
Fond’s Travels in England and Scotland, &c. After
having acquired a knowledge of the principles and ge¬
neral fadts of the fcience from the former, the Undent
will, by means of the latter increafe his knowledge in
the molt familiar and agreeable way. _ _ ir
In the Iketch of geology which we are to give in Arrange,
the following article, we (hall confider the fubjeft un- menu
der four general heads, which will be the fubjedt of as
many chapters.
In the firft chapter we (hall defcribe the arrangement
and diftribution of the materials of which the earth is
compofed. Here, after giving fome general notion of
that arrangement, we lhall confider each of the prin¬
cipal materials under a feparate feaion, in which we
lhall firft lay down thofe general marks by which each
is diftinguiffied, defcribe its general arrangement, and
mention the places, efpecially in Britain, where the
fubftance is found in greateft abundance, and thofe
metallic or mineral bodies which are commonly found
in connedtion with it.
After having briefly confidered each fubftance, vye
fliall, in the fecond chapter, bring the more general dif¬
tribution of them under one view, ftill diredting our at¬
tention to the arrangement of thefe materials in the Bri-
tiffi iHands.
In the third chapter we (hall give a bnet outline ot
the moft remarkable theories that have been framed
in modern times, to account for the diftribution of mi¬
neral bodies, and the manner in which we find them
now arranged. In this chapter we (hall dwell more
particularly on the two rival theories which at prtfent
divide the geological world, and lhall enumerate fome
of the objedtions which have been made to each.
In the fourth chapter we lhall give fome account of
the derangement of the fubftances that compofe our
globe, fo far as it has originated from known caufes ;
and this will lead us to the conlideration of Earth¬
quakes and Volcanoes.
Chap.
Chap.
I.
Arrange¬
ment, &c.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
Chap. I. Of the Arrangement and Diflribution of
the Materials of which the Earth is Compofed.
GEOLOGY.
what in Scotland is called a dyhe.
55j
Arran sje-
n
Stratifica¬
tion.
14
lima.
The materials of which the general mafs of the earth
is comnofed, are varioufly diftributed in different parts.
General jn fome places they form irregular maffes or blocks,
!''fthe nv°n ei^er hur‘ed below the furface, or elevated to a greater
teriahof * or lefs height above it. In moft places, however, the
the earth, materials are arranged in a more regular manner *, thofe
of the fame kind being collefted into extenlive maffes,
lying in layers or ftrata, above or below a fimilar
mafs of another kind, or thefe alternate with each
other to a confiderable depth. Thefe ftrata are fome-
times found arranged in a direftion parallel to the ho¬
rizon ; at others they are vertical, or perpendicular to
the horizon, appearing as if the horizontal ftrata had
been lifted up, and laid upon their edges. More com¬
monly the ftrata are arranged in a diredion inclining
to the horizon, when they are fa id to dip.
The uppermoft ftratum is in moft places covered to
a certain depth with mould that has evidently been
formed from the decompofition of organized fubftances.
In many parts of the earth this mould extends to
a very confiderable depth, and conftitutes the foil ; in
other places it is barely fufficient to form a coating to
the ftrata, and in others it is entirely wanting.
Horizontal A good inftahce of horizontal ftrata occurs about
and vertical two miles to the eaft of Balleycaftle in the north of
Ireland, of which we fliall fpeak more particularly by
and by. One of the moft curious examples of vertical
ftrata in Britain is found in the fmall ifland of Caldey,
on the coaft of Pembrokefhire, where the ftrata of
which the whole iftand is compofed are placed in
fuch a manner, that their edges are all expofed to view,
and they may be fucceffively examined from the one end
of the ifland" to the other. It is feldotn that an oppor¬
tunity offers of examining the arrangement of ftrata
fo eafily as is afforded in this fmall ifland. In moft
cafes it is neceffary to penetrate to great depths before
we can acquire an imperfeft knowledge of the ftratifi-
eation of the earth •, and in no inftance have we yet
proceeded a mile below the furface. In Caldey iiland,
however, the ftrata may be examined to the extent of
more than a mile, beginning at what may be fuppofed
the uppermoft ftratum, which is not more than a foot
thick, to that which may be called the loweft, at the
oppofite end of the iftand, being a mafs of red ftone of
more than a mile in depth.
Sometimes the ftrata are continued in a regular ar¬
rangement, preferving the fame inclination to a very
confiderable extent; but more commonly they appear in
fome parts feparated, as if they had been broken afun-
der. Thefe feparations are ufually in ;a perpendicular
direflion, and the cavities are found filled with various
heterogeneous matters. Sometimes thefe are chiefly
compofed of fragments of the adjacent ftrata, but for
the moft part they confift of mineral or metallic fub¬
ftances of a different nature.
When thefe fiffures are filled up with broken frag¬
ments or rubble, as it is called, it very commonly.hap¬
pens that they become the beds of brooks or rivers.
Thus the river Derwent runs for a confiderable extent
in Derbyfhire over a fiffure of this kind. When the
fiffure is filled up with a folid ftony matter, this forms
Vol, IX. Part II.
Derange¬
ment of th
ftrata.
If a mafs of mineral
or metallic matters fill the fiffure, or be infinated be-
tween the ftrata, it forms what is called a vein, and °teriap. 0f"
thefe veins fometimes branch between the ftrata in vari- the Earth,
ous directions. »
When a fra&ure has taken place in the ftratified
mafs, one part of the mafs fometimes preferves the fame
pofition as it had before, or ftill forms a continued line
with the other parts of the mafs, or is parallel to it 5
but more frequently one part is thrown out of its origi¬
nal pofition, and becomes more inclined to the horizon
than before. Sometimes one fide of the mafs is more
depreffed than the other, as is commonly feen in many
of the ftrata in Derbylhire *, at others the two parts of
the mafs are fo difturbed as to incline, towards each
other, as if they had been broken upwards. When the
edges of the ftrata on each fide of the fiffme are thus
divided and difarranged, they are faid by the miners
to trap.
The chafms thus formed are fometimes of confider-
able width. Some are found in Cornwall nearly 20 feet
acrofs, and almoft full of metallic and other mineral
fubftances. It not unfrequently happens, that thefe
fiflures are empty, containing nothing but water in the
bottom. A,celebrated chafm of this kind is Ihewn at
the Peak in Derbylhire ; and if a ftone be thrown in,
it is heard to ftrike from fide to fide for a confiderable
time, till at length it feems loft in fubterraneous water.
If the country in which the ftrata lie runs in a wa¬
ving direflion of hill and dale, the ftrata ufually pre-
ferve the fame waving direction, keeping pretty nearly Plate
parallel to each other. A curious example of this kind ccxxxvm,
has been defcribed by Gerhard, as occurring in theStrat* in
diftrift of Mansfield in Germany. See fig. 1. Ingtneraire.
thofe places where fome. remarkable diflocation of the uiar.
ftrata has not taken place, their diftribution is in ge¬
neral extremely regular, certain materials lying above
or below certain others in an uniform manner. The
obfervations of later geologifts have difcovered pretty
nearly the arrangement that takes place in moft coun¬
tries •, and we fliall prefently give fome examples of the
ftratification of feveral parts of Europe. Before we at¬
tempt this, however, we muft mention fome circum-
ftances in which the materials compofing the ftrata dif¬
fer from each other.
The general obfervation of all modern geologifts d
proves, that all thefe materials may be diftributed under he mate
two general claffes j one confifting of thofe fubftances1 aiS‘
which are found more or lefs connefted with the re¬
mains of organized bodies, as the bones, teeth, and
{hells of animals, the trunks of trees, and other parts
of vegetable bodies; and the other comprehending
thofe in the fubftance of which thefe organic remains are
never found. As it is now generally believed that
the latter of thefe are of a formation prior'to the for¬
mer, we (hall here adopt the general divifion of them
into primary and fecondary. We might go ftill farther
in this divifion, by arranging them under more heads ;
one, for example, containing thofe in which organic re¬
mains are fparingly found, and others containing thofe
fubftances which are found only in particular places^
but as the firft of thefe involves in it a particular theory
which we {hall notice fully hereafter, and the others
allude to fafts which will be mentioned when treating
of the feparate materials, we {hall not here extend our
4 A divifion
17 ,
fion of
554
Airan^e-
ment, See.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
G E O L
diviiion beyond the diflribulion of the materials into
primary and ftcondary.
In the following fhort detail, many terms will occur
which can be underltood only by the mineralogift.
They will be fully explained under the article Mine¬
ralogy. The names which we fhall give to the tub-
ftances deferibed will be fuch as have been moft gene¬
rally adopted in this country j but to prevent ambigui¬
ty, we fliall, where it feems to be neceffary, add the
fynonymous names that occur in the belt geological
writings.
A. Primitive Compounds.
Sect. I. Of Granite.
18
Granite The name granite has long been applied to all ftones
deferibed. which are compofed of an aggregate of quartz, feldfnar,
and mica, ditlributed in fuch a manner as that each of
them appear in a feparate Hate ; but as this definition
has been confidered as too loofe, and comprehending
too many varieties, the name is at prefent reftridted to
that kind of granitic ftone in which the quartz, ftld-
fpar, and mica, are found in grains or cryftals. Of the
three fubftances, the feldfpar is generally the molt
abundant, and the mica the lead fo.
Granite is found in the loweft and the higheft fiiua-
tions of the earth that have yet been examined. It
forms the bafis of all the other flrata •, and though
thefe are fometimes found below' it, this fituation feems
to have been the confequence of fome accident, by
which the inferior fubftances were thrown below the
granite. Many mountains feem almoft entirely com¬
pofed of granite, as Gefrorn one of the Rheetian Alps j
and there is a high hill of white granite about fix miles
to the weft of Strontian in Scotland. Sometimes large
maffes of granite are found in a detached fituation at
fome diftance from the mountains to which they appear
to belong j and thefe maffes feem in fome inftances to
have been broken off, and rolled down the mountain,
and in others to have been carried away by irrefifti-
ble torrents, or diflodged by earthquakes. On the
^ Male's fummits of the mountains near Port Sonnachin in Scot-
^byjhire, land?
are found large quantities of detached pieces of
V granite, fome of them of amazing fize*.
Its differ- Granite is moft commonly found in vaft blocks, fe-
ent ftates. parated from each other by rifts or chafms, irregularly
difpofed. This is the cafe in moft mountains, efpecial-
ly in thofe w’hich have high, pointed fpires. The ftruc-
ture of thefe blocks is pretty uniform, there occurring
feldom more than two varieties, one called porphyritic
granite,, in which the bafis is of a fine grain, containing
large cryftals of feldfpar. Of this variety many in¬
ftances occur in the north of Scotland, and near Carlf-
bad in Bohemia. The other principal variety is that in
which the granite is found in diftinft globular concre¬
tions, compofed of concentric lamellae. This variety
was obferved by Mr Jamefon, on the road between
Drefden and Bautzen ; and Mr Barrow', in his deferip-
tion of the Cape of Good Hope, mentions feveral glo¬
bular concretions of immenfe fize. The ifle of Arran
O G Y. Chap. I,
in Scotland alfo affords inftances of the fame variety. Arrange-
It is alfo found in Corfica, and is often called Corfica ment>
of the Ma-
grTn\ * , j , i t r i -a i i u terials«f
It has been doubted by tome geologiits, whether the t]ie £artj)i
true granite is ever found ftratified j but numerous in- v—-
ftances of its ftratification have been lately adduced, 20
that leave no room to doubt that this is fometimes the
cafe. Pallas takes notice of fome ftratified granite on
the banks of the river Berda, where wdiat he confidered
as perfect primitive granite, compaftly cryftallized, is
difpofed in layers of various degrees of thicknefs, fome
not exceeding one-eighth of an inch, and bounded both
above and below by blocks of folid granitef. Again,! Pallas's
on the banks of the Gromoklea, he obferved fimilar vo**
layers of granite running in a direction from north to1, P' 521*
fouth, each bed being from one fpan to three feet fix
inches in breadth, and confifting of the moft perfect
primitive granite, which he confiders as a continuation
of that mineral trad! which produces the cataradls of
the Dnieper J. Mr Playfair mentions an example of'! Ibid. vol.
ftratified granite which he faw' in Chorley foreft inLei-'>- P> 5C3-
cefterftiire, where real granite is difpofed in beds on the
eaftern border of the foreft, efpecially near Mount Sor¬
rel. Another inftance of real granite difpofed in re¬
gular beds, is alfo mentioned by Mr Playfair as occur-j| Playfair's
ring near the village of Prieftlaw' in Berwickihire||. Mr Illujira*
Jamefon obferved the Riefengebirge, w hich feparates^0"-1'* P-
Silelia from Bohemia,'to be for 150 miles compofed ofYj^. ^
granite difpofed in horizontal ftrata, and he obferved a jovr, sVo.
fimilar ftratification in Saxony and Lufatia §. vol. ii. 227.
Granite conftitutes the bafe of moft of the Britifh 21
mountains, but is more commonly met with in the north
and weftern parts of the ifland. There is a confiderable
mafs of granite which runs longitudinally through Corn¬
wall, from Dartmore to the Land’s End*. Confider-* P/ffyfoir,
able maffes are found in Scotland, but their extent has310-
not been accurately afeertained. According to Mr
Playfair, there is no mafs of any magnitude in the
fouthern parts, except that of Galloway, which occurs
in two pretty large infulated tradls. Mr Playfair thinks
that Dr Hutton greatly underrated the quantity of gra¬
nite in Scotland, which, efpecially in the north, he con¬
fiders as extending over a large diftrifr. If we fuppofe
a line to be drawn from a few miles fouth of Aber¬
deen, to a few miles fouth of Fort William, it will, ac¬
cording to Mr Playfair, mark out the central chain of
the Grampians, along which line there are many gra-, ^ ^
nite mountains, and large tratts in which granite is the "
prevailing rockf, 346.
It is remarkable that in the mountainous regions of? Annal di
Peru, efpecially in the environs of the volcanoes, no
granite is found, except in very low fituations, atthe^’
bottom of valleys J. 22
Several varieties of granite are fubje£I to decay, from Decay of
the decompofition of the feldfpar which they contain.Sranite‘
This circumftance will probably explain a curious fadf.
It is found that the granite exifting in the interior of
mountains is much fofter than that near the furface,
probably from the decay of the feldfpar in the lat¬
ter, while it remains in its original ftate in the for¬
mer (b).
Granite
(b) The decompofidon of granite'appears to go through feveral ftages,
from the folid rock to the loofe fand.
Thefe
Chap.
Arrange¬
ment, &c.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
I.
GEO
23
Metals
found in
granite.
* 'Jour, de
Phyf tom
Ivii. p-277
Granite is by no means abundant in metallic and the
richer mineral fubilances; it, however, contains a con-
fiderable variety, feme of w hich have as yet been found
in no other fubtlance, efpeciully molybdena. Iron ores
are very commonly found in granite, efpecially the
compaft brown iron ilone. It feems to be owing to
the prefence of iron that granite affumes that fine red-
dith colour with which we fometimes fee it tinged. One
of the mofl remarkable infiancesof this kind is afforded
by the rocks to the fouth-eaft of the valley of Chamou-
ni, at the foot of the Alps. Thefe rocks, from their
red appearance, are called Les Aiguilles Rouges, or the
red needles. Thefe rocks were mentioned by Sauffure,
but he had not afeertained their compofition. This has
fince been done by M. Berger, who found them to be
compofed of granite, with a confiderable quantity of
oxide of iron *. Bifmuth, cobalt, blende, galena
(an ore of lead), and feveral ores of copper, are alfo
• fometimes met with ; but the metal moft frequently
found in granite is tin, efpecially in the great mining
field in Cornwall.
Sect. II. Gneifs.
24 # , .
Gneifs de- Gneiss, by fome waiters called Ineifs, is not unfre-
feribed. quentty confounded with granite, from which it differs
rather in the arrangement than in the nature of its com¬
ponent parts. Thefe in gneifs are arranged in a fchif-
tofe or flaty form, whereas in granite, they are in dif-
tin6t grains or cryflals, the layers being generally in
the direftion of the mica. It fometimes is intimately
incorporated with maffes of granite, but, in moft in-
ftances, it repofes on the granite, being generally the
fecond layer. In defeending into the valley of Cha-
mouni, Sauffure obferved a fine bed of true granite in¬
corporated with a rock of gneifs, which w'as arranged
i 1 Voyage in very fine leaves f. Sometimes the gneifs lies entire-
aux Alpes, jy btdcnv the granite $ but this is uncommon. More
generally there is found a vertical mafsof granite, with
ftrata of gneifs on each fide of it. Very frequently gra-
nite and gneifs alternate with each other.
Where Sometimes whole mountains are compofed of gneifs.
found. Thus, Ben Lomond fcarcely contains any other fub-
ftance, and the Schaw, which is the moft northern point
of the northernmoft of the Shetland iflands, is entirely
gneifs. Mountains of this kind are, in general, neither
fo high nor fo fteep as thofe of granite, though Mount
Rofa in Italy, and a few others, muft be excepted.
The fummitsof thefe mountains are alfo generally more
rounded than thofe of granite mountains. Thebafesof
all the Shetland iflands feem chiefly compofed of gneifs,
and the middle part of the Pyrenees is almolt wholly
formed of this and granite.
It is curious that where gneifs is contiguous to gra-
L O G Y.
555
nite, its quartz and feldfpar arc more apparent, and Arrange-
the mica lefs fo ; while, where it is more diftant from n'e‘lt>
granite, the contrary happens 4. terials of
Several metallic ores are found in gneifs, particular- the Earth,
ly thofe of iron, as the magnetic iron ftone, and martial /
pyrites j lead ores, tin ores, blende, cobalt, copper,
and arfenical pyrites, and not unfrequently filver ores. foun4
gneifs.
Sect. III. Micaceous Silijius. I Kirwan'i
mfuys, p.
This isothenvife called fch'Jl-ofe mica, and micaflate. '"'“'jy
It is alfo compofed of the fame materials wdth granite Micaceous
and gneifs, except that it contains little or no feldfpar j fdriftuA
the quartz and mica being arranged in layers as in
gneifs.
This fubflance alfo is very abundant in moft rocks
and mountains. It generally compofes the third layer
or ftratum, being immediately above or without the
gneifs. It not uncommonly appears to be the only fub-
ftance compofing the hill or mountain, from the gneifs
and granite being probably fo completely covered as to
be out of fight. 28
Micaceous fchiftus compofes the rocks that are found ^ne,e
immediately to the north of Duakeld in Scotland, and1’1'1 '
it is here penetrated in every direction by veins of
quartz. The fouthern Ihores of Loch Tay, the moun¬
tains of Glen Lochy, the vale of Tumel between Loch
Tumel and Loch Rannoch, contain much of the fame
fubftance ; and the lower part of Glen Tilt is chiefly
compofed of it. In the ueftern Highlands towards
Ben Lomond, micaceous fchirtus alfo abounds, and
fome of it is found in the north cf Argylefliire. The
Shetland iflands are moftly compofed of micaceous fchif-
tus, in thick layers above the gneifs, with a feur maffes
of granite interfperfed.
It not unfrequently happens that a bed of micaceous
fchiflus is interfered by veins of granite. Mr Jamefon
obferved an example of this in Glen Drummond in Ba- * Mm. cf
denoch, of which he has given a plate. The veins ere y^’
very large, and run acrofs the ftrata of fc Lift us in a di-1
reftion nearly parallel to each other *. ^ 29
The metallic ores found in micaceous {chiftus, are y'Ltals u
chiefly thofe of iron, copper, tin, lead, cobalt, and an-u'
timony.
Sect. IV. Quart-z,
39
Quartz is not unfrequently found diftin<5l from field-Quartz,
fpar and mica, and fometimes whole mountains are
found compofed of it. In particular, the mountain of
Kultuc, at the fouth-eaft end of the lake of Baikal,
among the Altaifchan mountains, which is 4800 feet
long, 350 high, and above 4000 broad, eonfifts en¬
tirely of milk-w hite quartz ; and the mountain of Flinz-
4 A 2 berg
Thefe are thus marked by Mr Jamefon. In its beginning difmtegration it fplits into maffes, having a greater or
lefs tendency to the quadrangular form •, but thefe maffes have ftill a degree of connexion amongi-t themfelves, as
is the cafe upon the mountain top. The next ftep is the enlargement of the fiffures, by which the mafles are
loofened from their connexion, and tumble down from their elevated fituations, upon the lummits of the neigh¬
bouring mountains, or are hurried with impetuous velocity down the mountain fide, covering the bottom of the
glens with their ftupendous ruins. Laftly, Thefe detached maffes, by the aftion of the weather, are completely
difintegrated, forming a loofe fand, which is left upon the tops or fides of the mountains, or is carried in great
quantities to the fea fliore by the torrents. Jamcfon's Mineralogy of the Scottijh Ijles, vob i. p. 82.
L
5^6
Arran<re-
tnent.itc.
of th- 'VTa-
tenals of
the Earth
GEOLOGY.
berg in Luface, is almoft wholly compofed of it. There
is alio an extenlive ridge of quartz, fome miles long, in
Bavaria, and Tvlonnet mentions a rock of it 60 feet
high. Mountains of it are alfo found in Thuringia, Si-
lelia, and Saxony. It fometimes forms layers between
gneifs and micaceous fchiflus. A confiderable body
of granular quartz is found lying under micaceous
fc hi It us in the ifland of Iilay,fee fig. 4. b. _ It is often
found forming fpires on the tops ol mountains, and ap¬
pearing like fnow.
Ouartz is found in feveral parts of Britain ; but there
is very little of it in the fouthern part of the ifland.
Williams found it very common in the Highlands of
Scotland, where he has feen it regularly ftratified, with
other regular ftrata immmediately above and below it j
and fometimes compofing high mountains entirely of its
own ftrata. Thefe ftrata are fometimes moderately fo-
lid ; but often are naturally broken into fmall irregular
mailes, with Iharp angles, and of a uniformly fine gra¬
nulated texture, refembling the fineft loaf lugar.
There are large and high mountains of this ftone in
the ihires of Rofs and Invernefs j and in a clear day
thefe appear at a diftance as white as fnow, being quite
bare of vegetation, except a little dry heath around the
> bafe of the hill *.
The mountain of Swetlaia Gera, one of the IJralian
chain, confifts of round grains of quartz, white and
tranfparent, and of the fize of a pea, united without
any cement.
No metals are found in quartz, though it fometimes
contains petroleum.
Sect. V. Argillaceous Schijlus.
32 This ftone, which is otherwife called clay flat e, is
m^fclrats the thonchieffer of Werner, and the argillite of Kirwan.
defchhedT It is of the fame nature with gneifs and micaceous fchif-
tus ; but in this the ftratification is ftill more complete,
and all traces of cryftallized granite entirely disappear.
Doubts have arifen whether this ftone is primitive-, but
thefe are now cleared up, as it is frequently found al¬
ternating with gneifs and micaceous fchiftus, efpecially
in Saxony, and with other primitive ftrata. It fome¬
times happens, too, that both gneifs and granite reft
upon it.
There are two varieties of this ftone, one hard, and
the other foft j but the hard often graduates into the
fofter.
Sometimes this ftone is found forming whole moun¬
tains but more commonly it enters into them only par¬
tially. In fome, however, there are entire ftrata of jt,
as at Zillerthal, in the Tyrol. The famous mountains
* William?
Minei al
Kingdom,
vol. li
P- 52-
31
No metals
in quartz.
Chap. I(
of Potoft con ft ft entirely of argillaceous fchiftus, and Arrange.
Sauffure found it on the fummit of Mont Blanc. . ^de IvT'
In Britain it is not very common ; but is fometimes
found on the higher parts of mountains. Thus it forms the Earth,
the fummit of Skiddaw in Cumberland. v—J
Argillaceous fchiftus, efpecially the fofter variety, is 34
remarkably rich in metals. We have faid that it forms ^ j.
the greater part of Potofi, one of the richeft filver*
mines. The ores of copper and lead, fulphur, pyrites,
blende, and calamine, are alfo found in it. 1 he great
belly of copper ore in the Parys mountain in Anglefea,
is found below this fubftance. It alfo fometimes con¬
tains antimonial and mercurial ores.
Sect. VI. Jafper.
It was fuppofed, by the earlier mineralogifts of the jafpfr^.
laft century, that jafper was only pure quartz, fo much icnbetl.
penetrated by a colouring metallic oxide as entirely to
deprive it of its tranfparency ; but Sauffure and Dolo-
mieu, with their ufual accuracy, diicovered that it con¬
fifts of flint, and not of pure quartz, having in combi¬
nation a quantity of argillaceous matter, more or lefs
mixed with oxide of iron.
Primitive jafper is always opaque. It is commonly
found imbedded in other ftony matters. In colour it
varies from red to green, and frequently confifts of al¬
ternate ftripes of red and green, fometimes perfedlly
diftimft, at others running together. There is a beau- -
tiful variety figured by Patrin, in which a dark-red
ground is crofled in every direbfion with curved white
lines, leaving here and there circular fpaces of red lur-
rounded with white, forming eyes. 35
Striped jafper is fometimes fo abundant, as to be the Where
chief material of fome mountains, in which it is mixed fountl*
with broken fragments of granite and other primary
compounds (c). Mountains of red and green jafper alfo
occur. Generally, however, it appears in ftrata, inter-
pofed between layers of micaceous fchiftus, or alternat¬
ing, and fometimes mixed with compadt red iron ftone.
It is found in the fouth of France, repofing on granite ;
and in the Altaifchan mountains, it fometimes lies be¬
low argillaceous fchiftus, but has there never been
found in contaft with granite. A coarfe kind of jafper
is fometimes found in the hills near Edinburgh j and
fome fine fpecimens are met with in the northern moun¬
tains.
33
Where
found.
Sect. VII. Homflone.
37
This ftone is confidered by Mr Kirwan as the fame Hornftone
with petrofllex, but Patrin and fome others diftinguiftidfctcnbe ’
them.
(c) There is often found interpofed between the ftrata of rocks, or fometimes above the upper ftratum. » bed
of fragments that have been broken off from the principal ftrata. V. hen t.-.e e ' * ey lhe„ are „e_
ftone and calcareous compounds, whether they be of an angular form, or conlift
nerally called by the name of Wlb ; but when the
if they are agglutinated together, fo as to form a folid mals, they n . „ , , pTi onri niher
the uncertain manner in which thefe terms were employed, much confufion arofe,.till Rome dellfte, and ot
later naturalifts, have given the name of breccia to every ftony mafs that is compofed of a"fla
whatever nature they be ; and they call by the name of pudd.ngftone every ag^ut.nated mafs that is compfted
of round pebbles, whether they be Jalcareous, ijuartzofe, or of any other nature. Ibefe compounds will be ipoken.
of prefently in a feparate fedtion. 3
Chap. I.
GEOLOGY.
Arrange- them. According to Patrin, liornftone is a compound
ment, Sec. primitive rock, compofcd of the fame elements with
oi the1^f.1' granite, in which fchorl is very abundant, communicat-
theEanh. ing to the Hone a dull, gray, or fometimes blackifh,
v—-v—^ colour, and containing a pretty large quantity of the
argillaceous matter of mica. Petrofilex, according to
him, is purer than hornftone, and commonly of a gray-
idi or greenilh colour, femitranfparent, and very hard,
fo as to give fire with iteel. They are often found
united, and fometimes form entire mountains, contain¬
ing fragments of feldfpar interfperfed. They are com¬
monly found in large thick mafifes or blocks, though
they are fometimes ftratified like the fchiftofe ftonts.
Dolomieu is miftaken, when he afferts that petrofilex
is only found in primitive mountains, as it will appear
hereafter, that it is fometimes a fecondary compound.
At Tuhumas, in the ifle of Rona, Mr Jamefon found
a mafs of rock chiefly compofed of hornflone and
quartz, from 12 to 15 feet wide, and of conliderable
length lying between two beds of gneifs.
Sect. VIII. PitcJjlone.
.0
Pitchttone The Germans have given the name of pitchjlone, or
iefcnbed. pechjiein, to a llony matter, which is found in large
maflfes of an irregular form, and of different colours, as
yellow, brown, red, green, &e. have fometimes the
appearance of rofin, and fometimes that of an enamel,
or of glafs imperfe&ly tranfparent. It is never cryllal-
,9 lized.
Where It is found, either in large maffes, or in veins. At
found. Mifnia, it is found forming entire mountains j and in
other countries there are mountains containing tlrata of
pitchftone, fometimes alternating with granite, at
others with porphyry. Mr Jamefon defcribes a large
vein of it of a green colour, feveral feet wide, traver-
fing a mafs of red argillaceous fandftone, at Tormore
in the ifle of Arran. This vein is extremely curious,
and contains flratulae of different fubitances depofited in
* Jame- the fame fifiure *. Another curious vein of pitchflone
fin's Mine- is defcribed by him as traverfing a bafaltic rock, toge-
W ther with a vein of hornflone, in the ifland of Eigg f.
rp'ioL Jamefon confiders this as the firfl example of pitch-
t Zi. vol. ii. ftone traverfing bafalt, difcovered in Europe, though
p. 44. fimilar appearances have been found on the top of the
peak of Teneriffe.
Pitchftone is only confidered as a primitive rock,
when it is nearly allied to porphyry.
557
Sect. IX. Hornblendey and Hornblende Slate.
Hornblende HORNBLENDE is fometimes found exifting feparately
flate. from the compounds in which it ufually occurs, as is
the cafe in Siberia, where there are mountains of black
hornblende. It is often found mixed with quartz,
mica, feldfpar, or fchorl, of a greenifh or black co¬
lour. More commonly, how'ever, it occurs in immenfe
ftrata, fometimes in layers of gneifs, argillaceous fchif-
tus, or primitive limeftone. A ftratum of it above pri¬
mitive limeftone has been found at Miltiz. It is fome¬
times feen below granite, or granite is even found im¬
bedded in it. A rock of hornblende, repofing on gra-
t Min. of nite, has been feen by Mr Jamefon in the ille of Arran ;
Ijles, vol. i. and on the fide of Loch Fine he found it alternating
P- 7«-—144.with ftrata of micaceous fehiftus|.
The principal metallic fubftances found in horn- Arrange-
blende ilate, are native fulphuret of iron and copper Ma"
ore* terials of
the Earth.
Sect. X. Serpentine. ' v—  
41
Serpentine is a ftone of a fimilar nature with refpeft
to its ingredients with thole we have been deicribing. ^
It takes its name from its appearance, being generally Serpentine
of a greenifh ground, marked with white, yellow, defcribed.
brown, or reddiih (pots, fo as to bear fume refemblance
to the fidn of a fnake. Its green colour is owing to a
quantity of flightly oxidated iron which it contains. It
is ufually opaque ; but fometimes parts of it are femi¬
tranfparent, and though not very hard, is capable of
receiving a good polifh.
Serpentine is by no means uncommon, and is often ^yhere
found in layers alternating with primitive limeftone, orf0ur.d.
below gneifs. The hill of Zobtenbeg in Lower Silefia,
conlifts almofl entirely of ferpentine, difpofed in nearly
vertical ftrata, with a little hornblende interfperfed.
Whole mountains of green ferpentine are alfo found in
Siberia, and near Genoa, where it is called gabbro or
puhere'zxa. It is alfo found near the White fca, and
the mountain of Regelberg in Germany is chiefly com¬
pofed of it. Rocks of it are found near the Lizard
Point, on the coaft of Cornwall \ and hills of it occur in
fome of the Shetland iflands.
Metals are feldom found in ferpentine, except a mag¬
netic ore of iron, which not unfrequently forms a part
of the ferpentine rocks, imparting to them its magnetic
power. Veins of copper fometimes traverfe it.
Sect. XL Porphyry.
Porphyry generally con lifts of the fame materials asporph^ry
granite, but in different proportions, and having alto-defcribed.-
gether a dift’erent appearance ; for inftead of being eryf.
tallized as in granite, we find in the true porphyries an
uniform compaft mafs, in which are diffeminated fmall
cryftals of feldfpar, and fometimes of fchorl. There
are, however, many varieties forming fhades between
granite and true porphyry, feveral of which are de¬
fcribed by mineralogifts. ^
Porphyry is very abundant in many fituations, form-Where
ing a confiderable part of hills, and even mountains, found.
It fometimes alternates with gneifs, and has been found
below it. Gneifs has alfo been found in the midft of
porphyry. It fometimes occurs in the midft: of mica¬
ceous fchiftus, and fometimes forms an external cover¬
ing to other primitive ftrata. Whole mountains of por¬
phyry, arranged in immenfe ftrata, fometimes repofeon
a bale of granite or gneifs. This ftone is found in the
greateft abundance in feveral places between the tropics,
efpecially in South America, where it is fometimes met
with at immenfe heights *. * Ann. de
Porphyry is very common in moft parts of Scotland,
and, in particular, forms a confiderable ftratum at thep. 40O]
top of the Calton hill at Edinburgh, being in fome places
12 or 1 ? yards thick, covering a bed of breccia.
Porphyry is found in confiderable quantity between
Newcaftle and Wooler, and blocks of it of confiderable
fize may be every where feen fcattered about in the
fields. The feldfpar of thefe porphyries being lefs du¬
rable than the reft of the ftone, is partly deftroyed in
• fome
G E O L O G Y.
Chap. It
46
Metals
found in it.
47.
Schiltoie
porphyry.
43
'Pudding-
ilone and
breccia.
49
Examples
of breccia.
5° .
"Ofpudding-
itone.
L[ Pallas's
Trav- in
(Irimea, vol.
ii. p. 197.
S1
Syenite.
fome block?, and appears corroded in others ; from
which circamftance the porphyries are fo porous, as to
appear as if they had been burnt. Porphyries of a fi-
milar appearance are found in the mountain of JLfterele
in Provence, on the road from Frejus to Antibes*.
There is a variety of porphyry mentioned by Char-
pentier, a great part of whofe compolition is indurated
clay, and nodules of clay of different colours are found
in its fubftance. Specimens of a fimilar nature occur
in the weffern illands of Scotland. There is alfo a fpe-
cies of porphyry nearly allied to hornftone.
The two varieties laft mentioned are rich in metallic
ores 5 in the former there being formed ores of filver,
copper, iron, lead, and antimony •, and, in the latter,
fparry iron ore, native fulphhret of iron, galena, black
blende, and ores of bifmuth.
A done of a porphyritic nature is deferibed by Wer¬
ner under the name of fchiflofe porphyry, and is con-
fidered by Kirwan as the fame with the horn Hate of
Charpentier. It is found among the primitive rocks of
Altai, and on the borders of the lake of Baikal, in
which latter place it is mixed with granite and horn¬
blende. It is alfo found in Siberia, and in Bohemia.
Sauffure found it near Pfaffenfprung, intercepted be¬
tween 11 rata of gneifs.
Sect. XII. 'Puddingstone and Breccia.
The ditlindion between thefe two ftony matters was
mentioned in note C : they are both fufficientiy com¬
mon, confiding of diderent materials. T he breccia ufu-
ally lies in bodies, almod at the top of the other primi¬
tive drata, with fome of which it fometimes alternates.
Stratified breccias, confiding of fragments of flints and
•jafper, cemented by hardened clay, are frequently found
in Siberia, and fometimes alternate drata of breccia,
porphyry, jafper, and other primary compounds, com-
pofe a coniiderable part of mountains. Some mountains
in the north of Scotland contain maffes of breccia, com-
pofed of fragments of red granite, micaceous fchidus,
and quartz, in a bafe of fanddone. Mount Scuraben
contains drata of this kind, furmounted by a rock of
white quartz. Similar appearances take place at
Cromarty, at Murray frith, and two or three miles to
the fouth of Aberdeen } but in many of thefe indances
the breccia mud be copfidered as lecondary. Much
of the northern coad of Scotland abounds with breccia.
Puddingdone is alfo extremely common. A moun¬
tain of it is found in Siberia, near the rivulet of Tulat,
being compofed of fragments of jafper, chalcedony,
aigue marine, and cornelian, cemented by a quartzofe
matter. Immenfe heaps, and even a mountain of pud¬
dingdone, are found at Meifenheim, in the Palatinate.
Puddingdone is found in confiderable abnndanee in
palling from Loch Nefs to Oban, in Scotland, and be¬
tween Invernefs and Dunolla. Large detached rocks
of puddingdone were feen by Pallas in the village of
TemirdOd, in the Crimea. Some of thefe maffes are
feven or eight fathoms long, lying one above an¬
other f.
Sect. XIII. Syenite.
This name has been introduced by Werner, to de-
4
Arrange-
mer.t, Sec,
of the Ma-
terials of
the Earth.
5*
Where
found.
5.?
Metals in
note a primary rock, effentially compofed cf grains of
feldfpar and hornblende, intimately blended together,
in which the hornblende is generally mod predominant.
He fird called \\. greenjione, but afterwards gave it the
name offyenite, as he fuppofed it fimilar to a done de¬
feribed by Pliny, as found at Syene in Upper Egypt,
where it was dug in great quantities, and from thence
carried to Rome, for the purpofe of building public
edifices.
Syenite fometimes contains a few' grains of quartz and
mica ; but theie feem to be accidental, and are always
in very fmall quantity. This done is not commonly
dratified.
Syenite ufually overlays mod of the other primary
rocks, and has often a bed of breccia interpofed be¬
tween it and the inferior drata. It is very commonly
found repofing on porphyry.
It is found in Saxony, in the environs of Drefden ;
at Meiffen in Thuringia j in Hungary, and in general
in almod all primitive chains of mountains, efpecially
in the Alps. It is doubtlefs the fame which Sauffure
found in the fummit of Mont Blanc, and which he calls
granitellc.
Metallic veins are not unfrequently found in fyenite.
At Scharffenberg, veins of filver and lead are found in
it •, and it is faid, that the veins of drontian in Argyle-
fhire run in a fimilar rock.
Sect. XIV. Primitive or Granular Limef.one.
54
It was long doubted whether limedone was ever to Primitive
be found unmixed with organic remains, or primitive jlimeftone;
but the obfervations of late mineralogids and geologids
have fully proved, that primitive limedone exids in
confiderable quantity. This done is of granular druc-
ture, and of a whitilh gray colour, though frequently of
a dark iron gray, or reddidi brown. It is fometimes
fcaly or lamellar j at others yearly compadt, and is
now and then found to have a fplintery fradhire. It
is generally unmixed with other primary compounds j
but fometimes particles of mica, quartz, hornblende,
Sic. occur in it. _ ^5
This done is always found alternating with the pri-Where
mary drata, efpecially with gneifs, micaceous, and argil- found,
laceous fchidus. It fometimes forms whole mountains,
as in Stiria, Carinthia, and Carniola, in Switzerland
and in the Pyrenees, being often found feven or eight
thoufand feet high. "Three mountains in Switzerland,
all exceeding io,cco feet in height, are ehiedy com¬
pofed of it. In thefe fituations it commonly forms im¬
menfe blocks, without any regular dip or diredlion ; but
it is fometimes dratified, as at Altenberg near the lake
of Neuenberg. It is fometimes interpofed between fye¬
nite and hornblende date. One of the mod Angular
mountains of granular limedone is that of Filabres in
Spain, confiding of a block of white marble three miles
in circumference, and 2000 feet high, without any mix¬
ture of other earths or dones, and with fcarcely any
fiffure.
A confiderable part of Mont Perdu in the Pyrenees
is compofed of alternate vertical bands of granite, por¬
phyry, limedone, hornblende, and petrofilex.
Granular limedone is found in various parts of Bri¬
tain, efpecially in the north of Scotland. One of the
mod remarkable examples of it occurs in the ifland of
Iflay 5
Chap I.
GEOLOGY.
Arrange- Iflay j the central part of which is formed of a compact
nient, &c. beci 0f jt 0f conlidcrable extent. See fig. 4. d. It alfo
HaVrf"occurs 'n i°me other of the Weftern illes.
the Earth. Primitive limeftone often contains veins of metallic
ore, efpecially thofe of galena, magnetic iron ore, blende,
and pyrites.
Sect. XV. Primitive Trap.
57
Primitive
trap de-
fenbed.
Trap is a name that was long ago given by the
Swedifli mineralogiits, to diftinguilh certain itones that
are of a compaft texture, and a dark colour, compofing
part of feveral mountains. The word originally figni-
fies a ftaircafe, and was given to mountains containing
this ftone, becaufe their tfrata retire one behind the
other like the fteps of a itaircafe. But as many rocks
of a very different kind, both in their nature and forma¬
tion, have received the common name of trap, confider-
able confufion arofe among mineralogiffs, with refpedt to
what particular ftones fliould receive this appellation.
Mod of the French mmeralogifts, as Sauffure, Dolo-
mieu, and Saintfond, make trap to fignify a primitive
rock, but they do not always mean the fame rock.
Other mineralogifts, efpecially the Germans, under-
ftand by the name of trap, certain fecondary rocks, and
efpecially what are commonly called kafaits.
Werner comprehends under the name of trap, feve¬
ral feries of rocks, which are principally charadlerifed
by their containing hornblende, which is found almoft
pure in thofe which he confiders as the moft ancient, or
what generally lie the lowed *, and it degenerates gra¬
dually in the fucceeding ilrata into a kind of blackith,
ferruginous, hardened clay. He didinguidies three fe¬
ries or formations of traps; primitive traps, tranfition or
intermediate traps, and dratiform or fioetz traps. We
ihall here confider the fird of thefe.
Primitive trap is almod wholly compofed of horn¬
blende, though it is fometimes mixed with feldfpar, or
more rarely with mica and fome other fubdances. Un¬
der this general defer!ption Werner comprehends four
dony fubdances ; hornblende and hornblende date,
which we have already noticed in Section IX. primi¬
tive greendonc, and fchidofe greendone.
Primitive greendone is a mixture of hornblende and
feldipar; under this there are feveral varieties, accord¬
ing as its texture is more or lefs granular, or compact.
1. Common greendone, in which the hornblende and
feldfpar are intimately blended, is granular, and bears
confiderable refemblance to fyenite, in which the horn¬
blende is predominant. 2. A fecond variety has fmaller
grains, in which are imbedded crydals of feldfpar, be¬
ing of a drufture between the granular and porphyritic.
3. A third variety has the grains of hornblende and
feldfpar extremely fmall, fo as to be fcarcely didin-
guidiable. This done lofes its granular appearance,
and becomes entirely porphyritic. 4. Ladly, when the
mafs becomes quite homogeneous, and of a complete
* green colour, it forms what was once called green por-
*Brochant.ptyry, and conditutes the fourth variety*.
Schidofe greendone is compofed of compact feldfpar,
hornblende, and a little mica, of which the hornblende
and feldfpar are nearly in equal quantity, and it now
and then contains a little quartz. Its drudlure is
fchidofe.
We have been thus particular in deferibing what
'Minera
om. ii.
'• 58*.
559
Werner underdands by primitive trap, as whatever Amnge-
may be thought of his theoretical opinions, his talent n^"t>^c*
for mineralogical didindlions and chara&ers cannot be °teriais 0f~
called in quedion. Earth.
Mr Kirwan has given a long feftion on the didin- ~—v—
guidiing characters of trap, and its relation to bafalt,
&c. in his Geological Fffays. He thinks that there
might be formed a natural feries of dones of a trap
nature, taking in not only the compofition, but alfo
the texture, grain, and fpecific gravity, as fomething
of this kind has been conceived and done by Wer-
ner- .... . 58 ?
Primitive trap is often found in vad drata in the Where
midd of gneifs, and veins of it running through gneifs, *°unc*'
have been found in Knobfdorf in Silefia, and in Bo¬
hemia. It is alfo lometimes found in granite, and it is
found pafling through granite and micaceous fchidus
in the Wedern iiles of Scotland. Saintfond found it al¬
ternating with granite, near St Malo ; and Charpentier,
with gneifs. It fometimes forms entire mountains, as
in the territory of Deux Ponts ; and in Norway it is
found repofing on granite. It fometimes alternates with
argillaceous fchidus, as at Leidenburgh. Cp
Primitive trap frequently contains metals, efpecially Metals
the ores of iron and copper. found in it.
Sect. XVI, Topa-z Rock.
60
This done is compofed of quartz, fchori, topaz, and Topazrock.
lithomarga, (a kind of hardened clay) the three former
fubdances condituting fmall layers or plates alternating
with each other. It fometimes contains cavities or
geods, lined on the infide with crydals of quartz and
topazes. The texture of this done is between the
fchidofe and the granular ; that is, it is compofed of
plates or laminae ; but thefe laminae are of a granular
drufture.
Topaz rock is very rare. It forms part of a moun¬
tain near Averbach, in the metallic mountains of Sax¬
ony; but no metallic matter has hitherto been difeover-
ed in it.
Sect. XVII. Si/iceous Schiflus.
6x
SILICEOUS fchidus, or dinty Hate, isthe kiefelfchiefer Siliceous
of Werner; but there feems fome difpute between hisfchiftus
difciples, whether it be a primitive or a fecondary rock;deferibed.
on which account we have placed it lad in the former
feries. Brochant does the fame ; but Mr Jamefon, in
his {ketch of the Wernerian geognofy, places it among
the tranfition formations, or thofe which immediately
fucceed the primitive. It is thus deferibed by Mr Jame¬
fon. Its colour is bluith gray ; it is internally dull ; its
fra&ure in the great is imperfe&ly llaty ; in the fmall,
large fplintcry, pading into flat conchoidal; its frag¬
ments are indeterminately angular, and pretty {harp *yamefo7i't
edged ; it is drongly tranflucent on the edges j it is Min. of
hard and brittle, difficultly frangible, and not particu-
larly heavy *. 4^
An entire mountain formed of this done is found in Where
Lufatia, in which there are no petrifadlions. It is alfo found,
found in the Alps, interpofed between gneifs and horn-
done. Schlendgenberg, a mountain in Saxony, is for
the mod part compofed of it, mixed with hornblende
and feldfpar. Kirwan confiders it as the fame fub-
dance
Arran^e-
• tnent, &c.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
* Minera¬
logy °f
Dumfries,
p. 64.
G E 0 L
ftance which Sauffure calls pahiofetre, which is com¬
monly conlidered as petroiilex.
Flinty date is delcribed by Mr Jamefon as among
the mineral fubftances found in Dumfriesdiire. He
particularly notices an immenfe rocky mats of it at the
entrance of the valley at Leadhills, by which the me¬
tallic veins are completely interrupted*.
No metals have been found in it.
B. Secondary Compounds.
63
Secondary
compounds.
65
Where
found.
The fubftances which we are now to notice are dif-
tinguifhed from thofe which we have been defcribing,
in containing more or lets the remains of organized be¬
ings. As the inferior ftrata of thefe fecondary com¬
pounds ufually contain fewer organic remains than thofe
above them, they are fometimes fubdivided into two
orders, one of which is confidered to be intermediate
between the primary and fecondary ftrata.. 1 his is
Werner’s claflification, of which we ihall give an ac¬
count in the next chapter.
Sect. XVIII. Secondary Lirnejione.
64
Secondary
limettone
defcribed.
Under this title we {hall comprehend what Werner
calls tranfition limeftone, floetz limeftone, and limeftone.
Secondary limeftone is a calcareous mafs, fometimes
Granular,"and fometimes compaft, the former approach¬
ing to primitive limeftone. Its frafture i- Italy, and
it is fometimes femitranfparent. In colour it is very
various, fometimes red, or rather blackdh,. with white
veins, conftfting of calcareous fpar. It is often of a
grayifh call. It fometimes forms vaft blocks., without
any appearance of {{ratification \ at other times it. is
evidently {{ratified. It abounds with remains of marine
animals, and often contains nodules of agate, and other
fimilar ftones. .
A variety of calcareous ftone is defcnbed by mme-
ralogifts under the name of fwineftone. It is either
eompad, ftaty, or porous, and is faid in general to con¬
tain no petrifaclions, though fome found in the moun¬
tain of Kinneculla contains many. It is confidered by
Kirwan as primeval limeftone, impregnated with pe-
iroleum.
Limeftone is fometimes found in oviform balls, com¬
monly containing a grain of fand in them.
There is a variety of limeftone that is very porous,
and abounds in remains of vegetable matter, as imprel-
fions of leaves, &c.
Secondary limeftone is very abundant in moft parts
of the world, forming a confiderable part of many
mountains, and being often the principal ftratum to. a
confiderable depth below the furface. The mountain
Iberg, in the Hartz, is compofed of vaft maffes. of it,
irregularly rifted ; and mountains of a fimilar kind are
found in Siberia and in the Vivarais. In fome of thofe
mountains vaft caverns have been formed. Secondary
limeftone mountains always repofe on fome primitive
ftone } thus, in Siberia their bafe confifts of granite,
porphyry or hornblende •, in Saxony, of granite, or
granular limeftone, and fometimes of argillaceous
fchiftus •, in Switzerland, thefe mountains repofe on ar¬
gillaceous fchiftus or gneifs, or fometimes on calcareous
puddingftone. In the Crimea, there is an immenfe
extent of fecondary limeftone, between Roflof and
O G Y. Chap. I.
Perekop, which is minutely defcribed by Pallas. Great Arrange,
part of the fummit of Mont Perdu, the higheft of the
Pyrenees, is compofed of fecondary limeftone, arranged ' teri.,js ^
in nearly vertical ftrata, and fo full oi the remains of the Earth,
marine animals as in fome places to appear as if com- ——
pofed of nothing elfe. Here it feems to repofe on gra- -
nular limeftone.
The bafe of Mount Ingleborough in Yorkftrire,
which is near 30 miles in circuit, confifts entirely of
limeftone, containing vaft quantities of lea {hells. This
ftone alfo forms the principal inferior ftrata through the
greater part of Derbylhire, being arranged in beds of
various degrees of thickneis, from a few inches to about
200 fathoms in fome places, not having been perforated ;
and abounding with {hells, and other marine remains.
It is found in many quarries in Scotland, diftindlly
{{ratified. Mr Jamefon notices quarries of limeftone at
Clofeburn, and Barjarg, and at Kellhead in Dum-
friesftiire. _ , . 66
Secondary limeftone often contains metallic veins, Metals
efpecially in Derbyftiire, where it abounds with galena, found in it,
blende, fulphur pyrites, and copper pyrites. Sulphur is
alio fometimes found in it. Kirwan remarks, that in
the reft of Europe limeftone is feldom metalliferous. . ^
The ftone commonly called alabajler, employed in ^hafter,
making ftatues and ornaments, is properly a carbonated
lime, nearly allied to marble •, though it is ufually fup-
pofed to be a variety of gypfum or plaft.er ftone. There
is a gypfeous alabafter that will be noticed piefently.
Calcareous alabafter is not often white (though as
’white as alabajler is a common proverb), but generally
tinftured with iron of a yellow, brown, or reddifii oaft.
It is femipellucid, and uluaily fo foft as to be fciatched
by the nail.
It is commonly found in blocks, in marble quarries,
as in the ifland of Paros, and in feveral parts of Italy,
particularly in the territory of Volterra in l ufcany, iu
Malta, &c. A variety is found in the form of ftalac-
tites of a conical or cylindrical form.
Sect. XIX. Gray Wacbe,
68
Gray wacke is a ftone compofed of fragments of Gray
quartz and argillaceous fchiftus, cemented by an. argi!-wackede-
laceous matter fimilar to the fchiftus, varying in fize,lcr
from that of a hen’s egg, till they are fo minute as to
be no longer vifible. It fometimes contains a matter
ftmilar to filiceous fchiftus.
There is a variety of this ftone, called by Werner
gray wacke {late, which is a hmple flaty ftone, which
bears a confiderable refemblance to argillaceous fchiftus.
From this, however, it is to be diftinguifiied, according
to Mr Jamefon, by the following charafters.
“ It has feldom a greenilh or light yellowifli gray
colour, as is the cafe with primitive flate, but is ufually
afti and fmoke gray. It does not fhew the filvery con¬
tinuous luftre of primitive clay flate, but is rather glim?
mering, which originates from intermixed fcales of mi¬
ca. Quartz fcarcely occurs in it in layers, but ufually
traverfes it in the form of veins. Further we do not
find cryftals of feldfpar, fchorl, talc, chlorite flate, or
magnetic iron ftone are to be obferved in it. It con¬
tains petrifactions, particularly thofe varieties that bor-
der on gray wacke. It alternates with gray wacke*”
Thefe {tones are diftinftly ftratified, but the dirt£tion
of
69
Where
found.
Chap. I. G E O L
Arrange- of their itrata ib not parallel to that of the other rocks
went, &.c. on they lie. They are very commonly found
tnaeisofa‘coverIng hmeftone, efpecially at the foot of mountains,
the Earth. Gray wacke is found in Erzgebirge, at Braunfdorf,
Riefberg, and Averbach, in Voegtland,in Tranfylvania,
on the banks of the Rhine, in Lahnthal, and fome
other places in Germany. It is alfo found in Britain $
and Mr Jamefon notices it among the minerals of Dum-
friesihire, where the gray wacke ilate is found near Mof¬
fat, in the vicinity of Langholm, in the higher parts
of the valley of Efk, and behind Burnfwark. The
ftrata found in thefe places yield a very good Hate,
nearly free from mechanical mixture, and well adapted
to the roofing of houfes.
This fpecies of (lone is rich in metals •, the greater
found in it. part of the veins of lead and filver in the Hartz, efpe¬
cially thofe of Claulthal and Zellerfeld, are in gray
wacke. In Tranfylvania, in Vorefpath, it contains
even rich minesof gold. The gray wacke ftrata on the
banks of the Rhine are alfo traverfed by fome metallic
veins, but thofe of Saxony contain nothing but blind
coal.
70
Metals
7*
Secondary
frap.
74
Amygda¬
loid or toad-
tone.
73
Globular
trap.
74
Green-
done.
O G Y. 5<5r
iron, blackilh mica, and cryftals of pale fleftr-coloured Arrange-
feldfpar. This rock may be confounded with porphy-
ry, or with feldfpar ; but is generally conlidered as dif- te,.^ 0f
ferent from both. Mr Jamefon found it in beds from the Earth,
three to twelve feet thick on the upper fide of the Sufan- "V" ""y
na vein in the valley of Leadhills, and in the moun¬
tain between Wamphray and Eikdalemuir.
Sect. XXI. Sandjlcne, or Grit.
75
These terms, like manyothers which we meet with inSandftone.
mineralogy, are very vague and indefinite, and are ufed
to denote three or four kinds of (lone j a calcareous, an
argillaceous, and a filiceous fanditone. We (hall here
confider only two of them, the argillaceous and the fili¬
ceous.
i. Argillaceous fandftone.
76
Sect. XX. Secondary Trap.
Several varieties of trap occur among the fecondary
ftrata, and muft be here enumerated. They all confilt
principally of greenftone, or that mixture of horn¬
blende and feldfpar, which conftitutes the primitive
traps, noticed in Seftion XV. but in the traps we are now
to mention, the mixture is much more intimate, the
grains confiderably finer, and the mafs appears homo¬
geneous. We (hall here notice only three principal
varieties; the amygdaloid or toadftone, the globular
trap, and the greenftone, called by the Wernerians
tranfition greenftone.
1. The amygdaloid, called in Derbyfiiire toadftone,
and fometimes cat dirt, appears to confift of hornblende
flate in a date of decompofition, and appears very fimi-
lar to a kind of wacke, of a very fine grain. It is of a
blackifh colour, and very hard, and often contains a
number of bladder holes, which are fometimes entirely
empty, at others are partially or wholly filled with fpar.
It runs in immenfe folid beds, without any appear¬
ance of ftratification or filTure, of unequal thicknefs, ha¬
ving been feen from 6 feet to 600 thick. It commonly
alternates with the ftrata of fecondary limeftone, as in
Derbyfhire, and fometimes feems to penetrate the infe¬
rior ftratum of limeftone to a very confiderable depth"
It contains no metallic veins, and it is faid entirely to
intercept thofe which it paffes in the limeftone ftrata.
Saintfond affirms that lead ore is fometimes found in cat
dirt; but he feems to have been deceived by the vague-
nefs of the term, as the miners of Derbyftiire give the
fame name to a greenifh variety of limeftone, which is
fometimes traverfed by veins of lead ore.
2. Globular trap. This is a fchiftofe greenftone, par¬
tially decompofed, and alfo refembles a fine-grained
wacke ; but it appears in the form of large balls, com-
pofed of concentric layers, with a hard nucleus. It is
found at Altenzulze in Voegtland, and fome other
places. It fometimes contains veins of copper and iron.
3. Greenftone. This is almoft entirely compoled of
feldfpar, ufually of a pale flefti-red colour, having fome¬
times imbedded in it grains of grayifti quartz, fcalesof
VOL. IX. Part II.
This is the fandjlein Argillace-
of Werner, and the argillaceous grit of the ordinary ous fan(L
miners. It is compofed of grains of quartz, and fome-llone*
times of filiceous fchiftus ; moie rarely of feldfpar.
Thefe grains are of various fizes, and are cemented in
an argillaceous matter, commonly containing iron ;
whence this (lone is fometimes called ferruginous fand¬
ftone. From the coarfenefs or finenefs of the grains, it
receives the names of coarfe and fine fandftone. There
is a very coarfe kind found in Derbyftiire; containing
a confiderable quantity of quartz pebbles.
This fpecies of fandftone is found in immenfe beds,
fometimes above 100 yards thick.
It is very diftincfly ((ratified, and is commonly divid¬
ed by fiffures, into the (hape of parallelepipeds. It
fometimes alternates with layers of compact limeftone,
and often lies above a done which we are immediately
to mention, fliale qt Jhiver.
Sandftone is fometimes formed into globular concre¬
tions, compofed of concentric lamellae. ^
Sandltone is one of the moft abundant produ&s ofWhere
nature, occurring in almoft every country. In Britain tcund*
it forms the uppermoft ftratum in many parts of Derby¬
ftiire ; and in the die of Arran there is an immenfe
feparate mafs of it, forming what is calledcock *.*Jamefon’s
In the fame ifland it is found in Glenranza, repofing on °/^.e
fecondary limeftone. fS.'
The globular concretions of fandftone are uncom-} Mineral.
mon. Mr Jamefon obferved them in the ifle of Skye, o/-the IJlei%
near the harbour of Portree f; and Reufs obferved the vo1" ” P- 87*
fame in Bohemiat cfoTaT
This fpecies of fandftone ufually contains many pe- qj^fsoh- ’
trifaftions, but is generally not very abundant in me- men, vol. ii.
taL ; it however fometimes contains veins of cobalt. f. 46-
2. Siliceous fandftone. This is a (lone of a fimilarj.. . 7s
nature with the laft, except that the cementing mafs is
alfo of a filiceous nature. It is found in the ports of
Domica and Campara, in the ifle of Arbe, and on the
coaft of Dalmatia, where it contains petrifa&ions. The
hill of Platinbuig confifts of fandftone, with a chalce¬
dony cement. Some fine fpecimens of filiceous fand-
ftnne are found in Salifbury Craigs at Edinburgh, con¬
taining (hells which have affumed the nature of chalce¬
dony. It does not appear to contain metals.
Sect. XXII. Gypfum, or V Inf erf one.
79
This is native fulphate oflime, and it appears in fe-G>pfuni»
veral forms. Six varieties are uiually enumerated ; com-
4 2 Kion
562
terials of
the Earth.
Voyage
to
528
Si
Lenticular.
Arrange- mori gypfum, lenticular gypfum, cryflallized gypfutn,
^^the Ma ^rous gyp^utllj ftalaftitic gypl’um, and gypfeous ala-
’ barter.
1. Common gypfum is a com pa £1, granulated ftone,
commonly of a grayirti colour, and mixed with impuri¬
ties', containing a considerable quantity of carbonate of
lime. Its texture is feldom laminated, but it appears
like coarfe loaf fugar. This kind is very abundant,
jnany hills being entirely formed of it. Of thefe the
moft remarkable are the plafterhills in the neighbour¬
hood of Paris, thofe in the canton of Bern in Switzer¬
land, and others among the Alps. Hills of gypfum
occur alfo in Spain and Poland 5 near the White feaj
in Alia, where they are moftly in horizonal ftrata 5 in
the north Archipelago, between Alia and America.
SauiTure found a mountain in Switzerland com poled of
gypfum, fand, and clay*. This kind fometimes con-
- 'fP*5' tains petrifactions, and often abounds with the impref-
’ ^ lions of animal and vegetable matters j fome very curi¬
ous examples of which will be mentioned in a future
feCtion. In contains few metals, although copper is
fometimes found in it, as are rock-falt and lulphur.
2. Lenticular gypfum is a curious variety, which
feems peculiar to Montmartre near Paris. In one of
the banks in this mountain, fpecimens of it are found
containing little lenticular bodies, diftinft and differoi-
nated through the ftony matter, fo as to form a great
part of its mafs. A fpecimen of this kind is figured by
Patrin, in his natural hiftory of minerals.
3. The crystallised gypfum is alfo found chiefly in
the environs of Paris, in cryftals that are decaedral, or
fometimes like a rhomboidal oftaedron, with the pyra¬
mids truncated near the bafe.
4. Fibrous gybfum, compofed of Ihort brittle threads
difpofed in bundles, is found in Derbylhire, and near
Riom in Auvergne. A very beautiful variety, of a filky
feel, and reticulated texture, is defcribed by Patrin, as
found in Poland, in the fait mines of Wielitlka j in
Ruflia, near the junction of the river Oka with the Wol-
* Etjt. Nat. Sa ’ in S.Pain 5 and in Ch.ina*
de ■ iner. ^ variety of gypfum with the appearance of vegeta-
tom. iii. p. tion is found in caverns near the baths at Matlock in
218. Derbyfliire. A beautiful fpecimen of it is figured by
84 Patrin *.
StalaCtitic. 5. Gypfum is fometimes found hanging from the
• lides and roof of caverns in the form of ftalatlites, a
u tranfverfe fe&ion of which thews their internal ftru6ture
to be radiated. This variety is commonly called
fchlot *.
6. Gyofeous alabafer is very fimilar to true alabafter,
except that it does not, like that, ertervefce with acids,
and is in general not fo ftrong.. It is found in great
abundance in Derbyfhire in large maffes, filling up ca¬
vities in argillaceous grit. It never forms a flratum,
but is generally attended with gravel, red clay, and
fhells. Mr Mawe reprefents the lower portions as be¬
ing very ftrong and compact, fo as to form columns
1 Mineral, and piiaflers f. This kind is alfo found in Franche
of Derbyjb. Comte, and on the Marne about fix leagues from Paris,
F s4- at lyagny.
Though from the ordinary form or fituation of gyp¬
fum, and the organic remains fo commonly found in it,
there can be no doubt of its being iir molt cafes a fe-
sondary rock 3 yet from its having been found mixed
GEOLOGY. Chap, i,
with mica in St Gothard, it is enumerated by fome Arrange-
82
Cryftalli-
2ed.
~ 83
Fibrous.
fupra
222.
85
Gypfeous
alabafter.
among the primary compounds.
Sect. XXIII. Fluor Spar.
ment, See.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
86
This beautiful fubftance, which is native fiuat q/piuor fpar
lime, is found either in large unformed maffes or blocks,defcribeck
or cryftallized in cubes or odlacdrons. It is of different
colours : but the moil prevailing varieties are that in
parallel zones or bands of green, blue, yellow, and
white 3 and that in which a white ground is veined
with a reudifli brown. Some fpecimens are fo {haded
as to reprei'ent a geographical map 3 but thefe are very
rare. It is fo foft as to be eafily turned in a lathe into
thofe vales and other ornaments which are fo common¬
ly k-en on chimneypieces. 86
Fluor Ipar is found in feveral countries of Europe, but^iere
efpecially in France and Britain. According to Patrin,tound'
there are mines of it in the primitive mountains of Gy-
romagny, in the Vofges, in the neighbourhood of Lan-
geac, in Auvergne, and at Forez near Ambierle, that
are inexhauftiblr 5 . It is alfo found in the mountain of ^
Pilat not far from Lyons 3 among the rocks that fkirt tom. iq. g*
the valley of Chamouni in the Alps 3 in the Altaifchan 2SS.
mountains of Alia 3 and in Greeniand.
The molt productive mines of this fubftance in Bri¬
tain are in a mountain near Caftleton in Derbyftiire.
Here there are two mines producing the beautitul com¬
pact fluor, called Blue John, w hich is found in pipe
veins running in various directions. The fluor com¬
monly refts upon limeftone, and it frequently has this
ftone for a nucleus, round which it appears to have cry¬
ftallized. Frequently, however, the centre is hollow.
In feveral parts of the mine the fluor is found in detached
mafles, in caves filled with clay and loofe adventitious
matter, having the appearance as if it had been broken
off from the limeftone on which it had been formed 3
for every piece, in one part or other, leems as if it had
adhered to fomething, and been broken off.
Some of the pieces of fluor are a foot thick, and
have four or five different veins or zones : fuch large
pieces are, however, very rare, and generally they are
only three or four inches thick *. "gliltnd *
Saintfond, who has given an interefting account of(-e(qi vji#'
the curiofities near Caftleton, fays, that fluor fpar w'ould
be the moft beautiful fubftance in nature, if it were
but a little harder.
It is alfo found in Northumberland, in a vein a-
mong the granite mountains of Aberdtenfhire f, and in Ma
one of the Shetland ifles, in a vein of bafalt j;. I/7es,voLL
Fluor appears in fome cafes to be primitive. Thusp 153-
it is found forming whole ftrata in the mountains of the 207.
foreft of Thuringia, and in a vein of quartz in Upper
Hungary.
SECT. XXIV. C/talF
sa-
Chalk is too well known to require a defeription. Chalk.
It is not always white, but is frequently coloured. It
is difpofed in horizontal beds that are often many yards
in thicknefs, and which always repofe on layers of
other calcareous ftone of a harder ftruflure. Thefe
beds are often of confiderable extent, and very common¬
ly
Avranae-
ment, 8tc.
af the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
89
Where
found.
(Chap. I.
]y contain flints, oviform limeftone, and vaft quantities
of fir ells.
Chalk, which is fo abundant in fome countries, is
fcarcely found in others. It is well known that the
fouth and fouth-eaftern parts of England, and the fouth
and fouth-weft of France contain vatl: cliffs and beds of
it j much of it is alfo found in Zealand. It is, we be¬
lieve, a rare produftion in Scotland, and in moft moun¬
tainous trafts. It has been remarked by Pennant, that
if a line be drawn from Dorchefter in the county of Dor-
fet. to the county of Norfolk, it would form the boundary
of the great chalky ftratum of England j no quantity
having been found to the north or weft of that line.
There is a mountain of chalk between Tor and Ifium
on the banks of the Donetz in Ruflia, in which fome
Greek monks have excavated apartments to the length
of fifty fathoms* .
No metals are found in chalk, though it is faid that
in France martial pyrites has been dilcovered in it.
GEOLOGY.
S<5.
Nearly allied to this is what the miners call rubble Arrange-
ftone, which is a common variety of flate found in
fimilar fituations with flate, but often very rich in me- teriaisof
tallic ores, efpecially iron, galena, bifmuth, and cobalt, the Earth.
It all'o abounds with petrifactions. It is fometimes
found in primitive rocks. Ru'W,^
* Pallas's
Travels,
vol. ii. p.
84.
Sect. XXV. Clay.
Clay.
90
91
Indurated
clay.
Clay is found in various ftates with refpeft tohard-
nefs or folidity, from the foft duftile clay ufed by the
potters and pipemakers to the perfeft flate (clay flate,
or argillaceousfchjlus') already defcrioed.
Soft clay is found in beds of various degrees of thick-
nefs, commonly not far below the furface, and alter¬
nating with harder clay, flates, fand, or limeftone. It
is generally very abundant, efpecially in thofe places
where coal or roek-falt is found.
Clay of a harder confidence, commonly called indu¬
rated clay, or in the language of the miners clunch, is
ufually found below the fofter clay, or there is fome¬
times a ftratum of flate or fimilar argillaceous matter
interpofed. It often alternates with limeftone, fandftone,
or gypfum. Petrifaftions and (hells are often found
in it, as are quartz, fulphur pyrites, martial ochre, com¬
mon fait, vitriol and alum.
A harder (late of clay forms that fubftance which
is called by mineralogifts lilhomarga (ftone clay).
This is found in beds or ftrata often alienating with
the former, with date or with limeftone, efpecially in
coal mines. It alfo forms nefts or balls in toadftone
and fimilar rock. It fometimes bears the impreflions of
reeds and other vegetable bodies.
1 Slate day. The next degree of hardened clay, forms flate clay,
(Jchiefer thon of the Germans). This fubftance, how¬
ever is not very hard, but is eafily broken into angular
tabular fragments. Its internal appearance js ufually
dull, but fometimes glimmering from a flight intermix¬
ture of fcales of mica. Its colour is ufually a yedowfifti
gray, with fpots or clouds of a pearl gray, or a cherry
red, but fometimes it inclines to black. It ufually lies
between beds of fandftone, and almoft always below the
fofter clays.
A kind of clay, of a (fill harder confidence, forms
flate or fchiftus. This is ufuady of a dark brown or
blackhh colour, and a laminated texture. It lies in
beds, fometimes of immenfe thicknefs, ufually below
fandftone, or alternating with this and limeftone. It
often contains impreflions of organic remains, and there
are fometimes found in it veins of lead ore. It is a
Very common ftratum in the coal countries.
91
Lithomar-
§a-
93
Slate.
94
Sect. XXVI. Marl.
ftone.
96
Marl is a fubftance chiefly compofed of fand, clay, Marl,
and calcareous matter, which is found in many places,
and forms one of the moil valuable natural manures
ufed in agriculture. This is alio found of various
degrees of hardnefs, from a foft powder to a (tony con-
fiftenee, in which laft ftate it forms what Kirwan calls
marlite. In colour it is ufually of a reddiih w hite, fome¬
times verging upon red, and it is not unfrequently
found of a yellowilh brown or blackifh caft. Marl is
ufually difpofed in confiderable beds of various degrees
of thicknefs, in valleys and other low lands, efpecially
among the coal ftrata. Indurated marl occurs in the
coal itrata of Mid Lothian*, and it is alfo found in the *Jamefonls
ifland of May. Powdery marl is feen in Skye.
Stony marl, or rsiarlite, is found in Bavaria, alter-‘■>' lJ
nating with fand and fandftone. Hills of it occur
in Carniola, Carinthia, and the Venetian territory. It
is alfo found between ftrata of limeftone and argillaceous
fchiftus.
Sect. XXVII. Argillaceous Ironjlcne.
97
Tins is fometimes called metal ftone, and is very Argillace-
common in the coal countries. It is very heavy andousiron-
compaft, and of various colours, from a dark brown^;one*
to a blood red j the latter forms the haematites or
bloodftone, one of the richeft iron ores. It often con¬
tains in it fpheriea! balls like iron bullets. It is dif¬
pofed in ftrata alternating with indurated clay, flate
clay, marl, or fandftone, feldom far below' the furface.
It 1’eldom forms very extenfive beds, but is often con¬
fined to particular fpots.
Ironftone is found in great abundance in Cumber¬
land, and in moft parts of Scotland. It may be feen
in the cliffs all along the coalt of Fife, from Dyfart to
St Andrew's.
Sect. XXVIll. IVac&e and Bafalt,
98
We have already fpoken of feveral (tones under the Whinftoae.
name of traps, that are found both among primitive and
fecondary compounds. The tw o fubftances which we are
now to notice are nearly allied to the traps, and have been
clafled with them under the general name of whin/lone.
This is a favourite term among the mineralogifts of
Scotland, of whom Sir James Hall employs it as a ge¬
neric name to denote trap, bafalt, wacke, grunftein, and \Edinbtirgt
porphyry f. i he term is convenient, but Profeflor Phi1, Tranf*
Jamefon and others of the Wernerian fchool objedt to^’ ‘ P‘
it as too vague and indefinite. ^ ’ X)9
Wacke, or w'acken, differs from trap only in being Wacke.
more compadl and of a finer grain. It is heavy and
very hard, fo as often to ftrike fire with fteel ; it is
dull and opaque, and breaks with an even fradture. Its
colour is ufually a reddifh brown or gray of various
4 B 2 (hades*
564 G E O L
Arrange- fhades, and foinetimea it has a greenifh caft. It has
--t, ®{-c■ ufually an earthly fmell, when breathed on. It isfome-
°ter’6,Is o( times highly impregnated with iron, and often contains
the Earth, cryftals of hornblende, and very commonly thofe of
« 1—i..' hexagonal black mica.
It often forms a confiderable part of mountains, either
in vaft blocks, as in the hill on which Edinburgh caftle
Hands, or in tirata lying above limeftone or fandftone,
or alternating with thefe. A great part of the Calton-
hill, of Salifbury craigs, and Arthur’s feat at Edin¬
burgh, is compofed of ilrata of this kind ; and fimilar
appearances take place in the bed of the water of Leith
near the town, and in the cliffs on the coaft of Fife,
efpecially at St Andrews. To the eye of the volcanic
Saintfond, all thefe beds appeared to be lava. We are
difpofed to think, with Mr Playfair, that the curious
inllance of alternate ftrata of baialt (as Saintfond calls
it) and limeftone, near Villeneuve de Berg, defcribed
f Recher- an(j figured by that author, affords an example of whin-
Vol/"1^ ftone alternating with limeitone, fuch as are feen in
% °Townf. Scotiand f. Several varieties of wacke are found in
Tiafts, the hills near Edinburgh, and are defcribed by Dr
p. 204. Townfon Mr Jamefon obferved wacke alternating
1 qo with porpyhry in Skye,
Bafalt. Bafalt has a finer grain, and is more compact, than
even wacke, and is the moft denfe of all the whins or
traps. It is found either in large blocks, covering the
other ftrata, fometimes in the form of tables, or in re¬
gular prifmatic columns, either ftraight or bended. We
have already treated fo fully of the nature, properties,
and chief habitats of bafalt (fee Basaltes), that
little remains to be added here.
It is principally diftinguifhed from wacke, where it
is not in regular prifms, by very rarely containing cryl-
tals of mica, which are fo common in the latter.
Saintfond in his fplendid work Swr/hr Vo/cans eteints
du Vivarais, Sec. has figured fome examples of bafal-
tic pillars which rival thofe of Staffa and the Giants
Caufeway. A more romantic fituation is fcarcely to be
conceived than that drawn in his eleventh plate, of a
village placed in the front of a bold hill covered with
bundles of fmall pillars lying in every direction, and
having detached perpendicular columns ftanding at each
end, with a large cave direftly behind the houfes.
Large maffes of bafalt are feen in the north of Shetland,
ftanding infulated, and affuming a very grotefque ap¬
pearance. Mr Jamefon deferibes one of thefe in the
ifie of Jura, that forms a natural arch. We remember
feeing two curious infulated rocks on the fhpre at the
foot of Kinkeld braes at St Andrews, but do not recol¬
lect whether they are of a bafaltic nature.
Several other fubftances, as fand, gravel, peat, &c.
might here be noticed, but their ftrufture and fitua¬
tion are too well known to render a particular notice
nectflfary. *
Many of the (tones which we have tfefcribed among
the primitive rocks, are alfo fometimes found among
the fecondary ftrata, as argillaceous fchiftus, hornftone,
hornblende, jafper, and efpecially puddingftone •, but
they are not fo important as to require a fecond exami¬
nation.
Before we conclude this general account of the ma¬
terials which compofe our globe, we muft briefly notice
two of the nioft valuable mineral productions, viz. rock
I
O G Y.
fait and coal, and muft fay fomething
petrifadlions.
Sect. XXIX. Rock Salt.
C hap. I4
of foflils and Arrange¬
ment, 5tc.
of the Ma.
terials of
the Earth.
Rock fait or fal gem, {\\\e Jleinfal of the Germans) 101
is the pureft muriate of loda that is found in nature, it
being much lei's impregnated with foreign matters than
what is procured from fea water. It is very hard, and
generally very traniparent, being fometimes as clear as
cryftal. It is ufually white, but often yellowifti, blue,
red, or violet, and now and then it is quite opaque.
This fait forms in the bowels of the earth horizontal
beds or banks, more or lefs thick, from a few inches
to many hundred fathoms j and fometimes extending
feveral miles round. It commonly alternates with clay
or gypfum. The beds are fometimes without any break
for a great extent. It is generally found a few fathoms
below the furface, and in fome places is found continued
to the depth of lOOO feet. 103
It is found in fome mountains *, and in Algiers, near Where
the lake called Marks, there is a mountain almoft foundi
wholly compofed of it. Tihe famous fait mine of
Wielitlka in Auftrian Poland, about eight miles to
the fouth-eaft of Cracow, is in the northern extremity
of a branch of the Carpathian mountains. The fait
found here is of an iron gray colour, intermingled with
white cubes 5 and lometimes large blocks o( fait are
found imbedded in marl. This famous mine has been
worked ever fince 1251, and it is pretended that its
excavations extend more than a league from eaft to
weit *. About five leagues to the fouth-eaft of Cra¬
cow are the fait mines of Bofchnia, the depth of w hich * Tow/t-
is nearly equal to thofe of Wielitlka (loco feet) •, but And Tra-
the fait procured from them is lefs pure f. Mines
fait, in horizontal undulated beds, occur at I horda in ^ y0'urn.
Tranfylvania, and in Upper Hungary. In the fide oides Mines,
a mountain, about two leagues from Halle, on the-N0 47.
banks of the Inn, to the north-eaft of Infpruck, rock
fait is found imbedded in layers of a flaty rock ; but
there is one part of the mountain in which there occurs
an immenfe body of fait, without any mixture of rook,
to which they pafs by a gallery 260 toifes in length,
clofed at the end w ith a locked door. This fait is very
impure J. There are three important fait mines in j JadsVcy*
Spain; the firft near Mingranella, in a mountainous tom. ni.
trafl, between Vakntia and Caitile, imbedded in layers P- 3*8-
of gypfum ; the fecond in Spanifli Navarre, in a ridge
of hills compofed of limeftone and gypfum; and the
third that of Cardona in Catalonia, about 16 leagues
to the nortb-eaft of Barcelona, which is one of the moft
curious natural productions with which we are acquaint¬
ed. It confifts of an immenfe folid rock of fait, eleva¬
ted 500 feet above the earth, and extending to a depth
that has not been afeertained. It is without crevices
or clefts, and has no appearance of ftrata, and is near a ^
league in circuit. There is no plafter or gypfum found
in the neighbourhood, and the fait rock is as high as
any of the adjacent hills [[. 103
Rock fait in found is feveral places in England, par-Sait mines
ticularly at Northwich in Chelliire, at Droitwich
Worcefterftiire, and near Wefton in Staffordfhire ; but
the mines in Northwich are the moft productive. Salt
mines, in this fituation, were known to the Romans j
but
Chap. T.
Arrange- but the principal mine that is at prefent wrought, was
ment, &c. difCOvered in the beginning of laft century. It forms
^ebalsof" immen^e quarries, extending over feveral acres, which,
the'Earth, with their huge cryftal pillars and glittering roof,
w—-y—' prefent a mod beautiful fpeftacle. The fait found here
is of a dark-brown colour, like brown fugarcandy, and
is fo hard that it is blafted with gunpowder to get it
from the mafs. It is difpofed in beds, alternating with
beds of clay, gypfum, and flaty done. Salt is procured
at the greated depth hitherto explored *, and wherever
a draft is funk in the neighbourhood, there is a certain-
* Mawe'r 0f fmdir)g falt *.
Mintrulogy J3ef1(Jeg thefe extenfive mines, rock fait is found in
xv. canton of Berne in Switzerland, in Siberia, in A-
rabia, in Tibet, and even in New Holland. It is alfo
found in many parts of America, at a great height in
the mountains, •fpecially thofe of Peru.
GEOLOGY, - 565
4. It is an obfervation which holds, almoft without Arrange-
Sect. XXX. Coal.
Goal,
104
105
General
ing coal
(data.
We have already, in the articles Coal and Coal¬
er Y, treated of the nature of this fubdanee, of the
drata that are ufually found connefted with it (accord¬
ing to the phrafeology of the miners), and of the me¬
thod of procuring it from the pits *, and, in Minera¬
logy, we dial! give a particular account of the feveral
varieties, and the didinguifhing charafters of each. A
few obfervations refpedding the principal collieries, with
the appearance of the coal found in them, and the
correfponding dratification, fall to be made in this
place.
There are certain general circumdances that attend
the depolitions of coal in almod every place where it is
found, and which we mud mention before noticing the
particular collieries. Thefe are as follows.
1. The beds in which coal is dilpofed, ufually have
circuraftan- their extremities near the furface of the ground, from
ces attend- w}1;c]1 t]iey ben(i obliquely dowmwards, the middle part
of the bed being nearly horizontal, fo that a vertical
fe£lion of the bed nearly refembles the keel of a boat.
This figure is well expreffed in the fird and third plates
to Mr Jamefon’s Mineralogy of Dumfries. The lowed
part of the bed is ufually the thicked (d).
2. A bed of coal is feldom found fingle ; but, in ge¬
neral, feveral drata occur in the fame place, of various
thicknefs, the upper being ufually very thin, and the
lower very thick, with feveral dony drata between each
two. Where there is only one bed, this is generally of
very confiderable thicknefs. At WMtehaven there are
found at lead 20 coal drata beknv the furface ; and at
Liege, in France, there are no lefs than 60.
3. The drata that feparate the layers of coal are
nearly the fame in every colliery, and will be feen by
referring to the table given under Coalery, and by
thofe which will imsiediately be added. Thofe drata
which are in immediate contaft with the coal, are ei¬
ther whindone, or more commonly an argillaceous daty
mafs ; and near this is fanddone, in layers that are fe-
parated by flaty clay, mixed with particles of coal.
exception, that the flaty flrata, and efpecially thofe
next the coal, bear the imprefiion of vegetables, and temis 0f
often of exotic or unknown plants. the Earth.
Coal, in a greater or lefs quantity, but of very dif-^^1^6
ferent qualities, has been found in mod countries, and ^^4,
perhaps exids in all. It is found in France, Holland,
Britain, Germany, Saxony, Portugal, Switzerland,
and Sweden •, in China, Japan, and in New Holland $
and much of it is worked in Virginia in America.
But France and Britain may be confidered as the fa¬
vourite feats of this invaluable commodity, which may
judly be put in competition with the trealures of Potolx
and Peru. 107
It is dated by Buffon, that there are no fewer than^-0^ mmes
400 collieries worked in France ; and yet Saintford re-ot Friince‘
grets that his countrymen are not fo far advanced in
the ufe of this mineral as the inhabitants of Britain *. * Saints
The mod confiderable coal mines in France, are thofe/owdV
in the Lyonnois, at Forez, Burgundy, Auvergne, Travels,
Languedoc, Tranche Comte, and Liege. tom‘1’
The mines in the Lyonnois, and thofe of Forez, are11^’
among the mod important in France. They are fitua-
ted in a valley, extending from the Rhone to the Loire,
in a diredlion from north-ead to fouth-wed, between
two chains of primitive mountains, and they occupy in
length a fpace of fix or feven leagues, from Rive-de-
Gier to Firmini. In one part of the the valley, in the
neighbourhood of Saint-Etienne, the drata are nearly
horizontal, and the medial thicknefs of the coal dratum
is from three to fix feet 5 and near the Loire there are
from 15 to 20 of thefe. At Rive-de-Gier the drata
are almod vertical, and their thicknefs is very un¬
equal, being feldom lefs than three feet, and fometimes
amounting to 40 or even 60. All the coal produced
by thefe mines is of an excellent quality', and its quan¬
tity is immenfe. Patrin dates, on the mod undoubt¬
ed authority, that there are in the neighbourhood of
Rive-de-Gier, no lefs than 40 mines at work, which
produced in one year 1,600,000 quintals of coal f. \ Hijlcire
The next in importance are the coal mines of Liege. ^
The beds of coal in that country have a direftion {rom'^,ne^°V!SX
ead to wed ; they commence about a league to the ead ^ 2 "
of the town, and extend to about a league and a half
to the wed of it. Here, after meeting with lome inter¬
ruption, they extend for feveral It agues farther. Their
breadth, from north to foutb, is about three-fourths of
a league. At Verbios, which is to the north-wed of the
city, there are, according to Jars, more than 40 drata
of coal, which are feparated from each other by beds of
different kinds of fanddone, of from 30 to 100 feet in
thicknefs J. Gennete has counted 61 of thefe beds, Byars' Voy.
placed one above another * and he is of opinion, that Vietal.
the lowed penetrates to the depth of 4000 feet'per pen-Mem- xiv*
dicular. Though thefe mines have been wrought from^' 2S3’
the I 2th century, they have not yet reached to more
than the twenty-fird bed, at the depth of a little more
than IOOO Englith feet §. § Patrin,
Thetotn-v- P'
33®*
(D) Saintfond, in the feftion which he has of the coal drata at Newcadle, defcribes them as if they were con¬
vex towards the upper furface. (See p. 134. of vol.J. of the Englifh Tranflation of uis Travels in Eng andr&c,).
Surely this is a imitate.
io8
Principal
collieries
of England
* Saint-
fond's Tra
me Is, voij i,
G E O L
The principal collieries of Britain arethofe of New-
caftle and Whitehaven.
Ncwcaftle is furrounded by collieries to the diftance
■of fix or feven leagues, and may, perhaps, be confider-
ed as the richeft coal dillridt in the world. There are
,in feveral of the Newcaftle mines not fewer than 16
beds of coal, two of which are confiderably thicker
, than the reft, being each about a fathom in thicknefs.
Thefe are called the main coai\ and are diftinguiflied
into the high main coal, and the low mam coat, fepara-
ted from each other by a confiderable number of ftony
ft rata. Good coal, in fuffieient quantity, is generally
found at the depth of little more than too feet. The
bed is five feet thick in fome places, and lefs in others j
hut, in general, it is eafily wrought, and large pieces
are brought up. This laft circumftance is of confider¬
able advantage, as thefe pieces are moft proper for
chamber fires, and eafily tranfported, which makes this
kind of coal fell at a higher price. Where the bed of
black and bituminous clay is penetrated, the coal is
found adhering to it : but this is not always the cafe,
for there are other mines in the neighbourhood where
freeftone is recovering, which, in the points of contact,
is mixed with coal to the thicknefs of two or three
inches j the latter running, as it were, in fplinters into
the ftone, and having a ligneous appearance, when at¬
tentively examined *.
At Whitehaven, the beds of coal lie in a diredtiori
' parallel to each other. Their inclination or dip is
nearly to the weft, and is from one yard in eight, to
one in twelve. The ftrata are frequently interrupted
by large fiffures, or dykes, fome of which remove the
ftrata upwards or downwards, 120 feet. The courfe of
thefe fiffures is almoft eaft and weft. In a depth from
the furface of 165 and a half fathoms, there are, in
thefe collieries, feven large beds of coal, and 18 thin
O G Y. Chap. I.
beds, which cannot, at prefent, be rendered profit- Anange-
able. oftheM^
The ftrata fuperincumbeut on the large beds of coal ter;aisof"
are, ift bed, Blue Hate. 2d, Gray freeftone. 3d, me Earth.
Hard, white freeftone. 4th, Blue flate, ftriated or w—y—
fpeckled with freeftone. 3th, Gray fiate. 6th, Hard,
white tree ft one.
The ftrata immediately beneath thefe large beds of
coal, are from one and a halt to fix inches thick, and
confifts of a fpecies of argillaceous earth, or Jhale.
As this earth is of. a very foft or friable nature, the
weight of the litperincumbent ftrata preffes the pillar of
coal through it. if the pillar delcends a ft w inches,
the root not equally yielding at the fame time, crufhes,
or breaks into fmall pieces. When, under thefe cir-
cumftances, the thicknefs of the bed does not exceed
fix fe ei, nor the depth qo fathoms,, the furface of the
earth is fenfibly affedled*. * Dixon's
Th re appear to be twro principal belts of coal in this Life of Dr
ifland, extending from the eattern to the weftern coaft
one from Newcaftle to Whitehaven, the other from the1"' L^'
eaft coaft of Scotland, acrofs the vale of Forth and
Clyde, to Ay; {hire. Coal is indeed found in many other
parts of the ifland ; but the quantity is very trilling.
The fimilarity of fituation, and the fimilar nature of
the coal at Whitehaven and Newcaftle, would natural¬
ly lead us to infer, that the coal at both places is from
the fame feam. But this is placed beyond difpute, by a
comparative examination of the ftrata.in both fituations.
We {hall here give tuo tabular views of the ftrata, one
taken from Saintfond’s Travels, and the other from Dr
3 ofhua Dixon’s account of the Whitehaven mines, in his
literary life of Dr Brownrigg. Allowing for the dif¬
ferent names given by different miners to the fame fub-
ftances, and Dr Dixon’s greater minutenefs, there is a
wonderful fimilarity between the two tables.
Table I. Strata in Reiteration Pit, St Anthon’s Colliery, Newcaftle, to the depth of 135 fathoms.—
From Saintjond.
hi°
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
C3
14
15
16
17
18
<9
20
Stratum.
Fath
Soil and clay,
Brown freeftone,
Coal, I.
Blue metalftone,
White girdles,
Coal, II.
White and gray freeftone,
Soft blue metal ftone,
Coal, HI.
Freeftone girdles,
Whin,
Strong freeftone, .
Coal, IV.
Soft blue thill.
Soft girdles mixed with whin,
Coal, V.
Blue and black ftone,
Coal, VI.
Strong freeftone,
Gray metalftone,
5
12
2
2
6
5
3
1
3
1
3
Feet.
Inch.
GEOLOGY.
Chap- I.
Airange-
jnent,
uf the Via*
terials of
the Earth.
5^7
N°
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
35>
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
Stratum.
Coal, VII.
Gray port mixed with whin,
Gray girdles,
Blue and black Bone,
Coal, VIII.
Gray metalftone, . .
Strong freeftone. . ,
Black metalftone, with hard girdles
High main coal, IX.
Gray metal,
Port girdles, . .
Blue metal,
Girdles, . .
Blue metalftone, '.
Poft,
Blue metalftone, . ,
Whin and blue metal, ,
Strong freeftone,
Brown poft with water,
Blue metalftone with gray girdles,
Coal, X. .
Blue metalftone, .
Freeftone, . .
Coal, XI.
Strong gray metal, with poft girdle
Strong freeftone, .
Whin,
Blue metalftone,
Gray metalftone, with poft girdles,
Blue metalftone, with whin girdles,
Coal, XII.
Blue gray metal,
Freeftone, .
Freeftone mixed with whin,
Freeftone, . .
Dark blue metal, .
Gray metalftone and girdles,
Freeftone mixed with whin,
Whin,
Freeftone mixed with whin,
Coal, XIII.
Dark gray metalftone,
Gray metal and whin girdles,
Gray metal and girdles,
Freeftone, .
Coal, XIV.
Blue and gray metal,
Coal, XV.
Blue and gray metal,
Freeftone mixed with whin,
Gray metal,
Gray metal and girdles,
Low main coal, XVI.
Fath.jFeet. Inch
Arrange¬
ment, &c.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
GEOLOGY,
<;68
Arrange¬
ment, &c.
ot the Ma¬
terial- of
the Earth,
Table II. Strata in Croft Pit at Prefton-Hows near Whitehaven, to the depth of 107 Fathoms.
From Dixon.
N°
Stratum.
hath- Feet inch.
1 Soil and clay, . .
2 Brown loft limeftone, . • •
3 Dark-colotm d limeftone, harder,
4 Yellowilh limeftone mixed with fpar,
t; R/jddifh hard limeftone, . • «
6 Hard dark-coloured limeftone, .
7 Yellowilh limeftone mixed with fpar,
8 Soft brown limeftone, . •
9 Soft brown and yellow linleftone mixed with freeftone,
10 Limeftone mixed with yellow freeftone,
11 Reddilh foft freeftone, . • •
12 Red Hate, ftriated with freeftone in layers,
13 Red freeftone, . • • *
14 Soft red ftone, . . • *
15 Red Hate ftriated with red freeftone,
16 Red Hate ftriated with freaftone, .
17 Strong red freeftone, rather grayifh,
18 Lumpy red freeftone fpeckled with white freeftone,
19 Blue argillaceous fchiftus fpeckled with coal,
20 Red foapy Hate, . . • •
21 Black Hate with a fmall appearance of coal,
22 Alh-coloured friable fchiftus, . •
23 Purple-coloured Hate, . .
24 The fame, and under it black Hate, »
25 Coal, I. . . •
26 Soft whitilh freeftone,
27 Blackifh Hate, a little inclined to brown,
28 Coal, II. ....
29 Blackilh Ihale intermixed with coal, .
30 Whitilh freeftone,
31 Strong bluilh Hate mixed with freeftone,
32 White ironftone, . • *
33 Freeftbne ftriated with blue Hate,
34 White freeftone in thin layers,
35 Dark-blue Hate, . .
36 Coal, III. ....
37 Dark gray {hale, . ' . 1
38 Coal, IV. ....
39 Gray freeftone mixed with ironftone,
40 Hard white freeftone,
41 Coal, V. . . • •
42 Shale mixed with freeftone,
43 oli ve-eoloured Hate adhering to black Hate fuperincumbent
44 Coal, VI. . . . *
41; Black Ihale mixed with frt eftone,'
46 White freeftone mixed with Hate,
47 Dark-blue Hate,
48 Coal, VII. . _ .
49 Black fhale mixed with freeftone,
50 Strong white freeftone,
51 Brown ironftone,
52 Dark-gray Hate,
53 Dark-gray Hiale with an intermixture of Coal, VIII.
54 Light-coloured Hate mixed with freeftone,
55 Blue Hate ftriated with freeftone, _■
36 Strong white freeftone a little tinged with iron.
n coal,
1
3
4
3
1
4
4
2
2
1
2
7 1 "
4 I 1
4 3
4 5
4
5
4
1
4
4
1
2
2
3
1
1
3
1
5
2
2
3
1
2
2
1
2
2
4
1
1
- I 3
5
5
4
2
£hap. I.
Arran^e-
raent,
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth.
N8
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
7°
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
Ic>5
106
107
108
109
no
III
11 2
I13
H4
JI5
116
1 r7
G E O L 0 G Y,
Stratum.
Very black fhivery Hate,
Strong coal of a good quality, IX,
Soft gray Hate,
Very (black coal, X. burns well,
Hard black Hate,
Coal mixed with pyrites, XI.
Argillaceous fchilfus, gray and brittle,
Blue rough argillaceous fchiitus,
Fine blue Hate,
Frecftone mixed with ironftone,
Black Ihivery Hate, . ,
Dark-blue Hate, very fine,
Dark-blue flate, very brittle,
Coal, XII. . . ;
Soft gray argillaceous fchiftus,
Argillaceous fchiftus mixed with freeftone.
White freeftone with fine particles,
Blue flate ftriated with white freeftone,
Light-blue flate,
Blue flate a little mixed with ironftone,
Black fhivery flate,
Coal, XIII. .
Brownifh hard flate,
Strong blue flate tinged with ironftone,
Dark-blue flate rather inclined to brown,
Black fhivery flate,
Coal, XIV.
Lightifh-gray, brittle foapy fchiftus, .
Freeftone ftriated with blue flate,
Fine blue argillaceous fchiftus ftriated with freeftone,
Black flate, with hard, (harp, and fine particles,
Very light blue flate, remarkably fine,
Coal, XV.
Soft gray argillaceous fchiftus,
Black fhivery flate,
Coal, XVI.
Strong lightifh-coloured fhale,
Blue flate ftriated with white freeftone,
Ironftone,
Gray flate,
Strong white freeftone,
Freeftone ftriated with blue flate,
White freeftone,
Freeftone ttriated with blue flate.
Black flate,
Freeftone ftriated with blue flate,
Strong white freeftone,
Freeftone mixed with blue flate,
Strong white freeftone,
Grayilh flate of a fhivery nature,
Freeftone mixed with blue flate,
Very ftrong white freeftone.
Fine blue flate,
White freeftone ftriated with blue flate
Fine blue flate,
White freeftone,
Freeftone ftriated with blue flate,
White freeftone,
White freeftone in thin layers,
Fine blue flate,
Coal, XVII.
Fath. Feet. Inch.
4
3
2
3
4
4
4
9
6
10
3
11
5
44
4
4
5
3
3
74
4
1
10
4
5
1
10
4c
569
Arrange¬
ment, See.
of the Ma¬
terials of
the Earth,
Vol. IX. Part II.
An
fJ*r
G E O L
lOp
Foffils.
An interefling and valuable memoir on the fubje6l of
coal, written by M. Duhamel the younger, was pre-
iented a few years fince to the Academy of Sciences at
Paris, who adjudged it the prize that had been offered
for the beft effay on the fubjecl. An ample abflraa oi
this memoir appeared in the Journal des Mines, In yn.
In this paper is given a table of the number of veins,
their direction and inclination, and the nature ot the
it rat a next the coal, and in the neighbourhood, m all
the principal mines in Europe. For a fuller view of
the natural hiltory of coal, the readers may conlult Er
Millar’s edition of Williams’s Mineral Kingdom, ibio.
Sect. XXXI. OfFofils ami Tetrifatiions.
O G Y. Chap."I-
dug there below ftony maiTcs, which appear to have been Arrange-
the foundation of a former city, at. the depth of near.30 ^
feet, they find heaps of w heat entire, filbert trees, witn ter;a]s 0f
their nuts, briars, &c. They find, likewife, every fixthe Earth,
feet, a layer of earth, alternating with branches and 'Y—-j
leaves of trees.
At the depth of 28 feet, or thereabouts, they find a
chalk that cuts very eafily. It is mixed with fhells o£
feveral forts, and makes a bed of about 11 icet. Aker
this thev find a bed of raarihy eaith, of about tv. o rcet,
mixed w'ith rulhes, leaves, and branches. Alter this lx d
comes another chalk bed, of nearly the fame tlueknefs
with the former, which ends at the depth of 49 feet...
That is followed by another bed of marfhy earth like
Those organic remains of vegetable and animal mat¬
ter which are found below the furface oi the earth,
mixed with the llony matters which are properly the
component parts of the earth, are generally called/o/:
fils, or extraneous fqffUs. If they have entirely loll all
traces of vegetable or animal matter, and have aimmed
a ftony earthy nature, they .are called petrifaBions
Some of thefe organic remains, particularly thole of
the vegetable kind, are found penetrated with a bitu-
minous fubftance, fo as to be rendered highly inflam¬
mable. One of the moft curious circumftances attend¬
ing thefe Mil bodies, is, that they are very commonly
natives of a different country from that in which they
are found, or are the remains of fpeeies that are now no
longer known. . . . r
\sj'g may properly divide ttiefe fuufi&nces into thole
of the vegetable and thofe of the animal kingdom.
1. Vegetable fojfils. Almoft every part of vegetables,
the trunks, branches, leaves, and fruits, have been found
in a Mil Hate, or impreflions of feme of them are feen
in various mineral fubftances, efpecially in the flaty itone
which accompanies coal.
Fig. 6. reprefents a curious example of this, that was
found in the mines at Saint Etienne in France..
A, is a fruit refembling that of coffee. B, is a por¬
tion of an unknown vegetable, apparently of the verti-
cillate tribe. C, is a fpecies of fern, which is very re¬
markable, as it is furnifhed with fructifications. D,. is
part of a plant with verticil]ate leaves, probably a fpecies
of galium. E, is fome exotic fruit.
Whole trees are often found below the furface of the
earth, efpecially in bogs and moiles, fometmies retain¬
ing much of their vegetable nature, but more commonly
cither impregnated with bitumen or completely petri-
'' 1 Subterraneous trees are frequently dug up in the
the former ; after which comes.a new chalk bed } and
fied.
ifle of Anglefea 5 and in the ifte of Man there is a
marfh fix miles long and three broad, in which fir trees
are found in great quantities ; and though they are . 18
or 20 feet below the furface, they appear as if. Handing
firmly upon their roots. Subterraneous trees," in various
Hates, are frequently found in Ireland, efpecially in the
neighbourhood of Lough Neagh. Much lias been writ-
tendon the fubject of thefe petrifaflions of Lough Neagh,
by Dr Boate, in his Natural Hiftory of Ireland } by
Mr Molyneux, in the Philoibphical Tranfaclions, N°
clviii. and Dr Barton in his Leftures on Natural Philo-
* Parkin- fophy. Sortie of thefe trees are reprefented as of an im-
foti's Orga- nlenfe fixe*. One of the moft curious inftances of vege-
xic Re
mains,
.Letter vii
table foffils, is that related by Rammazzini, as feen by him
at Modena in Italy. At the bottom of wells, that are
thefe fucceftive beds are always found in the. fame older.
The anger fometimes finds great trees, which give the
workmen much trouble. I hey fee alio fiimetimes at
the bottom of thefe wells, great, bones, coals, flints, and
pieces of iron f. f A'qrV .
Thefe vegetable foflils are generally of w flinty ftrue- Difcourfes,
ture, being fometimes rough and fandy } at others fo P-223>
hard and compafl as to admit of a fine polifh. Some
beautiful fpecimens of petriiied avooq, of the appearance
of agate, are to be feen in cabinets of natural hiftory.
That of Beffon at Paris contains two examples of this
kind, which are figured at fig. 7. and 8. lig. ?• *s a
tranfverfe foaion of a piece of agatked wood, in v, Inch
the ligneous texture is moft completely preferved.
Fig. S.‘ is. another more compaa, and which has,the
additional fmgularity of containing feveral worms. 1 he
white oval fpots are fuppofed to have been eggs,, from
which the worms had iflued. In Dr Millar s Minera-
logical Cabinet there is a fimil.ar fpecimen containing
worms and their ova from Siberia, as well as .many beau¬
tiful fpecimens of agatized wood from Siberia and Ger¬
many. , 113
Among the bituminous vegetable foflils, none have p0vey coil
attraefed more attention than what is called bovey cod,
a fubftance of an intermediate nature between wood
and pitcoal, which is dug up in a common near Chud-
leigh in Devonfhire. It is of a laminated texture, of a
chocolate, or fometimes of a fhining black colour, like
deal boards that had b'een half charred. It.burns hea¬
vily, and confumes to light gray afhes. It is regularly
ftratified among beds of faiid and clay, and the beds of
coal are fometimes of confiderable thieknefs. Mr PaiK- j Organic
infon has colk cted much information refpeaing the la mams,
former and prefent ftate of this coal, in his entertaining^:. L *
work on fofiils J. . „... m
2. Animalfojfils. Foflils of animal matters are kid Animal fof-
more common than thofe .of vegetables. Shells and fils,
bones are found in almoft every bed of hmeftone, and
in almoft every country, at the bottom. 01 the deepeit
valleys, and at the tops of very confiderable moun¬
tains.. r j
In the Hmeftone ftrata in Derbyfture are found many
of thofe foflils, which are called Jlar-fiones and ferexv-
' ft ones, which appear to be the remains of marine am-
" mals called encrini Thefe are deferibed by M hite-
hurft avfio has given figures of fimilar animals Drought
entire from the Weft Indies §. Fig. 9. reprefents one ^ Theory of
of thefe ftones. . . t!f
The ifte of Chorea in Dalmatia contains caverns m chap, xvu
Avhich are found prodigious quantities 01 fofiil bones of
‘ oxen,
Chap. I. G E O I
Arrange- oxen, Ijorfes, and fheep. Similar examples occur in
nient, &C. fnany places j but human bones are, we believe, never
iii the 3\=a- £oun(j jn a foibl Hate.
tV' Fanh. Foffil (hells are found on the Alps, on the top of
-y   Mount Cenis, on the Appennines, on the mountains of
Genoa, and- in mod of the quarries of (lone and marble
in Italy •, in molt parts of Germany and Hungary, and
indeed generally in all the elevated places in Europe.
We alfo (ind 'them in the (tones whereof the mod an¬
cient edifices of the Romans were condrudled.
In Switzerland, Ada, and Africa, travellers have
oblerved petrified fi(h in many places : for indance, on
the mountains of Cadravan, there is a bed of white la¬
minated (lone, and each lamina contains a ureat num-
her and diverfity of fhhes ; they are, for the mod part,
very fiat, and extremely compreffed, in the manner of
foflil fern ; yet they are fo well preferved, that the mi¬
nuted marks of their dns and feales are didinguidiable,
and every other part, whereby one fpecies of ddi is
known from another.
. d'here are like wife many echeirites and petrified fifh
between Iver and Cairo, and on all the hills and heights
of Barbary, mod of which exactly correfpond with the
like fpeeies taken in the lied fea.
The long chain of mountains which extend from ead
to .weft, from the lower part of Portugal to the mod
teaftern parts of China, thofe which ftretch collaterally
to the north and fouth of them, together with the moun¬
tains of Africa and America, which are now known to
us, all contain Jlratn of earth and done, full of (hells.
The Elands of Europe, Afia, and America, wherein
Europeans have had occafion to dig, whether in moun¬
tains or plains, all furniih us with dmlls, and convince
us-that they have this particular in common with their
adjacent continents.
The gloffopetra, or the teeth of (harks and other fifties,
are found in the jaws, polifhed and worn fraooth at the
extremities, confequently mud have been made ufe of
during the animal’s life } and in (hells the very pearls
are found, which the living animals of the fame kind
produce.
It is well known that the purpura and pholades have
a long-pointed probofeis, which ferves them as a kind of
gimblet or drill, to pierce the (hells of living fidi, on
whofe ftefh they feed. Now, (bells thus pierced are
found in the earth, which is another inconteftable proof
that they heretofore inclofed living fidi, and that thefe
fidi inhabited places where the purpura and pholades
preyed on them.
In Holland fea (hells are found 100 feet below the
furface; at Marly-la-Vide, fix leagues from Paris, at
75 } and in the Alps and Pyrenean mountains they are
found under beds of done of 100, nay even 1000
feet.
Shells are likewife found in the mountains of Spain,
France, and England, in all the marble quarries of
Flanders, in the mountains of Guelders, in all the hills
round Paris, in thofe of Burgundy and Champagne;
and, in (hort, in all places where the bafis of the foil is
neither freeftone nor fandftone.
By (hells we would be underftood to mean, not only
thofe which are merely teftaceous, but the relics of the
cruftaceous fifties alfo 5 and even all other marine pro-
du&ions ; and we can venture to aflert, that, in the ge-
o G Y. 571
nersiity of marbles, there is fo great a quantity of ma- Arrange-
rine productions, that they appear to furpafs in bulk the
matter whereby they are united. terials of
Among the many inftances of the multiplicity of the Earth,
oyfters, there are few more extraordinary than that im- '—~v 1 ■'
menfe bed which M. de Reaumur gives an account of,
which contains 130,630,000 cubic fathoms. This valt
mafs of marine bodies is in Touraine in France, at up¬
wards of 36 leagues from the fea. Some of thefe (hells
are found fo entire, that their diderent fpecies are very
didinguidiable.
Some of the fame fpecies are found recent on the
coaft of Poiclou, and others are known to be natives of
more diftant parts of the world. Among them are
likewife blended feme fragments of the more drong
parts of fea plants, fueh as niadripores, fungi marini,
&c. The canton of Touraine contains full nine fquare
leagues in furface, and furnifees thefe fragments of (hells
wherever you dig.
Near Reading in Beikdiire, a continued body of
oyfter (hells has been found : they lie in a ftratum of
greenidi fand, about two feet in thicknefs, and extend
over five or fix acres of ground j they are covered by
ftrata of fand and clay, upwards of 14 feet deep. Se¬
veral whole oyfters are found with both their valves or
diells lying together, as oyfters before they are opened >
the diells are very brittle ; and in digging them up,
one of the valves will frequently drop from its fellow.
Several are dug out entire ; nay, feme double oyfters
with their valves united.
In a quarry at the eaft end of Broughton in Lincoln-
(hire, innumerable fragments of the (hells of diell fife,
of various forts, are found under a ftratum of done im¬
bedded in clay, with pieces of coral, and fometimes
whole diell fifti, with their natural diells and colours :
feme are mod miferably cracked, bruifed, and broken 5
others totally fqueezed dat by the incumbent weight of
earth.
Sharks teeth are dug up in the ifle of Sheppey, re¬
taining their natural colour, not petrified.
The teeth of ftiarks have likewife been taken out of
a rock in Hcnderflielf park, near Malton -in York-
diire.
In the ifie of Caldey, and elfewhere about Tenby in
Pembrokediire, marine fodils have been found in (olid
marble, on the face of the broken fea cliffs, 200 fa¬
thoms below the upper furface of the rocks. Nor were
they only obferved upon the face of thefe rocks, but
even more or lefs throughout the whole mafs or extent
of them. This is manifeft from divers rocks hewn
down by workmen for making of lime, and other pieces
cafually fallen from the cliffs.
Thoufands of foffil teeth, exadlly anfwering to thofe
of divers forts of fea fidi, have been found in quarries
and gravel pits about Oxford.
At I ame in Oxforddiire, the belethnites, or thunder¬
bolt fones, are found in a ftratum of blue clay, which
dill retain their native feelly fubftance. '
The belemnites found in gravel pits, have differed
much, by their being rubbed againft each other in the
fluctuation of waters.
The nautili and belemnites are frequently found at
Gorfing near Oxford *. ^ p^7
One of the mod extraordinary collections of (hells is Tranf. ve'.
4C2 tliathv. p, f.
^2 G E O L
Arrange- that latelv tlifcovercd by Ramond on the fummit of
meat, &cc. Mont Perdu, the higheft of the Pyrenees, where there
uf tlle]Maf' are found vaft quantities of fea (hells and other marine
the Eart°h. fyoils, and even Ikeletons of animals in a fofiil ilate.
e , y Whole Ikeletons of very large animals have been dif-
covered in a foflil date. Thole of elephants have been
found buried in the plains'of Siberia j and bones of the
rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and the tapir, have been
found in other places. A very large ikeleton, nearly
complete, of an immenfe animal, limilar to the rhino¬
ceros, is preferved in the cabinet of Madrid. It was
dug up at Paraguay in South America, at the depth of
too feet, in a fandy bed, on the banks ol the liter
de la Plata. A defer iption and engraving of itare gi¬
ven by Cuvier, in the Annals of the National Mufeum,
N° 29. It appears to be at lead 12 feet long, and the
bones are of an immenfe dze.
A prodigious quantity of follils, both of marine ani¬
mals, and of quadrupeds, are found in the platter hills
of Montmartre near Paris. An account of thefe has
lately appeared in feveral numbers of the Annals of the
National Mufeum, by M. Lamarck, accompanied with
the anatomical illudrations of Cuvier. I hefe papers
are extremely curious, and contain engravings of mod
of the fofills defcribed, fome of which are the remains
of unknown animals. Our limits do not permit us to
prefent our readers Avith even an abdradd of thefe
accounts. We lhall therefore feleft only one ex-
ample.
Fig. 10. reprefents a block of gypfum, on the. iur-
face of which is the Ikeleton of an animal refembling a
moufe, or, according to Cuvier, one of the opodum
o G Y. Chap. II.
tribe. The Ikeleton is nearly entire, and the head, Gotland
the neck, the fpine, the pelvis,, one of the fore, and
hind legs, and part of the tail, are very didimd. Materials
There were tAvo pieces of gypfum found together, of the
which appear to have divided the Ikeleton betAveen Earth,
them. The animal feems to have been crulhed or im- ^"^"^
bedded in his natural fituation *. . . _ Mi/f. Nat.
We have now enumerated the principal materials jgo xxjx>
that compofe the external crull of our earth, and havep. 277.
mentioned fome of the mod material circumdances re-
fpedting each. The metallic ores dill remain to be
conddered, and they (hall be noticed in defcribing me¬
tallic veins.
Chap. II. General Dijlribution of the Materials of
the Earth.
The uppermod dratum of the earth, in Ioav fitua-
tions, is, for the mod part, compofed of fand or clay,
or a mixture of thefe, forming beds that are either com¬
pofed of the fame mixture, or of alternate layers of the.
two fubdances. Thefe beds vary in thicknefs, in dif¬
ferent places j but, in the fame place, they ufually pie-
ferve nearly the lame thicknefs for a conliderable ex¬
tent. Sometimes thefe beds of clay, fand, and earth,
Avith Ihells, extend to the depth of fome hundred feet.
See the annexed table, 1. (e).
This table exhibits a vieAV of the arrangement of
drata in feveral countries of Europe •, and, with the
tables of coal drata, in the lad chapter, will give the
reader more information on this fubjedt than an elabo ¬
rate detailed account.
The folioAving Avorks are referred to in the table of drata.
■* Varenii Geogr. Gener. lib. i. prop. Aui.
f Buffon, Nat. Hid. vol. i. art. vii.
X Bergman, Defcript. Phyf. de T erre, fedd. viii.
|| KirAvan, Geolog. Effays, p. 259.
§ Guettard, Atlas Mineral, de la France.
^[Whitehurd’s Theory of the Earth, fed. xvi.
**Ibc fed. xix.
Table
Table of the order of Strata in Various Parts of Europe*
Chap. II
GEOLOGY
573
574
General
Diftribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
G E O L
In our fubfequent view of the diftribution of the
ilony matters that compofe the earth, we (hall confider,
i". The nature, difpofition, and ftrufkure, of moun¬
tains.
2. The nature, direction, &c. of dykes.
3. The nature, direction, &c. of metallic veins.
Sect. I. Of Mountains.
Definition There are no obie61s on the furface of the earth
of moun- which are fo well calculated to excite the attention of
Uins- mankind in general, and that of geologifts in particular,
as thole ftupendous elevated mafl.es which we call
mountains. Lhe term mountain has in general been
applied to thofe parts of the earth which are elevated
to a very confiderable height above the level iuiface j
and a mountain is in common language diilinguilhed
from a hill only by its fuperior elevation. _ But as it is
found neceflary in a fcientific point of view to render
this diftindtion more accurate and precife, various geo¬
logifts have given more corredl definitions. By Pini and
Mitterpachter every elevation whole declivity makes
with the horizon an angle of at leaft 130, and whofe
perpendicular height is not lefs than one-fifth ol the
declivity, is called a mountain. Werner diftinguifties
mountains according to their height, into high, middle-
fvzed, and low. A high mountain according to him is
that whofe perpendicular height exceeds 6000 feet j
Avhen the height is not above 6000 nor below 3000 he
calls it middle-fixed; and when its height is below 3000
feet, he calls it low.
Mountains are either Angle or in groups ; and thefe
^ groups either confift of fevcral mountains {landing near
each other fo as to occupy nearly the centre of a certain
fpace of ground, or they follow each other fo as to
form a ridge or chain, running acrofs a country, or
along its ftiores. Sometimes thefe chains run in a lon¬
gitudinal diredlion, as is the cafe with Mount Caucalus
and the Uralian mountains in Afia, the Cordilleras in
South America, &c. but often they run in a curvilincal
direftion like a ' crefcent, as the Carpathian mountains,
which feparate Hungary from the reft of the Auftrian
territories. It has been fuppofed by fome tlieoretic wri¬
ters, that chains of mountains always run in nearly the
fame diredlion, which has been conceived to be from
eaft to weft } but this is by no means exa61, as later ob-
fervations have fhewn that they aflume different direc¬
tions according to the form of the country where they
are fituated. Some writers have laid it down as a gene¬
ral rule, that chains of mountains always extend in a di-
redlion nearly parallel to the length of the country 5 but
to this there are alfo many exceptions. Thus the Ura¬
lian mountains, the Carpathians, the Pyrenees, the Gram¬
pians in Scotland,’ and many others, run rather acrols
the country. It often happens that mountains occupy
nearly the central parts of a country ; and the land ge¬
nerally Hopes with a gentle declivity towards one fide of
the chain, while towards the other it is confiderably
fteeper. This circumftance of one fide of a chain of
mountains being fteeper than the other, has been lately
extended to mountains and hills in general •, and Dr
Kirwan has written an excellent paper on the fubjedf,
from which we lhall here 'extract the moft important
^bfervations.
O G Y. C hip, 11.
“ That one part of almoft every high mountain or ’ General
hill is fteeper than another, could not have efcapcd (
the notice of any perfon who had traverfed fuch moun- ;vjaterj. ]s
tains j but that nature in the formation of fuch decli- of the
vities had any regard to different afptets or points of Earth,
the compafs, leems to have been firft remarked by the ' -1
celebrated Svvedifti geologift Mr liias, in the 22d vol. kinvan’s
of the Memoirs of Stockholm for 1760. Neither Va-0bfervg.
renius, Lulolph, nor Buffon in his natural hiftory pub-tions on the
lifhed in 1748, have noticed this-remarkable circum-declivities
'n 7 01 moun-
itance. tains.
“ The obfervation of Tilas, however, relates only to I7,
the extreme ends, and not to the flanks of mountains j The Ittcp
with refpedf to the former, he remarked that the feep- ode fates
cf declivity always faces that, part of the country where ^
the land lies loweft ; and the gentleft, that part of the
country w here the land lies higheft : and that in the
fouthern and eaftern parts of Sweden they confequent-
ly face the eaft arid fouth-eaft 5 and in the northern the
weft. The effential part of this obfervation extends
therefore only to the general elevation or depreflion of
the country, and not to the bearings of their declivi-
ties. _ j
“ The. difeovery that the different declivities of the Weftcra
flanks of mountains bear an invariable relation to their fide the
different afpeds, fee ms to have been firft publiflied by ftcepeft.
Mr Bergman in his Phyfical Defcription ot the Earth,
of which the fecond edition appeared in 1773. He
there remarked, that in mountains that extend from
north to fouth, the weftern flank is \hejleepejt, and the
eaftern the gentlef. And that in mountains which run
eaft and weft the fouthern declivity is the fteepelt, and
the northern the gentleft. Vol. II. § 187.
This affertion he grounds on the obfervations re¬
lated in his 1 ft vol. § 32. namely, that in Scandina¬
via, the Suevoberg mountains that run north and fouth,,
feparating Sweden from Norway, the weftern or Nor¬
wegian fides are the fteepeft, and the eaftern or Swedilh,
the moft moderate ; the vertically or fteepnefs of the
former being to that of the latter as 40 or 5^ 4 or
“ That the Alps are fteeper on their weftern and
fouthern fides than on the eaftern and northern.
“ That in America the Cordilleras are fteeper on
the weftern fide, which faces the Pacific ocean, than on
the eaftern. But he does not notice a few exceptions
to this rule in particular cafes which will hereafter be
mentioned. 116
“ Buffon, in the firft volume of his Epochs of Na-Remarks of
ture, publifhed in 1778, p. 185. is the next who notices Buffon.
the general prevalence of this phenomenon, as far as
relates to the eaftern and weftern fides of the mountains
that extend from north to fouth ; but he is filcnt with
refpedt to the north and fouth fides of the mountains
that run from eaft to weft •, nay, he does not feem to
have had a juft comprehenfion of this phenomenon •, for
he confiders it conjointly with the genetal dip of the re¬
gions in which thefe mountains exift. T bus he tells
us, vol. i. p. 185, that in all continents the general de¬
clivity, taking it from the fummit of mountains, is al¬
ways more rapid on the weftern than on the eaftern
fide •, thus the fummit of the chain of the Cordilleras
is much nearer to the weftern Ihore than to the eaftern
the, chain which divides the whole length of Africa,
from the Cape of Good Hope, to the mountains of the
Moon,
Chip. II.
G E O L O G Y.
575
nS
Of Her¬
man.
General Moon, is nearer, lie fays, to the weftern than to the
Diltribu- eaftern feas } of this, however, he muft have been igno-
tion ol tne ran^ as traft of eountry is flill unknown,
of the “ The mountains which run trom Cape Comorin
Earth, through the peninfula of India are, he fays, much nearer
u—-v——’ to the fea on the call than on the weft 5 he probably
meant the contrary, as the fa£t is evidently fo, and fo
he Hates it in vol. ii. p. 295. the fame he tells us may
be obferved.in illands and peninfulas, and in moun¬
tains.
“ This remarkable circumftanee of mountains was
notwithilanding fo little noticed, that in 1792 the
author of an excellent account of the territory of Carlf-
bad in Bohemia, tells us he had made an obfervation,
which he had never met with in any phylical deferip-
tion of the earth, namely, that the fouthern declivity of
all mountains was much fteeper than the northern,
which he proves by inftancing the Erzgebirge of Sax¬
ony, the Pyrenees, the mountains of Switzerland, Savoy,
Carinthia, Tyrole, Moravia, the Carpathian and Mount
Hsemus in Turkey. 2. Bergm. Jour. 1792. p. 385. in
the note.
“ Herman in his geology, publifhed in 1787, p. 90.
has at leaft partially mentioned this circumftance ; for
he fays that the eaitern declivities of all mountains are
much gentler and more thickly covered with fecondary
ftrata, and to a greater height than the weftern flanks,
which he inftances in the Swediih and Norwegian
mountains, the Alps, the Caucafian, the Appenine, and
Ouralian mountains j but the declivities bearing a fouth¬
ern or northern afpeft he does not mention.
“ Lametherie, in vol. iv. of his Theory of the Earth,
of which the fecond edition appeared in 1797, a wrork
which abounds in excellent obfervations, p. 381. pro¬
duces numerous inftances of the inequality of the eaftern
and weftern declivities, but fcarce any of the northern
and fouthern, whofe difference he does not feem to have
noticed ; but he makes a remark which I have not feen
elfewhere, that the coafts of different countries prefent
fimilar declivities.
“ With regard to eaftern and tveftern afpedls, he
thinks that a different law has obtained in Africa from
that which has been obferved in other countries ; for
in that vaft peninfula he imagines the eaftern declivi¬
ties of mountains are the fteepeft, and the weftern the
gentleft. Of this, however, he adduces no other proof,
but that the greateft rivers are found on the weftern
fide : this proof feems infufficient,. as, if mountains be
fituated far inland, great rivers may flow indiferiminate-
ly from any fide of them, and fometimes few rivers flow
even from the fide whofe defeent is moft moderate 5 for
inftance, from the eaftern fide of the mountains of Sy¬
ria. The Elbe and the Oder, two of the greateft rivers
in Germany, take their courfe from the weftern fides,
the firft of the Bohemian and the other of the Moravian
mountains, which yet are the fteepeft. Many originate
from lakes, as the Shannon with us} many take fuch a
winding courfe, that from a bare knowledge of the place
of their difemboguement it is impoffible to judge from
what fide of a mountain they iffue, if from any ; their
courfe at moft difeovers the depreflion of the general
level of the country.
“ In 1798, the celebrated traveller and circumna¬
vigator, John Reinhold Fofter, publiftied a geological
119
Of Bela-
roetherie
Diftribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
tracl which merits fo much more attention, as all the General
fadls wrere either obferved by himfelf, or related to him
by the immediate obfervers. In this he ftates as a fadt
univerfally obferved, that the fouth and fouth-eaft fides
of aimoft every mountain are fteep, but that the north
and north-weft fides are gently covered and connected '
with fecondary ftrata, in which organic remains abound, s0Vith and
which he illuftrates by various inftances, fome of which fouth-caft
have been already, and others will prelently be men-fides of
tinned. _ _ ™UI^ins
“ At prefent this fact attracts the greateft attention, ^ c
being obvioufly connedfed with the original ftrudlure of
the globe, and clearly proving that mountains are not
merely fortuitous eruptions unconnected with tranfac-
tions on the furface of the earth, as has of late been con¬
fidently advanced. 121
“ I fhall now7 ft ate the principal obfervations relative Account ci
to this objeCt, that have been made in different parts 0fmountains.
the world.
In Europe.
122
1. The mountains that feparate Swedeti from Nor- In Europs.
way extend from north to fouth, their weftern fides are
Jleep, and the eaftern gentle. 1. Berg. Erde Befchreib.
P- W
2. The Carpathian mountains run from eaft to weft ;
their fouthern fides towards Hungary are fteep, their
northern towards Poland moderate. FoJIer, § 46.
3. Dr Walker, profeffor of natural hiftory at Edin¬
burgh, obferved that the coafts and hills of Scotland are
fteeper and higher on the weftern fide than on the
eaftern. Jamefon’s Mineralogy of Scotland, p. 3.
However, Jamefon obferved, that the fouth fide of the
ifte of Arran is the loweft, and the north fide the high-
eft, p. 51.
4. The mountains of Wales are gentle on the eaftern
and fteep on the weftern fide.
j. The mountains of Parthery, in the county of
Mayo, are fteep on the weftern fide.
6. The mountains which feparate Saxony from Bo¬
hemia, defeend gently on the Saxon or northern fide,
but are ftcep on the Bohemian or fouthern fide. Char-
pente, p. 75. The fouthern declivity is to the northern
as fix to two. Bergm. Journ. 1792, p. 384. and
385* , . . r
7. The mountains which feparate Silefia from Bohe¬
mia run nearly from eaft to wTeft, yet are fteeper on
the northern or Silefian fide than on the oppofite Bohe¬
mian. A/fcmanni Silefia, 335. Such branches as run
from north-eaft to fouth-weft, have their weftern cover¬
ed with primordial ftrata, and confequently lefs fteep.
4. New Rok. p. 157.
8. The Meiffener in Hefiia is fteeper on the north
and eaft fides,. which- face the Warra, than on the fouth
and w'eftern I. Bergm. Journ. 1789, p. 272.
9. The mountains of the PI art z and Habifchtfwald
are fteep on the fouth, and gentle on the northern fides.
Fojlcr, § 46.
10. The Pyrenees, which run from call to weft, are
fteeper on the fouthern or Spanilh fide. Carbonieres,
xiii.
11. The mountains of Crim Tartary are gentle on
the northern, and fteep on the fouthern fides. EoJlcry
ibid.
In
geology.
•576
Chap. III.
Gem val
Diftribu-
tion of tbo
Materials
of the
Earth.
123
In Afia.
In Ajia.
12. The Ourals, tvhieh ft retch from north to fouth,
arc tar fte pt r on the wcilern than on the foie hern
fidcs. Herman Geologic, p. 90' 5 Ural. BeJ-^
chreib, p. 389. _
13. t he mountain of Armenia, to the weft ot tne
Ourals, is fteep on its eaft and north tides j but gentle
on the fouthern and weftern. 1. Pallas Voy. p. 277. _
14. The Altaifchan mountains are fteep on their
fouthern and weftern tides, but gentle on the northern
and eaftern. Pojler, ibid, and Herman. 2. \ji al Pef-
chreih, p. 390. in the note.
1 5. So alto are the mountains of Caucafus. 3. Schrift.
Perl. Gelafch. 471*
16. The mountains of Kamtfchatka are fteep on the
eaftern Tides. Pallas, 1. AB. Petropol. 1777. p. 43.
17. The Ghauts in the Indian pepinfula are iteep on
the weftern tide.
18. The mountains of Syria, which run from north
to fouth, tkirting the Mediterranean, are faid to be
deeper on the weftern tide, facing the Mediterranean.
4. La Motherie, p. 380.
In America.
“ The Cordilleras run from- north to fouth
their
General
Diftribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
weftern flanks towards the Pacific are fteep, their eaft¬
ern defeend gradually.
“ In Guiana there is a chain of mountains that run
from eaft to weft *, their fouthern flanks are fteep, their [n
northern gentle. Voyages de Condumine, p. 140.”*. r;ca,
The theory according to which Mr Kirwan attempts* Nicolf.
to explain the appearances of mountains which are enu- Sv®‘
merated above, will be given in the next chapter. m 256.
,\Ve have already, under the article Barometer, I35
N° 44. (hewn the method of computing the height of Height of
mountains by means of that inftrument. The following mountain*
table (hews the height of the principal mountains in
the globe, chiefly according to this computation..
In this table the fecond column {hews the height as
eftimated by the barometer, and the third the fame by
geometrical calculation. Where the- numbers are pla¬
ced in the middle of thefe two fpaces, it denotes an un¬
certainty by what method the computation has been
made.
Table of the Heights of Mountains, according to the lateft computations.
Mountains.
Height by
Barom.
In Britain.
Ben Nevis,
Whim,
Ben Lawers,
Ingleborough,
Do.
Ben More,
Pennygent,
Crofsfell,
Skiddaw,
Snowden,
Mount Battock,
Pendlehill,
Schehallion,
Helvellyn,
Hartfell,
Ben Wevis,
Ben Lomond,
Saddleback,
Ben Ledy,
In Ireland.
Slieve Donard,
Croagh Patrick,
Nephin,
Knock Meledown,
Manger ton,
Cumeragh,
In France.
Puy de Sanfi,
Plorab de Cantal,
Puy de Dome,
Height by
Geometry.
401
2380
Feet. Feet.
435°
405°
i
3987
2377
39°3
393° I
3839
338° I 3530
3456 |
3465
3411 I
3564
3324
33°°
3700
3240 |
3048
3°99
Mountains.
S1!0
2666
264O
2700
2l60
250°
Pyrenees.
Mont Perdu,
Canigou,
Alps.
Mont Blanc,
Schrekhorn,
Finfteraar,
Mount Titlis,
Mont Rofa,
Mont Cenis,
In the Tyrole.
Glochner,
Ortele,
Plaley Kogel,
Germany.
Stuben,
Brenner,
Lomnitz peak, l
Kefmark peak, > Carpalh.
Krivan, J
Height by
Barom.
Height by
Geometn.
Feet.
6300
6200
500°
./Etna,
Sicily.
In Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden.
Swukku,
Arelkutan,
Kinneculla,
Foetack,
Feet.
11,000
9,000
15,662
i3,oo° +
12,000-}-
IO,8l8
I ?,ooo
9,760
11,500 Fr.
13,000 Fr.
9,748 Fr.
4692
5io9
8640
8508
8343
10,032
9000
6162
931
6000
Taber
Chap. II,
G E Q L O G Y>
577
General
Diftribu-
tlon ol the
Materials
of the
Earth.
Mountains.
Pauda,
In RuJJin.
Table of the Heights of Mountains, Continued.
Canary I [lands.
Peak of Teneriffe,
In North America.
Stony Mountains,
White Mountains,
Blue Mountains,
Height by
Barom.
Feet.
Height b>
Geometry
Feet.
4S12
11,424
3000
4000
2000
i *
Mountains.
South America.
Chimborazo,
Do.
Cotopaxi,
i'unguragas,
In Jamaica.
Blue Mountains.
Height by
Baiom.
Feet.
20,910
16,170
Height by
Geometry.
Feet.
20,280
18,600
7431
General
Diihibu-
tion of the
Materials
ot the
Earth.
il5
Courfc of
mountains.
I27
Compofi-
t;on of
mountains.
12S
Dift'uiftion
of primary
and fecon-
dary moun¬
tains.
The courfe of mountains is that direction of their
length in which they defeend and grow lower •, or if a
river runs parallel to them, they are laid to have their
courfe in the direction of the itream of the river. The
courfe ot mountains is feldom uniform. It has been
laid down as a general maxim by BufFon, that when
there are two parallel chains of mountains, the falient
angle of one of the chains always correfponds with the
internal angle of the other ; but later geologifts have
afeertained that this circumftanee does not generally
hold, except when a river runs between the two
chains.
It generally happens, that one particular mountain,
or chain of mountains is compofed of thofe llony ma¬
terials which we have denominated primitive; while
the relt is made up of the fecondary compounds. The
primitive fubitances occupy the bafe and central parts
of the mountain, and often extend to its very fummit :
the fecondary cover thefe, and are generally found on
the flanks or lides of the mountain, though fometimes
they cover the top of the mountain. In a chain of
mountains there are commonly three, and often five pa¬
rallel ridges, of which the central ridge is compofed of
primitive compounds, and thofe on each fide of it,
chiefly or entirely of fecondary compounds. Hence
mountains are ufually divided into primary or primeval,
and fecondary or epizootic ; the latter term being given
to the fecondary mountains from their being replete
with (hells and other remains of animal beings. 'The
fecondary mountains are alfo fometimes divided into
original and derivative, for a reafon that will appear
hereafter.
The primary mountains, befides their being in the
centre, and dellitute, or nearly fo, of organic remains,
may generally be diftinguiflred by the ruggednefs and
angular appearances arifing from the different nature
and hardnefs of the fubitances of which thev are com¬
pofed \ the quartz and harder granite refilling the at¬
tacks of the air and weather, while the other fubitances
being fofter, gradually decav, and leave the harder in
the form of fpires and angles. Where, however, the
primitive compounds have been completely covered
with fecondary ftrata, thefe angular appearances feldom
take place j and the mountain is only to be diltinguifh-
ed by its pofition and the Itrudture of its internal parts.
The fecondary mountains generally have their tops
Vox. IX. Part II.
round, and much fmoother than thofe of the primary
mountains.
In fome cafes a number of mountains appear united
at their tops into an extenfive plain or platform, from
which they feem to diverge and branch in every direc¬
tion. The molt remarkable inltance of this kind occurs
in Tibet. (See Gkographv, N° 41.).
It is difficult to acquire a knowledge of the interior
Itructure of mountains. The greater part of them is
hid from our view, and nature only expofes them in a
few points by means of fiffures, caverns, and intermediate
valleys.
“ The materials of which mountains confilt are dif-
pofed either in irregular heaps, or piles varioully in-
terfedted by rifts, or in beds or Itrata feparated from
each other by rifts, often horizontal, or varying from
that diredtion by an angle of from 5 to 40 degrees, and
fometimes much more confiderably, approaching even
to a vertical pofition. The ftrata of mountains are moft
frequently in the diredtion of their declivity, yet fome¬
times their courfe is diredtly oppofite, or countercur¬
rent : the belt manner of determining the angles of their
courfe is by difeovering that of their rifts. It chiefly
depends on the unevennefs of the fundamental ground
that fupports them. According to 1 Sauff. 502. moft
of the elevated granitic mountains in Swifferland are
formed of immenfe vertical pyramidal lamina;, paiallel
to each other, that is, piles fomewhat inclining from the
unequal diftribution of their weight, a difpolition that
may well be expedted from collateral cryftallizations ;
but this difpofition is not univerfal, for they have been
found in Saxony, and in the Pyrenees, horizontally
ftratified ; much lefs can it be faid, that this vertical
pofition is general, for the ftrata of gneifs are generally
horizontal, and commonly very regular difeovering no
traces of a violent ftiock. Mount Rofa, next to Mount
Blanc, the higheft in Europe, confifts alfo of gneifs,
which M. Sauliure found horizontally ftratified.
“ Sbangin, who lately (1786) travelled over the
Altaifchan mountains, being confulted by Pallas, wffie-
ther he found any vertical layers or ftrata therein, an-
fwered, he had not; but that he found them perfedtly
horizontal on the banks of the river Tfchary.
“ Mountains of primitive limeftone are frequently in
irregular piles, but often alfo horizontally ftratified.
Siliceous fchiftus is alfo often horizontally ftratified.
4 D Many
57 8
GEOLOGY.
tiencral ]Vfany argillites, particularly roof flate^ are generally
Diftribu- 't0 have nearly a vertical pofition : but Voight
Materials has fllewn that il is only their lame11® that arC /° fltU'
of the ated •, their horizontal learns, and their ivalls,^ difeover-
Eaith. ing their true pofition } their verticality arifing only
v r ’ from the drain of the water, and, comecpiently, their
contraction in that direction : hence thofe that arc molt
filicited, as they contraCt lefs, difeover lefs verticali¬
ty. Sometimes horizontal Itrata overlap on both fides.
Sometimes they are flanked on both fides with vertical
Itrata.
“ Much confufion prevails in the Itruaure of the Py¬
renees, and ot the Grifon mountains, and thole on the
borders of the Baikal, and other great lakes.
“ The perturbed Hate of the Itrata often proceeds
from the decompofition of internal beds of pyrites, to
which water has had accefs; this appears to be the
caufe of the alterations obferved in the mountain of ha-
benberg, on the frontiers of Saxony. In this moun¬
tain a double direction of the Itrata of gneifs is obfer¬
ved j between both the Itrata are vertical, and a large
intermediate fpace is filled with iron ore: but this
mountain contains beds of pyrites and valt fwallows ;
molt probably then the pyrites fwoll, uplifted the
whole, and the diffolved iron flowed into the va¬
cuity/ from which the water afterwards drained oft'
on the fides.
“ In fecondary mountains, particularly the calcareous,
the greateft diforder often prevails, though in general
their ftratification is horizontal.
“ The calcarecous mountains of Savoy are often arch¬
ed like a lambda, probably from the finking of the
intermediate Itrata, the intermediate remaining horizon¬
tal. Sometimes they affume the form of the letters
Z. S. C. or of a disjointed 0C, the convexities facing
each other. So alfo in the Pyrenees^ they fometimes
overlap, from an unequal diftribution in their original
formation, and bend various ways. They aflume a
fpiral form, or that of a horfe-lhoe placed horizon-
tally.
‘‘ According to Lehman, molt fecondary Itrata pre-
fent hollows or moulds, (as they are called,) from in¬
fernal depreftion. But fometimes alfo elevations, from
an original elevation in the fundamental Hone.
“ In Scotland, all the fecondary Itrata m the vicinity
of primeval mountains, are nearly vertical \ but at a
greater diitance they approach more to an horizontal
* Kir wan's direction . . .
Geological We lhall now trace the courfe of the principal moun¬
tainous chains on the globe, and in accompanying us,
the reader may have before him a good map of the
world.
M. Buache places the molt elevated points of the
great chains of mountains under the equatorial line :
but, according to Pallas, the fullelt and molt continuous
lands, and perhaps likewife the molt elevated, are to be
found at a diftance from the equator, and towards the
temperate zones. If, in fact, we furvey the globe’s
furface, we lhall not be able to perceive that chain of
mountains, which running from ealt to weft, and divid¬
ing the earth into two portions, ought again to meet.
On the contrary, extenfive plains feem to accompany
the line through almoft its whole extent. In Africa,
the deferts of Nigritia and thofe of Upper Ethiopia are
©n the one fide of the line j and on the other are the
EJays,
p. 28 I.
129
Equatorial
mountains
not the
hi die ft..
Earth.
Chap. II.
fandy plains of Nicoco, Caffraria, Monemugi, and Zan- General
guebar. From the eafttrn fhores of Africa to the Sunda
iilands, is a fpace of 1500 leagues of fea with almoft Mat®
no iilands, except the Laccadive and Maidive iilands j 0f the
molt part of which have little elevation, and which run
from north to fouth. P rom the IVLolucca illands and
New Guinea, to the weftern borders of America, the
fea occupies a fpace of 3000 leagues. Though Chim¬
borazo and Pichincha in America, the two higheft
mountains which have been meafured, are near and
even under the line, yet from this no conclufion can
be drawn •, becaufe on one lide thefe mountains run in
a dir eft ion not parallel to the equator 5 the Andes or
Cordilleras attain a greater elevation as they remove
from the equator towards the poles ; and a vaft: plain
is found exaftly under the line, between the Oroonoko
and the river of the Amazons. Befides, the latter ri¬
ver, which takes its rife in the province of Lima about
the’ nth degree of fouth latitude, after crofting the
whole of South America from weft to eaft, falls into
the ocean exaftly under the equator. This Ihows that
there is a defeent for the fpace of 12 degrees or 300
leagues. From the mouth of the river of the Ama¬
zons, to the weftern Ihores of Africa, the fea forms an¬
other plain of more than 50 degrees.
From the few certain faSs and accurate obfervations
which we have received from well informed travellers,
we might almoft affirm that the moft elevated land on
our globe is fituated without the tropics in the northern
and fouthern hemifpheres. By examining the courie
of the great rivers, we in faft find that they are in ge¬
neral difeharged into three great refervoirs, the one
under the line, and the other two towards the poles.
This, however, we do not mean to lay dewn as univer-
fally Vue j for it is allowed, that, befides the two ele¬
vated belts, the whole furface of the earth is covered
with innumerable mountains, either detached irom one
another or in a continued chain. In Amtrica, the O-
roonoko and the river of the Amazons run towards the
line, while the river St Lawrence runs towards the 50th
degree of north latitude, and the river de la Plata towards
the 40th degree of fouth latitude. M e are ftiil too lit¬
tle acquainted with Africa, which is almoft all contain¬
ed within the tropics, to form any accurate conclufions
concerning this fubjeft. Europe and Afia, which form
only one great mafs, appear to be divided by a more
elevated belt, which extends from the moft wefterly
(bores of France to the moft eafterly of China, and to
the iftand of Sagaleen or Anga-hata, following pretty
nearly the 50th degree of north latitude. In the new
continent, therefore, we may confider that chain where
the Miffiffippi, the river St Lawrence,. the Ohio, and
the river de los Eftrechos, take their rile, as the
moft elevated fituation in North America ; whence the
Miffiffippi floivs towards the equator, the river St Law¬
rence towards the north-eaft, and the reft towards the
north-weft. In the old continent, the belt formerly
mentioned, and to which we may affign about 10 de¬
grees of breadth, may be reckoned from the 45th to
the c cth degree of north latitude : for in Europe the
Tagus, the Danube, the Dnieper, the Don and the
Volga, and in Afia the Indus, the Ganges, the Meran,
the Mecon, the Hoang-ho, and the Yang-tfe-Kiang,
defeending as it were from this elevation, fall into the
great refervoir between the tropics whilft towards the
® ~ north.
13*
Chap. II. G E O L
General north the Rhine, the Elbe, the Oder, the Viftula,
Diftribtt- t}ic Oby, the .lenifti, the Lena, the Indigirka, and
tion'of the j ^owyma are difeharged into the northern refer-
of the voir*
Earth. Judging from thofe mountains the height of which
v"—^ has been calculated, and from the imraeni’e chains with
which we are acquainted, we may infer that the
higheft mountains are to be found in this elevated belt.
The Alps of SwiiTerland and Savoy extend through
the 45th, the 46th, and the 47th degrees. Among
them \ve find St Gothard, Furca, Bruning, Ruls,
Whiggis, Scheidek, Gunggels, Galanda, and laftly,
that branch of the Swifs Alps which reaches Tirol by
the name of Arlenberg and Arula. In Savoy, we
meet with Mont Blanc, the Peak of Argentiere,
Cornero, Great and Little St Bernard, Great and Little
Cenis, Coupeline, Servin, and that branch of the
Savoyard Alps which proceeds towards Italy through
the duchy of Aoft and Montferrat. In this vaft heap
of elevated peaks, Mont Blanc and St Gothard are
particularly diftinguithed. The Alps, leaving Swii-
ferland and Savoy, and pa ding through Tirol and Car-
niola, traverfe Saltzbourg, Stiria, and Auftria, and
extend their branches through Moravia and Bohemia,
as far as Poland and PmlTia.—Between the 47th and
48th degrees, we meet with Grimming the higheft
mountain of Stiiia, and Priel which is the higheft in
Auftria. Between the 46th and 47th degrees, the
Bacher and the Reinfchnicken, form two remarkable
chains. The upper one, which traverfes the counties of
Trencfm, Arrava, Scepus, and the Kreyna, feparates
Upner Hungary from Silefia, Little Poland, and Red
Rudia; the inferior one traverfes Upper Croatia, Bof-
nia, Servia, and Tranfylvania, feparates Lower Hun¬
gary from Turkey in Europe, and meets the upper chain
behind Moldavia, on the confines of Little Tartary,
In thefe mountains are fituated the rich mines of Schem-
nitz.
To form a general idea of the great height of this
Alpine belt, it is neceffary only to remark, that the
greateft depth of the wells at Schemnitz is 200 toifes j
and yet it appears, from the barometrical calculations
of the learned M. Noda, that the greateft depth of
thefe mines is 286 toifes higher than the city of Vien¬
na. The granito-argillous mountains of Schemnitz, and
of the whole of this metallic diftrieft, are inferior, how¬
ever, to the Carpathian mountains. Mount Krivany
in the county of Arrava, and the Carpathian moun¬
tains between Red Ruffia and the Kreyna, appear by
their great elevation to rule over the whole of the upper
Alpine chain. In the inferior chain we likewife meet
with mountains of an extraordinary height j among
others, Mount Mediednik, which gives its name to a
chain extending far into Bofnia •, and Mount Hemus,
celebrated even among the ancients. In fhort, this ex-
tenfive chain reaches into Afia, and is there confounded
with another chain no lefs famous, which, following ex*
aftly the 50th degree of latitude, runs through the
whole of Afia. This chain of mountains is deferibed
by Dr Pallas In the work above mentioned j and we
lhall now trace its courfe in company with this intelli¬
gent obferver.
tJralm " This author places the head of the mountains of
chain. Oural, between the fources of the Yaik and the Bie-
lai'a, about the 53d degree of latitude, and the 47th of
O G Y.
579
longitude. Here the European Alps, after having tra- General
varied Europe, and fent off various branches which ^
we lhall afterwards examine, lofe their name, which Materiajs
is changed into that of the Ouralic or Uralian moun- 01 the’
tains, and begin their courfe in Afia. This lofty Earth,
chain, which feparates Great Bulgaria from the de-
ferts of Ifchimlka, proceeds through the country of
the Eleuths, follows the courfe of the river Irtis, ap¬
proaches the lake Telelkaia, and afterwards forms a
part of the fame fyftem of mountains with the Al¬
taic chain. There they give rife to the Oby, the Irtis,
and the Jenifei, which begin their courfe about the
50th degree of north latitude, and fall into the Frozen
ocean,
The Altaic chain, after having embraced and united Altaic
all the rivers which fupply the Jenifei, is continued chain
under the name of Saiaties^ without the fmalleft inter¬
ruption, as far as the Baikal lake. The extenfion of
this chain to the fouth forms that immenfe and elevated
plain which is loft in Chinefe Tartary, which may be
compared with the only plain in Quito, and which is
called Gobi or Chamo. The Altai afterwards interpo-
fing between the fource of the Tchikoi and of the rivers
which fupply the Amur or Sagaleen, rifes towards the
Lena, approaches the city Jakuck beyond the 60th de¬
gree of latitude, runs from that to the fea of Kamtfchat-
ka, turns round the Ochockoi and Penfink gulfs, joins
the great marine chain of the Kurile ifles near Japan,
and forms the fteep ftiores of Kamtfchatka, between the
55th and 60th degrees of latitude. After running in
the fame parallel, and giving rife to the Ohio, the Ri¬
viere Longue, the river St Lawrence, and the Miffiflip-
pi, they are loft in Canada. From the eaftern fhores of
America to the weftern ftiores of Europe, we find a vaft
interruption. ^ ^ ^
The European Alps produce three principal chains, Alpine
which run towards the equator, and fome fmaller ones chain,
running towards the pole. The firft fouthern chain
is fent out through Dauphine j traverfes Vivarais, Ly-
onnois, Auvergne, Cevennes, and Languedoc j and;
after joining the Pyrenees, enters Spain. There it
divides into two or three ramifications, one of which
runs through Navarre, Bifcay, Arragon, Caftile,
Marche, and Sierra Morena, and extends into Portu¬
gal. The other, after traverfing Andalufia and the
kingdom of Granada, and there forming a number
of mountains, again makes its appearance, beyond the
ftraits of Gibraltar, in Africa, and coafts along its
northern fhores, under the name of Mount Atlas.—*
The feeond principal chain of the Alps palfes out
through Savoy and Piedmont •, fpreads its roughnefles
over the ftates of Genoa and Parma •, forms the belt
of the Appennines j and after frequently changing jts
name, and dividing Italy into two parts, terminates
in the kingdom of Naples and in Sicily, producing
volcanoes in every part of its courfe. The third chain
is fent off from Hungary, and fcatters innumerable
mountains over all Turkey in Europe, as far as the
Morea and the Archipelago at the bottom of the Medi¬
terranean fea. The northern branches, though fmaller
at firft, are no lefs clearly defined \ and fome of them
even extend their ramifications as far as the Frozen
ocean. An Alpine branch, iffuing from Savoy through
the country of Gex, proceeds through Franche Comte,
Suntgaw, Alface, the Palatinate, and Veterabia.—
4 D 2 Another
580
General
Diftribu-
tion of the
Jjlaterials
ot the
Earth.
!34
Afiatic
Alps.
* Lettres
Jut Us 4t-
lantideSy
let, 16.
*35
G E O L
Another iflties from the territory of Saltzbourg, paflfes
along Bohemia, enters Poland, fends off a ramification
into Prufiia towards the delerts of Waldow, and after
having paffed through Ruflia is loft in the government
of Archangel.
The Aliatic Alps font forth in like manner feveral
branches both to the fouth and north. The Ouralic
mountains, between the fources of the Bielaia and the
Jaik, produce three principal branches •, the firft of
which, including the Cafpian fea in one ol its divi-
lions, enters Circaflia through the government of A-
ftracan, paffes through Georgia under the name of
Caucafus, fends a valt number of ramifications to the
weft into Afiatic Turkey, and there produces the
mountains, Tfchilder, Ararat, Taurus, Argee, and
many others in the three Arabias ; while the other
divifion, pafling between the Cafpian fea and the lake
Aral, penetrates through Chorafan into Perfia. The
fecond branch, taking a more eafterly direftion, leaves
the country of the Eleuths •, reaches Little Bucharia ;
and forms the ramparts of Gog and Magog, and the ce¬
lebrated mountains, formerly known by the name of Caf\
which M. Baiily has made the feat of the war between
the Dives and the Peris*. It traverfes the kingdoms of
Cafgar and Turkeftan, enters through that of Labor
into the Mogul territory, and, after giving rife to the
elevated defert of Chamo, forms the weftern peninfula
of India. While thefe two branches run towards the
fouth, the third branch of the Ouralic chain rifes to¬
wards the north, following almoft the 79th degree of
longitude, and forms a natural boundary between Eu¬
rope and Afia ■, without, however, bounding the im-
menfe empire of Ruflia. This chain, after coming
oppofite to Nova Zembla, divides into ’two confider-
able branches. The one, running to the north-eaft,
paffes along the Arctic (bores •, the other, proceeding
to-wards the north-weft, meets the northern European
chain, traverfes Scandinavia in the (hape of a horfe (hoe,
covers the low lands of Finland with rocks ; and, as is
obferved by Dr Pallas, appears to be continued from the
North Cape of Norway through the marine chain of
Spitzbergen, fcattering illands and (helves perhaps
throughout the northern ocean, that, pafling through the
pole, it may join the northern and eaftern points of Alia
and North America.
The Ouralic, which, in the country of the Mongols,
becomes the Altaic chain, proceeds towards the equa¬
tor. After forming the mountains and caverns where¬
in, as we are told, the allies of the Mongol emperors
of the race of Gengis-Kan are depofited, together
with the vaft plain of Chamo, confiding of arid
fand, and the frightful rocks and -precipices of Thi¬
bet, which form the myfterious and defert retreats of
the Grand Lama, it croffes the rivers Ava and Me-
nan ; contains in its fubdivifions the kingdoms of
Ava, Pegu, Laos, Tonquin, Cochin-China, and Siam*,
iupports the peninfula of Malacca; and overfpreads
the Indian ocean with the illes of Sunda, the Mo¬
luccas, and the Philippines. From the borders of the
Baikal lake and of the province of Selingin(koy, a
branch is detached, which fpreads over Chinefe Tar¬
tary and China, is continued into Corea, fpid gives rife
to the iflands of Japan.
The great chain having extended to the north, near
Tie city of Jakuck, upon the banks of the Lena, fends
6
O G Y. Chap. II.
off one of its branches to the north-weft, which, paf- General
ling between the two Tungufta, is loft in marlhy grounds Diftnbu-
lying in the northern parts of the province of
Jenniffeifkoy. The fame chain, after it has reached the 0f tlie
eaftern part of Afia, is loft in the icy regions of the Earth.
north about Nos-Tfchalatfkoy, or the Icy Promontory, ' v—-J
a,nd Cape Czuczenlkoy.
It will be more difficult, perhaps, to trace the ele- Southern
vated belt in the fouthern hemifphere beyond the tro- elevations,
pic of Capricorn, than it has been to diftinguifti that
towards the north. An immenfe extent of ocean feems
to occupy the whole Antar&ic part of the globe.—
The greateft fouth latitude of the old continent is not
more than 34 degrees, and South America fcarcely
extends to the 53th degree. In vain has the enter-
prifing Cook attempted to difeover regions towards
the pole : his progrefs was conftantly interrupted by
tremendous mountains and fields of ice. Beyond the
50th degree no land and no habitations are to be found.
The iilands of New Zealand are the fartheft land in
thefe defert feas ; and yet the fouth cape of Taral-
Poenamoo extends only to the 48th degree : We do-
not mention Sandwich land, which is lituated in the
58th degree, becaufe it is too fmall and too low. It
muff be recollected, however, that, according to the
declarations of travellers, the Cordilleras become higher
as they advance fouthward to the ftraits of Magellan j
and that Terra del Fuego, which lies in the latitude of
5 5, is nothing but a mals of rocks of prodigious eleva¬
tion. America, however, exhibits to our view ele¬
vated points, whence chains of mountains are diflributed
in different directions over the whole furface of the
new continent. There muft likewife be great re-
fervoirs, where the moft remarkable rivers take
their rife, and from which they neceffarily defeend
towards their mouths. In the fouthern hemifphere,
this elevated belt is nearer the equator j and though
it does not extend to the 50th degree, it is evidently
to be met with, and may be accurately traced, be¬
tween the 20th and 30th degrees. The high moun¬
tains of Tucuman and of Paraguay, which interfeCf
South America about the 25th degree of latitude,
may be confidered as the American Alps. If we
look into the map of the world, we (hall be able to
diftinguifti an elevated belt all along this parallel. In
Africa, Monomotapa, and Caffraria, are covered with
very high mountains, from which pretty large rivers
defeend. In the Pacific ocean, we find New Hol¬
land, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, and the
Friendly and the Society iflands, under the fame pa¬
rallel. We may, therefore, with fufficient propriety,
diftinguifti this parallel by the name of the Southern
Alps, as we have already diflinguifiied the elevated
belt of the 50th degree of north latitude by that of
the Northern Alps. In America, the Rio de la Plata,
which, after a courfe of 500 leagues, falls into the ocean
at the 35th degree of fouth latitude j the Pavana,
which rifes from the mountains of the Arapes, and
falls into the Plata at Corriente •, the great number
of rivers which flow into that of the Amazons, fuch as
the Paraba, which receives in its courfe the tribute of
more than 30 other rivers*, the Madera, the CuchL
rara, the Ucayal, &c. &c. all defeend from thefe
fouthern Alps. ' From thefe Alps likewife three con-
fidcrable branches of mountains are detached, which
19’
137.
Mountains
•f North
America.
Chap. IT. G E O L
General go by the common name of Andes or Cordilleras.—
Diftribu- r['jie branch, which extends towards the fouth,
Materials6 an<^ Pafl*es out from Paraguay through Tucuman, fe-
ofthe ‘ pa rates Chili from thefe provinces and from Chimito,
Earth, and is continued through Terra Magellanica as far
as Terra del Fuego. The fecond branch, direfling
its courfe towards the equator, traverfes Peru, in vain
endeavouring to conceal treafures which the avarice
of men has taught them to difeover in its bowels;
bounds the Spanilh Millions-, enters Terra Firma
through Popayan ; and unites South and North Ame¬
rica by the ilthmus of Panama. The third divilion,
iffuing from Paraguay through Guayra and the terri¬
tory of Saint Vincent, traverfes Brazil, diftributes ra¬
mifications into Portuguefe, French, and Dutch Gui¬
ana, croffes the Oroonoko, forms the mountains of
Venezuela, and near Carthagena meets the fecond
branch coming from Popayan.
We have already fuppofed, that the elevated belt
of North America wras lituated about the 45th degree
of north latitude and there we imagined we recog¬
nized the continuation of the northern Alps of the
old continent. This chain likewife fends forth con-
fiderable branches on both fides. One of them is de¬
tached acrofs the fources of the Miffiffippi, the Belle
Riviere, and the Miffouri, and at the entrance of New
Mexico divides, in order to form California to the
wreft, and the Apalachian mountains to the eaft.—
Thence proceeding through New Bifeay, the audi¬
ence of Guadalaxara, Old Mexico, and Guatimala, it
meets at Panama the fouthern branch, which is part
of the Alps of Paraguay. The fecond branch, fol¬
lowing the courfe of the MiffhTippi, feparates Louifi-
ana from Virginia ; ferves as a bulwark to the United
States of America; forms the Apalachian mountains
in Carolina; and at laft, traverfing Eaft Florida, en-
clofes the gulf of Mexico with the Great and Little
Antilles. In the north, we can trace the branches of
the elevated belt 5 on one fide obferve them proceed¬
ing towards Canada, dlrefting their courfe through
Labrador to Hudfon’s Straits, and at length con¬
founded with the rocks of Greenland, which are co¬
vered with eternal fnow and ice. On the other fide,
we fee them rifing through the country of the Afti-
nipoels and the Kriftinos, as far as Michinipis and the
northern Archipelago.
In tracing the courfe and diredlion of the Britilh
mountains, mountains, we {hall begin with the central chain, which
runs through the fouthern part of the illand from north
to fouth, commencing at Geltfdale, about 14 miles to
the fouth-eaft of Carllfie, and ending at Land’s End in
Cornwall, or rather in the Scilly iiles to the weft of this.
This chain pafles from Geltfdale foreft through the
weftern diftridls of Durham and Yorkfhire, forming the
hills called K el ton Fell. Stan more, Wi dehill Fell, Wild-
bore Fell, Bow Fell, Home Fell, Bun Hill, &c. A
little to the w’eft of the chain ftand feveral detached
mountains, the principal of which is Skiddaw^ in Cum¬
berland. Palling through Vorklhire we find Craven,
Whurnfide, Ingleborough, and Pennygent *, and on the
eaft of Lancafter is Pendle. In this courfe there are
feveral miles of coal and lead. The chain next pro¬
ceeds through Derbvfhire, and in this part of the ridge
a great variety of valuable minerals are found, efpeci-
ally lead, copper* gypfum, fluor, barytic earths, mar-
. D8
Britifh
Earth.
139
O G Y. S8i
tial pyrites, iron ore, manganefe, and feveral ores of
zinc. About this point the ridge ftretches a little in- 0f't^e
to Chefiiire, and feems to terminate a central chain Materials
of fomewhat lefs elevation may, however, ftill be traced, of the
proceeding in a waving direction towards Salifbury, and
having three irregular branches, two to the eaft, and
another running to the fouth-weft into Cornwall. I he
fir ft eaftern branch proceeds towards Norfolk, and to
this belong fome confiderable hills, efpecially thofe of
Gog Magog in Cambridge {hire. The fecond branch
pafles into Kent, and diverges a little into Surry and
Hampftiire. The continuation of this chain is afforded
by the hills of Mendip, Polden, Ledgemoor, and Black-
down in Somerfetlhire j the Tores and Wilds of Dart-
more in Devonfhire, and the upland Downs of Corn¬
wall. Malvern hills in Worceiterftiire deviate a little
from the chain, but thofe of Cotfwold in Gloucefter-
ihire appear to be a continuation of it. The principal
mineral found in this ridge of mountains, after leaving
Derbylhire, is the tin ore of Cornwall.
Wales contains many mountains, efpecially in its
northern part, where Snowden is celebrated for its height,
and clalfical fame. The top of this mountain is formed
almoft into a point, and commands an extenfive view,
not only of the neighbouring counties, but of part of
Scotland and Ireland, and the illes of Mann and An-
glefey. A line of mountains proceeds from Snowden
along the w-eftern coaft to Plinlimmon \ and in this line
lie Urrou Seth, Caeridris, and Moyle Vadiau. A few
hills of little elevation proceed towards Shropfhire,
among which the Wrekin is the molt remarkable.
Another fmall chain proceeds fouth towards Cardiff",
but contains no hilk of any eminence.
Leaving England, and proceeding towards the north, Scotch
we find the Cheviot Hills, fo celebrated in the hiftory mountains,
of the border Ikirmilhes. Thefe form a regular ridge,
running from fouth-weft to north-eaft, where they join
the hills of Galloway. In this part of Scotland there
are feveral mountainous ridges running in various direc¬
tions, generally north and louth according to the courfe
of the rivers; but there is, properly fpeaking, no uni¬
form chain. Dumfriesfliire contains feveral mountains,.
fome of which are of a confiderable height, efpecially
Hartfell in Annandale, from which proceeds the cele¬
brated chalybeate fpaw 5 Lowther near Leadhillsj
Blacklavv on the borders of Ayrfhire Etrick Pen, in
Efkdale moor -, Carnkinnow near Drumlanrigg \ and
Queensberry hill, which gives the title to the dukedom
of that name. Proceeding towards the north, wre find
Pentland hills, a little to the fouth-weft of Edinburgh,
and the romantic hills of Arthur’s feat and Salifbury
Craigs, in the immediate vicinity of that city. On the
eaftern coaft, before eroding the Forth, is North Ber¬
wick Law, which muff: be confidered as clofing the lift
of fouthern hills in Scotland. The principal part of
thefe fouthern hills confifts of calcareous earth, and
argillaeedte'fehiftus ; and except in thofe of Galloway,
granite and other primitive rocks are very fparing. In
the Lothian hills the calcareous ftrata are furmounted
by vaft blocks of trap, wacke, and bafalt.
On the north of the Forth are the hills of Ochil, of
little elevation, but celebrated for affording large quan¬
tities of agates and chalcedonies. The hills of Kin-
noul and Dunfinnan in the eaftern part of Perthftiire,
3re generally confidered the laft of the lowland hills, ..
The
140
I
582 G E O L
General Tlie principal northern chain of Britifh mountains is that
Diftnbu- 0£ Qrampian lulls, extending from Loch Lomond
Materials to Stonehaven, and forming the fouthern boundary of
of the the Highlands 5 and rifing by a gradual traniition from
Earth, the Sidlaw hills on the call, the Campfey hills on the
v weft, and the Ochils in the middle. 1 he principal
mountains of this chain are Ben Lawers, Ben More,
Schehallion, Ben Vorlich, Ben Lomond, and Ben Ledy.
Near Ben Lawers is Ben Nevis, the higheft mountain
in Britain, and to the north-weft of this, near Fort
Auguftus, is the long hill of Corri Allok. About
30 miles to the eaft of this is the high mountain of
Cairngorum, famous for the fpecimens of quartzofe ftones
found there. Numerous mountains lie in the fecond
divifions of the Highlands, beyond Loch Limrn, and
Loch Nefs, efpecially on the weftern Ihore, which is
crowded with hills. Few of thefe are connderable.
To the weft of Rofslhire are feveral hills, among which
Ben Chat, Ben Chalker, and Ben Golich are the moft
remarkable. More inland Hands the high mountain of
Ben Wevis, nearly equal to Ben Nevis. In moft of
thefe mountains the primitive rocks prevail, and granite
is often very abundant. Few minerals, however, ex-
141 cept iron ore, are found.
Irifti moun- Ireland contains but few mountains, and none of any
ia*ns' confiderable importance. They generally form fhort
lines, or appear in detached groups, one of the higheft
of which is that on the weft and fouth of the lake of
Killarney, in which is the mountain of Mangerton. A
fraall line of hills called Shecky mountains runs on the
north-weft of Bantry Bay, pafling towards the eaft.
To the northward of this Hands Sliblogher and Nagles,
and towards the eaft are the hills of Knockemdown.
In the county of Leinfter is a mountain of the fame
name, and to the fouth of Dublin are the Wicklow
hills, from which there were lately fuch great expecta¬
tions of golden treafure. In Ulfter ftand the moun¬
tains of Mourne, the higheft of which, Donard, is faid
to be nearly the height of Mangerton. The moft
mountainous part of Ireland is the weftern peniniula of
that ifland, towards which, in the county of Mayo,
Hands Nephin, one of the higheft in the kingdom.
On the fouth-eaft of Clewbay is the mountain of Croagh
Patrick, alfo in the county of Mayo, which is the laft
Iriih hill of any importance.
We cannot here with propriety enter on the theory
of the formation of mountains. The hypothecs of. the
principal geological writers with refpeft to this fubjeft,
will be feen from the general view of the theories to
be given in the next chapter. We may in this place
only remark, that all the fyftems which have been con-
ftru&ed, to explain the formation of the primitive moun¬
tains, with refpeCt to which there is the moft difpute,
may be reduced to three.
In the firft of thefe, mountains are fuppofed to have
been formed fuch as we now fee them, except that they
have fuffered fomc degradations and modifications, from
certain accidents pofterior to their original formation,
and that thefe mountains owed their elevation above the
places which furround them, to one fingle accidental
accumulation of more materials in one place than in an¬
other •, an accumulation which might have taken place
without that great precipitation which preceded and oc-
cafioned the confolidation of the cruft of our globe.
In the fecond hypothefis, all the primitive mountains.
5
O G Y. Chap. II.
are fuppofed to have been railed by one caufe, and in Grnwal
one certain manner ; and the materials which compofe
them, to have been thrown out of their natural poll- Mat;erjais
tion. It is with refpeit to this railing or difplacement 0f the
that geologifts have imagined lo many aitferent hypo- Earth.
thefes. . v~r ^
In the third general theory, thefe mountains are fup¬
pofed to have become pre-eminent from the accidental
lowering or removal of the materials which originally
furrounded them, whether this happened from the ma¬
terials compofing thefe mountainous fituations having
fuffered no difplacement, or that they had been them,
felves removed.
M. Dolomieu is of opinion, that there are mountains
whofe fituation and ftrudture favour each of thefe three
hypothefes*. * Joi/r. de
J r Min. N°
Sect. II. Of Dyhes. xlii. P. 42!.
142
We have defcribed dykes (N° 15.) to be thofe m-Hiftoryof
terruptions of the ftrata which are formed by perpendi-dykes._
cular fiffures filled with ftony fubftances. As thefe
ftony matters are frequently of that kind called whin-
ftone, thefe dykes are commonly called whin dykes^ and
the hiftory of thefe is very important, as they form one
of the principal fubjefts in the principal theories of the
earth. . . . . . 143
Dykes have received different denominations, deicrip- NarncSt
tive, in fome meafure, of the nature of the fubltances
of which they are compoled ; or of the fceming effehfs
they have produced on the interfered horizontal Ifiata.
They are called bafallic veins, trap dykes, whin dykes ;
and in the coal countries of Scotland they are called
gaws, from the idea that they have occafioned the fe-
paration of the coal, and contiguous ftrata, through
which they run.
Thefe dykes have been more attentively obferved in
coal countries, than where they occur elfewhere j be-
caufe on the accurate knowledge of their courfe, in-
clination, and thicknefs, depend, in a great meafure,
the judicious and fuccefsful operations of the miner,
when his workings approach the dike, or render it ne-
ceffary to cut through it to reach the ftrata of coal on
the other fide. But, though lefs attended to, they have
been obferved and traced in other places, where a great
extent of the horizontal ftrata has been expo fed in toe
beds of rivers, as in the bed of the Vv ater of Leit 1,
above St Bernard’s Well, near Edinburgh, and on the
fea fhore, efpecially on the weftern coafts of Scotland,
where the rocks are more abrupt and precipitous, and
where the violence of the Atlantic ocean has remove
part of the horizontal ftrata, and left the vertical ftrata
remaining, like immenfe walls or dykes. Hence pro¬
bably the origin of the name ; and as they, often con lilt
of that fpecies of ftone called whirJlone, this epithet has
been added. . . , I44
The courfe, however, of the greater number which Courfc
we have had the opportunity of examining, generally
lies between the points of the compafs S. and S. L.
and N. and N. W. This is moft frequently the courle
of the whin dykes of Ifiay and Jura-, it is the courle
of a remarkable dyke which traverfe the coal ftrata
at the village of Stevenfon, near Saltcoats, m Ayr-
fnire; part of which is feen on the furface, not many
hundred yards to the north of the weft end of that vil-
of the
Earth.
Chap II. G E O L
General l^gc •, and it is the courfe of two dykes, dill more re-
Diitnbu- stable in the ifland of Great Cumbray, in the frith
tion ot the ’
Materials v-aly^d^# ^
Geologifts, who have treated this fubjeft, do not feem
to have marked, with much attention, the courle of the
dvkes. They have mentioned in general terms, that
they follow all directions. More extenfive obfervation
may probably ihew, that the mod frequent diredfions of
the principal dykes, is from north to foutlq or a few
points deviation from that courfe. And if this be eda-
bliihed, by a fuller and more accurate hidory of dykes,
the analogy between them and metallic veins will be
more complete •, for it is obferved of the latter, that the
mod powerful, that is, the mod produftive, run from
north to fouth. _ .
Dykes do not always run in a draight line. In their
courfe they form certain flexuofities. But, in this wind¬
ing courle, the deviations are ufually fo fmall, as to ha\e
little effect on the general direction of the dyke, which,
upon the whole, may be conddered as nearly the
fame.
The continuity of dykes is fometimes interrupted, ex-
actly in the fame manner as frequently happens to the
horizontal drata, and which, in technical language, is
termed a flip.
In the ifland of Iflay we have obferved two dykes of
this defeription, the one on the fouth fide of Lochindal,
near the point of Laggan; the other on the (hore of the
fouth-ead part of the" ifland, a little to the fouth of the
houfe of Ardmore. In both thefe dykes, the extent of
the feparation of the flip was jud equal to the thicknels
of the dyke. The oppofite fides were brought exactly
into the fame line. *
After this feparation, thefe dykes, in fo far as they
could be traced, preferve the fame thicknefs, courfe, and
inclination as formerly.
A very remarkable dyke has been difeovered, in the
coal field, in the didrift of Boulogne in France. It
runs in the form of a crefcent from north to wed.
The direftion of dykes downwards is feldom perpen¬
dicular. This deviation from a line perpendicular to
the horizon is called their inclination. The inclination
of a dyke is ufually denominated the hade or hading.
See the article Co\lery.
The inclination of different dykes, and even of the
fame dyke, is various, fometimes approaching to, and
fometimes deviating from the perpendicular. The ex¬
tent of dykes downwards, w'e believe, has not been
afeertained with any degree of accuracy, and the termi¬
nation of very fewr has yet been detefted. The depth
to which refearches of this kind can be carried, is com¬
paratively fmall. With all the ardour, ingenuity, and
power of man, inveftigations to determine this point,
will probably always be limited by the extent of his
mining operations. The crefcent-formed dyke juft
mentioned, which occurs in a coal-field in the diftrict of
Boulogne in France, which confifts of a fpecies of mar¬
ble, found in feveral quarries in the vicinity, has been
traced to the perpendicular depth of 600 feet, where it
is fucceeded by a fchiftus rock, which latter, with the
fame courfe and inclination, continues to interfeft the
horizontal ftrata.
The extent of dykes in length has not been accu¬
rately determined. Indeed, it muft be extremely dif¬
ficult to trace them with any degree of certainty. For
General
Diftribu-
tion of the
r I-4S .
Inclination,
146
Extent.
O G Y. 583
thofe which are obferved on the fea coaft, where they
are moft confpicuous, foon difappear in the mountains,
on the one hand, or on the other lofe themfelves in Materials
the fea. And, as the extent of the fame coal field 0f the
rarely exceeds a few miles, they have feldom been fol- Earth,
lowed beyond its limits. In many cafes, the change v T 1
in the nature and arrangement of the ftrata, renders it
almoft impoflible. Some, however, have been traced
to a very great extent; one in particular, on the banks
of the river Meufe in the Netherlands, has been fol¬
lowed in its direct courfe, to the diftance of four
leagues 5 and of this dyke it is obferved, if purfued
through all its windings, the extent is not lefs than fix
leagues. 147
The thicknefs of dykes is various. Sometimes they Thicknefb
are obferved no thicker than a few inches. From that
they increafe to one foot, fix feet, and very often are
found from io to 20 feet. There is one in the ifland of
Iflay, of the enormous thicknefs of 69 feet. This im-
menfe dyke accompanies a lead vein, about a foot thick,
which is included between it and the limeftone ftrata.
In this mining field, two whin dykes, one of them 10
feet thick, have been difeovered, crofting the metallic
veins.
In going dowrnwards, dykes are faid to decreafe in.
thicknefs. This is particularly obferved of dykes of
fmaller magnitude. Of fmaller dykes it is alfo faid, that
they diminifti in thicknefs towards the extremities.
In one refpeft, fome whin dykes are exaftly analo¬
gous to metallic veins, in having branches, or in the
miners phrafe,y?r//7gj' going off andtraverfing the contigu¬
ous ftrata, and forming in the courfe they take, an acute
angle with the principal dyke. A whin dyke of this
deferiptipn has been obferved in the ifland of Jura, on the
{hore of the found. The diverging branch terminated
in a point among the horizontal ftrata, at the diftance of .
a few feet from the great dyke, affirming altogether a
wredge-like form. r^g
If we include metallic veins in the account, the ver-Materials,
tical ftrata may be faid to be compofed of every kind of
mineral fubftance, but almoft always different from the
interfered horizontal ftrata. By this laft circumftanee
their occurrence is at once recognized.. In general, the
dykes that are found in Scotland, whether in the coal
countries, or in the weftern coafts and iflands, where
they are fo frequent, are of that fpecies of ftone which’
comes under the denomination of trap or whinftone.
Dykes, confifting of other fpecies of ftone, have alfo
been found in Scotland. On the Mull of Kinouth,
which forms the fouthern headland, at the entrance of
Lochindal, in Iflay, we obferved a fmall dyke of gra¬
nite, crofting the headland, which is of granular quartz.
There are fome vertical ftrata of granite in the ifland of
Icolmkill, of pitchftone in the ifland of Arran, and of
ferpentine at Portfoy in Banffflnre.
Bergman, in his Phyfical Geography, fuppofes that
granite was never found to be a component part of
vertical ftrata. What has been already mentioned
proves the contrary. Granite dykes have alfo been dif¬
eovered in other places. Beffon has obferved dykes of
this defeription on the great road between Limoges
and Cahors in France, traverfing horizontal ftrata of
argillaceous fchiftus, a fpecies of ftene which has ge¬
nerally been confidered of later formation than gra¬
nite. Thefe dykes, he obferves, are from an inch to
fix.
5*4
GEOLOGY.
General
Diftribu-
tidn of tht
Materia s
of the
Earth
fix feet in thieknefs, and the quartz, feldfpar, and mica,
are of larger lizc than are ufually found in the granite
of mountains. Dolomieu has made a fimilar obferva-
tion, and confiders it as a diferiminative character, by
which the granite of mountains and that found in ver-
1 lical Strata may be eafily diftinguilhed. But this is not
always to be admitted as a characteriftic mark of dif-
tindfion. The granite dyke which has been already
mentioned, croiling the granular quartz, on the Mull
of Kinouth in lilay, is fmall grained, and others of this
latter defeription have been obferved in other places.
There is a very lingular dyke on the coaft of Ayr-
fhire, between Weems bay and Largs, near the houfe
of Kelly. It is about ten feet thick, traverfes the ho¬
rizontal ftrata, which cohiill of plumb-pudding rock,
-whofe cement is fandftone of a red colour, from north-
eatf to fouth-weft, and erodes a larger dyke of the
whinftone of this country, nearly at right angles. This
dyke is eompofed of different materials. Part is of the
common whinftone, and part of a plumb-pudding rock,
cemented by the maiter of the dyke •, and thefe alter¬
nate with each other, both in the thicknefs of the dyke,
and length wife. On one fide, there are four feet thick
of whinftone ; immediately in conta£l with this there is
plumb-pudding ftone three feet thick, and fo on alter¬
nately, acrofs the whole dyke. In tracing the dyke
lengthwife acrofs the whole line, there is found a few
yards of whinftone, which is fucceeded by a few yards
of plumb-pudding ftone, and this is again fucceeded by
the whinftone.
But, for the general view which is here propofed, it
is not requifite to give a full account of all the mineral
fubftances which enter into the compofition of vertical
ftrata, or even a minute enumeration of all the varieties
that are found in whin dykes.
-icoui.a! One of the moft fingular circumftances refpefting
ftruflure of whin dykes, which feems to have been entirely over-
whin dykes. i00ked by geologifts, ftill remains to be confidered.
This is the peculiar ftrufture or arrangement of the
parts of which they are compofed. Ol this peculiar
arrangement it may be obferved in general, that it is
in all refpedls the reverfe of what takes place in the
horizontal ftrata.
When the dyke is of fmall magnitude, it is pretty
compaff m all its parts j but if an attempt be made to
break or feparate any part of it, the fra&ure will, be
found to run moft readily in the perpendicular diredlion. •
But when the dyke is of more confiderable thicknefs, it
ufually forms feveral divifions, marked by perpendicular
fiffures, and there is often very great variety in the na¬
ture and qualities of the feveral divifions of the fame
dyke. The exterior divifion of one fide fometimes, and
fometimes the exterior divifion of both lides, are ot a
fofter texture than the intermediate divifion ; and often
contain, in great proportion, fpecks oi radiated zeolite
and calcareous fpar, while the middle divifions, as well
as being harder, are alfo more homogeneous. In other
cafes, the reverie of this appears. I he middle parts of
the dyke are the fofteft and leaft compaft, exhibiting
the greateft variety of heterogeneous fubftances.
Some whin dykes have a great tendency to affume,
when broken, the prifmatic form. This is the cafe rvith
many, even of the moft compaft texture. In others,
•where the fide of the dyke is expofed to view, and mi-
®utely examined, fiffures may be traced, dilcovering
the ends of pretty regular prifms.
Chap. II.
But in fome dykes General
149
-Peculiar
in the ifland of J ura, the priimatic columns are entirely
... ...... ......... ... x -- ' tion of the
feparated, and lying looie, are tour, hve, or nx-heted, Materials
* . 3 L1   A . I i-. w, 1 I i TV f" C i *.1. _
it the
Earth.
X 7 • O t 7 ^ . ...
jointed j the perpendicular fiilures forming the joints,
and in all refpects fimilar to the perpendicular baiallic
columns, except being in the horizontal pofition. In one
of the dykes in the illand of J ura, the columns arc irom
12 to 18 inches in diameter. In lome others on the lea
ftiore, near the houle ot Mr Campbell ot Jura, and at the
harbour of the fmall iiles, in the fame illand, there are
columns of the enormous lize ot 10 and 12 feet diameter.
A dyke which traverfes the baialtic ftrata of the
Giants Caufervay in the north of Ireland, exhibits ftill
more remarkably this peculiarity of ftructure. a. he.
fmalleft maffes detached from it affume the columnar
form, and moft of them are perfectly regular, ihe
fradture incmfiably runs in the horizontal direction ; the
columns confequently lie in the lame pofition, are three,
four, five, and fix-lided, and are generally of fmall
fize. Obfervations on Vertical Strata, by Ur Millar,
Scots Mag. vol, Ixiv.
Sect. III. Of Metallic Veins.
I5®
The hiftory of metallic veins, although far from be-Metallic
ing fo full and fatisfadoiy as could be wilhed, is more veins,
complete than that ol whin dykes, f he latter haveexcited
no farther attention than as objedts oi curiolity to the
geologiit, or as lingular fadts in eitablilhing a theory
and when they come in the way of the operations of
the miner, to difeover their connexion Avith the conti¬
guous ftrata j while the wants and luxuries oi man haAre
roufed ingenuity and exertion in exploring the former,
on account of the precious and ufeful metals Avith which
they are ftored. 1 hus, the fplendour and beauty of
fome metallic fubftances, and the utility of others, have
made them in all ages be efteemed and valued by man¬
kind ; and confequently they have been the conn ant
objedfs of purfuit and inveftigation. It is obAfious that
the beauty and utility of metals, on account of which
they are fo much valued and fought after, excite great¬
er intereft in procuring them j on the one hand, the
refearches and obfervations of the philofopher in lur-
nilhing the hiftory and general principles, and, on the
other, the immediate application of this knoAvleoge,
and of thefe principles, in the pradlice and operations
• of the miner.
The hiftory of whin dykes is, in general, quite ana¬
logous to metallic veins *, but, of the latter, from what
has been ftated, Ave can fpeak Avith more certainty and
precilion. j.j
Three different kinds of metallic veins have been de-Diftil?a;o#
feribed by geological Avriters j the perpendicular vein,.of veim>
the pipe vein, and the fat or dilated vein. W e (hall
confider each of thefe in their order. ^
1. Of the perpendicular vein.— I his kind of metallic p rpei dicu
vein occurs moft frequently. As may be expefied,_ it iar vems.
is various in its courfe or direction, thicknefs, and in¬
clination. Metallic veins are found running in every
direction but, in general, the moft poAverful veins,
that is, the moft productive, are obferved to run from
north to fouth, or at leaft a feAv points deviation from
that courfe \ and when any deviation happens^ it is
ufually to the ealt of north, and to the weft of fouth. ^ ip
The courfe or direction of a vein is called in techni- e
cal
Diftribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
*54.
Incliuation.
hap. II. CEO
General, cal language its bearing. The extent of a vein in the
line of bearing, we believe rarely exceeds the range of
mountains in which it is difeovered. This is the cafe
with the principal vein at Leadhills, It is limited to
the chain of mountains in which the operations are now
carried on; and although the mines of Wanlockhead
are not a mile diflant, new veins appear with galena or
lead ore, of quite a different quality, and all the ac¬
companying minerals, whether forming part of the vein,
or found in cavities, are alfo quite different from the
lead ore and other minerals found in the veins at Lead-
hills.
The inclination of veins is various. Sometimes they
are nearly perpendicular ; fometimes they deviate con-
fiderably from a perpendicular line j fometimes the
fame vein in its courfe downward, inclines to one
fide *, fometimes it is perpendicular, and fometimes it
inclines to the other ffde. When the deviation from
the perpendicular does not exceed i o°, the vein is ftill
conudered as a perpendicular or vertical vein. When
a vein is inclined, the two fides which include the me¬
tallic fubftances are in very different pofitions, and have
confequently received from the miners different names.
That ffde which fupports the metallic ore, or on which
it feems to lean, is called the ledger Jide, or limply the
ledger. The oppofite ffde which covers the ore, or
which overhangs it, is denominated the hanging fide,
or limply the hanger. From the inclination of the vein
being varied in its courfe downwards, it muff appear
that the fame fides, according as the inclination varies,
mult change their pofition and denomination. This
will perhaps be more intelligible by the fedfion at
fig. 5. in which A A reprefents the vein 5 BB, CC,
DD, EE, the ffrata interfeiffed by it •, I. the hanger j
2. the ledger ; 3. the hanger ; and, 4. the ledger.
The thicknefs of veins, and indeed of the fame vein,
is alfo extremely various. Sometimes they are only a
few inches thick. From this they incrcafe to the thick¬
nefs of feveral feet. The veins which were wrought at
Leadhills, about feven years ago, were from two to
fix feet within the lides ; but fome years before that
time the principal vein in thofe mines, by the addition
of two ftrings or fmall veins, affumed the extraordinary
thicknefs of 14 feet of pure ore. This unufual appear¬
ance, both on account of its richnefs and grandeur,
excited fo much attention and admiration, that the
countefs of Hopetoun undertook a journey to thefe in¬
ferior regions, not lefs than 150 fathoms below the fur-
face of the earth, to witnefs the fplendour and brilli¬
ancy of this fubterraneous apartment. The uncommon
thicknefs and abundant richefs of this vein are ftill talk¬
ed of at Leadhills with enthufiafm. But a thicker vein
was once wrought at Llangunog in Wales. Fifteen feet
of clean ore were for fome time dug out of this vein.
Thefe are, however, far exceeded by the copper veins
in the Parys mountain in Anglefea, which are deferib-
ed by Mr Pennant in his Welth tour. The thicknefs
of one of thefe veins is 21 feet, and of another 66
feet.
The broadeft metallic vein, of which W'e have any
account, is, we believe, that of the Efton copper mine,
in Derbyffiire. In this mine there was worked, at one
* Male's a heap of ore, of the aftonilhing extent of 70 yards
berbyjbirc, from fide to fide *.
!>• in. extent of veins downwrards has in many cafes
Vol. IX. Part II.
LOGY. 585
been afeertained. To the regret and difappointment of
the miner, they have been frequently intercepted and
entirely cut off by the horizontal ftrata. The rich vein
of lead ore at Llangunog in Wales, which we have al¬
ready mentioned, was intercepted in this manner by a
ftratum of black fchiitus or ftfiver, the nature of which fi;
is not deferibed by Williams, who Hates the fa&*.
Their rcfearches to recover their loft wealth, which vol. i.
were profecuted for feveral years, proved altogether fruit- p. 274.
lefs. The fmalleft trace of this unufually productive
_ *55
Thicknefs.
General
Diftribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
vein was never afterwards difeovered.
*5^
Two kinds of perpendicular mineral veins have been Two kinds
obferved and deferibed. In the one cafe the relative °t ps-tyendi-
pofition of the ftrata which contain the metallic fub-cu^“r ve^ns'
itances is exactly fimilar to that of the coal ftrata when
they are in ter fee ted by a whin dyke. On one fide of
the vein the ftrata are elevated or depreffed from their
former plane. This is illuftrated by fig. 5. where the
letters BB, CC, OF), EE, mark the correfponding
ftrata which have been deranged or difplaced. In the
other kind of vein the mineral fubftances containing the
metallic ores are merely feparated without any eleva¬
tion or depreftion j for each fide of the fiffure ftill re¬
maining in its former plane, the oppofite fides of the di¬
vided ftrata exactly correfpond to each other. The
mines at Strontian in Argylefliire are of this latter de-
feription.
Veins of this kind have frequently fmaller veins, or,
as they are called in the language of the vainers, firings,.
which run off at an acute angle, preferve their courfe
for fome diftance, not, in general, very great, gradual¬
ly diminilh in thicknefs, and at laft are entirely loft
among the contiguous ftrata. At the place of junction
the principal vein is always thicker, as has been alrea¬
dy noticed with regard to the unufual thicknefs of the
principal vein at Leadhills.
To this account of perpendicular veins we may add,
that fome veins are found crofting each other, and that
whin dykes have alfo been difeovered interfering me¬
tallic veins. Examples of the latter occur in the iftand
of I ft ay.
2. Ofi the pipe vein.—The perpendicular vein laft de- p;pj^;n
feribed, interfered or cut the ftrata acrofs. What has
been denominated the pipe vein is extremely limited in
the line of bearing, but having the fame inclination as
the ftrata which include it. It may beconfidered as in
fome meafure of a circular form, extremely irregular,
and always following the courfe of* the ftrata between
which it is included, like the perpendicular veins •,
fometimes as it dips downwards, it is enlarged ; fome¬
times it is diminifhed, and fometimes it is fo much con-
trared, that the including ftrata come into clofe con-
tar. In a word, this kind of vein is fubjer to all the
irregularities of the veins formerly deferibed, only that
its inclination is invariably the fame with the accompa¬
nying ftrata. ^
3. The fiat of dilated vein.—This kind of metallic Flat vein,
vein, after what has been faid with regard to other
veins, will require but a ftrort defeription. It is exar*
ly ftmilar to the pipe vein, only that it is more extend¬
ed in the line of bearing. It is included between the
horizontal ftrata *, and therefore its inclination or dip
muft be the fame as the including ftrata. A vein of
this kind might with more propriety and accuracy be
regarded as a metallic horizontal ftratmn, were it not
4 E that
58(5
Gcr.cril
Diiiribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
T59
Metallic
«res.
t6o
PI at in a
•res.
161
&old ores.
* Maive'
Derbyjbii
f-
G E O L
that it is always found varying in its dimenfions, and
equally irregular as the perpendicular veins which in-
terfeft the horizontal ftrata.
It is almoft needlefs to add, that the flat or horizon¬
tal veins are fubjeft to the fame derangement as the
coal ftrata, when they are interfected by a whin dyke.
The vein, along with the including ftrata, is either ele¬
vated or deprefled, and the fame thing takes place
when they are traverfed by a metallic vein. MS. by
Dr Millar.
To finilh the {ketch of the hiftory of metallic veins,
we have only to enumerate the different metallic ores
that occur in them, and to mention the places Avhere
thefe are found in greateft abundance. In this enume¬
ration we {hall follow the arrangement of metals given
by Brochant, in the fecond volume of his Traite Ele-
mefitaire de Mineralogie.
In naming the feveral fpecies, we (hall adopt the no¬
menclature of Kirwan, adding the French and German
fynonyms to each. As it would far exceed our limits
to give even a curfonj defcription of the feveral fpecies,
we refer the reader for that to the article Mineralogy
in this work, or to the elementary treatifes of Kirwan or
Brochant, or the more extenlive treatife oi Haiiy.
I. Platin'a
Has been found hitherto only in its metallic or native
ft ate, and it has as yet only been met with in South
America, efpecially at Choco in New Grenada. It is
found in the fand of rivulets, and probably comes from
the primitive mountains.
II. Gold.
Native gold.—This is found principally in primitive
mountains, fometimes in veins, and fomeliines ditfemi-
nated through the ftony matter. The fubftances which
moft commonly accompany it are quartz, feldfpar, cal¬
careous fpar, heavy fpar, pyrites, red ftlver ore and
vitreous ftlver ore, and galena. Gold is ftill more com¬
monly met with in the land wafhed from certain rivers.
The countries where gold is chiefly found in rocky fub¬
ftances, are Hungary, Tranfylvania, Peru, Mexico,
Siberia, and Sweden. It has alfo been found in France,
near the town of Oifans, in the department of the Here-,
but not in ftifficient abundance to render the working
of the mine profitable. Among the rivers whole fands
furniflr gold, we may enumerate the Rhine, the Da¬
nube, and the Araniofch in Tranfylvania.
Gold has been found in feveral parts of the Britifh
dominions, efpecially at Silfoe in Bedfordftiire, in the
Wicklow hills in Ireland, and in the neighbourhood of
Leadhills in Lanarkftnre. It is faid that a jeweller,
who died lately in Dublin, often declared that gold,
to the value of 30,000k had paffed through his hands,
which was brought from the Wicklow hills. l ifts
mine is now in the hands of government, but we be¬
lieve docs not anfwer the expectation that wasfirft form¬
ed as to its produce. General Dirom informs us, that
in the reign of James V. of Scotland, 300 men were
employed for feveral fummers in waflftng the fand near
Lcadhills, for gold of which they are faid to have col¬
lected to the amount of ioo,oooh fterling. It is faid
that pieces of gold, an ounce in weight, have been
r found at Leadhills, and that Lord Hopetoun has a
piece ftill larger in his golTcftion *.
O G Y. Chap. II.
General
III. Mercury. Diftribu.
Species 1. Native Mercury, or ^uichfilver. Le Mer- Valeria!*
cure natif. Gediegen Quecklilber.—This is found at of the
Idria in the Auftrian territories’, at Almaden in Spain 5 Earth,
in the Palatinate, and a few other places. We are
told by Mr Jamefon, that a quantity of quickfilver was MtrIc^y
difeovered fome years ago in a peat mofs, in the ifiand ores_
of Iflay, and he thinks it probable that veins of it exift
there * ; but there feems no ground whatever for fuch * Min. of
expectations. the IJlest
Species 2. Natural Amalgama. L’Amalgame na-vol. 1. p.
tif. Naturalicher Amalgam.—This confifts of mercury G3-
and filver, in very variable proportions. It is found at
Sahlberg in Sweden } at Rqfeneau in Hungary, and ef¬
pecially at Mofchellandfberg in the duchy of Deux
Ponts, where it is found mixed with common ferrugi¬
nous clay, and with other ores of mercury.
Species 3. Mercury Mineralifedby the Sulphuric and
Muriatic Acids. Mercure Cornte ou Muriate. Queck-
filber Hornerz.—This fpecies was difeovered about 30
years ago, in the mines of Mofchellandiberg, and at
IMorefeld, in the duchy of Deux Ponts, by M. Woulfe,
mixed with ferruginous clay, quartz, lithomarga, na¬
tive quickfilver, and cinnabar. It has alfo been found
at Almaden in Spain, and at Herfowitz in Bohemia 5
but it is very rare.
Species 4. Native Cinnabar. Le Linnabre. Zinno-
ber.—This ufually forms a gangart for the other ores
of mercury. It occurs in the ftratiformed mountains,
pretty near the furface. This ore is found in a great
many parts of Europe, eipecially at Almaden in
Spain, Idria in the Auftrian territories, at Mofchel-
landfberg, in Bohemia, in Saxony, in Hungary, in
Tranfylvania, in the Palatinate, and in France; but in
this laft it is found but in fmall quantity.
IV. Silver. ^
Species 1. Native Silver.—A particular variety. ofSllver ore3*
this fpecies, mixed with gold, is very rare. It is prin¬
cipally found in Conigfberg in Norway, and Sclflan-
genberg in Siberia. In the former of thefe places it is
found diffeminated through calcareous fpar, fluor fpar,
and rock cryftal, in a vein running through a rock of
hornblende {late, and accompanied with blende, galena,
and pyrites. That of Siberia is found diftributed through
a mafs of heavy fpar.
Common native ftlver is found in confiderable quan¬
tity in Mexico and Peru. It is alfo met with in Sibe¬
ria, Saxony, France, Sweden, Norway, in the Hartz,
and in Bohemia. It is principally found in the primi¬
tive mountains, diftributed through maffes of heavy
fpar, quartz, calcareous fpar, fluor {par, pyrites, blende,
cobalt, galena, red filver ore, and vitreous filver ore.
Silver has been found in feveral parts of Britain, ef¬
pecially near Alva in Scotland. It is confidently af¬
firmed, that a mafs of capillary filver, weighing 16 oz.
was found in the lead mines at Garthonefs in the ifle of
Iflay, mixed with galena f. ^ Min. of
Species 2. Antimoniated Native Silver. L’Argent lfles,no\. s.
Antimonial. Spiefglas Silber.—This fpecies has hi-^ I-'
therto been only found in the mine at St Wenceilas at
Altwolfach, and in the duchy of Wirtemberg, in a
vein mixed with calcareous fpar, heavy fpar, native fil¬
ver, and quartz.
Species
Chap. II-
GEOLOGY.
Earth.
—'v 
General Species 3. Arfeniated Native Silver. L’Argent Ar-
Diftnbu- fenical. Arfenik Silber.—This is alio rare, having
Materials been found only at Andreafberg, in the Hartz, and at
of the Kaffala in Spain. In the Hartz it is mixed with na¬
tive arfenic, red filver ore, galena, blende, and calea-
1 reous fpar. Considerable quantities- of Silver, probably
of this Species of ore, are obtained from the lead ore of
Leadhills.
Species 4. Corneous Silver Ore, or Muriated Silver.
L’Argent Cornee ou Muriate. Horn Erz.—This has
been found in Peru, Mexico, Saxony, France, Sibe¬
ria, and, as is affirmed, in Cornwall in England.
Species 5. Sooty Silver Ore. L’Argent Noir. Sil-
berfchwarze.—This is found in Saxony, France, and
Hungary, mixed with other ores of filver, and fome-
times with native fiver.
Species 6. Vitreous Silver Ore. L’Argent Vitreux.
Silberglaferz.—This is found in Bohemia, Saxony,
Norway, Swabia, Siberia, and in Hungary, mixed
with other filver ores, and ufually accompanying cal¬
careous fpar, heavy fpar, and fluor fpar.
Species 7. Red Silver Ore. L’ Argent Rouge. Roth-
giltegerz.—This is found in the Hartz, Bohemia, Sax¬
ony, France, Swabia, and in Hungary, accompanying
native arfenic, realgar, vitreous filver ore, galena, cal¬
careous fpar, and heavy fpar.
V. Copper.
164
Copper Species I. Native Copper.—'This is met with in Sibe-
iifis. ria, the Uralian and Altaifchan mountains, Kamtfchat-
ka, Japan, Saxony, France, Sweden, Hungary, Palati¬
nate, and near Redruth in Cornwall, in England. It
ufually accompanies other ores of copper, efpecially ma¬
lachite and copper azure.
Species 2. Vitreous Copper Ore. Le Cuivre Vitreux.
Kupferglas.—This is found in Siberia, Hungary, Swe¬
den, Norway, Ruffia, Saxony, Silefia, Heffe, and in
Cornwall.
Species 3. Purple Copper Ore. La Mine de Cuivre
Violette. Buntkupfererz.—This is always found in
the neighbourhood of other copper ores, efpecially with
the fpecies laft mentioned, and with copper pyrites. It
is found in Saxony, Bohemia, the Bannat in Tranfyl-
vania, the Hartz, Norway, Ruffia, Sweden, Hungary,
Heife, and in Derbyfhire in England, efpecially in the
famous Edlon copper mine.
Species 4. Yellow Pyrites, or Yellow Copper Ore.
La Pyrite Cuivreufe. Kupferkies.—This is the moft
common fpecies of copper ore, and is found both in pri¬
mitive and fecondary mountains, fometimes in beds, and
fometimes in veins. It occurs moft abundantly in Bo¬
hemia, Saxony, Hungary, Sweden, France, Spain, and
Specially in Britain, where it forms one of the princi¬
pal varieties of copper ores, found in the famous Parys
mine in the ifle of Anglefea.
Species 5. White Copper Ore. La Mine de Cuivre
Blanche, Weifskupfererz.-—This fpecies is very rare,
but it has been found in Saxony in the mines of Frey-
berg, in Heffe, in Wirtemberg, and in Siberia, with
ether copper ores.
Species 6. Gray Copper Ore. Le Cuivre Gris.
Fahlprz.—This again is a very common fpecies, and is
found in all thofe countries that poffefs mines of cop¬
per.
Species 7. Black Copper Ore. Le Cuivre Noir.
587
General
Diftribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
Kupferfchwarze.—This is found mixed with malachite
and with green and blue copper ores in Saxony, Hun¬
gary, in the Bannat, in Silefia, in Norway, in Ruffia,
in Swabia, in Sweden, and in Siberia. It alfo occurs
in the Parys mine of Anglefea.
Species 8. Florid Red Copper Ore. Mine de Cuivre
Rouge. Roth-kuplererz.—This ufually accompanies
native copper, malachite, and brown earthy iron ore.
It is met with in Saxony, in the Bannat, in the Hartz,
in Norway, in Siberia, near Cologne, and in Corn¬
wall.
Species 9. Brick-red Copper Ore. Le Mine de Cuivre
couleur de Brique. Ziegelerz.—Found in fimilar fitua-
ations with the preceding.
Species 10. Blue Calc form Copper Ore. L’Azur de
Cui vre. Kupferlazur.—Found in the Bannat, in
Heffe, in Saltzburg, in Poland, in Siberia, in Thurin¬
gia, and in the Tyrolcfe. It is ufually imbedded in
flaly marl, or in fandftone, not far below the furface of
the earth.
Species 11. Malachite.—This is always found mixed
with other copper ores, and occurs in moft of the copper
mines that have been enumerated,
Species 12. Mountain Green. Lc Vert de Cuivre.
Kupfergriin.—This commonly accompanies fpecies 4,
6, 9, 10, and xi. It is found in Saxony, in the
Hartz, in Norway, Silefia, Siberia, Hungary, Wir¬
temberg, and Britain, as at Leadhills and in Derby-
Ihire.
Species 13. Olive Copper Ore. Mine de couleur O-
live. Oiivenerz.—This fpecies is extremely rare. It
has been found chiefiy near Karrarach in Cornwall,
where it is accompanied by fpeeies 11 and 12, and
brown iron ore in a gangart of yellow lithomarga mix¬
ed with quartz. It is laid to have been found alio at
Jonfbach near Ruftelftadt in Silefia.
VI. Iron.
• r . . . Il55
Species I. Native Iron.—This fpecies is very uncom-Iron ores,
mon ; but it has been met with in feveral places, efpe¬
cially at Kamfdorf and Eibenftock in Saxony, at Kranf-
najarik near Jenifei in Siberia, at Olumba near St Jago
in South America, and Oulle near Grenoble in France.
The two moft remarkable fpecimens of native iron are
thofe found in South America and in Siberia. The
former of thefe forms a mafs weighing at leaft 300
quintals, or 15 tons. It is foft and malleable, and in
every refpebt like the pureft iron. That of Siberia is a
fpheroidal mafs, weighing about 14 quintals, refting on
the furface of the earth, near the fummit of a moun¬
tain. Its texture is cellular, and its cavities are filled
with a tranfparent, greenifh, vitreous matter. No
mines or veins of iron are in the neighbourhood of ei¬
ther.
Species 2. Martial Pyrites. Pyrite Martiale. Schwe-
felkies.— 1 his fpecies is one of the moft common
ores of iron, and is found abundantly in every country
where there are any other ores of iron. There are
three varieties of it deferibed by Brochant, which are
lefs common, but thefe are alfo found in many places.
Species 3. Magnetic Pyrites. La Pyrite Magnetique.
Magnetkies.—Ihis has been found only in primitive
rocks, efpecially in micaceous fchiftus, accompanied
by quartz, hornblende, &c. and ufually lying in beds
mixed with other pyrites, galena, and magnetie irpn-
4 E 2 Hone,
588
General
Diftribu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
G E O L
Hone. It is found in Saxony, Bavarta, Norway, and
Silofia.
Species 4. Magnetic Ironjione. Le Fer Magnetique.
Magnetifcher Eifenftein.—Of this there are three
varieties, the common magnetic ore, which is very com¬
mon in primitive mountains, efpecialiy thofe that are
compofed of gneifs and micaceous fchiftus. It is often
in great abundance, forming large beds, or even whole
mountains. It is found in greateft quantity in Saxony,
Bohemia, Italy, Corfica, Silefia, Siberia, Norway, and
efpecialiy in Sweden. The fecond variety,_ called fi¬
brous magnetic ironftone, is uncommon, but is found at
Bibfburg°in Sweden. The third, which Kir wan calls
magnetic fund, is found in the banks of fome rivers, par¬
ticularly of the Elbe, as alfo in Sweden and Italy.
Species 5. Specular Iron-ore. Le Ter Speculaire.
Eifenglanz.—This is found in many places, often in con-
fiderable quantity, efpecially in Saxony, Bohemia,
France, Normandy, Prulha, Sweden, Siberia, Hungary,
Corfica, and the ifland of Elba. It is generally found
only in primitive mountains, fometimes in beds, fome-
times in veins, accompanied with quartz, hornitone,
martial pyrites, and magnetic iron ore.
Species 6. Redfcaly Iron Ore. La Mine deFer Rouge.
Roth-Eifenftein.— Ihis is rather rare, but is found in
feveral parts of Saxony, in the Hartz, in Nafiau, in
Thuringia and Hungary. _ Another variety of the fame
fpecies, the compact red ironftone of Kirwan, is much
more common, being found in Saxony, Bohemia, the
Hartz, HeiTe, Siberia, and in France, fometimes m
veins, and fometimes in beds, commonly mixed with
the two following fpecies, and with argillaceous iron¬
ftone, quartz, hornftone, and calcareous fpar.
A third variety, the common hematites or blood-
ftone, which is one of the moft productive iron ores, is
always found accompanying the laft variety, and is of
courfe met with in moft of the fituations above enume¬
rated. It is procured in abundance in feveral parts of
England, as in Derbyfhire, but more efpecialiy at
Ulverfton in Laneaftiire, where there is one perpendicu¬
lar vein of it 30 yards wide, in a rock of limeftone.
Large quantities of it are carried to Carron, where it is
fmelted with the common Carron ironftone.
Species *7. Brown Iron ore. La Mine de Fer Brune.
Braun-eiftenftein. -Of this there are feveral varieties, of
which the compadl brown ironftone, and the brown haema¬
tites, are very common 5 but the brown Icaly .ir(m ore
rather rare. The laft is found at Kampfdorf in Saxony,
at Klaufthel, in the Hartz, at Lauterick in the Palati¬
nate, and at Naila in the principality of Bareith. .
Species 8. Calcareous Iron Ore. Le Fer Spathique.
Spathiger-eiitenftein.— I his is found both in primary
and fecondary mountains, and there are few veins of
iron which do not contain it in greater or lefs quan¬
tity.
Species 9. Black Ironjione. La Mine de Fer Nome.
Schwarz-eiftenftein.—This is found in the principality
of Bareith, in the Hartz, Saxony, Heffe, and Palati¬
nate. .
The common argillaceous iron ore ot Kirwan, is
ranked by Brochant as a variety of this. It is very com¬
mon in moft iron countries, and much of it is found in
Britain, efpecially in Colebrook-dale, Shropfture, and m
Deanforeft in Gloucefterihire. The Carron ore is prin¬
cipally of this kind.
O G Y.
Species 10. Lowland Iron Ore.
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.'
Chap. IT.
species i o. a.o-anunu ,, ^ La Mine de Fer de General
Gazon. Reafen-eiftenftein.—There are feveral varieties of ^ ^
this, all of which are found in low, humid fituations, m
very extenfive beds, alternating wuth fandftone, ciay,
This fpecies is much more aoundant in the north ^
than in the fouth of Europe, efpecially in the duchy of
Brandenburg, in Courland, Lithuania, Livonia, x ruffia,
Pruftian Poland, and Luface.
Species 11. Blue Martial Earth. Le Fer Terreux
bleu. Blaue-eifenferde.— This is found imbedded in
clay and fimilar earths, and often accompanies the laft
fpecies. It occurs in Saxony, Silefia, Swabia, Bavaria,
Poland, Siberia, and the Palatinate.
Species 1 2. Green Martial Earth.. Le Fer Terreux
Vert. Grun-eifenerde.—- i his fpecies is uncommon, hay¬
ing been found only at Braunfdorf, and Schneeburg in
Saxony, in veins, accompanying quartz and fulphur
^Species 13. Emery. L’Emeril. SehmirgeL—This
is found in Saxony, diftributed in a bed of hardened
fteatites, in fandftone. It is alfo found in Italy, Spain,
Peru, the ifle of Naxos in the Archipelago, where there
is a cape called by the Italians,, Capo Smerigho, or the
Enteru Cape. It is often mixed with particles of mag¬
netic iron ore, whence fome have fuppofed the emery to
be magnetic.
VII. Lead.
i(f6s
Species 1. La Galene Commune. Gemeiner-Blei-Lead.
0.]anz. This is the moft common and abundant ore ot
lead, and is found both in primitive and fecondary ftra-
ta in beds and veins, accompanied with quartz, iluor
fpar, calcareous fpar, fparry iron ore, barytic earths
blende, pyrites, and feveral ores of filver. It is found
in great abundance at Leadhills and at \\ anlockhead m
Dumfriesfhire, in Derbyfnire, Strontian in Scotland, and
in the Mendip hills in Somerfetfhire. A variety of
this called compact galena, is found in the fame fitua¬
tions, efpecially in Derbyfiiire. It has often been con¬
founded with graphite, or plumbago. .
Werner enumerates nearly 20 formations, as he cans
them, of galena, but Mr Jamefon thinks the galena
formation in Dumfri'esfhire is different from any of thefe.
Species 2. Blue Lead Ore. La Mine de Plomb Bleue,
Blau-bleierz.—This fpecies has as yet been found only
at Zfchopau in Saxony, accompanying fluor fpar, barytic
fpar, white and black lead, and malachite.
Species 3. Brown Lead Ore. La Mine de Plomb.
Brune. Braun bleierz.—This fpecies is alfo very rare,
but is found at the fame place with the laft, and alio in
Bohemia, Brittany, and Hungary. , to ,
Species 4. Black Lead Ore. La Mine de Plomb
Noire. Schwarz-bleierz—This is found m Saxony, at
Freyberg, at Zfchopau, in Cumberland, in fome parts of
Scotland, in Poland, and Sioeria. j u
Species c. White Lead Ore. La Mine de Plomb
Blanche. Weifs-bleierz.—This is not a very abundant
fpecies, but it is found in feveral lead mines, elpeciahy
in Bohemia, Saxony, the Hartz, France, Siberia, Hun¬
gary, Carinthia, and in fome of the Bntifh lead mines,
efpecially at Leadhills. „ r , ,. , _
Species 6. Green Lead Ore. Phofphorated lead ore
of Kirwan. La Mine de Plomb Vert. Green-bleierz.
 This is found in veins, more commonly^ in the pri¬
mitive mountains. It is met with in Bohemia, Saxony,
Bavaria,.
Chap. II.
GEOLOGY.
General Bavaria, Siberia, Brifgau, France, Peru, and at Lead-
Diftribu- jn Scotland.
^Materials Species 7. Red Lead Spar. Le Plomb Rouge. Ro¬
of the tbes-bleierz.—This is one of the rarelf ores of lead, be-
Earth. ing as yet only found at Ekatharenburg in Siberia.
Species 8. Yellow Lead Spar. Le Plomb jaune.
Gelbes-bleierz.—This has been known only for a few
years. It has been found at Bleiberg in Carinthia, in
a gangart of calcareous Hone. It has alfo been found
near Freyberg in Saxony, at Annaberg in Auftria, and
at Reczbanya in Hungary.
Species 9. Native Vitriol of Lead. Le Vitriol de
Plomb natif. Naturliher-blei-vitriol.—This is found in
the i!le of Anglefea, in a vein of brown iron ore, mixed
with copper pyrites. It is alfo found at LeadhilLs in
Scotland.
Species xo. Earthy Lead Ore.—Of this there are two
varieties, the friable and the indurated. The former
is found in Saxony, in Lorraine, in Poland, and Sibe¬
ria, Bohemia, and Silefia: The latter is found in molt
lead mines. Mr Jamefon notices two varieties of lead
earth, which he calls white-lead earth, and friable lead
earth, as met with at Leadhills.
VIIL Tin.
167 ... . . .
Tinorts. Species I. Tin Pyrites. La Pyrite d’Etain. Zinnkies.
This fpecies is very rare, and is, we believe, found only
in Cornwall, at Wheal rock, among copper pyrites.
Species 2. Common Tin/lone. La Pierre d’Etain.
Zinnftem.—This is found chiefly in primitive rocks, as
in granite, gneifs, micaceous fchiftus, and porphyry, both
in maffes and veins. It is the common ore of Cornwall,
and is found alfo in Saxony, Bohemia, and the Eaft
Indies.
Species 3. Wood Tin Ore. L’Etain grenu. Zin-
nerz.—This is found in Cornwall, in the parillies of Co-
lomb, St Denis and Roach, accompanying the for¬
mer.
IX. Bismuth.
16S ....
Bif uth Species 1. Native Bifmuth—Bifmuth is a very rare
ores. metal, but is molt commonly found in its native flate.
It is ufually in a gangart of quartz, calcareous fpar, and
barytic fpar. It occurs in Bohemia, in Saxony, in the
territory of Hainault, in Suabia, in Sweden, and in
France, in the mines of Brittany.
Species 2. Sulphurated Bifmuth. La Galene de Bif¬
muth. Wifmuth GJanz.—This is very rare. It com¬
monly acccompanies the former, and is found at Joa-
chimfthal, in Bohemia, at Johann-Georgen-ftadt,
Schwarzenberg, and Altenberg in Saxony, and at Rid-
derhyttan in Sweden.
Species 3. Bifmuth Ochre. L’Ochre de Bifmuth.
Wifmuth Okker.—This is Hill more rare than the lad,
and is chiefly found near Schneeberg in Saxony, and at
Joachimfthal in Bohemia.
X. Zinc.
169 # .
2inc ores. Species 1, Blende. This is fulphurated zinc, and is
one of the mod common ores of that metal. T here
are three varieties the brown, the yellow, and the
black. Of thefe the yellow is the mod rare, and is
found in Saxony, in Bohemia, in the Hartz, in Norway.
Tranfylvania, and Hungary. The brown and the
black are found in mod of thefe places, and befides in General
France and England, efpecially in Derbylhire.
tion of the
Species 2. Calamine. La Calamine. Galmel.—Of jviaterials
this there are two varieties, compaEl andJlriated. Both
occur only in particular dratiform rocks, often forming
entire beds with indurated clay, and calcareous fpar.
The latter is ufually found in the cavities of the former.
Both occur in Bohemia, in Carinthia, and in mod of
the German lead mines. They are alfo found in Bri¬
tain, efpecially at Leadhills, Wanlock-hfcad, and in
Derbylhire.
of the
Earth.
XL Antimony.
I70
Species 1. Native Antimony.—This is very rare. It Antimony
was difeovered at Sahlberg in S weden, in the year 1748, ores,
in a gangart of fome calcareous done, and it was alfo
found fome years ago at Allemont in France, accompa¬
nying other ores of antimony and of cobalt.
Species 2. Sulphurated Antimony. L’Antimoine
Gris. Grau-fpies glas-erz.—There are feveral varieties
of this, as the compact fulphurated antimony, found at
Braunfdorf in Saxony ; at Goldgronach in the principa¬
lity of Bareith^ at Maguria in Hungary, and Auvergne
in France: foliated fulphurated antimony, found at
Braunfdorf and Goldgronach, and in the Hartz, and
Tranfylvania : driated fulphurated antimony, found in
Saxony, Hungary, France, Swabia, Tufcany, Sweden,
the Hartz, Spain, and in England : plumofe antimonial
ore, found at Freyberg in Saxony, at Braunfdorf ami
Stahlberg, and at Chemnitz in Hungary. All thefe
varieties are ufually found in a quartzofe rock.
Species 3. Red Antimonial Ore. L’Antimoine Rouge.
Roth-fpeis glas-erz.—This is found at Braunfdorf, at
Malalka and Kremnitz, in Hungary, and at Allemont
in France. It ufually accompanies the fird and 1'econd
fpecies, efpecially at Allemont, or the next fpecics,
which is the cafe at Braunfdorf.
Species 4. Muriated Antimony. Antimoine blanc.
WTeies-fpeis* glas-erz.—White antimony is extremely
rare *, it is principally found at Przibran in Bohemia,
in quadrangular, fliining tables, difpofed in bundles upon
galena. It is faid alfo to have been found at Braunf¬
dorf and Malalka.
Species 5. Antimonal Ochre. L’Oere d’Antimoine.
Spies glas-okker.—This fpecies is alfo very rare ; it is
found at Braunfdorf, near Freyberg, and in Hungary,
always accompanying the fecond and third fpecies.
XII. Cobalt.
Species I. White Colbalt Ore. Le Cobalt blanc. Cobalt ortj,
Weifler fpeis-kobolt.—This is found in Norway, Swe¬
den, at Anaberg in Saxony, in Swabia and Stiria j but
it is very rare. In Saxony and Norway, it occurs in
beds of micaceous fchidus, along with the 7th fpecies,
and with quartz, hornblende, and pyrites.
Species 2. Dull Gray Cobalt Ore. Le Cobalt gris.
Grauer-fpeis-kobolt.—This is found in Saxony, Bohe¬
mia, France, Norway, Swabia, Hungary, Stiria, and in
a few mines in England. It is fometimes mixed with
ores of lilver.
Species 3. Bright White Cobalt Ore. Le Cobalt E-
clatant. Glanz-kobolt.—This is the moll common of
all the ores of cobalt, and almoft: always accompanies
the ores of nickel, and of filvcr. It is found in Bo¬
hemia,, -
59°
General
Uiftrihu-
tion of the
Materials
of the
Earth.
G E O L
hernia, Saxony, Silefia, the Hartz, Hefle, Sweden, Swa¬
bia, Norway, Stiria, Spain, Thuringia, and in England.
It is found in beds in the primitive rocks, and in veins
in the fecondary.
Species 4. Blach Cobalt Ochre. Le Cobalt Terreux
noir. Schwarzer-erd-kobolt.—This is found in Saxony,
in Thuringia, Swabia, Heffe, the Palatinate, Saltzburg,
and in the Tyrol, accompanying other ores of cobalt, and
fcveral ores of filver, copper, and iron.
Species 5. Brown Cobalt Ochre. Le Cobalt Terreux
brun. Brauner-erd-kobolt.—This is found in confider-
able quantity at Saalfeld in Thuringia j at Kamsdorf in
Saxony, and at Alpeffpach in Wirtemberg, accompany¬
ing other ores of cobalt.
Species. 6. Yellow Cobalt Ochre. Le Cobalt Terreux
jaunne. Geber-erd-kobolt.— 1 his is one of the rareft
ores of cobalt. It is found at Saalfeld in Thuringia, at
Alperfpach in Wirtemberg, and at Altemont in Dau-
phine in France,
Species 7. Red Cobalt Ore. Le Cobalt Terreux
rouge. Rother-erd-kobolt. This is found in Saxony,
Thuringia, Heffe, Swabia, Bohemia, Allemont in
France, and in Norway.
XIII. Nickel.
Nickel ores. Species I. Sulphurated Nickel. Le Kupfer Nikel.
Kupfer Nikkei.—This is found in veins, botli in primitive
and fecondary mountains, almoft always accompanying
fome of the ores of cobalt, to which it feems to bear tome
geological relation. It is alfo found in fome filver mines.
It is met with in Bohemia, Saxony, Thuringia, the
Hartz, in Swabia, Heffe, Allemont in France, Stiria,
and in fome parts of Britain. Its ufual gangart is quartz,
barytic and calcareous fpar.
Species 2. Nickel Ochre. L’Ocre de Nikel. Nik-
kel-okker.—This is found in the fame fituations with the
laft, from a decompofition of which it appears to be
produced.
XIV. Manganese.
Manganefe Species I. Gray Ore of Manganefe. Le Manganefe.
ores. Grau-braunftein-erz.— 1 here are feveral varieties of
this, but they are all commonly found near each other,
in veins or in maffes, commonly in the primitive moun¬
tains.
They are found in confiderable quantity in many
mines in Saxony, Bohemia, Bavaria, and Hungary.
They are alfo met with in France, and in feveral parts
in Britain, as in Derbyfhire, Leadhills, and Wanlock-
head ; in the Mendip hills, and the ifle of Jura.
Species 2. Red Manganefe Ore. Le Manganefe
rouge. Roth-Cronftein-erz.—This is very rare, but is
found at Katnick, Offenbanya, and efpecially at Nag-
yag in Tranfylvania, at which laft place it is found in a
sold mine.
O
XV. Molybdena.
Molybdena Le Molybdene fulphure. Wafferbley.—This is found
ores. in Bohemia ; at feveral places in Saxony •, in Sweden ;
at Tillot in France, and at Chamouni at the foot of
Mont Blanc. It is commonly found in primitive rocks,
efpecially in tin mines.
XVI. Arsenic.
175 , . .
Arfenic Sncces I. Native Arfenic.—This is found in Bo-
O G Y. Chap II.
hernia, Saxony, the Hartz, Carinthia, Swabia, Tran- General
fylvania, and in France. It is always met with in veins, Plftn^u-
in primitive mountains, accompanied by realgar, galena,
the ores of cobalt and nickel, and feveral ores of 0fthe
filver. Earth.
Species 2. ArfenicalPyrites, or Marcafte. La Pyrite —v—
Arfenicale. Arfenik-kies.—This is found in Bohemia,
Saxony,and Silefia,accompanying the common tin ftone,
and galena, with fome other minerals.
Species 3. Realgar. Le Realgar. Raufchgelb.—
This is found in the Bannat, Bohemia, Saxony, Swabia,
the Hartz, the Tyrol, Hungary, and in the neighbour¬
hood of volcanoes, efpecially /Fina and Vefuvius.
Orpiment, which Brochant makes a variety of real¬
gar, is found in feveral of the above places, and alfo in
Natolia, in Servia, Tranfylvania, and Wallaehia, ufually
accompanying quartz and clay.
Species 4. Native calx of Arfenic. L’Arfenic oxide
natif. Naturlechur arfenik-kalk.—This is very rare,
but is found in a fmall quantity in Bohemia and Joa-
chimfthal, in Saxony, at Rafchau, at Salatna, in Tran¬
fylvania, and in Hungary.
XVII. Tungsten.
Species 1. Tungjlen. Le Tungftene. Schiverftein. Tungften
—This is a very rare mineral, but is found at Schlack- ores,
enwald in Bohemia, at Ehrenfriederdorf in Saxony, and
at Riddarkytten, Bifburg in Sweden, ufually accom¬
panying quartz, mica, talc, and tin ore.
Species 2. Wolfram.—This is alfo pretty rare, but is
found in Bohemia, Saxony, and at Poldice in Corn-
wall.
XVIII. Uranium.
177
Species. 1. Sulphurated Uranite. L’Urane noir. Pe-Uranium
cherz.—This is found at Joachimfthal in Bohemia, and ows.
at Johann-Georgen-Stadt, and Schneiberg in Saxony,
accompanying the two following fpecies, and lead and
copper ores.
Species 2. Micaceous Uranitic Ore. L’Urane Micace.
Uran-glimmer.—This is found in the Bannat, Saxony,
Wirtemberg ; near Autun in France, and near Karra-
rach in Cornwall.
Species 3. Uranitic Ochre. L’Ocre d’Urane Uran-
okher.—This has been found at Joachimfthal in Bohe¬
mia, and at Johann-Georgen-Stadt in Saxony, but it is
uncommon.
XIX. Titanium.
178
Species 1. Menakanite.—This has been found chiefly Titanium
near Menakan in Cornwall. ort:s-
Species 2. Titanite. Le Ruthile. Ruthil.—This
is found at Boinik and Rhonitz in Hungary ; in New
Caftile in Spain ; at Afchaffcnbourg in Franconia •, at
St Yreiux in France, and in Mount St Gothard, and
fome other places in the Alps.
Species 3. Titaniiic Siliceous Ore. Le Nigrine. Ni-
grin.—This has been found near St Gothard in the
Alps, at Ohlapian in Tranfylvania, &e.
XX. Tellurium.
• ,. 179
Species I. Sylvanite. Le Sylvane natif. Gedie-Tellurinno
gen Sylvan.-—This is found chiefly at Fatzeborg in Tran- ores,
fylvania, but is now become extremely rare. It occurs
in
Chap. HI.
Theories of in beds of gray wacke and fecondary (or tranfition)
the Earth Hmeftone.
u-—y——' Species 2. Le Sylvane graplnque. Shrifterz.
—This is found at Offenbanya in Tranfylvania, in a
bed of porphyritic fyenite, and granular limeftone.
Species 3,   Le Sylvane blanc. Weifs-Syl-
vanerz.—This was brought to Brochant from Freyberg
in Saxony.
Chap. III. Of the mojl Remarkable Theories of the
Earth.
GEOLOGY.
Sect. I. Theory of Burnet,
?So
Object of
theories of
the earth.
* Play¬
fair's
Illujira-
iions.
A LATE writer confiders the proper objeft of a theory
of the earth, to be the tracing the feries of thofe revolu¬
tions which have taken place on the furface of the
earth ; to explain their caufcs, and thus to connect to¬
gether all the indications of change that are found in the
mineral kingdom. He juftly obferves, that-the forma¬
tion of fuch a theory requires an accurate and extenfive
examination of the phenomena of geology, and that it
is inconhftent with any, but a very advanced hate of
the phyfical feiences. There is perhaps no refearch in
thofe feiences more arduous than this ; none where the
fubjeht is fo complex, where the appearances are fo di-
verlified, or fo widely fcattered ; and where the caufes
that have operated are fo remote from the fphere of or¬
dinary obfervation
With fuch requilites, and under fuch difficulties,
it is not furprifing that fo many who have aimed
at con [trucling theories of the earth, have failed in
the attempt. It certainly requires a prodigious ac¬
cumulation of facts, together with a talent for obfer¬
vation, and for arrangement, which are feldom found
united. We fhall prefently fee how far thofe theo¬
ries which have hitherto been framed to account for
the changes that the earth has undergone, have been
fuccefsful.
It is not, however, to be fuppofed, that a correct
theory of the earth is impoffible, though fome may
think it an arrogant, if not a prefumptuous undertaking,
to attempt explaining how the prefent llate of the globe
and the revolutions which it has undergone, were
brought about. The time is perhaps not far diftant
when the prefent prevailing hypothecs will be im¬
proved into a rational, and fo far as is confiftent with
the knowledge and acquirements of man, a perfect
fyftem.
Mr Kirwan has laid down certain laws of reafoning j
which ffiould be adhered to inviolably in inveftigations
of this kind. The find is, that no effedt iliould be at¬
tributed to a caufe whofe known properties are inade¬
quate to its production. The fecond is, that no caufe
ffiould be adduced, whofe exiftence is not proved either
by adtual experience or approved teftimony. Many
natural phenomena have arifen or do arife, in times or
places fo diftant, that well conditioned teftimony con¬
cerning them cannot, without manifeft abfurdity, be
rejected. Thus the inhabitants of the northern parts
of Europe, who have never felt earthquakes, nor feen
volcanoes, muft neverthelefs admit, from mere teftimony,
that the firft have been, and that the fecond do actual¬
ly exift. The third is, that no powers ffiould be
aferibed to an alleged caufe, but thofe that it is known
by actual obfervation to poifefs in appropriated circum-
ftances.
591
Theories of
the Earth.
The firft who formed this amufement of earth-making Theory of
into a fyftem, was the celebrated Thomas Burnet; a Burnet,
man of polite learning, and rapid imagination. His
facred theory, as he calls it, deferibing the changes
which the earth has undergone, or fhall hereafter un¬
dergo, is well known for the warmth with which it is
imagined, and the weaknefs with which it is reafoned ;
for the elegance of its ftyle, and the meannefs of its
philofophy. The earth, fays he, before the deluge,
was very differently formed from what it is at prefent;
it was at firft a fluid mafs ; a chaos compofed of various
fubftanees, differing both in denfity and figure ; thofe
which were heavieft funk to the centre, and formed in
the middle of our globe a hard folid body ; thofe of a
lighter nature remained next ; and the waters, which
were lighter ftill, fwam upon its furface, and covered
the earth on every fide. The air, and all thofe fluids
which were lighter than water, floated upon this alfo,
and in the fame manner encompaffed the globe ; fo that
between the furrounding body of waters, and the cir¬
cumambient air, there was formed a coat of oil, and
other unctuous fubftances, lighter than water. How¬
ever, as the air was ftill extremely impure, and muft
have carried up with it many of thofe earthy particles-
with which it once was intimately blended, it foon be¬
gan to defecate, and to depofe thefe particles upon the
oily furface already mentioned, which foon uniting, the
earth and oil formed that cruft which foon became an
habitable furface, giving life to vegetation, and dwell¬
ing to animals.
This imaginary antediluvian abode was very different
from what we fee it at prefent. The earth was light
and rich, and formed of a fubftance entirely adapted to-
the feeble ftate of incipient vegetation ; it was a uni¬
form plain, everywhere covered with verdure, without
mountains, without feas, or the fmalleft inequalities.
It had no difference of feafons, for its equator was in the
plane of the ecliptic, or, in other words, it turned di-
redlly oppofite to the fun, fo that it enjoyed one per¬
petual and luxuriant faring. However, this delightful
face of nature did not long continue in the fame ftate,
for, after a time, ' began to crack and open in fiffures;
a cireumftance which always fucceeds when the fun ex¬
hales the moil! are from rich or marftry filuations. The
crimes of mankind had been for fome time preparing to
draw down the wrath of heaven ; and they at length
induced the deity to defer repairing thofe breaches in
nature. Thus the chafms of the earth every day be¬
came wider, and, at length, they penetrated to the
great abyfs of waters, and the whole earth in a manner,
fell in. Then enfued a total diforder in the uniform
beauty of the firft creation, the terrene furface being
broken down ; as it funk, the waters gullied out in its
place ; the deluge became univerfal; all mankind, ex¬
cept eight perfons, were deftroyed, and their pofterity
condemned to toil upon the ruins of defolated nature.
It remains to mention the manner in which he re¬
lieves the earth from this univerfal wreck, which would
feem to be as difficult as even its firft formation.
Thefe great maffes of earth falling into the abyfs, drew
down with them vaft quantities of air ; and by dafli-
ing againft each other, and breaking into fmall parts
by
S92
Theories offoy tlie violcTi'CC of t!ie fliock, tV.cy at length lett be-
the Earth, tween them large cavities filled with nothing but air.
Thefe cavities naturally offered a bed to receive the
influent waters-, and in proportion as they filled, the
face of the earth became once more vifible. The
higher parts of its broken furface, now become the tops
of mountains, were the firfl: that appeared j the plains
foon after came forward, and at length the whole globe
was delivered from the waters, except the places in the
lowcft fituations 5 fo that the ocean and the feas are
dill a part of the ancient abyfs that, have not had a
place to return to. I Hands and rocks are fragments of
the earth’s former crud ; kingdoms and continents are
larger maffes of its broken fubdance and all the ine¬
qualities that are to be found on the furface of the pre-
fent earth, are owing to the accidental confufion into
which both earth and waters were then thrown.
G E O L O C Y. Ch.ip. Ill,
aware, however, that an objection that foffd fubdances Theories of
are not found diffolved, he exempts them from this uni- the ^arth'.
verfal diffolution, and for that purpofe, endeavours to v
fhow that the parts of animals have a dronger coheficn
than thofe of minerals and that, while even the hardeit
rocks may be diflolved, bones and fhells may dill con¬
tinue entire.
Sect. III. Theory oflVhiJlon.
Sect. II. Theory of Woodward.
i83
Theory of The next who attempted a theory of the earth was
Woodward. ]YIr Woodward, who in his effay towards a natural
hiilory of the earth, endeavoured to give what he con-
fidered as as a more rational account of its appearances
than had been given by any preceding writer. He was
indeed much better qualified for fuch an undertaking
than any of his predeceffors, as he was one of the mod
indudrious naturalids of his time. Hence though his
fydem mud be confidered as weak and untenable, his
work contains many important fafls relating to natural
hidory.
Woodward fets out by afferting that all terrednal
fubdances are difpofed in beds of various natures, lying
horizontally, one over the other, like the coats of an
onion, and that they are replete with diells and other
marine produftions ; thefe diells being found in the
deeped cavities, and on the tops of the highed moun¬
tains. From thefe obfervations, which were warranted
by the experience of naturalids at that time, but which
we now know not to be univerfally correct, he proceeds
to remark that thefe diells and extraneous fodils are not
productions of the earth, but are all actual remains of
thofe animals which they are known to referable j that
all the beds of the earth lie below each other in the
order of their fpecific gravities, and that they are dif¬
pofed as if they had been left in this fituation by fub-
fiding waters. All this is affirmed with much earned-
nefs, although many of the circumdances are contra-
dicted by daily experience. Thus, we not unfrequent-
ly meet with layers of done above the lighted foils,
and find the fofted earth below a dratum of hard done.
Woodward, however, having taken for granted, that
all the drata of the earth are arranged in the order of
their fpecific gravities, the lighted at the top, and the
heavied near the centre, he deduces as a natural con-
fequence, that all the fubdances of which the earth is
compofed were once in an a&ual date of folution. This
univerfal folution he conceives to have happened at the
time of the flood. He fuppofes that at that time a
body of water, which was then in the centre of the
earth, uniting with that which was found on the fur¬
face, fo far feparated the terrene parts as to mix all to¬
gether in one fluid mafs the contents of which after¬
wards finking according to their refpeftive gravities,
produced the preffint appearances of the earth. Being
Of all the theories of the earth that have been Theory of
formed, previous to thofe of Hutton and Werner, none Whiiton.
has been more applauded or more oppofed than that, of
Whidon. Nor is this furprifing for this theory being
fupported with all the parade of mathematical calcula¬
tion, confounded the ignorant, and produced the ap¬
probation of fuch as defined to be thought learned,
fince it implied a confiderable knowledge of abdraft
feienee, even to be capable of comprehending what the
writer aimed at. It is not eafy to dived this theory of
its mathematical garb, but the refult of our philofo-
pher’s reafoning appears to be as follows.
He fuppofes the earth to have been originally a
comet, and be confiders the hidory of the creadon, as
given us in feripture, to have its commencement jud
when it was, by the hand of the Creator, moie icgulai-
ly placed as a planet in cur folar fydem. Before that
time, he fuppofes it to have been a globe without beau¬
ty or proportion ^ a world in dilorder, fubjeft to all the
viciffitudes which comets endure j fome of .which have
been found, at different times, a thoufand times hotter
than melted iron ^ at others, a thoufand times colder
than ice. Thefe alternations of heat and cold, contb
nually melting and freezing the furface of the earth, he
fuppofes to have produced, to a certain depth, a chaos
entirely refembling that deferibed by the poets, fur¬
rounding the folid contents of the earth,, which dill
continued unchanged in the midd, making a great
burning globe of'more than two thoufand leagues in
diameter. This furrounding chaos, howrevcr, was far
from being folid : he compares it to a denfe though fluid
atmofphere, compofed of fubdances mingled,. agitated,
and diocked againd each other ; and in this diiorder be
deferibes the earth to have been jud at the eve of crea¬
tion.
But upon its orbit being then changed, when it was
more regularly wheeled round the lun, every thing
took its proper place, every part of the furrounding
fluid then fell into a fituation, in proportion as it was
lioht or heavy. The middle or central pait, which al¬
ways remained unchanged, dill continued fo, retaining
a part of that heat which it received, in its primeval
approaches towards the fun } which heat he calculates,
may continue for about fix thoufand years. Next to this
fell the heavier parts of the chaotic atmofphere, which
ferve to fudain the lighter j but as in defeending they
could not entirely be feparated from many watery pait#
with which they were intimately mixed, they drew
down a part of thefe alfo with them *, and thefe could
not mount again after the furface of the earth was con-
folidated ; they therefore furrounded the heavy fird de¬
feending parts, in the fame manner as thefe furround
the central globe. Thus, the entire body of the earth
is compofed internally of a great burning globe, next
which is placed a heavy terrene fubdance that encom-
of paffes it, round which alfo is circumfufed a body of
• water. Upon this body of water, the cruft of the earth
on which we dwell is placed, fo that, according' to him,
the globe is compofed of a number of coats, or ihells’
one within the other, all of different denfities. The
body of the earth being thus formed, the air, which is
the lighteft fubftance of all, furrounded its furface, and
the beams of the fun darting through, produced that
light which, we are told, firft obeyed the Creator’s
command.
The whole economy of the creation being thus ad-
jufted, it only remained to account for the rilings and
depreffions on the furface of the earth, with the other
feeming irregularities of its prefent appearance. The
hills and valleys are conlidered by him as formed by
their preffing upon the internal fluid, which fuftains the
outward ftiell of earth wuth greater or lefs weight; thofe
parts of the earth which arc heavieft, fink into the fub-
jacent fluid more deeply, and become valleys ; thofe
that are lighter, rife higheft upon the earth’s furface, and
are called mountains.
Such was the face of nature before the deluge ; the
earth was then more fertile and populous than it is at
prefent; the life of man and animals was extended to
ten times its prefent duration; and all thofe advan¬
tages arofe from the fuperior heat of the central globe,
which ever fmce has been cooling. As its heat was then
in full power, the genial principle was alfo much greater
than at prefent; vegetation and animal increafe were
carried on with more vigour; and all nature feemed
teeming with the feeds ofUife. But thefe phyfical ad¬
vantages were only productive of moral evil; the
warmth which invigorated the body, increafed the paf-
fions and appetites of the mind ; and as man became
more powerful, he grew lefs innocent. It was found
neceffary to punifli this depravity ; and all living crea¬
tures were overwhelmed by the* deluge in univerfal de-
ftruaion. &
i his deluge, which Ample believers are willing to
afcribe to a miracle, philofophers have been lung de-
flrous to account for by natural caufes. They have
proved that the earth could never fupplv from any re-
fervoir towards its centre, nor the atmofphere by any
discharge from above, fuch a quantity of water as would
cover the Air face of the globe to a certain depth over
the tops of our higheft mountains. Where, therefore
was all this water to be found? Whifton has found
enough, and more than a fufficiency, in the tail of a
comet ; for he feems to allot comets a very aflive part
in the great operations of nature.
He calculates with great feeming preciflon, the year,
the month, and the day of the week on which this
comet (which has paid the earth fome viflts flnce,
though at a kinder diftance) involved our globe in its
tail. The tail he fuppofed to be a vaporous fluid fub¬
ftance, exhaled from the body of the comet, by the
extreme heat of the fun, and increaflng in proportion as
it approached that great luminary. It was in this that
our globe was involved at the time of the deluge ; and
as The earth (fill afted by its natural attraftion, it drew
to itfelf all the watery vapours which were in the comet’s
tail; and the internal voters being alfo at the fame
tune let loofe, in a very ftiort fpace the tops of the
tugheft mountains-were laid under the deep.
d he punifliment of the deluge being thus completed
Vol. IX. Part II. r
and all the guilty deftroyed, the earth, which hpd been Theories of
broken by the eruption of the internal waters, was alfo ft16-Earth,
enlarged by it; fo that upon the comet’s recefs, there v
was found room fufficient in the internal abyfs for thk
rccefs of the fuperfluous waters, whither they all re- \
tired, and left the earth uncovered, but in fome refpefts
changed, particularly in its flgure, which, from being
round, was now become oblate. In this univerfal
wreck of nature Noah furvived, by a variety of happy
caufes, to repeople the earth, and to give birth to a race
of men flow in believing ill-imagined theories of the
earth.
Sect. IV. Theory of Bujfon.
Less abftracled and more popular than the theory of Theory of
Whifton, but equally fanciful and pompous, was the hy- Buffon.
pothefls of Buffon. Ihis fyftem, which was received
with great admiration, depends principally on two fads
which, though generally true, were by Buffon extended
much too far.
It had been long obferved, that fuch flinty or ftli-
ceous bodies as form a part of the compofttion of. glafs,
are among the moft abundant materials which compofe
the earth, and that many of them nearly referable glafs
in colour, tranfparency, luftre, bardnefs, and fpecific
gravity. As glafs is produced by fuflon in a ftrong
heat, it was inferred by Buffon, that the flinty bodies
found on the earth derived their origin from a flmilar
fufion ; and as no heat fufficient to produce fo great an
effed, could be found on our globe, the author has re-
courfe to the ftm as its fource. He fuppofes the
planets, and the earth among the number, to have ori¬
ginally formed a part of the body of the fun. In this
Atuation a comet falling in on that great body, might
have given it fuch a Ihock, and fo fhaken its whole
frame, that fome of its particles might have been driven
off, like ftreaming fparkles from red-hot iron ; and each
of thefe ftreams of Are, though very fmall in comparifon
of the fun, might have been large enough to form a
planet much greater than our earth, or any other of the
planetary fyftem. In this manner the planets, together
with the globe which we inhabit, might have been
driven off from the body of the fun by impulAon ; and
in this way they would have continued to recede from
it for ever, had they not been arrefted by the fupericr
power of attradion, exerted on them by the fun ; and
thus, by the combination of the centrifugal and centri¬
petal forces, they were whirled round in the orbits which
they now deferibe.
After giving a number of reafons for the credibility, or
at leaf! poflibility, of the foregoing fuppofttion, the author
concludes that it is evident, that the earth affumed its
prefent flgure when in a melted ftate. It is natural to
think, fays he, that the earth, when it iffued from the
fun, had no other form but that of a torrent of melted
and inflamed matter ; that this torrent, by the mutual
attradion of its parts, took on a globular flgure, which
its diurnal motion changed into a fpheroid ; that, when
the earth cooled, the vapours, which were expanded like
the tail of a comet, gradually condenfed, and fell down
in the form of water upon the furface, depofiting at the
fame time a flimy fubftance mixed with fulphur and
falts, part of which was carried by the motion of the
waters into the perpendicular fiffures of the ftrata, and
4 F produced
^94 , r.
Theories of produced metals, and tlie red remained on the furface,
the Earth. ,m^ gave rife to the vegetable mould which abounds in
' different places, with more or lefs of animal or vegeta¬
ble particles, the organization of which is not obvious to
the fenfes
GEOLOGY.
j lefties. , .....
Thus the interior parts of the globe were originally
compofed of vitrified matter, and probably they are to
at prefent. Above this were placed thofe bodies which
had been reduced by the heat to the imailed partitaes,
as fand, which are only portions of glais and above
thefe pumice Hones, and the fcorhe of melted matter,
from which were afterwards produced the myeral kinds
of clay. The whole mafs was covered with water to
the depth of five or fix hundred feet, arifing from the
eondenfation of the vapours when the earth began o
cool. This water depofited a ftratum of mud, mixed
with all thofe fubll antes which were capable oi being
fublimed, or exhaled by fire ; and the air was formed ot
the molt fubtile vapours, which, from their fmali fpeciuc
gravity, floated above the water. , .,
Such was the condition of the earth, when the tides,
the winds, and the heat of the fun, began to introduce
stages on its furface. The diornal motion of the
earth! and that of the tides, elevated the waters in he
equatorial regions, and neeeffaily tranfported tin her
mat quantities of flime, clay, and fand ; and by thus
elevating thofe parts of the earth, they perhaps funk
thofe under the poles about two leagues, or a 230th
part of the whole 5 for the waters would eafily reduce
into powder pumice Hones, and other fpongy par s o
the vitrified matter upon the furface } and by this means
excavate forne places and elevate others, which, m
time would produce iflands and continents, and all
thofe’ inequalities on the furface, which are more con-
fiderable towards the equator than towards the poles.
The higheft mountains lie between the tropics and tne
middle of the temperate zones, and the loweit from ihe
polar circles towards the poles. Indeed, both the -and
and fea have moft inequalities between the tropics, as is
evident from the incredible number of mands peculiar
to thefe regions. . . , .
The other circumftance which forms a principal part
of the bafis of this theory, is derived from the compoii-
tion of fea fliells. It is well known that thefe (hells con-
fin chiefly of an earth like that which conHitutes .he
principal part of limeftone or marble j and it was hence
inferred that, after a feries of ages, thefe fliells being
broken down into minute particles, produced thoie 1111-
menfe maffes of calcareous fubflances which are now
found either in vaH mountains, or in Hratificd plains, in
almoft every part of the earth. , . r , r
Buffon conceives very naturally, that the mrmce of
the earth mufi, at the beginning have been much
fobd than it is at prefent, and consequently the fame
eaufes which at this day produce but flight changes
mutt then, on fo yielding a body, have been attended
* with very confidcrable effeas. There is, he thinks,
every reafon to fuppofe, that the earth was at that time
covered with the waters of the fea •, and that thefe wa¬
ters were above the tops of our highefl mountains, fince,
even in fuch elevated fituations, we find (hells and other
marine produaions in very great abundance. It ap¬
pears abb that the fea continued for a confiderable time
upon the face of the earth ; for as thefe layers of (hells
jtfe found fo very frequently at fuch great depths, and
Chdp. HL
iiTtah prodigious quantities it
fuch numbers to have been fupported all alive at one (^
time ; fo that they mufi have been brought there by
fucceflive depofitions. Thefe fliells alb are found m
the bodies of the hardefi rocks, where they could not
have been depofited all at once, at the time of the ae-
luo-e or at any fuch infiant revolution; fince that would
be&to fuppofe, that all the rocks in which they are found
were, atthat infiant, in a ft ate of diffolution, which
would be abfurd to affert. I he fea, therefore, depo 1 -
ed them wherever they are now to be bund, and that
by flow and fucceflive degrees.
“ It will appear alb, that the fea covered the whole
earth, from the appearance of its layers which lying
regularly one above the other, item all to refemble
the fediment formed at different times by the ocean.
Hence, by the irregular force of its waves and its cur¬
rents driving the bottom into fand-banks,. mountains
mull have been gradually formed svithin this nr.iverlal
covering of waters ; and thefe fucceflrvely rarfing their
heads above its furface, muft, in time, have formed the
higheft ridges of mountains upon land, together wn 1
continents, Ulands, and low grounds, all m their turns.
This opinion will receive additional weight by confider-
ing, that in thofe parts of the earth, where the power
of the ocean is greateft, the inequalities on the furface
of the earth are higheft ; the ocean’s power is greateft
at the equator, where its winds and tides are mod ton-
ftant: and in fad, the mountains at the equator are
found to be. higher than in any other parts of the world.
fVid N® 120.). The fea, therefore, has produced the
principal changes in our earth ; rivers vnk^noes earth-
nuakes, (forms, and rain, having made but (light afier-
ations, and only fuch as have ageded the globe to very
ineonfiderable depths.” _ - rr.
“ In the formation of this theory,, fays Mr tviruan,
genius (I mean genius in its primitive fenfe, the (u-
blime talent of fabinating invention and not the ener¬
getic power of patient, profound, and %a^lous mfV 1
Lion), unhappily prefided. Yet dazzled by the.fplen-
did but delufive feenery, prefented by an ardent imagi¬
nation baring to the fource of light, and rending fror 1
its flaming orb the planetary mafles that (urround it
then marking with daring and overweening confidence,
fancied fijeefflive epochs of the confohdated fabric o,
the terraqueous globe; the public attention was long
arrefted by the magical reprefentation, and the un
Handing nearly betrayed into a partial, if not a total, a -
fei« This proud gigantic theory was, however, lje an-
other Goliath, bon demolilbed by a c«iutnon fimt^or
pebble, the very fubftance ^ fprung from. Common
olafs effentially contains an alkaline fait, to vvhict
alone it owes its fufibility ; filbeous fubftances contain
none and are abfolutely mfufible when unaflociated
with’ any Macquer found them infufible not only m
furnaces, but in the (fill incomparably fupenor heat of
inflamed oxygen. Hence the hypothefis grounded on
theaffumed^identity of thefe fubftances -1
idafs vanilhed like the unembodied vifions of the nigl •
With refpeft to limeftone, the other pnlai on w nc i
this theory reds, Cronftedt, Terber, Born, Ardurm, and
Ber^rnan! demonftrated the exiftence of numerous and
immeufe mountains, in which not only no veft.ges of
Oiclls could be traced, but whofe internal ft^-”
Chap HI.
Theories of portion was incompatible with the fiippofition of an ori-
the Earth. giuation thence derived.” *
* Kb wan s
Geological Sect. V. Theory of Whitehurjl.
EJ/ays.
t "6 The firft perfon who founded a theory of the earth
Theory of on accurate anci induflrious obfervation was the late
l \ hue u ■ |yjr j0|ln Whitehurft, who, in an inquiry into the origi¬
nal ftate and formation of the earth, has advanced opi¬
nions which differ confiderably from thofe of preceding
naturalifes, and in fome meafures refemble thofe which
are at prefent in greateit repute.
Mr Whitehurft fets out with ftating his opinions, that
the terraqueous globe, which we now inhabit, was origi¬
nally in a fluid ftate, and this, not from any folvent
principle or fubfequent folution, but owing to the firft
alfemblage of its component parts ; whence he prefumes
that the earth had a beginning, and has not exifted
from eternity. He refts his proof of this original fluid
ftate of the earth on its fpheroidal form, which a fluid
globe in its revolution would naturally acquire, but
which could not eafily be produced in a folid body.
The fluidity of the earth and the infinite divifibility
of matter, an opinion which generally prevailed at that
time, prove, according to him, that the component parts
of the elements were uniformly blended together, none
being heavier or lighter than another 5 hence they com-
pofed a uniform mafs of equal confiftence throughout,
from the furface to the centre, and confequently the
new formed globe was not adapted to the fupport of
animal or vegetable life. It would therefore be abfurd
to fuppofe, that organized bodies were created during
the chaotic ftate of th^ earth *, and there is a great
prefumption that mankind were not created till the
earth was become fuitable to the nature of their ex-
iftence.
The component parts of the chaos were heterogene¬
ous, and endowed with peculiar chemical affinities,
whereby fimilar fubftances were difpofed to unite and
form feleet bodies of various denominations, and thus
the chaos wras progreffively formed into a habitable
wmrld.
The firft operation of nature which prefents itfelf to
our confideration is the production of the fpheroidal
figure of the earth, acquired from its diurnal rotation,
and the laws of gravity, fluidity, and centrifugal force.
When this form was once completed, the component
parts began to ael on each other according to their af¬
finities : hence the particles of earth, air, and water,
united to thofe of their own kind, and with their union
commenced their fpecific gravities ; and the uniform fuf-
penfion which had hitherto prevailed throughout the
whole of the chaotic mafs, was deftroyed.
On the component parts fepagating into homogeneous
makes, thofe of the greateft denfity began to approach
towards the centre of gravity, and thofe of the greateft
levity afeended towards the furface. As the fpecific
gravity of air is fo much lefs than that of water, it
is prefumed that the former efcaped from the general
mafs fooner than the latter, and formed an impure at-
mofphere furrounding the newly-formed globe. Water
being next in levity, fucceeded the air, and formed one
■vaft ocean about the earth. In procefs of time thefe
elements became perfectly pure, and fit for the preferva-
iion of animal and vegetable life.
59$
When the component parts of the chaos had been Theories ot
thus progreffively feparated, and collected into dillinCt tnc EarUu
mafl'es, the following confequences are fuppofed to have
enfued. The folids could not uniformly iubfide from
every part of the furface, and be equally covered by
water ) for, as the fun and moon were coeval with the
chaos, in proportion as the feparation of the folids and
fluids increafed, fo, by the action of thofe bodies on the
fea, the tides became greater, and removed the folids from
place to place, without any order or regularity. Hence
the fea became unequally deep and thofe inequalities
daily increafing, dry land gradually appeared, and di¬
vided the waters which had hitherto been univerfally
diffufed over the earth. The primitive iflands being
thus formed, gradually became firm and dry, and fit for
the reception of animals and vegetables.
The atmofphere, the fea, and the land, being thus
formed, Mr Whitehurft proceeds to confider the order in
■which animal and vegetable bodies were feverally
created. He firft fuppofes that, as the ocean became
pure, and fit for animal life, before the formation of the
primitive iflands, fifh were the firft animals produced,
and he fupports this opinion by many ingenious argu¬
ments and fatfs. He obferves, that in every inftance
upon record, the fragments of fea-fhells are infinitely
more numerous than the bones and teeth of fifli. The
latter, too, are but rarely depofited in any other matter
than in beds of fand and gravel, and not in the folid
fubftance of limeftone, as the fliells of fith generally are,
even to the depth of many hundred yards, and difperfed
throughout the whole extent of the fecondary ftrata.
Hence it is probable, that fhell-fifti were produced in
prodigious quantities, fooner than any other kind of
animal. The ocean being thus flocked with inhabi¬
tants, previous to the formation of the primitive iflands,
many of them became enveloped, and were buried in
the mud by the adlion of the tides ; and this would
happen more particularly to the Ihell-fiih, as they Avere
lefs able to extricate themfelves. Since the remains of
marine animals are thus imbedded at various depths in
the earth, there is fufficient proof that thefe marine
bodies were entombed at fucceffive periods of time,
and that they Avere likewife created before the primi¬
tive iflands, and confequently before any terreftrial
iflands.
That the earth has, at different times, fuffered very
violent convulliohs, producing extenfive ruptures of its
folid parts, may reafonably be concluded from the
rugged and uncouth appearance of many of the moun¬
tainous parts of the Avorld. We fee rocks in fome
places torn afunder, or appearing as if cut A\rith a faAv,
and we find, in various parts, fubftances both mineral
and organized, which are not generally met with, ex¬
cept in very diftant regions. Moft of the irregularities
of the earth’s furface are attributed by Mr Whitehurft
to the general deluge. This Avould, in fome inftances,
have the eft eft of reducing large maffes of matter to a
fecond ftate of folution ; many eminences Avould be le¬
velled, and fome of the valleys would be filled up,
while fome parts which A\rere before coA’ered Avith water,
might receive fuch an acceffion of matter as to fill up
their cavities, and on the fubfiding of the Avaters become
a vaft level plain. On( the other hand, thofe elevated
regions which were chiefly compofed of the hardeft
ftones, by having the lighter portions of earth waftied
4 F 2 aAvay
GEOLOGY.
595 G E O L
Theories of away from their bails, would appear confiderably in-
the creafed in height. Mr Wliitehuril attributes the pro-
duiilion of pit coal alfo to the deluge, as it is difficult to
account for the depofition of fueh a quantity of vege¬
table matter (fuppofing pit-coal to be of vegetable
origin) below the furface of the earth, on any other
hypothefis. The' animal matters found in a foffil flate,
efpecially thofe remains of animals which are not now
found upon the earth* can only be accounted for, on the
fuppofition of a deluge.
Mr Whitehurft, however, is not content with attri¬
buting to the deluge moft of the changes which have
taken place on the furface of the earth, but he derives
from the fame fource the curtailed longevity of man,
and many of the evils incident to mankind. “ At that
dreadful era, fays he, and not before, the year became
divided into fummer and winter, fpring and autumn,
and the fpontaneous products of the earth no longer
fufficed the calls of human nature without art and
labour 5 wherefore he who fowed would expend to reap,
and he who built an hut for his proteflion, would
naturally expert to enjoy the fruits of his own labour ;
necefiity, therefore, was the parent of property, and
property created a thoufand imaginary wants, which its
poileffors endeavoured to gratify, and their example ex¬
cited fimilar ideas in thofe who had it not, but never-
thelefs ftudiouily endeavoured to gratify their artificial
wants by unjuftifiable means. Hence the neceflity of
laws, dominion, and fubordination, which had no exift-
ence in the antediluvian world.
“ To that great revolution in the natural world, we
may therefore aferibe many of the evils incident to
mankind ; for experience (hews, that men who are born
n rude and favage climates are naturally of a ferocious
difpofition 5 and that a fertile foil, which leaves nothing
to wifh for, foftens their manners, and inclines them to
humanity.”
The above is a general outline of Mr Whitehurft’s
theory, fome parts of which are very ingenious, and are
corroborated by obfervation, while others are not a
little fanciful and improbable. In his fuppofition that
the earth was originally in a fluid ffate, he agrees with
moft other theorifts, as this is a circumftance which ad¬
mits of little doubt; though, as Kirwan has fhewn, it is
not neceflary to fuppofe that the whole mafs of the earth
was fluid, but only thofe parts of it which are near the
furface. In his play of affinities, and confequent fepara-
tion of the materials of the earth into homogeneous
mafles, Whitehurft has been followed by Mr Kirwan,
: Kirwan's w]10 }ias framed a beautiful and ingenious fpeculation on
%'ihfCal the facceffive changes that took place from the artion of
kffav^i. the materials on each other J.
~ 187' Mr Whitehurft has been betrayed by his fondnefs for
a favourite theory, into feveral errors refperting the
ftratification of the earth, which require to be men¬
tioned. Thus, though the arrangement of the ftrata,
efpecially where it has not been difturbed by fome
evident and violent caufe, is extremely uniform •, he has,
however, extended this regularity farther than it really
obtains. He tells us that the ftrata invariably follow
each other, as if it were in an alphabetical order, or a
feries of numbers, whatever be their denomination.
Not that they are alike in all the different regions of
the earth, either in quality or in thicknefs, but that
their order in each particular part, however they may
O G Y. Chap. 111.
differ in quality 5 yet they follow each other in regular Theories of
fucceffion, both as to thicknefs and quality, infomuch, the Larth,^
that by knowing the incumbent ftratum, together with
the arrangement thereof in any particular part of the
earth, we may come to a perfect knowledge of all the
inferior beds, fo far as they have been previoufly dif-
covered in the adjacent country. With relpert to the
ftrata that accompany coal, fome inftances are apparently,
but not really, contradirtory to this rule.
We now know, however, that Mr Whitehurft Yob-
fervations do not univerfally apply. In the old mints
in the valley of Planen, in Saxony, the ftrata, though
they are near each other, vary confiderably in thicknefs,
from that of a few inches to feveral feet, and the ftratum
of coal, in particular, varies from two to thirty-two feet.
Again, in Mount Salive, the ftrata of coal, though in a
calcareous mountain, vary confiderably ; and Mr w hite-
hurft himfelf informs us, that at Benfal moor, thofe
ftrata which are in other places the loweft, are found at
the furface. Even in Derby (hire, to which Mr White¬
hurft’s obfervations chiefly apply, we are informed that
even when the arrangement is the fame, the thicknefs
of the ftrata varies conliderably.
Sect. VI. Theory of Dr Hutton.
1S8
The next theory which w7e have to confider, is that Theory of
propofed by Dr James Hutton, which has become fo Hutton,
much the objert of inquiry and debate, as to give name
to one of the two principal ferts into which geologifts
are now divided.
The leading principles of the Huttonian theory, as
concifely laid down by one of its greateft admirers and
fupporters, are the following.
1. The firft circumftance which Dr Hutton has
confidered as a general fart is, that by far the greater
part of the bodies which compofe the exterior cruft of
our globe, bear the marks of being formed of the mate¬
rials of mineral and organized bodies, of more ancient
date. The fpoils or the wreck of an older w orld are,
he thinks, everywhere vifible in the prefent, and though
not found in every piece of rock, they are diffufed_ fo
generally as to leave no doubt that the ftrata which
now compofe our continents are all formed out of illrna
more ancient than themfelves.
2. The prefent rocks, with the exception of fuch as^
are not ftratified, having all exifted in the form of
loofe materials collerted at the bottom of the fea, muft
have been confolidated and converted into ftone by
virtue of fome very powerful and general agent, i he
confolidating caufe which he points out is fubterrane-
ous heat, and the objertions to this hypothefis. have
been attempted to be removed, by.the introdurtion of
a principle new and peculiar to himfelf. I his prin¬
ciple is the compreflion which muft have prevailed in
that region where the confolidation of mineral fub-
ftances was accompliflied. Under the weight of a fu-
perincumbent ocean, heat, however intenfe, might be
unable to volatilize any part of thofe fubftances which,
at the furface, and under the lighter preffure of our
atmofphere, it can entirely confume. The fame pref¬
fure, by forcing thofe fubftances to remain united,
which at the furface are eafily feparated, might occa-
fion the fufion of fome bodies which in our fires are
only calcined.
3* ^
Chap. III. G E O L
Theories of 3. The third general circumftance -which this theory
the Earth. jg founded on is, that the ftratified rocks, inftead of being
^ either horizontal or nearly fo, as they no doubt were
originally, are now found poileding all degrees of ele¬
vation, and fome of them were perpendicular to the
horizon j to which we mutt add, that tliofe ttrata
which were once at the bottom of the fea, are now
raifed up, many of them feveral thoufand feet above
its furface. From this, as well as from the inflexions,
the breaking and feparation of the ftrata, it is inferred,
that they have been raifed by the attion of fome ex-
panfive force placed under them. This force, which
has burft in pieces the folid pavement on which the
ocean refts, and has raifed up rocks from the bottom of
the fea into mountains 15,000 feet above its furface,
exceeds any which we fee actually exerted^ but feems
to come nearer to the caufe of the volcano or the earth¬
quake than to any other, of which the effects are di¬
rectly obferved. The immenfe diiturbance, therefore,
of tlie itrata, is in this theory aferibed to heat afting
with an expanfive power, and elevating thefe rocks
which it had before confolidated.
4. Among the marks of diflurbance in which the
mineral kingdom abounds, thofe great breaches among
rocks, which are filled with materials different from the
rock on either fide, are among the molt confpicuous.
Thefe are the veins, and comprehend not only the me¬
tallic veins, but alfo thofe of whinltone, of porphyry,
and of granite, all of them fubitances more or lefs cryf-
tallized, and none of them containing the remains of
organized bodies. Thefe are of pofterior formation to
the ftrata which they interfect, and in general alfo
they carry with them the marks of the violence with
which they have come into their place, and of the
difturbances which they have produced on the rocks
already formed. The materials of all thefe veins, Dr
Hutton concludes to have been melted by fubterrane-
ous heat, and while in full on, injeCled among the fif-
fures and openings of rocks already formed, but thus
difturbed, and moved from their original place.
This conclufion he extends to all the maffes of whin-
ftone, porphyry, and granite, which are . interfperfed
among the ftrata, or raifed up in pyramids, as they
often appear to be, through the midft of them. 1 bus,
in the fufion and injeftion of the unftratified rocks,
we have the third and laft great operation which fub-
terraneous heat has performed on mineral fubfiances.
5. From this Dr Hutton proceeds to confider the
changes to which mineral bodies are fubject when raifed
into the atmofphere. Here he finds, without any ex¬
ception, that they are all going to decay •, that, from
the ftiore of the’fea fo the top of the mountain, from
the fofteft clay to the hardeft quartz, all are wafting
and undergoing a feparation of their parts. The bodies
thus refolved into their elements, whether chemical or
mechanical, are carried down by the rivers to the fea,
and are there depofited. Nothing is exempted from
this general law •, among the higheft mountains and the
hardeft rocks, its effefts are moll clearly difeerned ;
* Edin- and it is on the objects which appear the moft durable
burgh Phil. and fixed, that the characters of revolution are moft
P iii deeply imprinted *.
p, ^ It is not furprifing that this theory fhould have^met
with many advocates among the more fuperficial obfer-
vers of nature, ii he production of a man in whom ge-
O G Y. 597
nius, obfervation, and induftry, were united, and who Theories of
palled a confiderable part of a long life in chemical and ■^ <ut‘Ki
geological refearches, Avas calculated to dazzle the ima¬
gination by the grandeur of its defign, and to captivate
the judgment by its appearance of regularity and con-
fiftence. It has been confidered as a peculiar excel¬
lence of this theory, that it aferibes to the phenomena
of geology an order fimilar to that which exiils in the
provinces of nature Avith which rve are belt acquainted j
that it produces feas and continents, not by accident,
but by the operation of regular and uniform caufes }
that it makes the decay of one part fubfervient to the * Playfair’s
reftoration of another, and that it gives liability to the IlLuftra-
Avhole, not by perpetuating individuals, but by repro- P*
ducing them in fucceflion *. *'^ igp
An hypothefis Avith fueh pretenfions could not fail of Objections
being minutely examined and feverely criticifed by the to the Hut-
more enlightened part of geologifts, and accordingly Ionian the-
very ferious objections have been made to it by Kir wan 01 ^
and others. We lhall Hate a ferv of tv hat appear to us
to be the moft convincing arguments againft Dr Hut¬
ton’s theory, referring thofe Avho Avifli to fee a more de¬
tailed refutation of it to the geological Avritings of Kir-
Avan, and A Comparative VieAV of the Hutionian and
Neptunian Theories. 190
Some of the ftrongeft arguments againft this theory From the
are drarvn from the nature of caloric, and AA’hat Ave ^9
know of its aClion on other bodies. We know that ^aioric<
caloric is of fo diffufible a nature, that it is ahvays com¬
municated, from that body or fet of bodies, in which it
is moft abundant, to that in which it is lefs fo, till an
equilibrium of temperature is produced. But Dr Hut¬
ton’s theory fuppofes a fubterraneous heat as conftantly
exitling, capable of fufing the moft obdurate rocks, and
of railing them by its expanfibility from the bottom of
the ocean, and yet incapable of extending its influence
through the fuperincumbent ftrata at all times, fo as to
fufe or evaporate fuperior bodies, and gradually expand
itfelf, fo as to acquire that equilibrium Avhich is one of
its natural effeCts. Again, fuppofing fuch a fubterrane¬
ous heat to exiit, it is furely extraordinary, that fub- .
ftarices Avhich avo are incapable of fuling by the ftrong¬
eft heat that avc can excite, eAren in the greateft ftate of
divifion, Ihould, by this fubterraneous heat be fo com¬
pletely fufed, and in fuch vaft maffes, as to have af¬
firmed the appearance under Avhich they norv prefent
themfelves. If the folar rays, in the utmoft ftate of
concentration, if a united ftream of inflamed hydrogen¬
ous and oxygenous gafes from the tube of a blow-pipe
or gazometer, cannot melt the fmalleft vdfible portion of
calcareous fpar or rock cryftal, how can avc conceive
that the immenfe mountains of limeftone and of quartz
Avhich are met Avith in fo many places could have been
fufed into a ftate of perfect fluidity ? Or even if they
could be fufed, Iioav is it poflible that the carbonic acid
of the limeftone Ihould not have been dilfipated by fo
ftrong a heat ? If we fuppofe Avith Dr Hutton, that
this fubterraneous heat acts Avith the afllftance of im¬
menfe preffure from the fuperincumbent ftrata and Ava-
ters of the ocean, hence preventing the diflipation of
volatile matters, ftill it Ihould aft uniformly, and Ihould
fufe all thofe bodies Avhich come in its way, that are
capable of fufion. Noav, Are knorv that feldfpar, fchorl,
mica, and chlorite, are much more fufible than quartz,
and of courfe, Avhen a mats compounded of thefe comes
under
KO H
98
G E O I
hcories of under tile Influence of tliis lieat, all thcfe more fufible
tKcEarth. fubitances fhould be melted as well as the quartz. But
v ^ in fome ftones in which moft of thefe ingredients meet,
as in the granite of Portfoy, there is every reafon to
fuppofe that fome of them have been in a fluid date,
while the others were foiid or lefs fluid, as cryltals oi
the latter are imprefled on a bed of the former, viz. in
the inftance cited, cryftals of feldfpar in a mafs of
quartz. As it is certain, according to the advocates of
the Huttonian theory, that at leafl: the quartz was
fluid when it was moulded on the feldlpar, how happen¬
ed it that this comparatively fufible flone was not alfo
melted, and blended in one compact mafs with the
quartz ? We alfo frequently find cryitals of quartz pe¬
netrated by fchorl and chlorite, which is a proof that
the latter mutt have been hard ivhile the former was
in a fluid ftate. Hence it is evident that thefe appear¬
ances could not have been the effect of fufion by heat.
Again, we find feams of coal penetrated by thin lami-
nte and cryftals of quartz, an effect which, according to
this theory, muft have taken place while the quartz
was in a Itate of fufion. But, in this cafe, the ftrata of
fhaie above and below the coal fliould alio have been
fufed (fhaie being much more fufible than quartz), and
thus the whole ihould have acquired a flaty texture j
and befides in this intenfe heat, the coal fliould have
been entirely charred and loft all its vegetable impref-
fions.
The very exiftence of fuch a fubterraneous heat, that
conflantly maintains itfelf without fuel, ready to act on
any emergency, when a quantity of the old world has
been abraded and tranflated, fuflicient to furnifli the
materials of a new one, is avowedly hypothetical, as we
have no proof that it exifts. Nay, we have direct proof,
as far as rational induction can carry us, to the con¬
trary. It was long ago obferved, by Irving and For-
Iter, that the heat of the fea diminifhes in proportion to
the depth to which we proceed in examining it, and
the fame has been more lately proved by Peron, by
* Journ. various trials in many different latitudes*. Now the
Phyf tom. contrary of this ought certainly to happen, (unlefs this
fubterraneous heat is entirely unlike common heat) if
there conflantly exifted in the bowels of the earth a
heat capable of fufing quartz and limeftone.
The itruclure of whin dykes, detailed in Section II.
of laft Chapter, affords additional arguments in oppofi-
tion to the Huttonian theory.
The evidence which Dr Hutton has adduced to
prove the fubterraneous eruption of dykes, is drawn
from the apparent derangement of the horizontal ftrata
at a place where they are interfered by a dyke, and the
peculiar appearance of the coal in their immediate vici¬
nity, which he fuppofes to be in a Hate of calcination,
from having been in contaiff with the ejedted matter
of the dyke in fufion. Let us firft attend to the effeft
of this eruption of a dyke, the apparent derangement
of the ftrata; and let us confider for a moment, what
muft be the mechanical operation of a mafs of this li¬
quid matter burfting upwards through the coal ftrata.
Suppofe a coal field of a mile fquare in extent y fuppofe
that the coal and concomitant ftrata are perfedlly re¬
gular, having a moderate dip or inclination to the
fouth j and fuppofe that this coal field is to be inter-
fecled by a dyke, ejected in a ftate of fufion from the
bowels of the earth. Confidering the nature of the ftrata
lx. n. 8i
191
From the
ftruhturc
of whin
dykes.
O G Y. Chap. III.
which ufually accompany coal, fuch as fandftone, lime-'theories of
ft one, ironftone, &c. which are very hard and compact, ) ,c ^art ^ ^
we muft allow, that the refiftance from fuch fubftances
would be very great. In this previous ftate of circum-
ftances, then, what would be the effedl of the eruption
of a dyke in the middle of the field, in a direction from
north to fouth? Can it even be imagined, that this
liquid mafs in its progrefs upwards through the fuper-
incumbent ftrata to the furface of the earth, would
merely deftroy the continuity of thefe ftrata, and not in
its irrefiftible courfe, carry along with it part of all the
fubftances compofing that ftrata through which it palled ?
But farther, one of the moft obvious confequences of
fuch an eruption, would be the elevation of part of the
whole range of the ftrata on both tides of the dyke, and
the extent of this elevation will be in proportion to the
power or thieknefs of the dyke 5 and, not only is it na¬
tural to expedl this elevation of the ftrata to a certain
extent, but from the operation of an agent fo tremen¬
dous and irrefiftible, that the whole ftrata ftiould be
broken, disjointed, and confufed. But does this ftate-
ment correfpond with the phenomena ? From the hi-
ftory of dykes traverfing coal ftrata, we knowr that it
does not. On the contrary, the whole of the ftrata, in
moft cafes, preferve the fame thicknefs, the fame paral-
lelifm, and the fame inclination to the horizon on both
fides of the dyke. It is true, the half mile of coal field,
interfered by a dyke, as we have fuppofed above, will
on one fide of it be elevated or depreffed. If the dyke,
which runs north and fouth in its courfe upwards, in¬
clines to the weft, the weftern divifion will be elevated.
But this is not a partial elevation only in the immedi¬
ate vicinity of the dyke. It extends over the whole
field on the weft fide of the dyke, and the ftrata con¬
tinue fair and regular, in all refpecls correfponding to
thofe from which they have been detached, till they are
interfered by another dyke.
From this reafoning, we think the conclufion fair
and obvious, that dykes interfering coal ftrata have not
been formed by fubterraneous eruption, and therefore,
that the elevation or depreflion of the ftrata is not owing
to this caufe. Dr Hutton’s theory, in this refper, is
oppofed by the fafe which it profeffes to explain, and
confequently it is untenable.
Let us now confider the argument drawn from the
fuppofed calcination of the coal which has been in con-
tar with the matter of the dyke in a ftate of fufion.
Here Dr Hutton feems to have overleaped the bounds
of his own theory, and loft fight of his own principles,
which fuppofe, that all the ftrata and ftony matters of
which the globe is eompofed, have been confolidated
by means of heat ; that the exhibition of the common
or ordinary phenomena of heat is not to be looked for in
the grand proceffes of nature ^ becaufe theie operations
have taken place at great depths in the bowels of the
earth, or under immenfe preffure at the bottom of the
fea •, and this is the reafon that coal, and lime ftrata, for
inftance, which have been fubjered to this intenfe degree
of heat difeover no marks of calcination, the one being
deprived of its carbonic acid, and the other of its bitu¬
men. Now, granting this hypothetical argument to be
well founded, what is the reafon that the coal, which is
in contaft with a dyke, has undergone the proceffes of
calcination, when this coal is at as great a depth in the
bowels of the earth, under as immenfe preffure, and as
much.
Chap. in. CEO!
Theories of much excluded from atmofpheric air, as any coal at its
the Earth. orjgJna] formation. But all the coal in contact with a
r~v dyke, is not in this Hate. Clean coal is fometimes
found in immediate contail *, and, in many places, clean
coal is alfo found intercepted between regular ranges of
bafaltic columns, and this coal difoovers not the fmalleft
mark of calcination. On the other hand, coal in this
fuppofed Hate of calcination, has been frequently dif-
covered, at a great diilancc from any dyke or bafaltic
fubltance whatever. Maffes of this foul coal olten oc¬
cur, to the regret and difappoint ment of the miner, in the
midif of ftrata otherwife perfectly clean and regular.
This laft fact Ihews us, that we muft look for the caufe
of this lingular phenomenon elfewhere than in the eir-
cumitance of the coal having been in contact with a
dyke while in fufion ; for it appears that the effect does
not always follow in the fame eircumftances, and* that
the fame effeft is produced in very different circum-
ftances.
Thefe obfervations are probably fufficient to fhew
that the above argument in proof of the fubterrancous
eruption of dykes, is equally unfaiisfactory in explain¬
ing the phenomena, and confequently equally untenable
with the former. Both, therefore, muff fall to the
ground.
T 0*3 0 • •
From the The wedge-like form of dykes might be adduced as
itrufture of another argument againft their formation by fubterrane-
metallic ous eruption *, for it is not eafy to conceive that a dyke
rcms" in a ftate of fulion Ihould, in its eruptive progrefs to-
Avards the furface of the earth, enlarge and become
thicker.
The hiffory of metallic veins furnilhes us Avith ftronger
objections againft Dr Hutton’s theory. If, according
to this theory, metallic veins have been formed by the
fubftances they contain being ignited in a Hate of lufxon
from the bowels of the earth, it Avill naturally follow,
that the veins thus formed might be traced to the
greateft depths, and even to the fubterraneous furnace
from Avhich they iffued. But Ave knoAV that the faff is
quite otherwife. The termination of many \reins doAvn-
Avards has been difeovered. Even the moft poAverful and
produffive have been unexpeffedly cut off by the hori¬
zontal ftrata, and no \Teftige of them could ever be
traced. This Avas the cafe Avith the rich \Tein of lead
ore at Llangunog in Wales- It is the cafe alfo Avith
many veins in their courfe doAvmvards, to diminilh gra¬
dually in form of a Avedge, and then they are loft for
ever. Now, this certainly could never have happened,
had they been formed by fubterraneous eruption. Some
trace of their progrefs, fome mark of their courfe
through the interfeffed ftrata, Avould ftill have remained.
But no fuch indications, no fuch traces, are found. We
muft therefore conclude, that metallic veins have not
been formed inthisAvay, and that this theory, Avhich ap¬
pears to be fo much at variance with faffs, Avill not ac¬
count in a fatisfaffory manner for their formation.
The maffes of ftone of the fame fpecies Avith the
neighbouring fuperior ftrata, fometimes rounded and
worn by the affion of Avater, Avhich are found at great
depths in mineral veins, and organized fubftances, petri-
faffions of vegetables and animals, prefent us Avith ano¬
ther objeffion to this theory, equally ftrong and infur-
mountable. Thefe fubftances are the produffions of
the furface of the earth-, and even fuppofing them to
have exifted in the boAvels of the earth, it is incon-
6
O ° y. 599
ceivable that they ftiould have retained their primitive Theories of
form after they Avere fubjeffed to fo high a temperature the
as is neceifary to hold metals in a ftate ot fufion.
Sect. VII. Theory of Werner.
The lateft, and perhaps moft celebrated, theory that Theory of
has yet appeared, is that of Profeffor Werner of Frey-Werner,
berg, with an account of Avhich, and fome obferva¬
tions on Mr Kirwan’s opinions, we lhali clofe this chap¬
ter.
We have faid already, (N° 1.) that the fubjeff of
which avc are now treating is called by V erner geogno-
fij, and his pupils are commonly called geognojis.
Werner is of opinion, that our knowledge is already
fufficiently advanced to form a rational theory reipeff-
ing the formation of the exterior crujl of our globe;
for he does not deny that avc cannot reafon Avith refpeff
to what is below this, fince avc have no faff Avhich can
give us the leaft notion Aviih refpeff to it. VVe are on¬
ly certain that fome part of our globe has been in a
fluid ftate, as is proved by its fpheroidal form. The
cryftalline form of granite and other rocky fubftances
which conftitute the bafe of that part of the earth with
which Ave are acquainted, are, according to Werner,
fufficient proofs that this part at leait has been in a ftate
of minute diffolution. Again, the ftratified appearance
of moft mountains and rocks (hew that they are an ac¬
cumulation of precipitates or fediments Avhich have been
depofited one over another. The numerous remains of
marine animals Avhich are found imbedded in many
rocks, and of Avhich fome fpecies are ftill found in our
feas, alloAV us to believe that this folution Avas aqueous j
that it Avas a vaft ocean Avhich has covered our globe
to a very confiderable height. The exterior part of the
globe, then, has been entirely dijfolved by the •waters
which furrounded it, and from this foluticn certain che¬
mical precipitations took place, which have formed the
crujl that we now fee.
In framing his theory, Werner profeffes to banifti
every thing that is hypothetical, and only to draw from
general faffs fuch immediate confequences as he be¬
lieves it impoffible not to deduce from them, and on
thefe alone he founds his geognofy. The objeff of
this theory, according to one of his difciples (the tram
flator of his book on metallic veins), is to acquire a
knoAvledge of the ftruffure of the folid cruft of the
terraqueous globe, and the relative difpofition of the
materials Avhieh compote it; the means of doing this are
to be derived from obfervation. Werner fets out with
Hating, that the chemical precipitates that took place
from the chaotic fluid, did not form a regular furface,
but that they collefted here and there fo as to produce
the primitive mountains. Thefe mountains he calls cha¬
otic, becaufe, fays he, they have been formed during the
period when the furface of the earth Avas a fort of chaos.
After the retreat of the Avaters, thefe elevated parts
Avere firft difeovered. They Avere expofed to the de-
ftruffive affion of the elements, and the fhock of tides
and torrents. The valleys were hollowed out, and the
mountains acquired nearly the form in Avhieh we now
fee them.
Obfervation has ftieAvn that the ftrata of which the -
earth is compofed, may be divided into a certain num¬
ber of congeries, each of Avhich is compofed of a cer~
taku
6oo
GEOLOGY.
Chap. III.
Theories of tain fet of minerals tliat are nearly the fame in what-
the Earth. ev.er part 0£ the congeries is found. To thefe
congeries Werner has given the name of formations, of
which ht^diftinguifhes fix kinds or clafles, four univerfal,
being found all over the globe, and two partial, found
only in particular diftridts. I hefe formations he has
arranged according to the order in which he conceives
them"to have been produced, beginning with that for¬
mation which lies next the lolid nucleus of the earth,
and which may therefore be conceived to be the oldeft,
and ending with the moft fuperficial, which is confider-
ed as the neweft formation.
The firft of thefe claffes is called by Werner that of
primitive formations, which confift of a number of for¬
mations lying above each other, being thole which are
fuppofed the oldeft, as in thefe no organic remains have
been difcovered. The fubftances conftituting this
dais are granite^ gneifs, micaceous fchijlus^ atgiiiaceous
fchifus, primitive limejlone, primitive trap, fyemle, and
porphyry. Of thefe the granite is the loweft, and there¬
fore is confidered as the oldeft ; and next this follow the
others in the order in which we have enumerated them,
except that the primitive limeftone, and primitive trap,
are found in an uncertain order, alternating wuth
gneils, argillaceous fchiftus, or micaceous fchiftus } and
are therefore conlidered as fubordinate to thefe forma¬
tions. . .
When the waters had fubfided, and the lummrts ot
the primitive mountains had been uncovered, organiz¬
ed bodies were produced } and part of thefe being in¬
tercepted among the chemical precipitations which were
ftill going on, and the mechanical precipitations which
now' began to take place, w^ere carried with thefe to
the flanks of the primitive mountains, and the valleys
between them. Hence were produced a fecond feries
of formations, which are called by Werner tr unfit ion
formations, or rochs of tranjition, as he conlidered them
to be depofited during the period when the earth wTas
pafling from an uninhabited to an inhabited, flate. A-
mong thefe formations, hou'ever, the organic remains
are but few. The fubftances compofmg this clafs, are
tranjition hmejione, gray vsacke, gray wackefate, tran-
(ition trap, fhceous fchiftus. Of thefe the tw o laft are
fubordinate, alternating with gray wacke and gray
wacke Hate.
The third formation is what Werner calls floetz, for¬
mation, or that, in which the beds or ftrate lie nearly
horizontal, appearing as if they had been depofited
from water. This formation comprehends moft of what
are ufually called fecondary ftrata. It is divided by
Werner into three fubformations, named from the va¬
riety or lituation of the fandftone, which form- a prin¬
cipal part of each •, as, i. Old red fandftone formation,
compofed of foetz hmefone, old redfandfone, and fo¬
liated gupfum. 2. Second fandftone formation, compo¬
fed of 'fandfone, floetz limefone, and fibrous gypfum.
2. Third fandftone formation, compofed of fandfone,
limefone, and chalh, &c. Of thefe, as before, the firft ,ll,c nl n-,
mentioned is the oldeft, and in this, fomewhere near
the gypfum, there is ufually found fait or fulphur. In
this formation, organic remains are firft feen in any great
quantities. , v
The fourth formation is called independent coal for¬
mation, becaufe in this coal is firft found, and beeaule
it is not univerfally fpread over the earth as the three
preceding, but is colle6ted in mlulated manes, indepen¬
dent of each other. This is alfo divided into three, each
fucceflively more recent than the preceding. I he firft
feries of ftrata confift of fate clay, limefone, marl, fft
fandfone, greenf one, argillaceous ironfone, Jha/e, and
coal; the fecond of indurated clay, marl, limefone, por-
phyritic fone, and coal; and the third of Uofe fand¬
fone, conglomerate, (a variety of fandftone), fate a ay.
The fifth is called floetz f rap formation, fif called be¬
caufe the beds of which it is compoied, eon fft of ma¬
terials that are moftly of the nature of trap, or whin-
ftone. The fubftances that compofe this formation are
gravel, fandfone, fhceous fandfone, clay, wacke, ba-
falt, greenflone, fchf ofe porphyry, pitch fone, ved gray-
fone. Coal is alfo found in this formation, fomewhere
among the beds oifhceousfandfone, clay, wacke, and
bafdlt, to which it is therefore confidered as fubordi-
The "fixth and laft formation is the alluvial forma¬
tion, or that which has arifen from the a#ion of lakes
and rivers, waftiing down part of the older iaata.
This is divided into two fei ies of ftrata •, the firn being
thofe that have arifen from the aft ion of lakes newly
drained, comprehending marl, fund, clay, and coal; and
the fecond, thofe which have been produced from the
acl ion of rivers, comprehending mud, ironj one, /and,
peat, &c. This formation is the moft recent of any, but,
like the fourth, it is only partial.
The above is an outline of WTrner’s geognofy, which
is confidered as an improvement of u'hat is called the
Neptunian theory, or that which explains geological ap-
pearances by the aeftion of water, in oppofition to what
is called the volcanic theory, or that which attributes
thefe appearances to an igneous origin. . 194
One of the principal obieftions to the Neptunian Ohjcdions
theory is drawn from the infolubility in water of ".any » the the-_
of the fubflances which compofe our globe; but this^
the Neptunians endeavour to explain, bv fuppofing that
at the very commencement of their exiftence thele iub-
ftances were in that ftate of minute divifion which aque¬
ous folutions require, but which no known exiftmg quan¬
tity would be able to effeft, after the fubftances had ac¬
quired their utmoft confolidation, as it is well known,
that a folid fubftance may be kept in folution, at lean
for a fhort time, in a lefs quantity of fluid than was ori¬
ginally requifite to diffolve it. ^
(F) We may here notice Werner’s opinion with refpeft to the format,on and “f
only theory of importance refpeaing it, that has not been mentioned under the article Basalt . P
fe6Uy convinced gays Werner in a late memoir) that all the varices of bafalt have been W»cedm^ humrd
wav' and that they are of a very recent formation; that they formerly eompo eu „ ^ has left
covering both the primitive and fecondary ftrata ; that time has anew deftroyed a confiderable part,
.only thf baiatic eminences which we now fee.” Vid. Jam'finU M.neralogy ojDumfne,, p. .84.
5
}Chap. Ill, G E O 1
Theories o1' A fccond obje£Kon is derived from the difficulty of
the Earth, ffippofing that thefe fubftances could have been confoli-
^ dated below water, or that the water could completely
ffiut up the ])ores of a body, to the entire exclufion of it-
' felf j fo that had the mineral fubtlances been confolidated
as here hippofed, the folvent ought either to remain with¬
in them in a liquid date, or, if evaporated, ffiould have
left the pores empty, and the body pervious to water.
Mr Playfair argues ftrenuoudy againft the notion of
thefe fubdances being precipitated from the chaotic
duid, which has been fo ingenioudy fupported by Kir-
wan, who afcribes the folution of all fubdances in the
chaotic duid to their being finely pulverifed, or created
in a date of the mod minute divifion ; and the folvent
being then infufficient in quantity, he fuppofes that, on
that account, the precipitation took place the more ra¬
pidly.
“ If, fays Mr Playfair, he means by this to fay, that
a precipitation wiihout folution Avould take place the
fooner, the more inadequate the mendruum was to dif-
folve the whole, the propofition may be true, but will
be of no ufe to explain the crydallization of minerals,
the very objedf he has in view becaufe to crydalliza¬
tion it is not a bare fubfidence of particles fufpended in
a duid, but it is a paifage from chemical folution to non-
folution, or infolubility, that is required.
“ If on the other hand he means to fay, that the fo¬
lution a (dually took place more quickly, and Avas more
* Playfair's immediately followed by- precipitation, becaufe the
lllufim- quantity of the mendruum Avas infufficient, this is to
uons, aflert that the Aveaker the caufe, the more indantaneous
fedL l6l> will be its effed*.”
Werner’s theory of dykes and veins requires a more
particular confideration.
This theory fuppofes, that the fpaces Avhich are noAV
occupied byA^ertical drata, or dykes, including alfo me¬
tallic veins, Avere originally fidures, formed by the ope¬
ration of different caufes.
1. The unequal height and dendty of mountains,
are confidered as the mod general caufes of fiffures.
When the mountains Avere in a foft and humid date,
that fide which was lead fupported not only feparated
by its OAvn Aveight, but the Avhole drata of the fide
gave Avay, and dink beloAv their former plain. This
alfo feems to be the opinion of Sauffure, Avith regard to
the formation of fiffures. It is not to be expedited,
that events of this kind drould be of frequentf occur¬
rence, noAV that mountains have acquired fufficient
firmnefs and dability to refid the force of gravity, ope¬
rating in confequence of the inequality of weight and
diverfity of the materials of Avhich they are compofed.
Indances, however, of the operation of fuch caufes are
not altogether Avanting, even in modern times. After
a feafon of exceffive rains, in the year 1767, fimilar
fiffures were formed in mountains in Bohemia and Lu-
fatia.
2. When the Avaters covered the furface of the
earth, the unequal weight of the mountains Avas fup¬
ported by their prefifure 5 but Avhen the Armters retreat¬
ed, this preffure was removed, the equilibrium Avas de-
droyed, the unfupported fide of the mountain fepara¬
ted and funk 5 and in this manner a fiffure Avas
formed.
3. The evaporation of the moidure, after the re¬
treat of the Avaters, and the confequent diminution of
Vol. IX. Part II.
0 G Y.
601
*95
Werner’s
theory of
dykes and
veins.
bulk by contraftion of the fubftances Avhich enter into Theories oT
the compofition of mountains, are alfo confidered as the ltllc Eartli-i
caufes of fiffurcs.
4. Fiffures, too, derive their origin from other lo-"
cal and accidental caufes, and efpeeially from earth¬
quakes. In the year 1783, when Calabria Avas adli61-
ed with this mod dreadful of all calamities Avhich vifit
the earth, mountains Avere feparated, exhibiting fiffures
fimilar to thofe Avhich are now occupied by vertical
drata.
The fecond part of the theory is employed in prov¬
ing that the empty fpaces, occafioned by the operation
of one or other of the caufes Avhich have been enume¬
rated, Avere filled from above •, that the different fub¬
dances, of Which the vertical drata are compofed,
AA'ere held in folution by the Avaters which covered the
earth ; and that they Avere precipitated, by different
chemical agents, according to the order of chemical af¬
finity, and depofited in the places Avhich they novv oc¬
cupy. In fupport of the opinion, that thefe fiffure^ were
filled from aboATe, Werner adduces fafts of angular and
rounded fragments of dones of various fpecies, and orga¬
nized bodies, as marine (hells and vegetables, having
been found in vertical drata, at the immenfe depth of
150 and 200 fathoms. It may be doubted, on good
grounds, whether this theory, fupported by all the in¬
genuity and experience of its author, Avill account in a
fatisfa<5lory manner, for that regularity of pofition and
arrangement Avhich are difco\rered in the vertical dra¬
ta ; for, notAvithftanding the feeming diforder Avhich a
fuperficial vein may exhibit, they are not lefs regular
and uniform than the horizontal drata. And Avhen our*
refearches are extended beyond the narroAV bounds
Avithin which they are at prefent limited, when we are
better acquainted with their relative pofitions and con¬
nexions, this uniformity and regularity Avill become
more confpicuous. It may be doubed whether the for¬
tuitous operation of fuch caufes as have been dated, be
equal to the effecl of the formation of the vertical ilrata,
as they norv appear.
But, fuppofing that fiffures Avere produced by fome
of the caufes which have been mentioned, few of thefe
caufes could operate till the retreat of the Avaters left
the mountains uncovered. It Avas only then that the
mountains, by the inequality of height and denfitv,
being left unfirpported, feparated, and funk from their
former fituation ; it Avas then only that the prccefs of
evaporation could take place, fucceeded by diminu¬
tion of bulk and confequent contraction. In fiiort,
none of the caufes Avhich have been dated, could have
anv effect before the Avaters had retreated, excepting
earthquakes; of the operation of Avhich there is no
proof previous to that period. The materials which
compofe the vertical drata, it is faid, Avere formed by
depofition from the Avaters Avhich covered the moun¬
tains, holding them in folution. But before the fiffures
could be formed to receive thefe materials by precipi¬
tation and depofition, the Avaters had retired. A fe¬
cond deluge mud therefore have happened, from the
Avaters of which the various fubdances Avbich enter in¬
to the compofition of vertical drata have been depofited.
This the theory does not fuppofe to have taken place ;
and, without fuch a fuppofition, it feems to be attended
Avith eonfiderable difficulty. But another difficulty dill
remains. It does not appear how the peculiarity of
4 G dru&ure,
602
Theories of ftrufturc, which was mentioned in our account of whin
the Earth, Seft. II. of the lait chapter, can be accounted for
by the principles of this theory. If it be granted, that the
horizontal ftrata were formed in the humid way, the
materials of which they are compofed mull have been
precipitated from the waters which held them in folu-
tion, by the laws of chemical affinity. But the verti¬
cal ftrata are fuppofed to have been formed in the fame
manner, and according to the fame procefs. Now,
this being the cafe, What is the reafon that the verti¬
cal it rat a ffiould exhibit a peculiarity of itructure and
arrangement, different from the horizontal ffrata ?
Some of the whin dykes which have been already de-
feribed, are very remarkable for this fmgular itructure,
efpecially thofe which affume the form of prifmatic co¬
lumns. Thefe columns are in the horizontal pofition ;
and, excepting the latter circumftance, thefe dykes, in
every refpect, referable a bafaltic ftratum, in which the
columns are perpendicular.
More arguments might be adduced in oppofition to
the theory of Werner 3 but we muff haften to conclude
this chapter, with mentioning a few of Mr Kirwan s
196 peculiar opinions.
Kirwan’s Among thefe, the manner in which he accounts for
theory of tbe unequal declivities of the lides of mountains, forms
the declivi-one 0f t]ie moft confpicuous objects : and to this we
^eS °f • ffiall principally confine ourfelves, and fhall give it in
mountairs. x ^ Cijr
his own words, as extracted from his ellay on the decli¬
vities of mountains, to which we were obliged in the
firft fedtion of Chap. II.
“ To affign the caufes of this almoft univerfal allotment
of unequal declivities to oppofite points, and why the
oreateft are directed to the welt and fouth, and the
gentleft, on the contrary, to the eait and north, it is
neceffary to confider,
“ 1. That all mountains were formed while covered
with water.
“ 2. That the earth was univerfally covered with wa¬
ter at two different eras, that of the creation, and that
of the Noachian deluge.
“ 3. That in the firft era we muft diftinguiffi two dif¬
ferent periods, that which preceded the appearance of
dry land, and that which fucceeded the creation of fifli,
but before the fea had been reduced nearly to its pre-
fent level. During the former, the primeval moun¬
tains were formed y and during the latter, moft of the
fecondary mountains and ftrata were formed.
“ 4. That all mountains extend either from eaft to
weft, or from north to fouth, or in fome intermediate
direction between thefe cardinal points, which need not
be particularly mentioned here, as the fame fpecies of
reafoning muft be applied to them, as to thole to whofe
afpeft they approach moft.
“ Thefe preliminary circumftances being noticed, we
are next to obferve that, during the firft era, this vaft
mafs of water moved in two general directions, at right
angles with each other, the one from eaft to weft,
•which needs not to be proved, being the courfe of tides
which ftill continue, but were in that ocean neceffarily
ftronger and higher than at prefent 5 the other from
north to fouth, the water tending to thefe vaft abyffes
then formed in the vicinity of the fouth pole, as ffiewn
in my former effays. Before either motion could be
propagated, a confiderable time muft have elapfed.
u Now the primeval mountains formed at the conn-
Chap. III.
roencement of the firft era, and before this double di- 1 heories of
reclion of the waters took place, muft have oppofed a }hc Eanic
confiderable obftacle to the motion of that fluid in the r_v
fenfe that croffed that of the direction of thefe moun¬
tains. Thus the mountains that ftretch from north to
fouth muft have oppofed the motion of the waters from
eaft to w'eft ; this oppofition diminilhing the motion of
that fluid, difpofed it to fuffer the earthy particles with
which in thofe early periods it muft have been impreg¬
nated, to cryftallize or be depofited on thefe eaitem
flanks, and particularly on thofe of the higheft moun¬
tains, for over the lower it could eafily pals 5 thefe de-
pofitions being inceffantly repeated at heights gradually
diminilhing as the level of the waters gradually lower¬
ed, muft have rendered the eaftern declivities or def-
cent, gentle, gradual, and moderate, while the weitern
fides receiving no fuch acceffions from depofitions, muft
have remained fteep and craggy.
“ Again, the primeval mountains that run from eaft
to weft", by oppofing a fimilar refiftance to the courle of
the waters from north to fouth, muft have oceafioned
fimilar depofitions on the northern fides of thefe moun¬
tains, again ft which thefe waters impinged, and thus
fmoothed them.
“ Where mountains interfedl each other in an oblique
direction, the north-eaft fide of one range being conti¬
guous to the fouth-weft flanks of another range, there
the influx of adventitious particles on the north-eaft fide
of the one, muft have frequently extended to the fouth-
weft fide of the other, particularly if that afflux were
ftrong and copious j thus the Erzgebirge of Saxony,
which run from weft to eaft, have their north-eaft fides
contiguous to the fouth-weft fide of the Riefengebirge
that feparate Silefia from Bohemia, and hence thefe
latter are covered with the lame beds of gneils, &c^
as the northern fides of the Saxon, and thereby are
rendered fmooth and gentle, comparatively to the op¬
pofite fide, which, being ffieltered, remains fteep and
abrupt, which explains the feventh obfervation.
“ The caufes here affigned explain why the covering
of adventitious ftrata on the higheft mountains is gene¬
rally thinneft at the greateft height, and thickeft to-
Avards the foot of the mountain 5 for the bulk of the w?ater
that contained the adventitious particles being propor¬
tioned to its depth, and the mafs ot earthy particles
with which it was charged being proportioned. to the
bulk of the water that contained them, it is plain, that
as the height of water gradually decreaied, the depofi¬
tions from it on the higher parts ot the mountains rouii
have been lefs copious than on the lower, where they
muft have been often repeated.
“■ Hence, 2. granite mountains, generally the mofi
ancient, frequently have their northern or eaftern fides
covered with ftrata of gneiis or micaceous fchiftus, ana
this often with argillite or primeval fandflone, or lime-
ftone, thefe being either of fomewhat later formation,
or longer fufpendible in water.
“ Hence, 3. different fpecies of ftone are often founa
at different heights of the fame flank of a mountain,,
according as the water uhich conveyed thefe fpecies,
happened to be differently impregnated at difterent
heights. During the firft era its depofitions formed the
primitive ftony mafies 5 alter which the creation of fiffi,
limeftone, fandftone, (puddingJione) and fecondary argil¬
lites, in which pifeine remains are found, were depofi-
GEOLOGY.
Chap. IV.
Theories of ted. But during the fecond era, that of the Noachian
the Earth, deluge, by reafon of the violence and irregularity of its
aggretfion, the depofitions were more mifeellaneous, and
are found at the greateft heights 5 yet in general they
may well be diftinguilhed by the remains of land ani¬
mals, or of vegetables, or of both, which they prefent in
their tlrata (or at lealt by the impreffions of vegetables
which they bear) as thefe mull have been conveyed
after the earth had been inhabited. But mountains
regularly ftradfied bearing fueh remains, for initance
the carboniferous, cannot be deemed to have been
formed in a period fo tumultuous. During this deluge
the w'alers alfo held a different courfe, proceeding at firft
from fouth to north, and afterwards in both oppofite
directions, as fhewn in treating of that catallrophe in
my fecond elfay.
“ Hence, and from various contingent local caufes, as
partial inundations, earthquakes, volcanoes, the erofion
of rivers, the elapfion of ftrata, dilintegration, the dis¬
ruption of the lofty mounds by which many lakes were
anciently hemmed in, feveral changes were produced
in particular countries, that may at firft fight appear,
though in reality they are not, exceptions to the opera¬
tions of the general caufes already ftated.
“ Thus the mountains of Kamtfchatka had their eaftern
flanks torn and rendered abrupt by the irruption of the
general deluge, probably accompanied by earthquakes.
And thus the Meiffener had its eaft and north flanks
undermined by the river Warre, as Werner has fhewn ;
thus the eighth and fixteenth obfervations are accounted
for, as is the thirteenth by the vaft inundations fo fre¬
quent in this country, (1. Pallas, p. 172.), which un¬
dermined or corroded its eaft fide, while the weftern
were fmoothed by the calcareous depofitions from the
numerous rivers in its vicinity.
“ Hence, 4. we fee why on different fides of lofty
mountains different fpecies of ftones are found, as Pal¬
las and Sauffure have obferved (2. Suii/f. § 981.), a cir-
cumftance which Sauffure imagined almoft inexplicable,
but which Dnlomieu has fince happily explained, by
{hewing that the current which conveyed the calcare¬
ous fubftances to the northern, eaftern, and north-eaftern
fides of the Alps, for in fiance, was flopped by the
height of thefe mountains, and thus prevented from
conveying them to the fouthern fides, and thus the
north-eaftern fides were rendered more gentle than the
oppofite, (3. New Ro’Z. p. 423.), conformably to the
theory here given.
“ Hence, 5. where feveral lofty ridges run parallel to
each other, it muft frequently happen that the. external
fhould intercept the depofitions that do not furround
them, and thus leave the internal ridges fteep on both
fides.
“ Hence, 6. low granitic or other primitive hills are
frequently uncovered by adventitious ftrata on all fides,
as at Phanet in the county of Donegal, or are covered
on all fides; the impregnated waters either eafily paffing
over them, or flagnating upon them, according to the
greater or lefs rapidity of its courfe, and the obftacles it
ipy met with.”
Kirwan’s Mr Kirwan’s theory of the formation of whin dykes,
*jhe"ry °f is as follows.
He fuppofes that the dyke exifted in the fpot where
it is found previous to the formation of the horizontal
ftrata; that, during the formation of the latter by de-
603
pofition, their equal extenfion on each fide of the dyke Earth-
was obftru6fed by its height preventing the paffage of<ffa|‘ts atl‘*
the current of waters; that the ftrata on that fide of, ° cai',oe~",
the dyke which were firft formed, occafioned a much
more confiderable preffure than on the fide on which
the ftrata of latter formation repofe, and muft have
pulled the upper and more moveable extremity of the
flip gradually towards the fide on which there was leaft
preffure ; on that fide it muft therefore overhang : thi»
preffure being of earlier date than on the oppofite fide,
muft have had a more confiderable effeft in deprefling
each particular ftratum, and forcing their integrant
particles into clofer contact, than could have been pro¬
duced in thole of later formation ; and confequently
the ftrata muft be lower. The ingenious author has
added, with good reafon, that he is not fatisfied -with
this explanation. It is undoubtedly quite incompatible
with the phenomena which it attempts to explain. For
it has been already obferved, that the coal and conti¬
guous ftrata are, in every refpeft, theffame on both
fides of a dyke, to whatever diftance they may have
been elevated or depreffed, which demonftrates clearly,
that their formation muft have been coeval. But, be-
fides, the fame derangement takes place in a flip where
there is merely a folution of contiguity of the horizon¬
tal ftrata, one fide being only elevated or depreffed
above or below the correfponding fide from which it
has been detached without having a vertical ftratum or
dyke interpofed.
Chap. IV. Of Earthquakes and Volcanoes.
In the preceding chapters wre have given a Ihort ac- 19*
count of the materials which conftitute the globe of
the earth ; we have taken a view of the relative pofition
and connexion which fubfift among thefe materials, fo far
as they are known, and we have confidered feme of the
changes which are fuppofed to have taken place in their
arrangement and diftribution, and fome of the theories
which have been propofed to account for thefe changes.
We have hitherto contemplated nature in a ftate of
feeming repofe, condufting her operations by a gradual
and filent procefs, and accompliftfing the moft beneficial
and wonderful effefts, unheeded and unobferved. We
are now to take a view of thofe more terrible and fudden
changes which are exhibited in the devaftation and ruin
which accompany the earthquake and the volcano ; 
changes awfful in the contemplation, but dreadful and
terrible in their tremendous effefls.
Many of the phenomena which accompany earth¬
quakes and volcanoes, are common to both. Earth¬
quakes are frequently the forerunners, and fometimes
the attendants, of volcanic eruptions ; but earthquakes
have often exifted, and their terrible effefts have been
feverely felt, -where no volcano wras ever known.
In the prefent chapter, we propofe to confider the
phenomena, hiftory, and caufes of earthquakes and vol¬
canoes, which will form the fubjedts of the two follow¬
ing fedtions. In the firft we {hall treat of earthquakes,
and in the fecond of volcanoes.
Sect. I. Of the Phenomena and Hiflori] of Earthquakes. 19$
Places
Earthquakes have beeu felt in moft countries ofWlle,rc
the world. There are, however, particular places, preva;£ 5
4 G 2 which
GEOLOGY.
604
G E G L O G Y.
Earth-
quakes and
Volcanoes,
300
Phenomena
which pre¬
cede and
accompany
them.
which feem to bo more- 1'ubjeft to this dreadful calami¬
ty than others *, and this does not feem to depend on
any local circumftances, with regard to particular regi¬
ons of the earth. It may be obferved in general, that
earthquakes are more frequent within the tropics } but
there are places within the torrid zone, which are more
rarely viiited by earthquakes than fome of the more
temperate, or even the colder regions of the earth. In
the iflands of the Weft Indies, and in fome parts
of the American continent which lie between the
tropics, the earthquake is more frequently felt than
in moft other regions of the earth. But the north¬
ern flrores of the Mediterranean, the kingdom of Por¬
tugal, and fome other places without the tropics, have
been oftener the feene of defolation, by the effe&s of
the earthquake, than many of the iflands and. extenfive
continents within the torrid zone. From this circum-
flance in the hiftory of earthquakes, it would appear
that they are not limited to particular regions, on ac¬
count of proximity to the equator or uiitance iiom it,
on account of infular fituation or extent ol continent.
Particular illands, however, and particular, parts of
continents, have undoubtedly been ottener \ihted by
earthquakes than others. Of all the iilands of the Weft
Indies, Jamaica has moft frequently experienced their
dreadful effeas. Indeed, fcarcely a year paffes, with¬
out feveral ihocks of an earthquake being felt in that
ifland. Mexico and Peru in South America, are more
fubjea to earthquakes than the other regions of the
American continent. Portugal has been often fliakcn to
the very foundations, by terrible earthquakes, , while
Spain, immediately adjoining, or it may be faid, in¬
cluding it, is, comparatively, almoft exempted from
their effofts. It has been obferved, that earthquakes
have been lefs deftrudfive in Italy than in Sicily, which
are in the immediate vicinity of each other, and are
both volcanic, countries.
Obfervations on phenomena fo awful and terrible, can
fcarcely be expeaed to be very numerous. The opera¬
tion of the caufes which produce them is too rapid, the
eftea* are too hidden and unexpeaed, to be rendered
the fubjea of accurate or attentive phiiofophical in-
veftigation-, or, perhaps, we might acknowledge at
once, that they are too extenfive and too obfeure for the
powers of man. They are beyond the grafp of the hu¬
man mind.
It has been already obferved, that earthquakes are
more frequent in volcanic countries than in any others.
In thefe regions they are .oftener dreaded and expedited
than in other places. Where a volcano exifts, and
when it has ceafed to throw out flame and Imoke for
any long period, fliocks of earthquakes begin to be
dreaded. This, has been very generally the cafe with
the principal volcanoes , of the world, the events of
■whole hiftory have been recorded. An earthquake is
often the forerunner of an eruption, and the very firft
warning of its approach.
Earthquakes are often preceded by long. droughts.
The earthquake, however, does not immediately fuc-
ceed the ceffation of the drought, or the fall of rain.
Some eleftrical appearances are obferved to take place
in the air, before the earthquake comes on. The au¬
rora borealis is frequent and brilliant, and bright me¬
teors are often feen darting from one region of the
Chap. IV.
heavens to another, or from the atmofphere to the Earth-
’ ^, quakes and
€;artt1' „ , Volcanoes.
Before the fliock comes on, the waters of the ocean , ^ _ .
appear to be unufually troubled ; without the eftedft of
wind, or any perceptible caufe, it fwells up with great
noife. Fountains and fprings are alfo greatly difturbed,
and their waters are agitated, and become muddy. The .
air at the time of the fhock has been obferved to be re¬
markably calm and ferene, but afterwards it becomes
dark and cloudy. _
The noife which accompanies the {hock of an eartu-
quake is fometimes like that of a number of carriages,
driving along the pavement of a ftreet with great ra¬
pidity. Sometimes it is like a ruftring noiie, limilar to
that of wind, and fometimes it refembles the explofions
occafioned by the firing of artillery. T he noife which
accompanied the earthquake, which was pretty general¬
ly felt over Scotland about three years ago, we recoi¬
led, refembled that of a heavy perlon walking rapidly,
and barefooted, through an adjoining room.
T he efteft of earthquakes on the furface of the earth
is various. Sometimes it is inftantaneoufly heaved up
in a perpendicular directiorr, and fometimes afiumes a
kind of rolling motion, from fide to fide. Sometimes
the lliock commences with the perpendicular motion,
and terminates with the other. _ ^
Great openings or fiiTures are made in the earth by the
fliock, and thefe in general throw out vaft quantities of
water, but fometimes fmoke and flame are ado emitted.
Flame and fmoke are often feen iffuing through the fur-
face of the earth, eyen where no chaim or fdiures has
been produced.
The effects of an earthquake on the ocean are not
lefs terrible than thofe on land. The fea fwells up to
a great height ; its waters fometimes feem to be entirely^
feparated, and from the place of feparation, currents of
air, fmoke, and flame, are difeharged. Similar effects
have been obferved to take place in lakes, ponds, and
rivers. Their waters are thrown into great agitation,,
and are fometimes fuelled up. Places in which theie
was a confiderable body of water, have become dry lan ,
and dry land has been converted into an extenfive lake
bv the fliock of an earthquake.
' The moft terrible earthquake that has yet vifited the
earth, has never been felt over its whole furface. f j1Cl1
effeas, however, extend to very diftant regions from
the centre or principal feene of defolation. I he ex-
iftence of an earthquake is indicated much more exten-
fively by water than by land. Where its e lie efts have
not been at all perceived on dry land, the agitation pro¬
duced on the waters in the ocean, or in lakes and rivers,
has been often communicated to a very great uii¬
tance. „ ,11
The duration of the fhock of an earthquake rarely
exceeds a minute, and perhaps very few continue for
near that length of time. But the fhocks are fometimes
repeated in rapid fucceflion; and perhaps from the
effeeft on the fenfes, and the dread and alarm which are.
thus occafioned, it is fuppofed that their duration is much
longer than it really is. „ , ...
But as no general account of the phenomena which
accompany an earthquake, from the difficulty or fcanti-
nefs of obfervation, can be complete, it will be render¬
ed much more intelligible and interefting, if we ceter a
(>
Chap. IV.
Earth¬
quakes and earthquakes ; and in the account of fome of them which
Volcanoes.^ we prop0fe tQ lay before our readers, it will be found
that moif of the appearances and eifefls which have
20I been enumerated, were obferved.
Earthquake The firft earthquake, the hiftory of which we fhall
in Calabria now detail, happened in Calabria, in the year 1638.
hi 1638. 'q'his earthquake is rather to be confidered as an excep¬
tion to what was laid with regard to their not taking
place in the neighbourhood of a volcano, foon after an
eruption. The volcanoes in that vicinity had experien¬
ced violent eruptions a very Ihort time before. Five
years before, there had been an eruption of Mount Vefu-
" vius, and two years only had elapfed from the time that
a limilar event had befallen /Etna. This mountain, in¬
deed, at the very time, threw out a great body of fmoke,
which feemed to cover the whole iiiand, and entirely
concealed the (bores from view. The air over the fea
at a little diftance was calm and ferene, and the furface
of the water was perfectly fmooth. Seemingly without
any caufe, it began to be (lightly agitated, as happens
to the furface of water in a heavy (hower of rain. A
dreadful noife fuececded, and the fmell of fulphurcous
vapours was perceived. The noife, like the rattling of
chariots, grew more frequent and loud, and the (nock at
lad was terribly felt, when the earth was heaved up, or
rolled in the form of waves.
This earthquake is particularly deferibed by the ce¬
lebrated father Kircher. “ On the 24th of March,
(fays he), we departed in a fmall boat from the harbour
of Medina in Sicily, and the fame day arrived at the
promontory of Pelorus. Our deftination was for the
city of Euphemia in Calabria, but unfavourable weather
obliged us to remain at Pelorus three days. Wearied
at length with delay, we determined to proceed on our
voyage, and although the fea feemed unufually agitat¬
ed, yet it did not deter us from embarking. As we
approached the gulf of Charybdis, the waters feemed
whirled round with fuch violence, as to form a large
hollow in the centre of the vortex. Turning my eyes
to Mount /Etna, I faw k throw out huge volumes of
fmoke, which entirely covered the ifland. This awful
appearance, with the dreadful noife, and the fulphureous
fmell which accompanied it, filled me with (Irong ap-
prehenfions that fome terrible calamity wras approaching.
The fea itfelf exhibited a very unufual appearance, its
agitation refembling that of the waters of a lake which
is covered with bubbles in a violent (hoAver of rain.
My furprife was kill increafed by the calmnefs and
ferenity of the weather 5 not a breeze ftirred, not a
cloud obfeured the face of the (ky, which might be fup-
pofed to produce thefe dreadful commotions. I there¬
fore warned my companions, that the unuiual phenome¬
na which we obferved, were the forerunners of an earth¬
quake. Soon after wre flood in for the (bore, and land¬
ed at Tropaea •, but we had fcarcely arrived at the
Jefuits college in that city, when a horrid found, which
refemblcd the rattling wheels of an infinite number of
chariots, driven furioully along, (funned our ears. Soon
after a terrible (baking of the earth began •, the ground
on which we flood feemed to vibrate, as if we were in
the fcale of a balance, which continued waving. I he
motion foon grew more violent; I could no longer keep
mv legs, but was thrown proflrate upon the ground.
After fome time had elanfed, when I had recovered
GEOLOGY.
605
little more into the detail of the hi dory of particular from the conllernalion ; and finding that I was unhurt Earth-
amidfi: the general cralh, I refoived to make the beil of t\ua,'‘cs an
my way to a place ot (arety, and running as iatt as i , ^ i
could, 1 reached the (bore. I foon found the boat in
which I had landed, as well as my companions 5 and
leaving this feene of defolation, we profecuted our voy¬
age along the coaft. Next day we arrived at Rochetta,
where we landed, although the earth (fill continued in
violent commotion. But we had icarcely reached the
inn when we were again obliged to return to the boat.
In about half an hour we law the greatefl part of the
town, as well as the inn where we had flopped, levelled
with the ground, and moil of the inhabitants buried in
its ruins. As we proceeded onward, we landed at
Lopezium, which is a caftle about half way between
Tropaea and Euphemia, to which we were bound 4 and,
here, wherever I looked, nothing but feenes of ruin and
horror prefented themfelves. Towns and caitles were
levelled with the ground, and Stromboli at the dillance
of 60 miles threw out an irnmenfe body of flames, ac¬
companied with a noife which could be diftintlly heard.
But our attention was quickly drawn from more remote
to prefent danger. The rattling found which immedi¬
ately precedes an earthquake, again alarmed us 5 every
moment it feemed to grow louder and louder, and to
approach nearer the place on which we flood. A
dreadful lhaking of the earth now began, fb that be¬
ing unable to Hand, my companions and I caught
hold of whatever fhrub was next to us, to fupport our-
felves. After fome time the violent commotion ceafed,
and wre Hood up, and propofed to profecute our voy¬
age to Euphemia, which lay within fight; but in the
meantime, while we were preparing ourfelves, I turn¬
ed my eyes towards the city, but could fee nothing
but a thick, black cloud, which feemed to rell on the ,
place. This appeared an extraordinary circumflance, as
the Iky all round was calm and ferene. We waited till
the cloud palled a way, and then turning to look for the
city, it was totally funk, and where it formerly flood,
nothing remained but a difmal and putrid lake.” 202
In the year 1693, an earthquake happened in Sicily, In Sicily L*
which not only (book the whole ifland, but alio reached 1<J93-
to Naples and Malta. Previous to the ihock, a black
cloud was feen hovering over the city of Catania, which
was deifroyed at this time. The fea began to be vio¬
lently agitated ; the fhoeks fucceeded like the difeharge
of a great number of artillery 3 the motion of the earth
was fo violent, that no perlons could keep their legs.
Even thofe who lay on the ground were tolled from
fide to fide, as on a rolling billow ; high walls were
razed from their foundations, and were thrown to the
diflance of feveral paces. Almofl every building in
the countries which it vifited was thrown down ; 34
cities and towns, betides a great number of villages,
were either greatly damaged, or totally deflroyed. A-
mong thofe which we have already mentioned, was the
city of Catania, one of the mofl ancient and flourifhing
in the kingdom. After the thick cloud which remain¬
ed after the earthquake had diflipated, no remains of
this magnificent city could be feen. Of 18,900 inha¬
bitants, not fewer than 18,000 perilhed by this dreadful
calamity.
The terrible earthquake which vifited the ifland of in Jamaic*-
Jamaica in 1692, affords us another example of almofl in 1692.
the whole of the phenomena which were enumerated
as, *
6o6
GEOLOGY.
Chap. IV.
Earth- as tlie forerunners or attendants of earthquakes. It
Vok^noes was on ^ie 7^1 ^une» ^iat year> that this dread-
i . ^ .'ful calamity, which in two minutes totally deltroyed
the town of Port Royal, on the fouth fide of Jamaica,
and at that time the capital of the ifland, took place.
The effect of the (hock on the lurface was immediately
preceded by a hollow rattling noife, like that of
thunder. The ftreets were heaved up like waves of
the fea, and then initantly thrown down into deep pits.
All the wells difcharged their waters with prodigious
agitation •, the fea burft its bounds, and deluged a fmall
part of the town which was not entirely overwhelmed.
The fiffures produced in the earth were fo great, that
one of the ftreets feemed twice as broad as formerly,
and in fome places the earth opened and clofed again
for fome time. A great many of thefe openings were
feen at once. In fome of them, the houfes and inhabi¬
tants, and every thing that was near, were fwallowed
up. Some perfons were fwallowed up in one of thefe
chafms, and what will appear moft extraordinary, and
indeed almoft incredible, were thrown out alive from
another. Whole ftreets funk in fome, and from others
an immenfe body of water was projefted high into the
air. Smells which were extremely offenfive now fuc-
ceeded j nothing but the diftant noife of falling moun¬
tains was heard, and the fky, which before the ftiock
was ftill and ferene, affumed a dull red colour.
The effefts of this earthquake were not limited to
this fpot. It was feverely felt through the whole ifland,
which in many places fuftained very material damage.
Indeed there were few houfes which were not either in¬
jured or thrown down. In fome places the inhabitants,
houfes, trees, and whole furface, were fwallowed up in
the fame chafm ; and what was formerly dry land was
left a pool of water. The wells in almoft every corner
of the ifland, whatever was their depth, threw out their
water with great violence. The rivers were either en¬
tirely flopped, or ceafed to flow for 24 hours •, and
many of them formed to themfelves new channels. At
the diftance of 12 miles from the fea, an immenfe body
of water fpouted out from a gap which was formed in
the earth, and was proje6!ed to a great height in the
air. Such was the violence of the (hock, that many
perfons were thrown down on their faces, even in places
where the furface of the ground remained unbroken.
It was obferved that the fhock was moft feverely felt
in the immediate vicinity of the mountains. Could this
arife from the greater preffure, and confequently the
greater refiftance, or was it beeaufe the force which
produced thefe terrible effects exifted near them ?
After the great fhock -which deftroyed the town of
Port Royal, the inhabitants who efcaped went on
board ftiips in the harbour, where many of them remain¬
ed for two months, during which time the fhocks were
repeated, and were fo frequent, that there were fome-
times two or three in the courfe of an hour. Thefe
were ftill accompanied with the fame rattling noife,
like that of thunder, or like the ruffling noife occafion-
ed by a current of air in rapid motion. They were al-
fo attended with what are called brimjfone b/ajts.
Thefe, it is probable, were fulphureous vapours which
iffued from the openings made by the earthquake.
The atmofphere, however, feemed to be loaded with
.noifome vapours, for a very general ficknefs foon fuc-
ceeded, which in a ftiort time fwept off not fewer than Earth.
   p quakes and
3000 perions. * ,
But of all the earthquakes, the hiftory of which is on . “'° j
record, that which happened at Liibon, in the year 204
I755> vvas by far the moft extenfive in its effedls, and, At Litben
from its recent occurrence, will probably be deemedm 1755*
the moft interefting. In the year 1750, feveral ftiocks of
earthquakes had been feniibly felt. The tour following
years were remarkable for exceflive drought. The fprings
which formerly yielded abundance of water, were to¬
tally dried up and loft ; the winds which chiefly pre¬
vailed were from the north and north eaft. During
this period alfo there were flight tremors of the earth ;
the feafons in 175^, were unufually wet, and the fum-
mer, as the confequence of this, proved unufually cold.
But for the fpaee of 40 days btfwre the earthquake hap¬
pened, the Iky was more clear and ferene. On the laft
day of October the face of the fun was confiderably ob-
feured, and a general gloom prevailed over the atmo¬
fphere. The day following (the ift of November) a
thick fog arofe, but it was foon diflipated by the heat of
the fun. Not a breath of wind was ftirring 5 the fea
was perfectly calm, and the heat of the weather was
equal to that of June or July in this country. At 35
minutes after nine in the morning, without any previ¬
ous warning, excepting the rattling noife refembling
that of diftant thunder, the earthquake came on with
fhort, quick vibrations, and thook the very foundation
of the city, fo that many of the houfes inftantly fell.
A paufe, which was indeed iuft perceptible, fucceeded,
and the motion changed. The houfes were then tolled
from fide to fide, like the motion of a waggon driven
violently over rugged Hones. It was this fecond (hock
which laid great part of the city in ruin, and, as might
be expected, great numbers of the inhabitants were de¬
ftroyed at the fame time. The whole duration of the
earthquake did not exceed fix minutes. When it be¬
gan, fome perfons in a boat, at the diftance of a mile
from the city, and in deep water, thought the boat had
ftruck on a rock, in confequence of the motion which
was communicated to it. At the fame time they per¬
ceived the houfes falling on both fides of the river.
The bed of the Tagus was in many places railed to the
very furface of the water *, Ihips were driven from their
anchors or moorings, and were toffed about with great
violence; and the perfons on board did not for fome time
know whether they were afloat or aground. A large
new' pier with feveral hundreds of people upon it, funk
to an unfathomable depth, and not one of the dead
bodies was ever found. The bar of the river was at
one time feen dry from fide to fide 5 but fuddenly the
fea came rolling in like a mountain, and in one part of
the river the water rofe in an inftant to the extraordi¬
nary height of 50 feet. At noon another fliock hap¬
pened •, the walls of fome houfes that remained were
feen to open from top to bottom, near a foot wide, and
were afterwards fo exaffly clofed, that fcarcely any
mark of this injury remained. 305
But what was the moft Angular circumftance attend- The (hock
in°- this earthquake was, the prodigious extent to which this
itsYfleas reached. At Colares, 20 miles from Lifbon,^1™^®
and two miles from the fea, the weather was uncom-^res.
monly warm for the feafon, on the laft day of Oaober.
About four o’clock in the afternoon, a fog arofe which,
proceeding
Chap. IV.
Earth¬
quakes and
Volcanoes.
206
At Oporto.
207
Deftrovs
St Ubes.
208
Felt in
Spain.
GEO
proceeding from the fea, covered the valleys. This was an
unufual occurrence at that feafon of the year ; but foon
after the wind drifting, the fog returned to the fea, col-
letled over its furface, and became very thick and
dark •, and as the fog difperfed, the fea was violently
agitated, and with great noife. On the firft of Novem¬
ber, at the dawn of day, the fky was fair and ferene j
about nine o’clock the fun was overclouded, and be¬
came dim. Half an hour after, the rattling noife like
that of chariots was Hard } and this foon increafed to
fuch a degree, that it refembled the explofions of the
larged artillery. The diock of an earthquake was im¬
mediately felt, and was quickly fucceeded by a fe-
cond and a third. In thefe diocks it was obferved,
that the Avails of buildings moved from ead to wed.
From fome of the mountains flames were feen ifl'uing,
fomewhat refembling the kindling of charcoal accom¬
panied with a great deal of thick black fmoke. The
fmoke which arofe from one mountain Avas at the fame
time accompanied Avith noife, which increafed with the
quantity of fmoke. When the place from which the
fmoke iffued Avas aftenvards examined, no figns of fire
could be perceh^ed.
At Oporto, near the mouth of the river Douro, the
earthquake began at 40 minutes pad nine. rI he Iky
Avas quite ferene Avhen the hollow rattling noife Avas
heard, and it was immediately attended Avith a commo¬
tion of the earth. In the fpace of a minute or tAvo,
the river rofe and fell five or fix feet, and continued
this motion for four hours. In fome places it feemed
to open, and difeharge great quantities of air. The fea
Avas alfo violently agitated, and indeed the agitation
Avas fo great, to the didance of a league beyond the bar,
that it Avas fuppofed the difeharge of air from that place
mud alfo have been very confiderable.
St Ubes, a fea-port toAvn twenty miles fouth of
Lifbon, Avas entirely fwallowed up by the repeated
fliocks of this earthquake, and the immenfe furf of the
fea which Avas produced. Large malfes of rock Avere de¬
tached from the promontory at the extremity of the
toAvn. This promontory confids of a chain of moun¬
tains compofed of a very hard done.
The fame earthquake Avas felt in almod every part of
Spain. The only places Avhich efcaped from its effedfs
Avere the provinces of Arragon, Catalonia, and Valen¬
cia. At Ayamonte, which is near the place Avhere the
Guadiana falls into the bay of Cadiz, the earthquake
was not felt till a little before ten o’clock. It was
here alfo preceded by the holloAv rattling noife. 1 he
fhocks continued Avith intervals, for 14 or 15 minutes,
and did very confiderable damage. Scarcely half an
hour had elapfed from the time that the commotion
firfl began, Avhen the fea, the river, and canals, rofe
violently over their banks, and laid every place near
them under water. The fea rolled in in huge mountains,
and carried every thing before it.
The earthquake began at Cadiz fome minutes after
nine in the morning, and laded about five minutes.
The water in the ciderns under ground was fo much
agitated, that it rofe in the form of froth. About ten
minutes after eleA^en, a huge wave was feen coming
from the fea. at the didance of eight miles, Avhich Avas
fiq.pofed not to be lefs than 60 feet high, and buril in
upon the city. The water returned Avith the fame vio¬
lence with which it approached, and places which were
607
Earth¬
quakes and
V oleanoes.
LOGY.
deep at Ioav Avater were left quite dry. Similar waves
continued, but gradually leffening till the evening.
The earthquake Avas not felt at Gibraltar till after
ten o’clock. There it began Avith a tremulous motion
of the earth, Avhich continued for about half a minute.
A violent ihock then folloAved 5 the tremulous motion
again commenced, and continued for five or fix feconds,
and then fucceeded a fecond Ihock, but lefs violent than
the fird. The Avhole time did not exceed tAvo minutes;
the earth had an undula1 ing motion j fome of the guns
on the batteries Avere feen to rife, and others to fink.
Many people, feized with ficknefs and giddinefs, fell
down. Some Avho Avere walking or riding, felt no
diock, but Avere attacked Avith fieknefs. The fea had
an extraordinary flux and reflux ; it ebbed and floAved
every 15 minutes j it rofe fix feet, and then fell fuddenly
fo Ioav, that a great many filh and fmall boats Avere left
on the fliore.
The fhock Avas felt at Madrid nearly at the fame
time as at Gibraltar. It continued for fix minutes, and
the fame ficknefs and giddinefs prevailed. It Avas not
felt by thofe Avho Avalked fmartly, or who Avere in car¬
riages, and no accident happened excepting Iavo per-
fons who Avere killed by the fall of a done crofs from
the porch of a church.
Malaga, a fea-port town on the Mediterranean, ex¬
perienced a violent diock j the bells Avere let a ringing
in the lleeples, and the Avater of the Avells overfloAved,
and as fuddenly retired. St Lucar, at the mouth of
the Guadalquiver, differed much from a fimilar diock,
as avcII as from an inundation of the fea, Avhich broke
in, and did great damage. At Seville, 16 leagues
above this, a number of houfes Avas throAvn down ; the
celebrated toAver of the cathedral, called La Giraldu,
opened in the four fides 5 the Avaters Avere throAvn into
violent agitation, and the veffels in the river Avere
driven on Ihore.. 209
In Africa this earthquake was felt nearly as ieverely jn Africa.-
as in Europe. Great part of the city of Algiers Avas
dedroyed. This happened about ten in the morning.
About the fame time at Arzilla, a toAvn in the king¬
dom of Fez, the fea fuddenly rofe with fuch impetuo-
fity, that it lifted up a veffel in the bay, and forced it
on diore with fuch violence that it was broken to
pieces. A boat Avas alfo found Avithin land, at the di-
dance of tAvo mulket diots from the fea.. At Fez and
Mequinez, many houfes were throAvn doAvn, and num¬
bers of perfons Avere buried in the ruins.
Many people Avere dedroyed at Morocco by the fall¬
ing of houfes-. Eight leagues from the city the earth
opened, and fwallowed up a village with all its inha¬
bitants, to the number of 8,000 or 10,000, as Avell as all
their cattle. Soon after the earth clofed, and they
Avere feen no more. The town of Sallee alfo differed
greatly ; a third part of the houfes Avere throAvn down
the Avaters rufhed into the freets Avith great violence,,
and Avhen they retired, they left behind them a large
quantity of fiffi. The earthquake began at Tangier at
ten in the morning ; its Avhole duration Avas about ten
or tAvelve minutes. The fea came up to the Avails with
great violence, and retired immediately Avith the fame-
rapidity, leaving behind a great quantity of fiih. This
agitation of the Avater Avas repeated no lefs than 18
times, and continued till about fix o’clock in the even-,
ing. It began at the fame time at Tetuan, but its du¬
ration;.
6o3
geology.
Chap. IV.
Earth- ration ivas oiilv tlbout feven of eight minutes. Three of
quakes and ^’ue i}vocks \v'ei‘C fo violent as to excite great apprehen-
Volcanoes. ^ ^ons ^-jie c^y Would be deftroyed. Similar eflfefls
were produced by the fame earthquake at different
210 places along the African (hore of the Mediterranean.
In Madeira At the town of Funchal in Madeira, the firft fhock
and the Gf t],js earthquake was felt at 38 minutes paft nine. It
W eft Indies, wag prece(jL.q the rattling noife, which feemed to be
produced in the air*, the fhock, it was fuppofed, con¬
tinued for more than a minutethe earth moved with
a vibratory, undulating motion, and fome of the vibra¬
tions increafed greatly in force, T he noife in the air
which accompanied the (hocks, lafted fome feconds after
the motion of the earth had ceafed. At three quarters
pall eleven, the day being calm and ferene, the fea re¬
tired fuddenly, then, without the leaft noife, rofe with
a great (well, overflowed the (hore, and entered the
city. It rofe 1 5 feet perpendicular above high-water
mark. Having thus fludluated four or five times, it at
lalf fubfided, and refumed its former (lillnefs. In the
northern part of the ifland, the inundation was ilill
more violent. It firft retired to the diftance of 100
paces, and fuddenly returning, overflowed the (hore,
broke down walls of magazines and ftorehoufes, and
left behind it great quantities of fiftr in the ftreets of a
village. At this place the fea rofe only once beyond
the high-water mark, although it continued to fluctu¬
ate much longer before it entirely fubfided than at Fun¬
chal.
Such were the effects of this earthquake, in thofe
places where it was accompanied with confiderable da¬
mage. It was, however, perceptibly felt to a great dif¬
tance in every direftion, either by a flight motion of
the earth, or by the agitation of the waters. At the
ifland of Antigua the fea rofe to fuch a height as had
never been before known, and afterwards the water at
the wharfs which ufed to be fix feet deep, was not more
than two inches. About two in the afternoon, the fea
ebbed and flowed at Barbadoes in a very unufual man¬
ner. It overflowed the wharfs, and ruffled into the
ftreets. This flux and reflux continued till 10 at
211 night.
In France. Shocks were diftindlly felt in different parts of France,
as at Bayonne, Bourdeaux, and Lyons. The waters
were alfo obferved to be agitated in different places, as
at Angouleme, and Havre de Grace, but with a lefs
degree of violence than fome which have been men¬
tioned. At Angouleme, a fubterraneous noife like
thunder was heard, and foon after a torrent of water, mix¬
ed with red fand, was difeharged from an opening in the
earth. Mod of the fprings in the neighbourhood funk,
212 and continued dry for fome time.
In Ger- The effects of this earthquake -were alfo very per-
many. ceptible in many places of Germany. Throughout the
duchy of Holftein, the waters were greatly agitated,
particularly the Elbe and Trave. The water of a lake,
called Libfec, in Brandenburg, ebbed and flowed fix
times in half an hour, and although the weather was
then perfectly calm, this motion was accompanied with
a great noife. A fimilar agitation took place in the
waters of the lakes called Mupelgdjl and Netxo, but
here there was alfo emitted a moft offenfive fmell.
The fea was greatly agitated round the ifland of
Corfica, and manv of the rivers of the ifland overflowed
-their banks. The fame earthquake was felt in the city
of Milan in Italy, and its neighbourhood. Turin in Sa- Earth-
voy experienced a very fmart (hock. Vokanoef
Many of the rivers of Switzerland became all at . u’,
once muddy, although there had been no rain. Tlhe 2Ij
lake of Neufehatel rofe to the height of two feet above In Suit mer¬
its ufual level, and continued at this height for a few land*
hours. The waters of the lake of Zurich were alfo
greatly agitated. _ ^ . 214
The commotion of the waters in Holland was ftillln Holland.
more remarkable. In the afternoon of the lit of No¬
vember, the waters of the Rhine at Alphen, between
Leyden and Woerden, were fo violently agitated,
that the buoys were broken from their chains, large
veffels parted from their cables, and (mailer ones w ere
throwm upon the dry land. At 11 in the forenoon at *
Amfterdam, when the air was perfectly calm, the wa¬
ters in the canals were throw n into great commotion, fo
that boats broke loofe from their moorings, chandeliers
were obferved to vibrate in the churches, although it is
faid no motion of the earth w'as perceptible. In the
forenoon, at Haarlem, not only the water in the rivers,
canals, &c. but, it is afierted, (mailer quantities of fluids
contained in veffels, were greatly agitated, and. fome-
times dafhed over the (ides of the veffels. 1 his con¬
tinued for about four minutes. Between 10 and n'in
the forenoon, in fome of the canals at I.eyden, the wa¬
ters rofe fuddenly, and produced very perceptible un¬
dulations. 215
The effedls of this earthquake extended as far north In IS 01 way,
as Norway and Siveden : many of the rivers and lakes ^
in Norway were greatly agitated ; (hocks were felt in
feveral of the provinces in Sweden, and commotions of
the waters, with the rivers and lakes, efpeeially in
Dalecarlia, were obferved. The river Dala fuddenly
overflowed its banks, and as fuddenly retired 5 and at
the fame time, a lake which is a league diftant from it,
bubbled up with great violence. Several fmart (hocks
were felt at Fahlun, a town in Dalecarlia. 216
In many places of Great Britain and Ireland, the H Britain,
agitation of the waters tv as very perceptible. At Eaton
bridge in Kent, near a pond of an acre in extent, fome
perfons heard a fudden noife, which they fuppofed was
occafioned by fomething falling into the pond, for it
W'as then a dead calm, and ran to the fpot, where they
faw the pond open in the middle, while the water
daflied over a perpendicular bank twro feet high. I his
motion w'as repeated feveral times, and Kill accompanied
with a great noife.
At Cobham in Surry, between 10 and II o’clock
A. M. a perfon was watering a horfe at a pond, the
w aters of which ivere derived from fprings. At the
moment the animal w'as drinking, the waters retired
from his mouth, and left the bottom of the pond dry.
It then returned with great violence, and when it re¬
tired, its progrefs was towards the fouth. About the
fame time at Bulhbridge, in the fame county, while
the weather was remarkably calm, the waters of a ca¬
nal 700 feet long and 58 broad, were greatly agitated,
and this wTas accompanied with an unufual noife. I he.
W'aters rofe between two and three feet above the ufual
level, in the form of a heap or ridge, extending 30
yards in length. This ridge then heeled towards the
north fide, and flowed with great impetuofity over the
grafs walk ; it then returned to the canal, again heaped
up in the middle, and then heeled to the fouth fide
1 > with
Chap, IV.
GEOLOGY.
6cp
Earth- with ft ill greater violence, flowing over the grafs walk,
quakes and anct leaving feveral feet at the bottom of the canal on
V oicai.oes. t|ie nor^ij fide perfectly dry. Thefe motions continued
for 15 minutes, after which the waters refumed their
former tranquillity. During the agitation of the waters,
the fand and mud at the bottom were thrown up, and
mixed with them.
In Suffolk, the water of a pond at Dunftal rofe
gradually for feveral minutes in the form of a pyramid,
and then fell down like a water-fpout. In other ponds
in the fame neighbourhood, the waters of which were
lefs agitated, there was a fmooth flux and reflux from the
one extremity to the other.
At Earfycourt in Berkftiire, about 11 o’clock, a
perfon Handing near a ftfli pond, felt a violent tremb¬
ling of the earth, which continued for about a minute.
He obferved immediately after, the water move from
the fouth to the north end of the ppnd, leaving the
bottom of the fouth end quite dry, to the extent of fix
feet. It then returned, flow'ed at the fouth end, rofe
three feet up the bank, and immediately after returned
to the north bank, where it rofe to the fame height.
Between the flux and reflux the waters formed a ridge
in the middle of the pond, 20 inches higher than the
level on each fide, and boiled up with great violence.
Similar phenomena were obferved about half after ten,
near Durham. A perfon was alarmed with a fudden
rufliing noife, which feemed to proceed from a pond.
The water rofe gradually up without any fludluating
motion, Hood fome inches higher than the ufual level j
it then fubfided and fwelled again, and continued in this
manner rifing and falling for the fpace of fix or feven
minutes, rifing four or five times in a minute.
lire effefls of this earthquake in Derbyfiiife excited
confiderable alarm. At Barlborough, between, it and
12 o’clock, in a boat-houfe on the weft fide of a large
body of water, called Pib/ey dam, which is fuppofed
to cover not lefs than 30 acres of land, there was heard
a fudden and terrible noife ; a fwell of w'ater proceed¬
ing from the fouth, rofe two feet on the flope dam head
at the north end. It then fubfided, but immediately
returned. The water continued thus agitated for 45
minutes, but became gradually lefs violent. At Eyam
bridge in the Peak, an overfeer of the lead mines,
fitting in his room about 11 o’clock, felt a fudden fnock,
by which the chair on which he fat was fuddenly raifed,
and fome pieces of plafter were broken off from the
fides of the room. The commotion was fo great that
he thought the engine {haft had fallen together, and he
ran out to fee what was the matter, and found every
thing in fafety. Some miners employed at the time
in a drift 120 yards deep, were greatly alarmed firft
with one ftiock, and then with a fecond, which feemed
to be fo violent as to make the rocks grind upon one
another. Three other ftiocks fucceeded the two firft
at intervals of a few minutes, and became gradually
weaker.
A little after 10 o’clock in the morning, the water
in a moat which furrounds Shireburn caftle in Oxford-
ihire, exhibited a very unufual appearance. A thick
fog prevailed, the air was perfedlly ftill, and the furface
of the water quite fmooth. A.t one corner it was ob¬
ferved to flow towards the ftrore, and then again to re
tire 5 and this flux and reflux continued for fome time
Vol. IX. Part II.
quite regular. Every flux began flowly 1 but hicrealed Earth-
in its velocity till near its full height, when it ruflied
with great impetuofity ; and having remained for a (hort. ’■
time ftaiicnary, it then retired, at firft flowly, but at la ft
it funk with great rapidity. What will appear rnoft
Angular in this commotion of the water is, that it was
limited to one part of the moat. At a different corner
about 25 yards diftant no motion could be perceived/
But in that part of die moat directly oppofite to the place
where the motion of the ivater rvas firft obferved, the
water rofe towards the fhore at the fame time as at the
other fide. In a pond at a little diftance the waters were
agitated in a fimilar manner, but the rifings and linkings
took place at different times from thofe in the moat.
On the evening of the fame day, about three quarters
after fix, and about the time of two hours ebb of the
tide, at White rock in Glamorganlhire, a great body
of Avater rallied up accompanied with great noife. It
was in fuch quantity that it floated trvo veffels not lefs
than 200 tons burden each, drove them from their
moorings, and carried them acrofs the liver. The
Avhole length of time of the rife and fall of this body of
Avater did not exceed 10 minutes, fo that it leemed to
have burft from the earth at the fpot Avhere it appeared.
It feems Angular, if the account of it be corrcdl, that on
this fpot the effedts of the earthquake fliould be felt at
the diftance of feven or eight hours from the time it
was felt in other parts of the ifland. 21
The Avaters of the lakes in Scotland Avere allb great-jn Scotland,
ly agitated from the fame caufe. Half an hour after
nine in the morning, Avithout the leaft breath of wind,
the water in Loch Lomond rofe fuddenly and violently
againft its banks. It immediately fell very Ioav, again
returned to the Ihore, and in five minutes rofe as high
as at firft. This commotion continued till 15 minutes
after 10, with an alternate flux and reflux every five
minutes. From this time, till 11 o’clock, the height to
Avhich the Avater rofe gradually diminilhed, till it relumed
its former tranquillity. But each flux and reflux con¬
tinued for a period of five minutes as at firft. Here
the violence of the ftiock Avas fuch, that a large ftone
lying at fome diftance from the Ihore in ftialloAV water,
Avas moved from its place and carried to dry land, leav¬
ing a deep fum>AV in the ground along Avhich it had
moved.
About the fame time the waters of Loch Nefs in the
north of Scotland exhibited allb a very unufual agita¬
tion. About ten o’clock the river Oich, which falls
into the head of the loch, fwelled very much, and ran
upwards from the loch Avith a high W'ave tAvo or three
feet above its ulual level. The motion of the Avave was
in a direiftion contrary to that of the wind, and it pro¬
ceeded with great rapidity up the river for the fpace of
200 yards, broke on a lhalloAv, and overfloAved the
banks. It then returned gently to the loch. This eb¬
bing and flowing continued for about an hour, the
height of the Avaves gradually diminifliing, till, about
11 o’clock, a Avave higher than any of the former
broke with fuch violence on the bank on the fide of the
river, that it ran upwards of 30 feet from the bank. 2lS
Between tAvo and three o’clock in the afternoon, at In Ireland,
Kinfale in Ireland, Avhen the Aveather Avas perfectly
calm and the tide nearly full, a great body of Avater
fuddenly burft; into the harbour, and with fuch vio-
4 II lence,
6j o
G E 0 L O G Y;
Earth- lence, that it broke the cables of two veflels, each
quakes and moore(j with two anchors, and of feveral boats whicli
▼ olcanoes. ^ i nr i i • i i i
Chap. IV
remarkable. On the afternoon of the 3 ill of 0£lober,the Earth
219
Effects at
tea.
a 20
On fprings.
lay near the town. The veffels were whirled round
feveral times by an eddy formed in the water, and then
hurried back again with the fame rapidity as before.
Thefo motions were repeated different times j and
while the current rullicd up along one fide of the har¬
bour, it ran down wfith the fame violence along the
other. The muddy bottom of the harbour was greatly
altered ; the mud was removed from fome places and
depofited in othcis. At one place the height of the
water, where it was meafured, was found to be five
feet and a half; in other places it is faid to have been
much higher, particularly where it flowed into the
market-place with fuch rapidity, that many perfons had
not time to efcape, but were immerfed, knee deep, in
the water. Thefc commotions extended feveral miles
up the river, and were moll perceptible in ftiallow
places. The alternate elevation and depreflion of the
water continued about ten minutes, when the tide
returned to its ufual level. In the evening, between
flx and feven, the water rofe again, but with lefs vio¬
lence than before, and continued to ebb and flow till
three next morning-. The rife of the waters wras not at
O . #
firit gradual, but, accompanied with a hollow none,
rofe fix or feven feet in a minute, and ruflied in like a
deluge, after which it as fuddenly fubfided. The wa¬
ters, too, became thick and muddy, emitting at the
fame time a molt ofienfive fmell. Similar agitations of
the waters were obferved all along the coait to the
weft ward of Kinfale.
Such -were the phenomena of this earthquake, as
they were obferved on land in the different places
which have been mentioned. Its effects were alfo fe-
verely felt at fea. A frigate off St Lucar received fo
violent a flrock, that it was fuppofed (he had ftruck the
ground. Another veffel in N. Lat. 36.-24. between
nine and ten in the morning, was lo much lhaken and
llrained as if Ihe had ftruck upon a rock. The feam
of the deck opened, and the compafs was overturned.
The fenfation experienced by fome perfons on board of
another veffel, whicli was then in N. Lat. 250. W.
Long. 40°. were fuch as if (lie had been fuddenly raifed
up and fufpended by a rope. One perfon locking out
at the cabin window, thought he favv land about a mile
diftant; but when he reached the deck, no land was to
be feen. A ftrong current was obferved crofting the
{hip’s way to leeward. The current returned in about
a minute with great violence } and, at the diftance of
about a league, three craggy pointed rocks were feen
throwing up ivater of various colours, and feemingly
refembling fire. This appearance terminated in a thick
black cloud, which arofe heavily in the atmofphere.
Between nine and ten in the morning another fliip,
40 leagues off St Vincent, received fo violent a ftioek,
that the men on deck were thrown a foot and a half
above its furface, and the anchors, although they were
laftied down, bounced up. Immediately after the Ihip
funk in the water fo low as the main chains. On heav¬
ing the lead a great depth of water was found, and the
line was of a yellow colour, and gave out the fmell of
fulphur. The firft fhock was the moft violent; but
fmaller ones were repeated for 24 hours.
The effects of this earthquake on fprings were very
water of a fountain at Colares was obferved to be great- cIuakesai
Vo1 canoe
ly diminiftied. On the morning of the iff of Novem
ber, the day on which the earthquake happened, it be- v'"'
came thick and muddy, but afterwards recovered its
ufual quantity and limpidity. In feme places fprings
appeared where there had been formerly no water, and
continued afterwards to flow. At Varge, on the river
Macaas, many fprings of water burft forth at the time
of the earthquake, and fome threw up their waters
mixed with land of various colours, to the height of
18 or 20 feet. In Barbary, a ftream of water, which
was as red as blood, burft forth from'a mountain, which
was fplit in two. At Tangier all the fountains were
dried up during the whole of the day on which the
earthquake happened. The mineral waters of Toplitz,
a village in Bohemia, which have been celebrated fince
the year 1762, experienced a very remarkable change.
The principal hot fpring had continued to flow from
the time it was difeovered, of the fame temperature and
the fame in quantity. On the morning of the earth¬
quake, between J1 and 12 o’clock, the waters of this
fpring increafed fo much in quantity, that all the baths
ran over in the fpace of half an hour. A Ihort time
before the water increafed, it flowed from the fpring
thick and muddy ; and then having entirely flopped
for about a minute, it burl! out with great violence,
carrying before it a great quantity of reddifti ochre.
It afterwards became limpid, and flowed as former¬
ly ) but in larger quantity, and of a higher tempera¬
ture. At Angouleme in France the earth opened in
one place, and diicharged a great body of water, which
was mixed with reddifti fand. Moft of the fprings in
the neighbourhood funk fo low, that for fome time it
was fuppofed they had become quite dry.
Such were the extraordinary effecls of this terrible
earthquake, which extended over a fpace not lefs than
four millions of louare miles. Other earthquakes, al¬
though of more limited extent, have produced effefts
not lefs deftruftive, and particularly fome of the earth¬
quakes which have vifited Italy and Sicily in modern
times ; accounts of which have been drawn up with ac¬
curacy and attention. Some of thefe we {hall now de-
tail.
One of the moft calamitous earthquakes was thatEarth-
wbich befel Calabria in the year 1783. Of this earth-quake in
quake Sir William Hamilton, who, foon after the Ealabna m
earthquake happened, vifited the feenes of defolation1 •
which it left behind, has drawn up a particular ac¬
count. He obferves, that “ if on a map of Italy, and
-with your compafs on the fcale of Italian miles, you
were to meafure off 22, and then fixing the central
point on the city of Oppido, which feemed to be the
fpot Avhere the earthquake had exerted its greateft force,
form a circle, the radius of which will be 22 miles,
you will then include all the towns, villages, &c. that
have been utterly ruined, and the fpots Avhere the
greateft mortality happened, and where there have been
the meft vifible alterations on the face of the earth.
Then extend your compafs in the fame fcale to 72
miles, preferving the fame centre, and form another
circle, you will include the whole country that has any
mark of having been affefted by the earthquake. A
gradation was plainly obferved in the damage done to
the
1
G E O L O G Y.
lap. IV.
]Earth- the buildings, as alfo in the degree of mortality, in pro-
nkes and porj_J(jn as tlie countries were more or lefs diltant from
olcanocs.^ |'u,;)p0{'eg centre 0f the evil.”
This earthquake, it has been remarked, differed very
considerably from others in one circumftance, which was
this. Where it happened that two towns were lituated
at the fame diflance from the centre, one of which was
placed on a hill, and the other on a plain, it was found
that the town on the loweft fituation always fuftained
the greateft damage from the Shocks of the earthquakes
v hich are alluded to above.
That part of Calabria which moft feverely felt this
dreadful calamity, lies between the 38th and 39th de¬
grees of latitude, and the force of the earthquake ex¬
tended from the foot of the Appenines called Monte
Dijo, Monte Sacro, and Monte Caulene, as far to the
weft ward as the Tyrrhene fea. By the fhock the
5th of February, every town, village, and farm-houfe
neareft to the mountains, whether filuated on fome part
of the elevated ground or on the plain, Avas left a heap
of ruins. In proportion to the diftance from the centre,
as has been already hinted, the damage fuftained was
more or lefs confiderable. But even the more diftant
towns and villages fuffered greatly from the fhocks
which happened on the 7th, 26th, and 28th of Fe¬
bruary, and on the iff of March. From the time the
firft fhock came on, the earth continued in a conftant
tremor ; the Ihocks were felt Avith different degrees of
force in different parts of the provinces which Avere the
feene of this terrible calamity j and the motion Avas ci¬
ther in a whirling direction, as in a vortex, or horizon¬
tal, or pulfatory, the beatings proceeding from the bot¬
tom upwards. The apprehenfions and alarms of the
miferable inhabitants Avere terribly increafed by this \’a-
riety of changing motions, dreading that every moment
the earth Avould open under their feet and fwalloiv
them up. That part of Calabria Avhich fuffered from
this earthquake, Avas alfo drenched Avith long continued
and heavy rains, accompanied Avith frequent and furious
fqualls of Avind. Thefe rains prevailed particularly on
the Aveftern fide, Avhere many fihares had appeared in
the mountains. Some mountains had been loAvercd
greatly, and others had been entirely fwallowed up.
The roads Avere rendered impaffable by the deep chafms
which Avere left by the fhock ; valleys Avere filled up
by the parts of mountains which Avere fplit afunder 5
the courfe of rivers Avas changed y fprings were dried
up, and new fprings burft out where hone exifted be¬
fore.
At Laureana in Farther Calabria, tAvo houfes, fur-
rounded with extenfive plantations of olive and mul¬
berry trees, fituated in a valley, were removed by the
force of the earthquake, with all their trees, and car¬
ried to the diffance of a mile j and on the fpot Avbere
they formerly flood, hot Avater burft from the earth,
and Avas projected to a confiderable height into the air.
The Avater was mixed Avith fand of a reddifh colour.
Some countrymen and fhepherds, who Avere employed
in rural affairs near this fpot, were fwallowed up, with
their teams of oxen, and their Avhole flocks of goats
and fheep. The number of inhabitants Avbo loft their
lives in this calamity, exceeded, according to fome cal¬
culations, 3 2,000 ; but it is fuppofed by others, that,
including ftrangers, the number Avas not lefs than
40,000.
The inhabitants of the toAvn of Sciila, on the fill F.rith-
fhock of the earthquake on the 5th of February, had a,1,i
fled along with their prince to the fea fhore for faff ty, ; ’ .".'.‘T”* 1
and . remained either on the ftrand or in boats near the
flsore. In the night time a tremendous Avave cverfloAv-
ed the land to the diftance of three miles from the fhore,
and, in its return, fwept off near 3000 of the inhabitants,
among whom Avas the prince. This Avater Avas faid by
fome to have been boiling hot, fo that many of the peo¬
ple Avere fuppofed to have been fcalded with it. A
mountain, it is afferted, of 500 palms in height, and
1300 palms in circumference at its bafe, avos detached
from the place where it flood, and carried to the di-
ftanee of four miles. It Avas about the fame time that
the hill on which/the town of Oppido flood, and Avhich
extended three miles in length, Avas fplit in two, and
filled up on each fide the bed of a river. Tavo great
lakes Avere formed by the current of the rivers being
flopped ; and, as they increafed in extent, infected the
air with their putrid and noifome exhalations.
Sir William Hamilton, Avho Avas then refident at Na¬
ples as ambaffador from Britain, Avas indefatigable in
obtaining every kind of information Avith regard to the
eflefts oi this earthquake. With this view he made an
extenfive tour over thofe parts of the country which had
been vifited by this calamity. Some of the accounts
Avhich were firft publifhed feem to hare been fome-
Avhat exaggerated, either from the love of the marvellous
in thofe Avho framed them, or from the exceflive alarms
of the furviving fufferers. On the 2d of Mav folloAving
Sir William landed on the coaft of Hither Calabria.
1 lie effects of the earthquake Avere firft perceived at
Cedraro. The inhabitants had quitted their houfes,
but it did not appear that the tou n had fuftained any
material damage. Moft of the inhabitants of St Lu-
cido Avere then living in barracks, and the baren’s
palace, as Avell as the church lieeple, had fuffered
greatly*. Fie afterwards landed at the toAvn of Pizzo
in Farther Calabria. This town flood on volcanic tufa.
It fuftained great injury from the fhock of the 5th Fe¬
bruary, but was completely deftroyed by that of the
28th. FI ere he Avas informed, that Stromboli, a Arol-
canic mountain Avhich is nearly oppofite, and in full
view, but 50 miles diftant, had ejeded much lefs mat¬
ter, and had throAvn up lefs fmoke, during the time of
the earthquakes, than it had done for many years be¬
fore. Even at this time flight fhocks of earthquakes
Avere occafionally felt. One indeed happened the fame
night. The boat in which he fleptreceded a fmart fhock,
and feemed to be lifted out of the water; but this fhock
was unaccompanied Avith noife.
The toAvn of Monteleone is fituated on a hill Avhich
overlooks fome fine rich plains and the fea beloAv.
Thefe plains, formerly covered Avith numerous toAyns and
villages, noAV exhibited a gloomy feene of utter defola-
tion. The town of Monteleone rtfelf had not fuffered
materially from the firft fhock on tire 5th of February ;
but it was confrderably damaged by fome of thofe Avhich
took place afterAvards. It Avas generally obferved, that
the fhocks of the earthquake came on with a rattling
noife, Avhich feemed to proceed from the Aveftward.
They ufually began with a horizontal motion, and ter¬
minated Avilh a whirling motion, during Avhich moft of
the buildings in the province Avere throAvn doAvn. It
Avas generally obferved too, that previous to a fhock the
4 H 2, cloud*
[2 GEOLOGY. Chap. IV.
E,rtU- clouds feemcd to be unufuany mil and motionlefi, town, being at that moment on a hill which overlooked
quakes mA anj t]iat a i!10Ck quickly fuccecded a heavy ihower of
Volcanoes.
, ram.
*V Approaching the plain, it was obferved, according to
the general remark made above, that the towns and
villages were more or lefs defolated in proportion to
their’vicinity to the plain. Of the town of Mileto,
which flood in a bottom, not a houfe remained. Sori¬
ano and the noble Dominican convent prefented a heap
of ruins. According to the fame general remark, ail
the buildings which flood upon the high grounds, the
foil of which is a gritty fandftone, fuilained lefs da¬
mage than thole htuated m the plain, for the latter weie
univerfally thrown down. The foil of the plain is a
Tandy clay of various colours, and full of fea fhells. It is
frequently interfered by rivers and torrents which have
formed Avide and deep ravines. Palling through St
Pietro, a town in ruins, Sicily Avas feen and the fum-
mit of Mount /Etna, Avhich at this time threAV Out a con-
fiderable quantity of fmoke. In a fwarnpy plain through
Avhich he palled, Sir 'William examined a number of
fmall holes in the earth, of the lhape of an inverted
cone. Thefe holes Avere covered with land as Avell as
the furrounding foil. During the earthquake of the
tgh of February, Avater mixed Avith fand fpouted up to
a confiderable height from each of ^ thefe openings.
The river, it was obferved, before thefe fountains buril
out, Avas dried up j but foon after the Avaters returned,
and overHoAved their banks. It appeared from moie tx-
t-enlive obfervation, that the fame thing had uniformly
happened to all the other rivers in the plain during the
iliock of the 5th of February. This has been, aferibed
to the fir ft impulfe of the earthquake proceeding from
the bottom upwards, and this feemed to be the general
opinion. The furface of the plain then riling fuddenly,
the rivers which are (halloav naturally difappeared ; and
the plain returning Avith violence to its former level,
the rivers returned and oversowed from the fudden de-
preffion of the boggy grounds, Avhich Avould naturally
force out the water under their furface.
The town of Rofarno, and the duke of Monteleone’s
'palace, Avasa heap of ruins j fix feet high of the Avails on¬
ly remained. It Avas fomeAvhat Angular, that the only
building Avhich efcaped uninjured Avas the public jail.
At Laureana Sir William afeertained the truth of the
circumftance of the tAVo tenements Avhich Avere faid to
have been removed from their fituations. Thefe Hood
in a valley furrounded with high grounds. In the fame
valley Avere obferved HoIIoavs in the form of inverted
cones fimilar to thofe Avhich he had formerly examined.
BetAveen this place and the town of Poliftene he did
not fee a Angle houfe, after travelling four, days through
a rich and beautiful country., Every thing prefented
the moft indefcribable mifery : the violence of the earth¬
quake was To great that ail the inhabitants Avere buried
in an inftant alive or dead in the ruins of their houfes.
This toAvn avss fituated between two rivers that were
occafionally fubject to overfloAV their banks. 01 fix thou-
fand inhabitants, more than two thoufand loft their lives
by the (hock on the 5th of February.
The princels Gerace Grimaldi, Avith four thoufand
of her fubjefts, perilhed at Cafal Nuova on the fame
dav ; fome perfons Avho were dug alive out of the ruins
obferved, that they felt their houfes fairly lifted up
without any previous Avarning. An inhabitant of this
the plain, when he leit the inocK turned round towards ^olcanoes<
the town, but he could fee nothing excepting a thick v v—j
Avhite cloud of dull. So completely was this town de-
llroyed, that 110 veftige of houfe or ftreet remained ^ ail
lay in the fame confuted heap of ruins. Other towns
had fuffered in the fame manner, and notv exhibited the
fame feene of defolation.
Terra Nuova fuffered feverely from the fame, earth¬
quake. It is fituated bettveen Iavo rivers Avhich had.
formed deep and Avide ravines in their courfe ; one of
thefe Avas not lefs than 500 feet deep, and three quar¬
ters of a. mile broad. In confequence of the great
depth of this ravine, and the violent motion ol the
earth, tAVo large maffes of the foil on Avhieh a great
part of the town, confifting of fome hundred houfes,
had been thrown into the ravine at the dillance of half
a mile from the place where they formerly flood.
Many of the inhabitants who had been, carried along
with their houfes, Avere dug out of the ruins alive, and
even fome of them efcaped unhurt. Of 1600 inhabi¬
tants, 400 only remained alive. In other places in the
fame neighbourhood, great trails of land had been re-
moved and carried to a coniiderable diilance, aa ith uh.
their plantations and crops, which continued to grow
and thrive in their ucav fituation as Arell as formerly.
The river here difappeared at the, moment of the earth¬
quake 5 but foon after returned, and covered the bottom
of the ravine to the depth of three feet. 1 his Avater
Avas obferved to be fait like that of the fea.
The Avhole town of Moloehi di Sotto had been,
throAvn into the ravine, and a vineyard of many acres
lay near it in an inclined fituation, but haa not fuffeied
any other injury. In feveral parts of the plain, the ioil,
Avith all its'’ trees and crops of corn, to the extent of
many acres, had funk eight and ten feet below the
level of the plain ; and in other places it had rifen the
fame height. The foil of this, plain,, it is to be ob-
fer\’ed, is' compofed of clay mixed Avith land, Avhich
readily affumes any form. _ . 222
Sir William next proceeded to Oppido, which, it aviII Deftrutf ioE
be recolletled, was confidered as the central point on of Oppido.
Avhich the greateft force of the earthquake was exerted.
This city Hands on a mountain of gritftone of a reddilh
colour. It is furrounded by tAVo rivers, which run in.a
deep ravine. It had been reported, that the mountain
on which the city Hands, had been fplit. in tAvo, and
flopped up the courfe of the rivers •, but it appeared on
examination, that huge maffes of the. plain on the edge
of the ravine, had been detached into it, and had io
far filled it up, as to flop the courfe of the rivers, the
waters of which were collefting, and forming lakes to
a oreat extent. Part of the rock, it Avas found, on
which the city flood, was feparated, and with feyeral
houfes upon it, Avas thrown into the.ravine. Great
tradls of land, with plantations of vines and olives,
Avere tranfported from one fide of the ravine to the other,
to a diftance exceeding half a mile.
“ Having walked, (fays Sir William), over the ruins
of Oppido, I defeended into the ravine, and examined
carefully the whole of it. Here I faw, indeed the
wonderful force of the earthquake, Av.luch has produced
exactly the fame eHe61s as thofe deferibed in the ravine
at Terra Nuova, but on a fcale infinitely greater. I he
enormous maffes of the plain detached from each hde
'Chap.
IV. GEOLOGY.
Earth- of the ravine, lie fometimes in confufed heaps, forming
quakes and rea[ mountains, and having Hopped the courfe of two
Volcanoes. rjvers ^one 0f which is very conliderable), great lakes
1 v are already formed ; and if not allifted by nature or art
fo as to give the rivers their due courfe, muft infallibly
be the caufe of a general infe&ion in the neighbour¬
hood. Sometimes I met with a detached piece of the
furface of the plain (of many acres in extent) with the
large oaks and olive trees, with corn or lupins under
them, growing as well and in as good order at the bot¬
tom of the ravine, as their companions from whence
they were feparated do on their native foil, at leal! 500
feet higher, and at the diftance of about three quarters
of a mile. I met with whole vineyards in the lame
order in the bottom, that had likewife taken the fame
iourney. As the banks of the ravine from whence
thefe pieces came are now bare and perpendicular, 1
perceived that the upper foil was a reddilh earth, and
the under one a fandy white clay, very com pad, and
like a foft Hone. The impulfe thefe huge maffes re¬
ceived, either from the violent motion of the earth
alone, or that affilted with the additional one of the
volcanic exhalations fet at liberty, feems to have aded
with greater force on the lower and more compad ifra-
tum than on the upper cultivated cruft : for 1 conftantly
obferved, where thefe cultivated lands lay, the under
ftratum of compad clay had been driven fome hundred
yards farther, and lay in confufed blocks; and, as I
obferved, many of thefe blocks were in a cubical form.
The under foil, having had a greater impulfe, and leav¬
ing the upper in its flight, naturally accounts for the
order in which the trees, vineyards, and vegetation fell,
and remain at prefeiit in the bottom of the ravine.
“ In another part of the bottom of the ravine there
is a mountain compofed of the fame clay foil, and
which was probably a piece of the plain detached by
an earthquake at fome former period : it is about 250
feet high, and 400 feet diameter at its bafis. This
mountain, as is well attefled, has travelled down the
ravine near four miles having been put in motion by
the earthquake of the 5th of February. The abun¬
dance of rain which fell at that time, the great weight
of the frefti detached pieces of the plain which I faw
heaped up at the back of it, the nature of the foil of
which it is compofed, and particularly its fituation on
a declivity, account well for this phenomenon •, where¬
as the reports which came to Naples of a mountain
having leaped four miles, had rather the appearance of
a miracle. I found fome Angle timber trees alio with
a lump of their native foil at their roots, Handing up¬
right in the bottom of the ravine, and which had been
detached from the bottom of the plain above mention¬
ed. I obferved alfo, that many confufed heaps of the
loofe foil, detached by the earthquake from the plains
on each fide of the ravine, had a&ually run like a volca¬
nic lava (having probably been aflifted by the heavy
rain), and produced many effefls much refembling thofe
of lava during their courfe down a great part of the
ravine. At Santa Chriftina, near Oppido, the like
phenomena have been exhibited, and the great force of
the earthquake of the 5th of February feems to have
been exerted on thefe parts, and at Cafal Nuova, and
Terra Nuova.
The next places which urere vifited were the towns
613
of Seminara and Palmi. Palmi is nearer the fea, and Earth-
had fuffered moil 5 not fewer than 1400 of the inhabi- ^\canoes>
tants having been deftroyed. In the courfe of his tour <, __Mij
in this part of the countryj he was informed that the lea
was obierved to be hot, and fire was feen iffuing from
the earth.
At Reggio, although the ftiock had been much lefs
violent than in other places, no houfe was yet habitable.
During the earthquakes which vifited this place in 177°
and 1780, near 17,000 inhabitants lived for feveral
months encamped in the fields, or in barracks.
Having examined the difterent places on the Cala¬
brian coaft, which had fuffered from this terrible earth¬
quake, bir William Hamilton failed for Meflina in
Sicily, to be informed of its effects there. He found
that the ihock had been very violent, but tar lets fo than
on the oppolite ihores. Many of the houies, even in the
lower part of the town, v'ere Handing, and iomeof them
had fuitained little damage •, but in the more elevated
fituations the ihocks feemed to have had icarcely any
effeft. This Hill correfponds with the general re¬
mark, which w'as already made. A linking initance
of this appeared in two convents, wdiich are iituated on
elevated places, and had fuffered nothing from the
earthquakes which had afflicted the country for four
months. It was faid that fire had been feen iffuing
from fiffures of the earth near the Ihore. 1 he Ihock of
the earthquake on the 5th of February, feemed to pro¬
ceed from the bottom upwards; but the fucceeding
Ihocks came on with a horizontal or whirling motion.
A remarkable circumftance with regard to fiih, was
taken notice of at Meflina, and indeed the fame thing was
obferved along the coaft of Calabria, where the eHeels of
the earthquake had been moft fevere. A fmall filh,
fomewhat larger than the Englilh white bait, but refem¬
bling it, and w hich ufually lies at the bottom of the fea,
buried in land, had remained for feveral months after
the commencement of the earthquakes, near the furface,
and was taken in great abundance to be the common
food of poor people. Before the earthquake, this fifli
was extremely rare, and was confidered as a great deli¬
cacy. After the earthquake, indeed, it was obferved,
that fifli of all kinds were found in greater abundance.
Thefe earthquakes, of which we have now given
fo detailed an account, continued for many months
afterwards ; tremulous motions of the earth continued
to be felt, and they ivere not perfectly fettled even in
the year X 7S4. 33,..
The fouthern continent of America is often vifited Earth-
by earthquakes. In the year 1797, Peru "was affiifted <luakesha,
with this dreadful calamity, which perhaps in the ex- Pcru*
tent of furface which experienced the dreadful ftiock,
exceeds that of any earthquake, the hiftory of which is
on record. The following is a ftiort account of this
earthquake by M. Cavanilles. “ In the midft, (fays
he), of the moft profound calm, there is frequently
heard a dreadful belloxving noife, the forerunner of
earthquakes, to which this part of the -world is often
exoofed. After the year 1791, this noife was frequent¬
ly heard in the neighbourhood of the mountain of
Tunguragua. Antonio Pineda and Nee, the two na-
turalifts employed in the expedition round the xvorld,
when examining the declivity of this volcano, the lava,
of which had been hardened more by the internal fire
than
6i 4
quakes' and ^ ardouf tlie were ft ruck with terror
Volcanoes. by .tbe llorrible founci which they heard, and the heat
J which they experienced. Pineda, that valuable mem¬
ber of fociety, whole premature death is Hill deplored
by tne friends of fcience, foretold that a terrible erup¬
tion was preparing in the mountain of Tunguragua j
and his conjeftures were confirmed by the event. On
the 4th of February 1797, at three quarters paft feven
in the morning, the fummit of the volcano was more
free from vapours than ufual j the interior part of the
mountain was agitated by frequent ftioeks, and the ad-
jacent chains burft in fuch a manner, that in the fpace
of lour minutes an immenfe trail: of country was con-
vulfed by an undulating movement. Never did hiftory
relate the effefts of an earthquake lo extraordmarv,
and never did any phenomenon of nature produce more
misfortunes, or deftroy a greater number of human be-
ings. A number of towns and villages wrere deftroy-
ed in a moment: fome of them, fuch as Riobamba,
Quero, Pelileo, Patate, Pillaro, were buried under the
ruins of the neighbouring mountains ; and others in the
jurifdiilions of Harnbata, Latacunga, Guaranda, Rio¬
bamba, and Alaufi, were entirely overthrown. Some
fuftained prodigious lofs by the gulfs which were form¬
ed, and by the rellux of rivers intercepted in their
courfe by mounds of earth j and others, though in
part faved, were in fuch a fhattered ftate as to threaten
their total ruin. The number of perfons who perilhed
during the firft and fucceeding Ihocks is eftimated at
16,000. At ten o’clock in the morning, and four in
the afternoon, the fame day, (February 4.) after a
dreadful noife, the earth was again agitated with great
violence, and it did not ceafe to lhake, though faintly,
for the whole months of February and March j but, at
three quarters paft two in the morning of the 5th of
April, the villages already ruined were again expofed
to fuch violent (hocks as would have been fufficient to
deftroy them. This extraordinary phenomenon was
felt throughout the extent of 140 leagues from eaft to
weft, from the fea as far as the river Napo ; and with¬
out doubt farther, for we are little acquainted with
thefe diftrifls which are inhabited by the lavages. The
diftance north-eaft and fouth-weft between Popayan and
Piura, is reckoned to be 170 leagues 5 but in the cen¬
tre of that diftri&, 1 degree 16.6 from thefe places, is
fituated the part totally deftroyed, and which compre¬
hends 40 leagues from north to fouth between Guaran-
dam and Machache, and twenty leagues from eaft to
weft. But, as if an earthquake alone had not been fuf¬
ficient to ruin this- fertile and populous country, another
misfortune, hitherto unknown, Avas added. The earth
opened, and formed immenfe gulfs 5 the fummits of the
mountains tumbled down into the valleys, and from
the fiflures in their fides there ifliied an immenfe quan¬
tity of fetid water, which in a little time filled up
valleys a thoufand feet in depth and fix hundred in
GEOLOGY.
Cliai
breadth. It covered the villages, buildings, and in- Ear
habitants j choked up the fources of the purelt fprings, T-aki
and being condenfed by deficcalion, in the courie ot a Volcs
few days into an earthy and hard pafte, it intercepted v
the courfe of rivers, made them flow backwards for the
fpace of 87 days, and converted whole diltri&s of dry
larid into lakes. Very extraordinary phenomena, which
will doubtlefs be one day mentioned in hiftory, occurred
during thele earthquakes j I (hall, however, content mv-
felf with mentioning only two of them. At the fame
moment that the earth (hook, the lake of Quirotoa,
near the village of Infiloc, in the jurifdiaion of Lata-
cunga, took fire, and the vapour which role from it fuf-
focated the cattle and flocks that were feeding in the
neighbourhood. Near the village of Pelileo, a large
mountain named Moya, which was overturned in an in-
ftant, threw out a prodigious llream of the before-men¬
tioned thick fetid matter, which deftroyed and covered
the miferable remains of that city. Naturalifts will one
day find, in thefe ravaged countries, objects worthy of
their refearches. Fragments of the minerals and earths
of 1 unguragua arc about to be tranfported to Spain :
but it is not in fuch fragments that we ought to fearch
for the caufe of thefe furprifing phenomena ; we mult
vifit the country itfelf, where this conflift of the ele¬
ments took place, and where the ruins it occafioned are
(till to be feen (g).”
Io the hiftory of earthquakes now given, we (hall In Sect!
only add the following account of the earthquakes
which have taken place at Comrie in Perthlhire, in
Scotland, which was communicated to the Royal So¬
ciety of Edinburgh, by Dr Finlayfon, in a letter from
Mr Taylor.
“ The earthquakes which have lately (January 179c)
taken place at Comrie (h) and its neighbourhood, are
certainly very deferving of attention. 1 (hail therefore
cheerfully comply with your requeft, and give you as
particular a description as I can of fuch of them as have
been mod remarkable. To give a particular account
of all the noifes or concuftions which, during the lad
half year, have been heard or felt at Comrie, and with¬
in a (hort diftance to the north, eaft, and weft of that
village, is beyond my power, and Avould indeed be of
little ufe. With regard to thefe fmall concuflions, it
will be fufficient to fay, that many of them have fome-
times been obferved to fucceed one another in the fpace
of a few hours j that they take place in all kinds of
weather ; that they are thought by fome people to pro¬
ceed from north-weft to fouth-eaft, and by others from
north-eaft to fouth-weft ; that they have not been ob¬
ferved to affeft the barometer 5 that they do not extend
in any direction above three or four miles from Comrie 5
and that towards the fouth they are bounded by the
Earn, which is in the immediate vicinity of the village.
The fame perfon, though bellowing the minuteft atten¬
tion, is often uncertain whether they proceed from the
earth
(G) The volcano of Tunguragua occafioned an earthquake in 1557.
_ Comrie is a village about 22. miles weft of Perth, fituated in the valley of Strathearn, and on the north
1 e 0 116 nver F-arn, about four .miles below the place where it iffues from the lake. The remains of a Roman
camp on the oppofite fide of the river, have made the name of this village very well known to Scottilh anti¬
quaries.
bp. iv.
l.rth- earth or from the air, fometimes believing them to come
1 .JS and from the one, and fometimes from the other; neither
Lanoes^ (j0 agree with refped to the feat of any one of them.
“ After the ifridelt inquiry, I find it impoffible to de¬
termine with accuracy the date of any of the concuf-
fions which took place before the 2d of September lail.
Some people in the neighbourhood of Killin affert pofi-
tively, that they heard unufual rumbling noifes in the
month of May *, but the impreffion which thefe noifes
made, was fo faint, that they would probably have been
loon forgotten altogether, had they not been fucceeded
by concmTions of a lefs equivocal nature. Towards the
end of Auguft, two or three Ihocks are faid to have
been felt at Dundurn, Dunira Lodge and Comrie ; but
I have not been able to learn the precife day or hour
on which any of them happened. The truth is, the
concufiions hitherto obferved were feeble, and the
minds of the people feem not to have been roufed to
particular attention till the 2d of September. About
eleven o’clock that evening, a fmart (hock was felt at
Comrie. I myfelf heard here, for the firfi: time, a rum¬
bling noife, which I took for that of a large table,
dragged along the floor above flairs, and which I pro¬
bably would never have thought of again, unlefs my
attention had been turned to it by the alarm which it
had excited in the neighbourhood. Many other fee¬
ble noifes or concufiions are faid to have been obferved
in Glen Leadnach and about Comrie during the months
of September and October. At that time, however, I
confefs I was difpofed to doubt the numerous reports of
earthquakes with which the country was filled, and to
afcribe them to the workings of an imagination, on
which the alarm of the 2d of September ftill continued
to be imprelfed.
“ On the 5th of November, a concuffion took place
two or three minutes before fix o’clock P. M. which
was too violent to be miftaken. Some comnared the
noife which accompanied it to that of heavy loaded
waggons, dragged with great velocity along a hard
road or pavement, and thought that "it palled under
their feet. To me it feemed as if an enormous weight
had fallen from the roof of the houfe, and rolled with
impetuofity along the floor of the rooms above ; and it
mufl have made a fimilar impreffion on the fervants, for
fome of them inllantly ran up flairs to difcover what
had happened. Others were fenfible of a tremulous
motion in the earth, perceived the flames of the candles
to vibrate, and obferved the mirrors and kitchen uten-
fils placed along the u’alls to fliake and clatter. There
is alfo reafon to believe that the waters in the loch of
Monivaird, in the near neighbourhood of Ochtertyre,
fuffered unufual agitation, as the wild fowl then upon
the loch wrere heard to fcream and flutter. The noife
l on this occafion, as far as I can judge, did not laft
above ten or twelve feconds. During the courfe of the
day, the mercury in the barometer rofe and fell feveral
times, and at fix o’clock it flood at 284- inches. The
Iky was then perfectly ferene, and hardly a breath of
wind was to be felt ; but next morning, about fix
o’clock, a violent tempefl rofe, which raged without
intermiffion for 24 hours.
“ At Glen Leadnach, Comrie and Lawers, this con-
cufiion was much more violent, and the noife that ac¬
companied it much more alarming. The inhabitants
of thefe places, and of Aberuchill and Dunira, declare,
6l
that they perceived diflin&ly the earth heaving under Earth-
them, and the motion communicated to their chairs ailcl
and other furniture. They imagined that the flates ,Volcanocs-,
and (tones were tumbling from their houfes, and many v~Tl
of them ran out in the greatefl trepidation, from the
notion, that the roofs were falling in. Even the do-
meilic animals were alarmed, and contributed, by their
howls and fereams, to increafe the terrors of the people.
J hough I have not been able to difcover whether Loch
Earn was ever agitated by thefe concuffions, there is
little doubt, that the river near Comrie was affe&ed on
this occafion, as two men then on its banks heard the
dafhing of its waters. This great (hock was fucceeded
by a number of thofe (lighter rumbling noifes which
have been already mentioned. Not lefs than 30 of
them were counted in the (pace of two hours after it
happened j but they did not extend above two miles to
the call, north, and wed of Comrie.
“ On the 10th of November, at three o’clock P. M.
\ve had here another (hock of much the fame length,
violence, and extent, as that on the jjth. J he mercury
in the barometer on this day was more flationary than
on the former, and at the time of the earthquake was
29 inches high. The weather was calm and hazy. It
was a market-day at Comrie ; and the people, who
were affembled from all parts of the country, felt as if
the mountains were to tumble inftantly upon their
heads. The hard-ware expofed for fale in the (lions
and booths (hook and clattered, and the horfes crowd¬
ed together with figns of unufual terror.
j-iliout one o’clock P. M. of the 29th December,
we had another pretty fmart (hock, during a violent
florm of wind and rain, which continued the whole
clay, and which was at its height during the time of
the earthquake. Indeed, as has been remarked al-
•iCaciy, tjiefe concufiions feem to have no dependence
on the weather. According to the accounts of thofe
who live neared to the centre of the phenomena, rum¬
bling noifes, like thofe above deferibed, may be heard
in all dates of the atmofphere.
hough I mention no more of thefe earthquakes,
you are not to conclude, that many more have not
taken place, and fome of them perhaps equally violent
with thofe of the 5th and 10th of November. " Several
(hocks have happened during the ftillnefs of the night,
which, even at this diftance from Comrie, where their
centre feems to be, have been abundantly terrifying.
But the great refemblance, or rather the perfeft fimi-
larity of their effecls, and of the impreflion they make
on our minds, renders it unneceffary for me to trouble
you with a particular description of each of them.
“ The direction of all the noifes or concuffions I
have obferved, great as well as fmall, appeared to be
in the fame line from N. W. to S. E. Others deferibe
them as fometimes proceeding in that direction, and
fometimes as coming from N. E. to S. W. I ’have
not heard any other line of direction aferibed to
them.
“ UPon fulled enquiry, I find, that thefe earth¬
quakes have been very limited in point of extent. The
.greater (hocks have been feebly felt at Loch Earn
head, about Killin, and at Ardonich, on the fouthern
bank of Loch 1 ay. I hey do not appear to have ex¬
tended farther eadward on that lake ; and, what is
more remarkable, they have not been felt in Glen Al¬
mond,
GEOLOGY.
Ln
6i6
Earth- mond, or tlie frnall glen tlirougli tvltich the military
•flakes and roa(j £rom Crieff to Tay-bridge paffes. The farmer at
i ° c‘ino s_ Auchnafree, (which lies at the head of Glen Almond,
and is feparated from Glen Leadnach only by the
mountain Benechoni, over the northern fide of which
his fhepherds daily travel), has affured me, that neither
he, nor any of his people, have been at any time fen-
flble of the Icaft extraordinary noife or concuffion.
Towards the eaft, the two fir ft great (hocks extended
to Monzie, Cultoquhey and Dollary, about feven miles
diftant from Conirie. T he fhock of the 5th of No¬
vember reached ftill farther, and was felt, though • but
faintly, at Ardoch and Drummond Caftle towards the
S. E. In the diredfion of the fouth, however, the
banks of the Earn feem to be its general boundary, as
the noife of the mod violent concuftions was heard but
faintly at the manfe of Comrie, and along the ftrath
on the fouth fide of the river. The limits of the leffer
concuflions, I am confident, do not extend above three
miles in any direclion from their centre. I hey are
commonly obferved at Lawers on the eaft 5 throughout
the whole of Glen Leadnach, at Dunira, Dalchonzie
and Aberuchill, on the north and weft •, and do not
reach fo far as the manfe, which is about three quarters
of a mile on the fouth of Comrie (i).”
In another communication, dated in 1793* from
fame gentleman, he obferves, that “ there is no reafon
to believe that thefe phenomena are yet come to an
end. After temporary intermiftions, fometimes of fe-
veral months, they have returned, ever fince their firft
appearance in 1789, without any apparent difference
in their extent or force. The rumbling noifes or
(lighter concuftions, as ufual, are obferved at Comrie,
in°Glen Leadnach, and the places in their near neigh¬
bourhood ; the more violent extend to much the fame
diftance as formerly deferibed. Having been only oc-
cafionally in that country fmee February 1791, I have
not been able to afeertain dates. On the 2d of Sep¬
tember 1791, at five minutes part five in the afternoon,
a flight, fhock was felt at Ochtertyre. The barometer
was not in order, on -which account the weight of the
atmofphere could not be afeertained. Its ele&rical
ftate was tried by Sauffure’s ele&rometer, but no indi¬
cation of anv thing uncommon was perceived. Since
that period, fhocks have been obferved at different times
till within thefe few weeks paft.
“ From this account, it will be obferved, that all the
greater fhocks have taken place in the feafon of autumn
or the beginning of winter j that this has been now re-
Chap. IV.
peated for more than four years and that thofe greater Earth-
fhocks have been fucceeded at ftiort intervals by rum- ar‘<;
bling noifes or more feeble concuftions. It has alio been   ^ f
remarked, that they have in general been preceded or
follow'ed by great rains or boifterous weather } but vari¬
ations in the weather take place fo frequently in our cli¬
mate at that feafon of the year, that the connection be¬
tween them and the phenomena above deferibed, is pro¬
bably altogether accidental.” 225
After the view which we have given of the pheno- Caufes of
mena and hiftory of earthquakes, we now proceed toearth-
the confideration of the caufes, try the operation oHuakcs<
which, according to the fpeculations of philofophers,
thefe terrible convulfions of nature, which fpread ruin
and defolation in fome of the faireft portions of the
earth, are to be accounted for. Carious opinions have
been formed, and various hypothefes have been prepo-
fed, for the explanation of thefe dreaded phenomena.
According to fome of the ancient philofophers, fubter-
raneous clouds exifted in the internal cavities of the
earth, and thefe burfting into lightning, (hook and de-
molifhed the vaults which contained them, ihis was 22(j
the opinion of Anaxagoras. It was fuppofed by others, accerding
that earthquakes were owing to the falling in of im- an‘
.menfe arched roofs, which confined fubterraneous fires jciei1 s ’
the vaults or arches being weakened by the conitant
burninp- of thefe fires. Some aferibed earthquakes to
the vapour of water which was produced, and greatly
rarefied, by means of internal fires, while others, among
whom was Epicurus and fome of the peripatetic phi¬
lofophers, fought for the explanation of the phenomena
of earthquakes, in the explofion of certain inflammable
fubftances, which were exhaled from the internal cavi¬
ties of the earth. _ # 227
Some of the modern philofophers, as Gaffendi, Kir-the mo-
cher, Varenius, Des Cartes, and others, have adopted dern!-
the laft hypothefis, according to which it is fuppofed,
that there are immenfe cavities in the earth, communi¬
cating with each other. Some of ihefe cavities contain
water, and others contain vapours and exhalations,
arifing from bituminous, fulphureous, and other in¬
flammable fubftances. Thefe combuftible materials be¬
ing kindled by fome fijbterraneous fpark, or by fome
actual flame, proceeding through narrow fiffures from
without, or by the heat evolved during the mixture of
different fubftances, and the formation of new ones,
produce commotions on the furface of the earth, ac¬
cording to the extent of the cavities, and the quantity
and active nature of the inflamed matter. Thofe who
fupport
G E O L O G Y.
(1) “ The travft within which the concuflions deferibed in this letter appear to have been cor fined, is a (pace of a
rectangular form, which extends from eaft to weft along the north fide of the Earn about 22 miles in lenga , y
a little more than five in breadth ; reckoning the utmoft length from about Monzie to the head ot Eoch l ay,
and the breadth from a little fouth of the Earn northward to the ridge which feparates the branches of that river
from thofe of the Almond. The whole of this traft is mountainous, except tovyard the eaftern .extremity, ivhere
it loins the low country, and on the banks of the river Earn on the fouth. It is inter e tec y nanov g eT-s <'r
valleys, the moft confiderable of which is Glen Leadnach, where the centre of the concuffions feems to be placed.
The mineralogy of this part of the country has not hitherto been accurately examined; but it is known mgeneral,
that the ftone is the primary fchiftus, and'in fome places granite ; that no mineral veins, nor any hot fprings, have
been found in it, and that no volcanic appearances have been obferved. In the va .evs, among e monn a.ns,
iron ore, of the kind that is called bog ore, is faid to abound. Dr Hutton has remar e , vat ^ !,n<? vv *c )
terminates this tra* on the fouth-eaft, feems to be nearly the fame with that where the primary ftrata fink under
the furface, and are covered by the fecondary or horizontal ftrata. Note bij Mr Plcnjjair,
Chap. IV. GEO
Earth- fupport this hypothefis think, that it receives illuftration
quakes ami from a common experiment of mixing together iron
Vukanoe^ £^Ugj. an(| fu}pliurj and burying them in the earth 5 and
in confequenee of the chemical aftion of thefe fubican-
ces on each other, and the elaltic vapours thus pro-
^ duced, the ihaking of the earth is effected.
Hypothefis ^ different hypothefis has been propofed by Dr
efWood- Woodward. According to this hypotheiis, water is
ward. continually raifed by means of fubterraneous heat, from
the abyfs which he luppofes to occupy the centre of
the earth, to furnilh rain and dew. Obifruclions may
take place in this procefs of nature, and whenever this
happens, a fwelling and commotion are occafioned by
the heat in the waters of the abyfs. This force is at
the fame time exerted againit the incumbent ftrata, and
thus the agitation and conculfion, with the other phe-
229 nomena which accompany earthquakes, are produced.
Of A.mon- Another hypothefis, different from any of thefe, has
tons. been propofed by M. Amontons, of which the follow¬
ing explanation is given. The atmofphere being taken
at 45 miles high, and the denfity of the air increaling
in proportion to the abfolute height of the fuperincum-
bent column of fluid, it is fhewn that at the depth of
43,528 fathoms below the furface of the earth, the air
is but one-fourth lighter than mercury. But this depth
is only about one feventy-fourth of the femidiameter of
the earth. The immenfe fpliere beyond this depth, the
diameter of which is 6,451,538 fathoms, may perhaps
be only filled with air : this air muff be here greatly
condenfed, and heavier than the heavieft bodies with
which we are at prefent acquainted. It is found by
experiment, that the more air is comprelfed, the more
do equal degrees of heat increafe its elafiic force, and
the more capable it becomes of producing violent ef-
Ife&s.. As, for inftance, the temperature of boiling wa¬
ter increafes the elaftieity of the air beyond its natural
force in temperate climates, by a quantity equal to
one-third of the weight with which it is preffed. Hence
it is concluded, that a degree of heat which on the
furface of the earth produces only a moderate effedt,
may occafion violent convulfions by the rarefaction of
the denfer air at great depths •, but if it be confidered
that this condenfed air may be expofed to much higher
degrees of heat than that of boiling water, the elaitic
force of the air thus produced, and affifted by the great
weight of a high column, may be more than fufficient
I to convulfe and break up the folid orb of 43,^28
fathoms, the weight of which, comparing it with that
of the included air, would be trilling.
Thefe hypothefes, however infufficient they may ap¬
pear for explaining in a fatisfaCtory manner the phe¬
nomena of earthquakes, wTere generally adopted till a-
bout the middle of the 18th century, when the know¬
ledge of eleftricity began to be cultivated and extend¬
ed. This principle wras applied fucceflively in the ex¬
planation of many natural phenomena, and, among o-
thers, the phenomena of earthquakes were aferibed to
(the fame principle. An earthquake which was felt at
London in the month of March 1749, direCted the at-
230 tention of philofophers to this explanation. The firtt
pf Stuke- who made this attempt, we believe, was Dr Stukeley*
iey* who had been much occupied about that time with
eleCfrical experiments. The confideration of the phe¬
nomena which accompanied this earthquake, led him
to fuppofe that it could not be occafioned by vapours
Vol. IX. Part IL
. O G Y. 61?
generated in the cavities of the earth, or by any pro- Earth-
cefs like fermentation, in which elaftic fluids are form- ^ia|kesan?
ed and difengaged, to which fuch effeCts could be a- ‘
feribed. He is of opinion, that no evidence has yet
been brought to efiablilh the probability of the exift-
ence of extenlive cavities within the earth. On the
contrary, he thinks there is good reafon to prefume,
that it is in a great meafure folid, fo that there is little
fpace for thofe changes which are fuppofed to be effect¬
ed within the cavities, to take place. Coal pits, he
adds, which have been frequently known to be on fire,
and for a great length of time, never exhibited any of
the phenomena which accompany an earthquake on the
lurface of the ground above.
The earthquake which vifited London and other
places of Britain, in March 1749, was felt in a circuit
of 30 miles diameter j but there was no eruption of fire
or vapour, and it was unattended with fmoke or fmell.
From this confideration alone, of the extent of furface
which felt the effects of the earthquake, he fuppofes
that it could not be aferibed to the expanfive force of
fubterraneous vapours ; for, he obferves, fmall fire-balls
which are exploded in the air, emit a fulphureous fmell
to the diilance of feveral miles. Now, it cannot be
imagined, that fo prodigious a force, adting inftanta-
neoufly, on fo great an extent of ground, Ihould nei¬
ther break the furface, nor indicate its prefence either
by the fight or fmell. But if this effeft is to be aferibed
to fermentation, this procefs is not inftantaneous 5 it con¬
tinues many days, and the evaporation of fuch a quarw
tity of inflammable matter would require a long fpace
of time. Such an effedt, therefore, can only be account¬
ed for on electrical principles, the operation of which is
always inftantaneous.
If earthquakes were occafioned by vapours and fub¬
terraneous fermentations, explofions and eruptions, fuch
proceffes would entirely deftroy fprings and fountains,
wherever they had onceexifted. This, however, is con¬
trary to what happens, for although fprings are Hopped,
or otherwife changed, previous to an earthquake, or a-
bout the time it happens, they very often recover their
former ftate. In the great earthquake which happened
A. D. 17, in Afia Minor, and which (hook a mafs of
earth 300 miles in diameter, and deftroyed 13 great
cities, neither the fprings nor the face of the country
received any injury.
If it be confidered, that a fubterraneous powder capa¬
ble of moving 30 miles in diameter, as in the earth¬
quake mentioned above, which happened at London,
muft exift and operate at leaft 15 or 20 miles under
the furface, the hypothefis bf earthquakes being oc¬
cafioned by the force of vapours will be found totally
inapplicable, becaufe this force muft move an inverted
cone of folid earth, the bale of which is 30 miles in dia¬
meter, and the axis 15 or 20. This is an effect which
is impoflible to any known natural power, excepting that
ofiele&ricity.
But befides, no fubterraneous explofion can account
for the fingular effects of an earthquake on (hips that
are far out in the ocean. It has been already obferved,
that they feem as if they (truck on a rock, or as if fome
folid body (truck againft their bottom. Even fifties, it
is found, are particularly affefted by the (hock of an
earthquake; but a fubterraneous explofion could only
produce on the wrater a gradual fwell. It could not
4 I communicate
6i8 G E O L
Earth- communicate to it that impulfe by tvliich it produces ef-
quakes and fe£tS} as if it were a ilone projected with great force,
\ ukarto^s. agajnp. bodies.
From the conlideration of all thefe circumftances,
Dr Stukeley is of opinion, that the phenomena of earth¬
quakes can only be fatisfa&orily explained on ele&rical
principles. He was particularly led to this opinion by
diredting his attention to the phenomena which accom¬
panied the earthquakes which took place in England in
1749 and 1750. For five or fix months previous to
this time, the weather had been unufually warm ; the
wind was from the fouth and fouth-weft, and there had
been no rain, fo that the earth was particularly prepared
to receive an eledlrical Ihock. I he fiat country of Lin-
eolnthire had fuffered greatly from extreme drought,
and hence, as dry weather is favourable to eledlricity,
earthquakes and other fimilar phenomena are more fre¬
quent in fouthern regions of the world. Before the
earthquake at London, all vegetables had been unufual¬
ly premature, and it is well known how much electri¬
city quickens vegetation. About the fame time the
aurora borealis had been very frequent. A very fliort
time before the earthquake, it had exhibited unufual
colours, and its motions rvere to the fouth, contrary to
the ordinary direction. From thefe circumftances an
earthquake wras predicted by Italians and others who
had been accuftomed to the appearances which precede
them. During this year, too, meteors of different kinds,
as fire-balls, lightnings, and corufcations, had been com¬
mon $ and particularly it was obferved in the night pre¬
ceding the earthquake, and early in the morning on
the day on which it happened, that corufcations were
very frequent. In thefe circumftances nothing was
wanting to produce an earthquake, according to this
hypothefis, but the touch of a non-eledtric body. I his
body muft be derived from the air or atmofphere j hence
it is inferred, that if a non-ele£tric could difeharge its
contents upon any part of the earth, in this prepared
and highly eledrical ftate, a violent commotion or
earthquake muft be produced *, and as the difeharge
from an excited tube produces a (hock on the human
body, fo the difeharge of ele&ric matter from an ex¬
tent of many miles of folid earth, muft produce an
earthquake. The rattling, uncouth noife which attends
it, is to be aferibed to the fnap which is occafioned by
the contad.
Before the earthquake alluded to came on, a black
cloud fuddenly covered the atmofphere to a great ex¬
tent *, the difeharge of a fliower, according to this hy¬
pothefis, probably occafioned the ftiock; and as the
eledrical fnap precedes the (hock, a found was obferved
to roll from the Thames towards Temple-bar, before
the motion of the houfes ceafed. This noife, which is
generally the forerunner of earthquakes, it is fuppofed
can only be accounted for on the principles of eledri-
city. The contrary to this would take place, wTere thefe
phenomena owing to fubterraneous eruptions. 1 he
flames and fulphureous fmells which accompany earth¬
quakes, might, it is thought, be more eafily accounted
for on the fame principles, than by eruptions from the
bowels of the earth. The fudden concuffion, too, feems
to be produced by a motion which could only be ex¬
cited by eledricity, not proceeding from any convul-
fion in the interior parts of the earth, but from a uni¬
form vibration along its furface, like that of a mufical
O G Y. Chap. IV.’
ft ring, or like the vibratory motion of a glafs, when Earth-
the edge is rubbed with the finger. From the circum-
ftance that earthquakes are chiefly fatal to places near . )_L'llce-'
the fea coafts, along the courfe of rivers, and elevated
fituations, a farther proof is derived, that they depend
on the operation of eledricity. The courfe or direc¬
tion which the earthquake above alluded to took, af¬
fords an illuftration of this point. Another argument
in favour of the eledrical hypothefis is drawn from the
effeds of the earthquake, or the ftate of the weather
at the time, on perfons of weak or nervous conftitu-
tions. To fome thefe diforders proved at that time fatal •,
and its effeds, in general, were fimilar to thofe of arti¬
ficial eledricity. _ 231
A fimilar hypothefis was propofed by Beccaria, to Of Becca-
account for the phenomena of earthquakes. He fup- na«
pofes that the eledric matter to which thefe phenome¬
na are owing, is lodged deep in the earth, and that it
is tins matter difeharged fretn the earth, to reftore the
equilibrium or deficiency which the clouds in the atmo¬
fphere have fuftained during thunder ftorms, by giving
out their eledrical matter to another part of the earth.
This, he fuppofes, is confirmed by the noife refembling
thunder, and the flathes of lightning which are perceived
GUring enruiquajvcs. . #
Dr Prieftley propofes to conftrud, on the princi-Of Pricft.
pies of Stukeley and Beccaria, an hypothefis which he k7-
thinks will explain the phenomena in a more fatisfac-
tory manner. For this purpofe he fuppofes the eledric
matter to be fome way or other accumulated on one
part of the furface of the earth, and on account of the
drynefs of the feafon, not eafily to diftufe itfelf. It
may, as Beccaria fuppofes, force its way into the high¬
er regions of the air, forming clouds in its paffage out
of the vapours which float in the atmofphere, and oc-
cafion a fudden {bower, which may farther promote
the paffage of the fluid. The whole furface thus un¬
loaded will receive a concufiion like any other condud-
ing fubftance, on parting with or receiving a quantity
of the eledric fluid. The ruftiing noife will likewife
fweep over the whole extent of the country } and upon
this fuppofition alfo, the fluid, in its difeharge from the
country, will naturally follow the courfe of the rivers,
and alfo take the advantage of any eminences, to facili¬
tate its afeent into the higher regions of the air. In
making fome experiments on the paffage of the eledri¬
cal fluid over water, he obferved that it produced a tre¬
mulous motion, and therefore he concludes that it muft
receive a concuffion refembling that which is given to
the waves of the fea by an earthquake. To try this
ftill farther, he immerfed his hands in water, while an
eledrical flafti paffed over its furface, and he felt a
fudden concuflion, like that which is fuppofed to af-
fed {hips at fea during an earthquake. The impulfe,
which was felt in different parts of the water, was
ftrongeft near the place where the explofion was made.
“ Pleafed with this refemblance of the earthquake,
he obferves, I endeavoured to imitate that gieat natu¬
ral phenomenon in other refpeds ; and it being frofiy
wreather, I took a plate of ice, and placed two flicks
about three inches high on their ends, fo that they w'ould
juft Hand with eafe ; and upon another.part of the ice
I placed a bottle, from the cork of which was fufpend-
ed a brafs ball with a fine thread. Then making the
eledrical flafti pafs over the furface of the ice, which it
Chap. IV.
GEOLOGY.
619
Volcanoes
* Hifi. of
EUR.
233
Of Dolo-
Earth- did with a vei-y loud report, the nearer pillar fell down,
quakes and wJdle the more remote flood, and the ball which had
hung nearly flill, immediately began to make vibra¬
tions, about an inch in length, and nearly in a right line
from the place of the hath.
“ I afterwards diverlified this apparatus, erecting
more pillars, and fufpending more pendulums, fome-
times upon bladders ftretched on the mouth of open
veiTels, and at other times on wet boards fwimming in
a veflel of water. This laft method feemed to anfwer
the belt of any ; for the board reprefenting the earth,
and the water the fea, the phenomena of them both
during an earthquake may be imitated at the fame time 5
pillars, &.c. being eredted on the board, and the elec¬
tric flalh being made to pafs, either over the board, over
the water, or over them both
The ingenious Dolomieu propofes' to account for
thefe phenomena on different principles. On this fub-
jecl he makes the following obfervations with regard
to the earthquakes which defolated Calabria in 1783,
and the caufes by which they were produced. “ The
fea, fays he, during the earthquakes of 1783, had little
(hare in the fliocks on the main land. The mafs of wa¬
ter experienced no general movement, or fluctuation,
or ofcillation 5 the waves did not rife above their or¬
dinary limits. Thofe which on the night of the 5th
February beat againft the coaft of Sicily, and which
afterwards covered the point of the Faro of Meflina,
were only the effedts of a particular caufe. The fall
of a mountain into the fea raifed the waters, which re¬
ceived an undulating motion, as happens always in
fimilar cafes. The undulation reached from the point
of Sicily beyond the cane of Rofacolmo, extending
in length along the coaft which runs to the fouth ; but
always with a decreafe in elevation as it was more re¬
mote from Sicily. Whatever inquiries the author has
made, he has not been able to difeover, in all the de¬
tails which have been given him, any proofs of the ex-
iftence of eledtrical phenomena ; no (park, no difen-
gagement of the eledlrical fluid, which the Neapo¬
litan naturalifts with to aflign as the caufe of earth¬
quakes.
“ The ftate of the atmofphere was not the fame in
the whole range of earthquakes. While the tempefts
and the rain feemed t» have confpired with them for
the deftrudlion of Meflina, the interior part of Calabria
enjoyed very fine weather. A little rain fell in the plain
in the morning of the 5th of February ; but the Iky
was clear during the reft of the day. This month and
that of March were not only pretty ferene, but likewife
warm. There were fome ftorms and rain j but they
were the natural attendants of the feafon.
“ The moving force feems to have refided under
Calabria itfelf, fince the fea which furrounds it had no
(hare in the ofcillatiens or vibrations of the continent.
.Fhis force feems alfo to have advanced along the ridge
of the Apennines in afeending from the fouth to the
north. But what power in nature is capable of pro¬
ducing fuch effedls ? I exclude eledlricity, which can¬
not accumulate continually during the courfe of a year,
in a country furrounded with water, where every thing
confpires to place this fluid in equilibrio. Fire remains
to be confidered. This element, by afting diredlly
upon the folids, can only dilate them ; then their ex-
panfion is progreflive, and cannot produce violent and
inftantaneous movements. When fire a<ffs upon fluids, Earth-
fuch as air and wrater, it gives them an aftonifliing ex- <lua^es a,H^
panlion 5 and we know that then their elallic force is , ‘ ^
capable of overcoming the greateft refiftances. Thefe
appear the only means w hich nature could employ to
operate the eftedls we fpeak of: but in all Calabria
there is no veftige of a volcano 5 nothing to point out
any interior com bullion j no fire concealed in the centre
of mountains, or under their bafe ; a fire which could
not exit! without fome external figns. The vapours
dilated, the air rarefied by a heat conflantly active,
mull have efcaped through fome of the crevices or
clefts formed in the foil; they mull there have formed
currents. Both flame and fmoke mull have iffued by
fome one or other of thefe paffages. Thefe once opened,
the prefl'ure w ould have ceafed ; the force not meeting
with any more refiftance, would have loft its effedl; and
the earthquakes could have no longer continued. None
of thefe phenomena took place : we mull then renounce
the fuppofition of a combuftion ailing direilly under
Calabria. Let us fee w'hether, having recourfe to a fire
at fome diftance from this province, and ailing upon it
only as an occafional caufe, wre lhall be able to explain
all the phenomena which have accompanied the fttocks.
Let us take for example Aitna in Sicily, and fuppofe
large cavities under the mountains of Calabria ; a fup-
polition which cannot be refufed. It is certain that
immenfe fubterraneous cavities do exift, fince i£tna, in
elevating itfelf by the accumulation of its explofions,
mull leave in the heart of the earth cavities proportion¬
ed to the greatnefs of the mafs.
“ The autumn of 1782 and the winter of 1783 w7ere
very rainy. The interior waters, augmented by thofe
of the furface, may have run into thofe caverns which
form the focus of JEtna: there they mull have been
converted into vapour capable of the higheft degree of
expanfion, and mull have preffed forcibly againft every
thing which oppofed their dilatation. If they found
canals to conduct them into the cavities of Calabria,
they could not fail to occafion there all the calamities
of which I have given the defeription.
“ It the firft cavity is feparated from the fecond by
a wall (fo to fpeak) or fome flight divifion, and this
feparation is broken down by the force of the elaftic
vapour, the whole force will aft againft the bottom
and fides of the fecond. The focus of the fhccks will
appear to have changed place, and become weaker in
the fpace which w'as agitated molt violently by the firft
earthquake.
“ The plain, which was undoubtedly the moft flender
part of the vault, yielded moft eafily. The city of
Meflina, placed upon low ground, experienced a fhock
which the buildings on higher grounds did not. The
moving force ceafed at once as fuddenly as it afted
violently. When, at the periods of the 7th of February
and the 28th of March, the focus appeared changed,
the plain fcarce fuffered any thing. The fubterraneous
noife, v'hich preceded and accompanied the fhocks,
appeared always to come from the fouth-weft, in the
direction of Meflina. It feemed like thunder under
ground, which refounded beneath vaults.
“ If y£tna, then has been the occafional caufe of
the earthquakes, it has alfo prepared, for fome time, the
misfortunes of Calabria, by gradually opening a paf-
fage along the coaft of Sicily to the foot of the Neptu-
4 I 2 niaii
620
Earth-
G E 0 L
nian mountains: for during tlie cartliquakes of 1780,
Volcano^ ditturbed Meflina the whole fummer, they felt,
. ° c^nocs'j for the whole length of that coaft, from Taormina even
to the Faro, confiderable Ihocks •, but near the villages
of Alii and Fiume de Nifi, which are fituated about the
middle of that line, Ihocks fo violent were experienced,
that they dreaded left the mouth of a volcano fhould
open. Each Ihock refembled the effort of a mine that
had not ftrength to make an explofion. It appears, that
then the volcano opened a free paffage for the expanfion
of its vapours, and that they have ftnee circulated with¬
out reftraint j fince in the year 1783 the earthquake
■was almoft nothing upon that part of Sicily, at the
time that Meflina buried under its ruins the half of its
2-4 inhabitants.”
Afcribed to By others the phenomena of earthquakes have been
the force ofafcribed to the force of vapour or fleam, which, no
fteam. doubt, is an agent fufficiently powerful, if it is confined
fo, that its prodigious elaftic force may be exerted ;
but it is denied by thofe who oppofe this hypothefis,
that earthquakes, though very frequent in regions where
fubterranean fires are really knotvn to exift, as in volcanic
countries, always happen in fuch places, and therefore
water cannot be converted into vapour. But, befides,
it is well known, that this vapour, even admitting
the poftibility of its produdlion in fubterranean cavities
would be re-convcrted into water, the moment it came
in contact with a cold body, which would deprive it of
the principle of heat, in combination with which water
aflumes the form of vapour.
Many objeflions might have been made to the
hypothefes which have been propofed to account for
earthquakes. Many of thefe will probably occur to
the attentive reader, who is a little acquainted with the
nature and properties of the agents by which they are
fuppofed to be produced ; but whatever may be the
eaufe of thefe extraordinary phenomena, it appears that
it is very far from being clearly afccrtained. Perhaps
all the agents which have been ftated as the caufe of
earthquakes, may have fome influence in contributing
to the effe<ft, and many operate at different times, and
in different circumftances.
SECT. II. Of Volcanoes.
Volcanoes Volcanoes exift in almoft every part of the world,
in every from the north to the fouth pole. Plecla in Iceland,
part of the ,m3 a volcano which has been obferved in Terra del
world. Fuego, at the termination of the fouthern continent of
America, nearly comprehend the extremities of the
globe ^ and having mentioned thefe boundaries, it is
unneceffary to obferve, that they exift in all climates.
'Number of ^ie num^er volcanoes at prefent known, is not
them. lefs ^ian 100> ^ie volcanoes of Europe are well
known : thefe are Vefuvius in Italy, iEtna in Sicily,
and Hecla in Iceland. To thefe may be added the
volcanoes in the TEolian or Lipari iflands on the coaft
Italy, of which Stromboli is remarkable for having
thrown out flame?, without the eruption of other volcanic
matter, for more than 2000 years. In Afia there is a
volcano in Mount Taurus •, five in Kamtfchatka, 10 in
the ifiands of Japan ; one in the peak of Adam in the
ifland of Ceylon 5 four which have been obferved in
Sumatra •, and fome others in different parts of the
Afiatic continent or iilands. There are alfo fome
volcanoes on the African continent, as well as in fome
5
O G Y. ' Chap. IV.
of the iilands. Volcanoes exift alfo in the American Earth-
continent, and in many of the iilands which have been (bia<kes an<i
difeovered in the South feas. 1 ^
Almoft all volcanoes are in the immediate vicinity of 257
the fea. Mount Taurus, in the interior of Afia, and Are all
fome of the volcanoes in the Andes, are the only ex- ^earthe
ceptions to this. _ ’2-g
Another general remark which may be made with anci ;n t]ie
regard to volcanoes is, that they always occupy the tops tops of
of mountains. No volcano was ever found burfting out mountains,
in plains. The exiftence of volcanoes at the bottom
of the ocean feems to be an exception ^ but it is to be
obferved, that thefe are alfo in the peaks of mountains,
which have been raifed up from great depths at the
bottom of the ocean. _ _ 239
The firft fymptom of an approaching eruption is an Symptoms
increafe of the fmoke, if fmoke has been emitted, in fair ot an erup-
weather. This fmoke is of a whitifti colour ; but, after tl0n‘
fome time, black fmoke is obferved to fhoot up in the
midft of the column of white fmoke. Thefe appearances
are ufually accompanied with explofions. ihe black
fmoke is then followed, at a ftiorter or longer diftance
of time, by a reddifti-coloured flame. Showers of ftones
are afterwards thrown out, and fome of them are pro-
}edled to great heights in the air, which ftiews that the
force by which they are impelled is very great. Along
with thefe, allies are likeivife ejedted. Thefe pheno¬
mena, which daily increafe in frequency and violence,
are alfo ufually preceded and accompanied by earth¬
quakes, and hollow noifes from the bowels of the earth,
fomething like thofe that precede earthquakes unaccom¬
panied with volcanic eruptions. 'I he fmoke, flame, and
the quantity of ftones and allies, increafe, and the ftones
are at laft throwm out red hot.
The fmoke which iffues from the crater has been
obferved to be fometimes in a highly eledtrified Hate.
The allies are ftrongly attradled, and carried up along
with the fmoke to great heights in the atmofphere,
forming a denfe black column of vaft height and fize.
Flalhes of lightning are feen darting in a zig-zag direc¬
tion, through the column of fmoke and alhes 5 and this
lightning is fometimes attended with thunder. But
from fome obfervations which have been made, this
thunder and lightning are feemingly lels intenfe than
atmofpheric eledlricity. When thefe terrible appear¬
ances have continued for four or five months, or for a
longer or ftiorter time, according to the nature of the
eruption, the lava begins to flow. Ihis is a current of
melted matter, which fometimes boils over the top, and
fometimes, when the mountain is high, as is the cafe
with iEtna, burfts out at the fide, and makes a paffage
for itfelf. The period of the duration of the eruption
is very different. Sometimes it continues to flow, at
intervals, for the fpace of feveral weeks. _ 24®
The matters ejedled from volcanoes are lavas, which Matters
are either more or lefs confolidated j allies, flags of dif- vojca_
ferent kinds, and'ftones which have undergone little noes>
or no fufion. For an account of the nature and pro¬
perties of volcanic productions, fee Mineralogy..
Stones have been projected into the air from Mount
iEtna, to the height of 7000 feet. A ftone which
was ejeCted from Vefuvius, meafured 12 feet long, and
45 feet in circumference } and even larger maffes have
been thrown out from ./Etna.
Water has been frequently ejeCted from volcanoes.
This
Chap. IV.
Earth- This water is fometimes cold, and fometimes hot.
quakes and rUptions of water have taken place, both from Vefu-
Volc anoes.^ v'ug an(j ygtna. At one time fait water was ejefted
LlJ ""'¥ from Mount Vefuvius. Different opinions have been
held concerning the origin of this water, or its con¬
nexion with the volcano. This is founded on the cir-
cumftance already taken notice of in the general re¬
mark which was made, that almoft all volcanoes are in
the vicinity of the fea.
It feems to be a lingular circumftance in the hiftory
of volcanoes, that when once eruptions have commen¬
ced, they follow each other in rapid fucceffion j and
at other times that they ceafe for a long period. From
the year 1447, -/Etna ceafed to throw out any fire till
the year 1536, when a terrible eruption took place,
accompanied with fmoke, flame, alhes, and burning
Hones. This conflagration continued to rage with great
violence for many weeks. The following year a river
fwelled and overflowed its banks to a great diftance j
furious fqualls of wind fucceeded, after which there
was a terrible eruption from /Etna. The torrents of
flaming and fufed matter which flowed out, deftroyed
towns, villages, and vineyards, to a great extent. Af¬
ter the conflagration, the fummit of the mountain fell
in with a dreadful cralh. For 100 years after this pe¬
riod, the eruptions feemed to obferve fome kind of re¬
gularity, returning periodically every 25 and 30 years.
From the year 1686 to 1755, the fame year on which
the earthquake at Liibon happened, for more than half
a century, /Etna enjoyed profound repofe.
The firfl: confiderable eruption of Vefuvius, the ac¬
count of which is recorded in hiftory, happened in the
year 79 of the Chriftian era. It was this eruption
which deftroyed Herculaneum and Pompeii ; but this
was not the firfl; eruption of this mountain, for the
flreets of thefe cities have been fince difeovered to be
paved with lava. Since that time, 30 different erup¬
tions have taken place. There was a very remarkable
241 one in 1538.
Volcanoes It would appear that volcanoes feem to become quite
become ex- extindl, and are rekindled. Some of the Roman writ-
ar^’kTd erS’ aS ^<K^orus Siculus, Vitruvius, and others, fpeak
^eie in - 0f Vefuvius only as having been a volcano. After this
period it burnt for 1000 years, and again became ex-
tinfl, from 1136 to 1506. Pools of water had col-
lefted in the crater, and woods were grooving on its
fides, and even in the crater itfelf. Vefuvius has now
burnt for three centuries paft, as furioufty as ever; but
particularly, during the 18th century. Of 29 eruptions
which have taken place from Vefuvius, fince the reign
of Titus, half of the number have happened in the 18th
century.
Befide the volcanoes, the hiftory of which we have
now briefly detailed, volcanoes are known to exift at
the bottom of the ocean. Thefe are diftinguifhed by
Submarine the name offubmarine volcanoes. Excepting in fitua-
volcanoes. Ron, fo far as the hiftory of fubmarine volcanoes is
known, they referable the volcanoes on land. It would
appear that they exift in the tops of mountains at the
bottom of the ocean, and ejeft immenfe burning maf-
fes of matter in whirlwinds of allies and pumice, with
prodigious torrents of lava. Submarine volcanoes are
either very few in number, or the places where they
exift have not been afeertained. Thofe that are cer¬
tainly known are at Santorin, the Azores, and lee-
621
land. The ifland of Santorin, formerly called Thera Earth-
and St Irene, was denominated by the Greeks, in al-
lulion to its origin, Kapw, or “ burnt.” According to . ^ •
Pliny, there is a tradition, that it arofe out of the fca, at
a very remote but unknown period.
Without going far back into hiftory, to inquire con¬
cerning the early eruptions of this volcano, we fhall
mention fome of a later date, the exiflence of which is
better afeertained. In 1457, an eruption took place,
at which time alhes and red-hot rocks were ejefled,
with a great quantity of lava. This event, with the
date of it, is recorded on a marble ftone, ere&ed near
the gate of Fort Scarus, in Santorin. An eruption
alfo took place in 1570. This produced a new illand,
called the Little Kaminoi. In 1650, the agitations of
the volcanoes continued for the greater part of a year.
Smyrna and Conllantinople were incommoded with the
alhes, which ruflied from the ocean in whirlwinds of
flame. The fame volcano opened again in I7°7*
Little Kaminoi, mentioned, was increafed, and it is now
more than three leagues in circumference. A violent
eruption took place in 1767, which ihook the earth
greatly for fome days, and railed the fea in fuch a
manner, as to excite apprehenfions ol the deftrudtion
of the iflands in the neighbourhood. A thick black
fmoke darkened the air, which was fo infefted with a
ftrong fmell of fulphur, that many perfons and animals
were fuffocated by it. Black alhes refembling gun¬
powder were difpeifed around, and torrents ol flame
iffuing from the fea, and waving above it, to the height
of feveral feet, lighted, at intervals, the horrid feene.
At the end of 10 or 12 days the eruption began to be
more moderate; and a new ifland which had been
thrown up was difeovered. When it was examined,
many parts of it were Hill burning ^ but the next day,
thofe whom curiofity had drawn to the fpot, were com¬
pelled to betake themfelves to flight. They felt the
new foil moving 5 in fome parts it role, and funk in
others. The earth, fea, and Iky, foon refumed their
formidable appearance 5 the boiling fea changed co¬
lour 5 flames in rapid fucceflion iffued as from a fur¬
nace, but accompanied with alhes and pumice. The
frightful noife of fubterranean thunders was heard ; it
feemed as if enormous rocks, darting from the bottom
of the abyfs, beat againft the vaults above it, and were
alternately repelled and thrown up again. The repeti¬
tion of their blow's feemed to be diftinftly heard. Some
of them finding a paffage, were feen flying up red hot
into the air, and again falling into the fea from which
they had been ejected. Malles were produced, held
together for fome days, and then difappeared. In this
general diforder, large portions of the Little Kaminoi
were fwallowed up. Meanwhile the labour of the vol¬
cano took a larger furface. Its ejections became pro-
digioufly abundant, and a new ifland wras feen forming.
By fucceflive additions continued for near four months,
it made a jundlion with that produced in June. From
the colour of its foil it was named the Black IJland. It
is larger than the Little Kaminoi, and is feparated from
it by' a narrow ftrait. After frequent alarms for feve¬
ral months, the volcano opened again on the 15th of
April in the following year ; but the eruption was on¬
ly for a moment, when it threw out a multitude of
burning rocks, which fell at the diftance of two
miles.
GEOLOGY.
E-
Similar
'62 2
£mth- Similar rubmarlne Volcanoes liave been obferved near
qiuikes and j{]anci 0f 3t Michael, one of the Azores or Weftern
\ okanoLs jflan(js jn Atlantic ocean. In the year 1638, near
the ifland of St Michael, where the fea was known to
be 1 20 feet deep, there arofe, after an agitation of fe-
veral weeks, an ifland about iix miles round It was
again fwallovved up in about the fame fpace of time
that had elapfed during its formation. In the year
1691, this volcano was in great agitation for a month.
It convulfed the whole iiland of St Michael, and by
the heat and violent commotion of the lea, as well as
by the eruption of flames, alhes, and pumice, occafloned
great damage; but in this cafe no iiland appeared.
Similar eruptions were known in 1720, and in 1757.
During the latter eruption, fome of the iflands were
lhaken to their foundations.
After this account of fubmarine volcanoes, of their
effects, and of the iflands formed by them, it would
be unneceflary to enter into any detail of the fubma¬
rine volcano which threw up an ifland off the coaft
of Iceland, in the year 1783. This ifland, the exift-
ence of which feemed to be fully afeertained, was
again fwallowed up in the ocean, and was feen no
243 more.
Mud vol- Volcanoes of a very different kind have been de¬
canoes. feribed. The volcanoes to which we allude, have re¬
ceived the name of mud volcanoes, from ejefting a great
quantity of mud. Thefe, however, are fimilar to thofe
which have been already deferibed, in having volcanic
motions and convulfive eruptions. The firrt volcano
of this kind which was difeovered is in the ifland of
Sicily, near a place called Maccalouba, between Ar-
ragona and Girgenti, It is in a hill of a conical
fhape, truncated at the top, and 150 feet high. The
fummit is a plain, half a mile round, and the whole
furface is covered with thick mud. 1 he depth of the
mud, which is fuppofed to be immenfe, is unknown.
There is not the flightcfl appearance of vegetation upon
it. In the rainy feafon the mud is much foftened •, the
furface is even, and there is a general ebullition oyer
it, which is accompanied with a very fenflble rumbling
noife. In the dry feafon, the mud acquires greater
confiftency, but without ceaflng its motion. The plain
aflumes a form fome what convex \ a number of little
cones are thrown up, which rarely rife to the height
of two feet. Each of them has a crater, where a black
mud is feen in conftant agitation, and inceffantly emit¬
ting bubbles of air. With thefe the latter infenlibly
rifes, and as foon as the crater is full of it, it difgorges.
The refidue finks, and the cone has a free crater until
a new emjffion.
This hill is fometimes fubjecl to alarming convulfions.
Earthquakes are felt at the diflance of two or three
miles, accompanied with internal noifes, refembling
thunder. Thefe increafe for feveral days, and termi¬
nate in an eruption of a prodigious fpout of mud, earth,
and ftones, which rifes two or three hundred feet into
the air. This exploflon is repeated twice or thrice in
the courfe of 24 hours. Some years pafs over without
any eruption, but it generally happens that the eruptions
continue yearly for five years fucceflively. An eruption
from this mud volcano took place in 1777.
Phenomena fomewhat fimilar have been deferibed by
Pallas, which he obferved partly in the peninfula of
the Kercha, the boundary of Europe to the fouth-eafl: of
Chap. IV.
Little Tartary, now Taurida, and partly in the ifland ^>th-
of Taman, which is feparated from Kercha only by ^iu':kes aii(i
one of the mouths of the river Cuban. The ifland of . ° <L^nucs,f
Taman is fituated in Afia. Thefe places, he obferves,
are in flat countries where there are few hills, and thofe
very little railed above the level of the fea. The whole
is covered with beds of dime, mixed with fand, with
fome beds of marl and fea-fhells. From this he con¬
cludes that no real volanic pit can exifl here. Copious
fprings of petroleum are found in feveral places, and alfo
pools or fyphons of various dimenfions, through molt
of which a briny mud is difgorged in bubbles. Pallas
obferved feveral of thefe pools, both in the peninfula
and in Taman. The laft eruption which took place,
he obferves, was in 1794* This was the greateit and
molt copious that had been known. It proceeded from
the top of a hill at the north point of Taman. The
place where the new gulf opened wras a pool, where the
fnow and rain water ufually remained for a long time.
The explofion came on with a noife like that of thun¬
der, and with the appearance of a mafs of fire in the
form of a Iheaf. 1 his lalted only for about halt an
hour, and it was accompanied with a thick fmoke } but
the ebullition which threw up part of the liquid mud,
continued till the next day, after which the mud ran
floAvly in ftreams down the hill. 1 lie mud difeharged.
was of a foft clay, of a bluith afh colour, every where of
the fame nature, and mixed with brilliant fparks of mica,
with a fmall quantity of marl, calcareous and iandy frag¬
ments of fchiflus, which feemed to have been torn from
their beds.
Pallas fuppofes that a very deep coal mine had
been for ages on fire, under Kercha and 1 aman, and
that the fea having accidentally broken into the burn¬
ing cavities of the mine, the expanfion produced by
the water converted into fleam, and the druggie of the
different aeriform fubftances to get free, forced the up¬
per beds, broke them in pieces, and formed a paflage
to themfelves. The vapours, as they efcaped, carried
the mud along with them. But others have fuppofed
that thefe phenomena are not produced by fire ; that
the appearance of the fheaf of fire muft have been ex¬
traneous, or, that it wras only a quantity of inflammable
air, which exploded when it came to the furface j or,
perhaps it was altogether an illufion, from the appear¬
ances of the vapours which were emitted.
An account is given of a Angular phenomenon, fome¬
what fimilar to the above, which was obferved in 171 L
at Bofely, near Wenlock, in Shropfhire. After a great
hurricane, the inhabitants were awakened in the middle
of the night by commotions of the earth, which Avere
accompanied with noife. Some perfons went to an
eminence from which the noife proceeded, and they law
water oozing through the turf, w hile at the fame time
inflammable air rvas emitted. The water was not hot.
This continued for fome time, but at laft it ceafed to
throAV out any inflammable air for fome years, previous
to the year 1746, Avhen a fecond eruption took place,
attended Avith fimilar circumftanees.
We {hall not dwell longer on the hiftory of volca¬
noes. For a particular account of the moft remarkable
eruptions of the principal volcanoes in the Avorld, the
reader is referred to the hiftory given under tEtna,
Hecla, and Vesuvius. W e (hall noAv proceed to
ftate fome of the opinions and conjectures of philofo-
phers.
GEOLOGY.
Chip. TV. GEOLOGY. 623
Earth- phers, ’with regard to the caufe of thefe extraordinary
quakes and phenomena.
1 Volcanic eruptions have been afcribed to the action
244 of the waters of the lea, burliing in upon an immenfe
Caafes sf quantity of fufed or burning matter 5 to the aftion of
volcanoes, central fires, and to the decompofition of different fub-
ftances, by which a great quantity of heat and inflam¬
mable fubltances is produced.
Water, according to fome philofophers, is abfolutely
necelfary for the formation of volcanoes. This opinion
is fupported by the circumflance of almolt all volca¬
noes being near the fea. According to this opinion, they
were all formed under the furface of the w aters of the
ocean. The firfl: explolion at the formation of a vol¬
cano, it is fuppofed, wras preceded by an earthquake.
The firfl: eruptions would be extremely violent, and im¬
menfe quantities of matter would be ejected. Torrents
of lava would continue to be difcharged for a long
feries of ages, and thus the foundations of the burning
mountain are laid in the bottom of the ocean. But it
becomes a queition, in what way the internal fire was
preferved from extinction by the incumbent waters of
the ocean ? To this M. Houel replies, that the fire
having difpofed the fubflances in fufion to make an
eruption, next laid open the earth, and emitted as much
matter as it could difcharge, with a force fuflicient to
overcome the reiiitance of the column of water, which
would oppofe its afeent; but as the ftrength of the fire
diminifhed, the matter difcharged was no longer ex¬
pelled beyond the mouth 5 but, by accumulating
there, foon clofed up the orifice. Thus, only finall
orifices would be left fufficient for giving vent to the
vapours of the volcano, and from which only fmall bub¬
bles of air could afeend to the furface of the water, un¬
til new circumftanees, fuch as originally gave occafion
to the eruption of the volcano, again took place in the
bowels of the earth, and produced newr eruptions, either
through the fame or other mouths. The appearance of
the fea over the newr formed volcano, in its date of tran¬
quillity, would then be fimilar to what it is betwixt the
illands of Bafilizzo and Pariaria. Columns of air bub¬
bles are there afeending at the depth of more than 30
feet, and burft on their arriving at the furface. This
air would continue to difengage itfelf with little difturb-
ance as long as it iffues forth only in fmall quantity,
until, at the very inftant of explofion, when prodigious
quantities, generated in the burning focus, would make
their wray at once, and the fame phenomena which
originally took place would again make their appear¬
ance.”
A volcano, while under water, cannot act precifely
as it does in the open air. Its eruptions, though equal¬
ly ftrong, cannot extend to fo great a diftance. The
lava accumulates in greater quantity round the crater j
the fand, alhes, and pozzolana are not carried away
by the winds, but are depofited around its edges, and
prevent the marine fubftances which are driven that
way by the waters from entering. Thus they agglome¬
rate with thefe bodies, and thus a pyramidal mount is
formed of all the materials together.
In this manner M. Houel fuppofes that the mountain
was gradually raifed out of the fea by the accumulation
of lava, &c. at every eruption, and that the cavern of
the volcano was gradually enlarged, the lava being dri¬
ven down into the bottom of the cavern by the continued
adtion of the Hones 'which the volcano is conftantly Earth¬
throwing up : that it was there fufed, and at lalt throw n Viaites anc*
out at the top of the mountain to accumulate on its fides. ^
M, Houel’s opinion about the volcanic fire we fliallgive
in his owm words.
“ We cannot form any idea of fire fubfifting alone,
without any pabulum, and unconnedled with any other
principle. We never behold it but in conjundlicn with
fome other body, which nouriihes and is confirmed by it.
The matter in fufion, which iffues from the focus, is but
the incombuftible part of that which nourithes the fire,
and into the bofom of which that adtive principle pene¬
trates in fearch of pabulum. But as the fire adts only
in proportion to the facility with which it can diffolve
and evaporate, I am of opinion, that it is only the bot¬
tom of the volcano on which it adh \ and that its ac¬
tion extends no farther than to keep thefe fubftances
which it has melted in a conftant ftate of ebullition.
That fufible matter being difcharged from the mouth
of the volcano, and hardening as it is gradually cooled
by the adlion of the air, produces that Ipecies of itones
which are diftinguilhed by the name of lavas. This
lava, even when in the focus, and in a ftatc of fluidity,
muft alfo poffefs a certain degree of folidity, on account
of the gravity and denfity of its particles. It therefore
oppofes the fire with a degree of refiftance which irri¬
tates it, and requires, to put it into a ftate of ebullition,
a power proportioned to the bulk of the mafs.
“ That quantity of matter, when diffolved by the ac¬
tion of the fire, muft conftantly refemble any other thick
fubftance in a ftate of ebullition. Small explofions are
produced in various parts over the furface of every
fuch fubftance while in a ftate of ebullition ; and, by
the burfting of thefe bubbles, a great number of fmall
particles are fcattered around. This is the very pro-
cefs carried on in the focus of a volcano, though on
a fcale immenfely more large 5 and the vaft explofions
there produced expel every body which lies in their
way with the utmoft violence 5 nor is there any piece
of lava which falls down from the upper part of the
arch, of weight fufficient to refift this violent centrifu¬
gal force.
“ The pabulum by which the internal fire is fupport¬
ed, M. Houel thinks to be fubftances contained in
the mountain itfelf, together with bitumen, fulphur, and
other inflammable materials, which may from time to
time flow’ into the focus of the volcano in a melted ftate
through the fubterraneous du6ls, and the explofions he
aferibes to water making its way in the fame manner.
The water is converted into (team, which fills the cavern
and pufhes the melted lava out at the crater ; this opi¬
nion is corroborated by the copious fmoke which always
precedes an eruption. But, combined with the waterr
there is always a quantity of other fubftances, whofe
effefts precede, accompany, or follow the eruptions, and
produce all the various phenomena which they difplay.
The eruption of water from Attna in the year 1775
proceeded undoubtedly from this caufe. The fea, or
fome of the refervoirs in AEtna or the adjacent moun¬
tains, by fome means difcharged a vaft quantity of
water into the focus of the volcano. That water
was inftantly refolved into vapour, which filled the
whole crater, and iffued from the mouth of the crater.
As foon as it made its Avay into the open atmofphere, it
was condenfed again into water, which ftreamed down
tk&e
624
Earth¬
quakes and tQirent.”
V oleanoes.
GEOLOGY.
tlie Tides of the mountain in a dreadful and deftruftive
tom. v.
, Others have attempted to account for the ^ exiltence
of volcanic fire, on the fuppofition that it is derived
from central fires, and to thefe it is fuppofed that vol¬
canoes aft the part of chimneys j while others are of
opinion that they are owing to the chemical decompo-
fition of different fubftances, by which inflammable
matters are evolved, with a great deal of heat, and by
means of the latter the combuftible materials are kin¬
dled, and exhibit the phenomena which are thus pro-
poled to be accounted for.
M. Patrin is one of the lateft naturalifts who, with
the a Hi it a nee of modern chemiftry, has attempted to
account for the phenomena of volcanoes on the princi¬
ples of this fcience. For a full view of his theory, or
rather of his fanciful conjectures on this fubjeft, we
* Hifl.Nat. muft refer the reader to the work itfelf *. But thefol-
de Miner. pnv;ng is a recapitulation of the principles on which he
(rives this explanation. All volcanoes, he obferves,
in a ftate of aftivity, are in the vicinity of the fea, and
are never found but in thofe places where fea fait is a-
bundant. The volcanoes of the Mediterranean ab-
ftraft the fait which the waters of the ocean hold in
folution, and are conftantly pouring in by the ftraits of
Gibraltar. The ftrata of primitive fchiftus are the
o-reat laboratories in which volcanic matters are prepa¬
red, by a conftant circulation of different fluids j but
according to this theory, thefe ftrata contribute no part
()f their own fubftance. They fuffer no wafte m the
procefs. c
The fphere of the aftivity of volcanoes may be lat
extended in thefe ftrata, but they have no other outlet
befide fpiracles, by which the gafeous fubftances efcape,
of which one part is diffipated in the atmofphere, and
the other becomes concrete by its combination with
oxygen. The concretion of thefe fluids is _ fuppofed to
be analogous to the concretion of the primitive ^natters
of the globe, according to the theory of La Place ; and
the eleftive attraftions determine, in the fame way, the
formation of ftony cryftals.
Volcanic eruptions are proportioned, m regard to
their violence and duration, to the extent of the ftrata
of fchiftus in which the volcanic fluids are accumulated.
Thefe fluids are, .
1. Muriatic acid, which carries off the oxygen trom
the metallic oxides of the fchiftus.
2. T/ie oxygen of the atmofphere, which conftantly
replaces in the metals that which was carried off by the
muriatic acid. , -
3. Carbonic acid gas, which the water abiorbs irom
the atmofphere, and conveys to the fchiftus, which al¬
ways abounds in carbone. #
a. Hydrogen, which proceeds from the decompofitlon
of water. A part of this hydrogen is inflamed, by e-
leftric explofions j the other united to carbonic acid
forms oil, which becomes petroleum by its combination
with fulphuric acid; and it is to this petroleum that
the bitternefs of fea water is owing.
The elcHric fluid, which is attrafted from the at¬
mofphere by the metals contained in the fchiftus. Sul¬
phur feems to be the moft homogeneous portion of this
fluid, which has become concrete. Phofphorus is a
modification of it, and it contributes to the fixation of
oxygen. The fulphur formed in the fchiftus by means
Chap. IV.
of the eleftric fluid, combines with the oxygen, and ^ Mi-
forms fulphuric acid, which decompofes the lea fait. . Volcanoes
6. The metalliferous fluid. This forms the iron m
lavas. It is the origin of metallic veins, and the co¬
louring principle of organized bodies. This fubftance
in its undecompofed ftate affords iron, but by decom-
pofition it produces other metals. It is conjeftuied to
be one of the principles of muriatic acid, and it contri¬
butes, along with phofphorus, to fix oxygen under an
earthy form.
7. The laft of the volcanic fluids is azotic gas. J o
this gas is owing the formation of the maffes of carbo¬
nate of lime which are ejefted by Vefuvius, and of the
calcareous earth contained in lavas..
Such are the materials with which the author pro-
pofes to form the different fubftances w hich are produ¬
ced in volcanoes, and by the operation of which he
propofes to explain the phenomena of volcanic erup¬
tions. Our readers will probably agree with us in
thinking, that the prefent ftate of chemical fcience,
even with the afliftance of fuch hypothetical fubftances
as the metalliferous fluids, is yet inadequate to give any
degree of fupport to fuch opinions, even in the' form of
conjecture. We ftiall therefore difmifs it without far¬
ther remark. . 245
We (hall now conclude this fubject with tome inter-obferva-
efting obfervations by M. de Luc, on the nature of thetiocs on the
ftrata in which volcanic fires exift. ^ gn.t3,
“ Volcanoes, he obferves, have been more numerous
on the furface of our continents, when they were under
the waters of the ancient fea ) and as this clafs of moun¬
tains, raifed by fubterranean fires, manifeft themfelves
ftill on the fhores of the prefent fea, and m the middle
of its waters, it is of importance to geology and the
philofophy of the earth to obtain as juft ideas of them as
ulbje"iiave attended a great deal to this fubjeft from
my own obfervations; and I have fhown, at different
times, the errors into which feveral geologifts and na¬
turalifts, in treating of it, have fallen.
“ This clafs of mountains, in particular, requires that
we fhould fee them, that we fliould behold them during
their eruptions, that we fliould have traced the progreis
of their lava, and have obferved clofely their explofions j
that we fhould have made a numerous colleChon of the
matters which they throw up under their different cir-
cumftances, that we might afterwards be able to ftudy
them in the cabinet, and to judge of their compofition
according to the phenomena which have been obierved
on the fpot. , .. .
“ This ftudy is highly neceflary when we apply it to
geology and the philofophy of the earth, m order that
we may avoid falling into thofe miftakes which make
us aferibe to fubterranean fires what does not belong to
them, or which leads us to refufe them what really be¬
longs to them. . . T
a \Ye read in the Journal de Phyjic/ue for January
1804, under the title, On the Caufe of Volcanoes, the
following aflertions : ......
« What is the nature of the matters which maintain
thefe fubterranean fires ? We have feen that Chimbo-
all thefe enormous volcanoes of Peru, and the
pfak ofTeneriffe, are compofed of porphyry.
< The Puy-de Dome is alfo compofed of porphyry, as
well as the Mont d’Or and the Cantal. ^
GEOLOGY.
Chap. IV,
Earth- ‘ j^tna, Solfatara, and Vefuvius, are alfo of the por-
Vokanoef kind'
■ / ‘ Thefe facts prove that the moft confiderable volca¬
noes with which we are acquainted are of porphyry.’,
“ This opinion, that the fires of volcanoes have their
centres in fuch or inch a rock, and that their lavas are
produced from thefe rocks, has always appeared to me
not to be founded on any certain data. Opinions alfo
on this fubjeft have varied •, fome having placed the
origin of lava in horn rock, others in granite or fchiit,
and at prefent it is afligned to porphyry.
“ I have always been of opinion that nothing certain
could be determined in regard to this point. " It ever
remains uncertain whether the feat of the matters of
which lava is formed be in compact rocks, or in ftrata
in the ftate of foftnefs, pulverulent, and muddy.
u 1 hofe who fee lava ilfue from a volcano in its Hate
of fufion and incandefcence, and in its cooling, are con¬
vinced that the nature of every thing is changed, that""
it exhibits a pafte in which nothing can be known, ex¬
cept the fubftances which the volcanic fires have not
reduced to fufion.
“ But thefe fubftances contained in the pafte of lava,
and thofe which are the moft numerous, (how us, that
the ftrata from which they proceed cannot be fimilar to
thofe expofed to the view, nor even to the moft pro¬
found ftrata to which we can penetrate.
“ Admitting the hypothefis, that the ftrata from
which the lavas proceed are in a pulverulent and mud¬
dy ftate, containing elements of all thefe fmall cryftals,
one may conceive how they are formed there, infulated,
grouped, or folitary, and are found then in the lava in
that ftate of infolution.
“ The fragments of natural rocks thrown up by Ve~
fuvius are not of the fame kind as the matters of which
the lava is compofed. Moft of thefe fragments are
micaceous rocks, with laminae of greater or lefs fize,
and of a kind of granite called fyenite. I have found
fome compofed of white quartzy rock ; it is found fome-
times of calcareous rock.
“ I he moft probable idea that can be formed in re¬
gard to the origin of thefe fragments is, that they have
been carried from the borders of the ftrata through
which the lava, that comes from great depths, has
opened for itfelf a paffage. Thefe fragments are car¬
ried to the furface of the lava as far as the bottom of
the chimney of the crater, whence they have been
thrown out by explofions, mixed with fragments fepa-
rated, or rather torn, from the lava 5 for it is not by
the lava that they have been brought forth to view, but
by explofions.
“ Some of thefe fragments of natural rocks have not
been attacked by the fire ; others have more or lefs 5
which depends, no doubt, on the place which they
occupied in the volcano, and on the time which they
remained in it. The moft of the latter have retained
at their furface a cruft of lava, and this cruft contains
fubftances which are not the fame as that of the frag¬
ment it covers.
“ On Vefuvius the ftrata pierced by eruptions are
lower than the furface of the foil •, in Auvergne and
feveral places of Germany they are above ; for this rea-
Con there are feen there in their place Ichifts or granites,
Vol. IX. Part II.
which the eruptions have broken to form for themfelvcs
a paffage.
“ No volcano refts on natural ftrata: they fometimes
ftiow themfelves on the exterior $ but they have been
opened by eruptions, and their edges have remained in
their place.
“ 1 he focus of no volcano exifts or has exifted in the
cone which appears above the furface of the ground.
They have been raifed by eruptions, which, proceeding
from great depths, have thrown them up through the
upper ftrata. When it is faid, therefore, that the vol¬
canic mountains of Auvergne reft on granite, this is a
miftake, and an incorreft expreflion has been ufed bv
thofe who have not formed a juft idea of the phenome¬
non. Lava may have flowed upon granite or any other
rock, and refted upon it; but this is never the cafe
with the volcano itfelf: its bafes are below all the rocks
vifible.
“ It is from the bofom even of the lava, when in a
ftate of fufion in the interior of the volcano, that all
the explofions proceed. In that ftate of fufion they
contain all the matters which produce fermentations,
and the difengagement of expanfible fluids.
“ I have been enabled to afeertain this on Vefuvius
as far as was poflible. X he continual noife which was
heard through the two interior mouths the crater
which I had before my eyes, was that of an ebullition,
accompanied Avith inflammable vapours, and the gerbes
of burning matters which they threw up at intervals
were feparated pieces of the lava in its ftate of fufion.
I faw feveral of them in the air change their form, and
fometimes become flat on the bodies which they ftruck
or embraced in falling. And among the moft apparent
of thefe fragments there are always a multitude of fmall
ones of the fize of peas and nuts, and ftill fmaller ones,
which fliow at their furface, by their afperities, all the
char afters of laceration.
u J he name oi fcorice has been given to thefe frag¬
ments, to diftinguilh them from compaft lava, though
their compofition be the fame as that of the hardeft la¬
va ; and it is for rvant of reflefting properly on this
point that it has been faid that it is the compaft part
only that avc muft obferve, in order to judge of their
nature. . The pieces Avhich I took from the floAving lava
with an iron hook, have at their furface the fame lacera¬
tions and the fame afperities as the fragments thrown up
by explofions, and both contain the fame fubftances.
“ This feparation, by tearing off the parcels of the
lava, effefted by fermentations and explofions Avhich pro¬
ceed from their bofom, ferves to explain thofe columns,
fometimes. prodigious, of volcanic fand, Avhich rife from
the principal crater. When feen Avith a magnifyino-
glafs, this fand exhibits nothing but lava reduced very
Imall, the particles of AA’hich, rough with inequalities
have the bright black colour and the varnifli of recent
lava.
“ Parcels of fubftances which exift in our ftrata, fuch
as fragments of quartz, feales of mica, and cryftals of
feldfpar, are found fomelimes in lava. Similar matters
muft no doubt be diffeminated in the compofition of our
globe, Avithout there being reafon to conclude that the
ftrata from which they proceed are the fame as the ex¬
terior ftrata. It is neither in the granites, the porphy-
4 K nes^
62
Earth¬
quakes and
Volcanoes.
626 Ci E O L
Earth- ties, nor the horn rock, and fhli lefe in the fchifts and
quakes and calcareous rocks, that the fehorls of volcanoes, the Icu-
^2——cites, and perhaps olivins, vill be found. Xhefe fmall
cryftals are brought to view by the lava, otherwife they
would be unknown to us.
“ Thefe lavas contain a great deal of iron, which
they acquire neither from the granite nor porphyries.
Might not one fee in the ferruginous land which is
found in abundance on the borders of the fea near
Naples, and in the environs of Rome, Ipecimens of
that kind of pulverulent ftrata from which lava pro¬
ceeds ?
il X have here offered enough to prove that it cannot
be determined that lava proceeds from rtrata fimilar to
thofe with which we are acquainted. The operations
„f volcanoes, thofe vaft laboratories of nature, will
always remain unknown to us, and on this fubjecl our
eonje&ures will always be very uncertain.
“ What is the nature of that mixture which gives
birth to thefe eruptions, that produce lava and throw
up mountains ?- What we oblerve as certain is, that
the introduction of the water of the fea is neceffary to
excite thefe fermentations, as containing marine acid,
and other falts, which, united to the fulphuric acid, the
bafes of v'hich are contained in abundance in the fub-
terranean ftrata, determine thefe fermentations, which
produce tffe difengagement of fire and other fluids, and
all the grand effects that are the confequence.
“ Several naturalifts have believed, and ftill believe,
that frefh or rain water is fufheient for this purpofe j
but they are miftaken : this opinion is contradicted by
every fa£t known, d o be convinced of this, nothing
✓ is neceflary but to take a fhort view of them. I have
done it feveral times, as it is neceffary to confider them
©ften. I (hall here enumerate the principal ones :—
No burning mountain exifls in the interior part of the
earth; and all thofe which ftill burn are, without ex¬
ception, in the neighbourhood of the fea, or furround-
ed by its waters. " Among the deliquefeent falts ^ de-
pofited by the fmoke of volcanoes, we diftinguifti chiefly
the marine fait, united to different bafes. Several of
the volcanoes of Iceland, and Hecla itfelf, fometimes
throw up eruptions of water, which depofit marine fait
in abundance. No extent of frefh water, however vaft,
gives birth to a volcano. Thefe faffs are fufticient to
prove that the concurrence of fea-water is abfolutely
neceffary to excite thofe fermentations which produce
volcanoes.
“ I {hall here repeat the diftinfhon I have already
made between burnt-out volcanoes and the ancient vol¬
canoes, that I may range them in two feparate claffes.
“ When we Amply give the name of burnt-out or ex-
tinguijhed volcanoes to volcanic mpuntains which are in
O G Y. Chap. IV.
the middle of the continents, it is to reprefent them as Earth- _
having burnt while the land was dryland inhabited as
it is at prefent; which is not a juft idea. Thefe vol-
canoes have burnt when the land on which they are
railed was under the waters of the ancient fea, and none
of them have burnt flnee our continents became dry. It
is even very apparent that moil of them were extinft
before the retreat of the fea, as we find by numerous
examples in the prefent fea.
“ T hofe which I denominate ex tin ft volcanoes are
fuch as no longer burn, though furrounded by the fea,
or placed on the borders of it. They would ftill burn,
were not the inflammable matters by which they were
raifed really exhaufted and confirmed. Of this kind
is the-volcano of Agde, in Languedoc. Oi this kind
alfo are many of the volcanic iflands which have not
thrown up fire fince time immemorial.
“ M. Humboldt, in his letters written from Peru,
' fpeaks of the volcanoes which he vifited, but what he
fays is not fuffieiently precife to enable us to form a juft
idea of them. He” represents Chimborazo as being
compofed of porphyry from its bottom to its fummit,
and adds, that the porphyry is 1900 toifes in thicknefsj
afterwards, he remarks,' that it is almoft improbable
that Chimborazo, as w7ell as Pichincha and Antifana,
ftiould be of a volcanic nature : ‘ The place by which
we afeended, (fays he), is compofed of burnt and fcori-
fied rock, mixed with pumiceftone, which refembles all
the currents of lava in this country.’
“ Here are two characters very different. If Chim¬
borazo be porphyry from the top to the bottom, it is
not compofed of burnt and fcorified rocks, mixed with
pumiceftone 5 and if it be compofed of burnt rocks, it
cannot be porphyry. This expreflion, burnt and fcori¬
fied 7'ocks, is not even exact, becaufe it excites the idea
of natural rocks, altered in their place by fire, and they
are certainly lava which has been thrown up by the
volcano. Rut the truth muft be, that Chimborazo,
and all the other volcanoes of Peru, are compofed of
volcanic matters, from their bafe at the level of the fea
to the fummit. ^
“ I have juft read in the Annales du Mufiewn d1 Hi-
fi 0 ire Naturelle*, a letter of the fame traveller, written ¥ N° xvn>
from Mexico, on his return from Peru, where, fpeak-
ing of the volcanoes of Popayan, Pafto, Quito, and
the other parts of the Andes, he fays, ‘ Great maffes of
this foflil (obfidian) have iffued from the craters and
the fidcs of thefe gulfs, which w e clofeiy examined,
confift of porphyry, the bafe of which holds a mean be¬
tween obfidian and pitchftone (peclifiein').'’ M. Hum¬
boldt therefore confiders obfidian, or black compaCf
glafs, as a natural foflil or rock, and not as volcanic ^ ^
glafs f.” Mines,
N° s>5>
INDEX,
geology:
PLATE CCXXXAW.
geology:
I
Index,
G E O L 0 G Y.
627
INDEX.
A.
J^LABASTER cleferibed,
gypfeous.
N19 67
_ - t 85
AmontoiAs theory of earthquakes, 229
Amygdaloid defcribed, 7 2
Antimony, ores of, enumerated, 170
Arfenic, ores of, enumerated, 175
B.
Bafalt defcribed, 103
Werner’s opinion refpedfing,
Note (f) p. 600.
Beccaria's theory of earthquakes, 231
Bifmuth, ores of, enumerated, 168
Breccia defcribed, Note (c) p. 556.
examples of, 49
Buffon's remarks on mountains, 117
theory of the earth, 184
obj eft ions to, 185
Burnet's theory of the earth, 181
C.
Chalk,
Clay,
where found,
indurated,
date, defcribed,
88
89
90
91
32
Coal, _ 104
general circumftances attending,
where found, 106
mines of France, 107
England, 108
flrata at Newcaftle, table of, p. 566
Whitehaven, table of, 568
bovey, defcribed, N° no
Cobalt, ores of, enumerated, 171
Copper, ores of, enumerated, 164
D.
Eelametherie's remarks on the decli¬
vities of mountains, 119
Dolomieu's theory of earthquakes, 233
Dykes, account of, 142
names of, 143
courfe of, 144
inclination of, 145
extent of, 146
thicknefs of, 147
materials of, 148
whin, peculiar ftrufture of, 149
Earthquakes, account of, 198
where mod prevalent, 199
phenomena preceding
and accompanying, 200
at Calabria, in 1635, re¬
lation of, 201
in Sicily, 202
Earthquakes, in Jamaica, N* 203
at Lilbon, 204
felt at Colares, 205
at Oporto, 206
deftroys St Ubes, 207
felt in Spain, 208
in Africa, 209
in Madeira, 210
in France, 211
in Germany, 212
in Switzerland, 213
in Holland, 214
in Norway, 215
in Britain, 216
effefts of, at fea, 219
in Calabria, in 1783, 221
deitruftion of Op-
pido, by, 222
in Peru, 223
in Scotland, 224
caufes of, 225
according to
the ancients, 226
according to
the moderns, 227
theory of, by Wood¬
ward, 228
by Amontons, 229
by Stukeley, 230
by Beccaria, 231
by Prieftley, 232
by Dolomieu, 233
afcribed to the force of
fleam,
234
86
87
109
in
1
ib.
2
3
4
5
landed proprietors, 6
Chriftians, 7
difficulties attending the ftudy
of, not infurmountable, 8
principal improvers of, 9
method of fludying, 10
Gneifs defcribed, 24
where found, 25
metals found in, 26
Gold, ores of, enumerated, 161
Gra«zVe defcribed, 18
its different flates, 19
F.
Fluor fpar defcribed,
where found,
FoJJils, vegetable,
animal,
G.
Geognofy, definition of,
Geology, definition and objeft of,
divifion of,
importance of,
to naturalifts,
miners.
Granite, flratified, inflances of, N° 29
where found, 21
decay of, 22
metals found in, 23
Gray wacke defcribed, 68
(late defcribed, ib.
W'here found, 69
rich in metals, 70
Greenjlone defcribed, 74
Gypfum defcribed, 79
common, 81
lenticular, ib.
cryftallized, 8 2
fibrous, 83
flalaftitic, 84
H.
Herman's remarks on mountains, 118
Hornblende (late defcribed, 40
metals found in, 41
Hornjlone defcribed, 37
Hoad's theory of Volcanoes, 244
Hutton's theory of the earth, 188
objeftions to, 189
I.
Jafper defcribed, 33
where found, 36
Irtn, ores of, enumerated, 165
Iron/lone, argillaceous, defcribed, 97
IJlands formed by fubmarine volcanoes, 242
K.
Kirwan's remarks on the declivities
of mountains, 114—124
theory of do. 196
of dykes, 197
L.
Lead, ores of, enumerated, 166
Limejlone, granular, defcribed, 54
where found, 55
metals found in, 56
fecondary, defcribed, 64
where found, 65
metals found in, 66
Lithomarga, 92
Luc's (de) obfervations on the ftrata
in the neighbourhood of
volcanoes, 243
M.
Manganefe, ores of, enumerated,
Marl defcribed,
Materials compofing the earth,
general diftribution of,
divifion of,
Mercury, ores of, enumerated,
Molybdena, where found*
4 K. 2
*73
96
12
162
174
Mountainsj,
623
fountains^ definition of, N° 11 2
chains of, 113
declivities of, I 24
Kirwan’s obfcrvations on, 114
fteep fide of, laces the low
country, 115
■weftern fide of, fteepeft, 116
remarks on by Bulfon, 117
by Herman, 118
by Delame-
therie, 119
fouth and fouth-eaft fides
of, the fteepeft, 120
account of, in Europe, 1 22
in Alia, 123
in America, 124
height of, table of, p. 576
courfe of, IN0 126
ftrudlure of, 127
primary and fecondary,
how diftinguilhed,
128
equatorial, not the higheft, 129
Uralian, courfe of, 131
Altaic, courfe of, 132
Alpine, 133
Afiatie, 134
fouth ern, 136
of North America, 137
England, 13^
Scotland, 140
Ireland, 141
N.
Jsichel, ores of, enumerated, 172
NortJwich, fait mines at, 103
O.
Ores, metallic, enumerated, 139—179
of platina, 160
gold, 161
mercury 162
filver, 163
copper, 164
iron, 165
lead, 166
tin, 167
bifmuth, 168
zinc, 169
antimony, 170
cobalt, 17I
nickel, 172
manganefe, 173
molybdena, 174
arfenic, 175
tungften, ^ 176
uranium, 177
titanium, 178
tellurium, 179
G E O L O G Y.
p.
Patrin's theory of volcanoes, N° 244
Pitchjlone defcribed, 38
where found, 39
Platina, where found, 160
Porphyry defcribed, 44
where found, 45
metals found in, 46
fchiftofe, 47
PriejHey's theory of earthquakes, 23 2
P liddingJl one, 5°
&•
Quartz defcribed,
where found,
no metals found in,
S.
Salt rock defcribed, ici
where found, 102
mines at Northwich, 103
Sandjlone defcribed, 75
argillaceous, 76
where found, 77
filiceous, 78
Schijlus, micaceous, defcribed, 27
where found, 28
3°
ib.
31
Index,
of Hutton, N° 188
objections to, 189
of Werner, 193
Tin, ores of, enumerated, 167
Titanium, ores of, enumerated, 178
Toadjlone defcribed, 72
Topa% rock defcribed, 60
Trap, primitive, deferibed, 37
w'here found, 38
metals found in, 39
fecondary, defcribed, 71—74
globular, 7 2
Tungjlen, ores of, enumerated, 176
u.
ib. Uranium, ores of, enumerated,
V.
*77
metals found in, 29
argillaceous, defcribed, 32
where found, 33
metals found in, 34
filiceous, defcribed, 61
where found, 62
Syenite defcribed, 51
where found, 3 2
metals found in, 33
Silver, ores of, enumerated, 163
Slate, 94
clay, 93
Strata of the earth, 13
horizontal and vertical, 14
derangement of, 15
in general regular, 16
in various parts of Europe, ta¬
ble of, P-573
Stukeley's theory of earthquakes, N° 230
T.
Tellurium, ores of, enumerated, 179
Theories of the earth, object of, 180
of Burnet, 181
of Woodward, 182
of Whifton, 183
of Buffon, 184
objections to, 183
of Whitehurft, 186
Veins metallic, account of, 130
diftinction of, 131
perpendicular, 132
two kinds of, 136
courfe of, 133
inclination of, 134
thicknefs of, 1
pipe, defcribed, 137
flat, defcribed, 11;8
Volcanic fluids, 244
Volcanoes exift almoft in every part of
the world, 233
number of, 236
all near the fea, 237
all on the tops of moun¬
tains, 238
fymptoms of the eruption
of, 239
matters thrown out by, 240
become extint, and are re¬
kindled, 241
fubm arine, 242
of mud, 243
caufes of, difeufled, 244
W.
Wache defcribed, 99
Werner1 s theory of the earth, 193
objetions to, 194
opinion on the formation of
bafalt, Note (f) p. 600.
theory of veins, 193
IPhinflone, 98
Whijioti's theory of the earth, 183
Wkhehurjl'1 s theory of the earth, 186
objetions to, 187
Woodward"1 s theory of the earth, 182
z.
objetions to, 187 Zinc, ores of, enumerated,
169
f
GEOMANCY,
GEO [ 629 ] GEO
Ceomancy. GEOMANCY, Geomantia, a kind of divination,
performed by means of a number of little points, or dots,
made on paper at random : and confidering the various
lines and figures which thofe points prefent j and thence
forming a pretended judgment of futurity, and deciding
any queftion propofed.
The word is formed of the Greek 7)5, terra, “ earth
and {.tufiiut, “ divination j” it being the ancient cuftom
to calf little pebbles on the ground, and thence to form Geomancy.
their conjeftures : inftead of the points afterwards made —
ufe of.
Polydore Virgil defines geomancy a kind of divina¬
tion performed by means of clefts or chinks made in the
ground ; and takes th Perfian Magi to have been the
inventors thereof.
GEOMETRY.
INTRODUCTION.
rTTHERE is reafon to believe that geometry, as well
as molt of the other feiences, was firft cultivated in
Egypt; and, according to fome authors, it had its origin
in the neceffity there was of affigning to the inhabi¬
tants every year their particular finares of land : for as
the country was annually overflowed by the Nile, it
has been taken for granted (perhaps without good rea¬
fon), that the land-marks would be obliterated, and the
poffeflions rendered undiilinguifliable from one another.
Such is faid to have been the origin of land-meafuring,
the form under which geometry was firft known, and
from which it has taken its name ; for geometry lite¬
rally fignifies the meafuring of the earth.
The hiftorian Herodotus refers the origin of geome¬
try to the time when Sefqfiris interfered Egypt by
numerous canals, and divided the country among the in¬
habitants 5 and this account of the beginning of the
fcience has been confidered by fome as very probable.
From Egypt geometry was carried into Greece by
Thales of Miletus about 600 years before the Chriftian
cera. This celebrated philofopher is faid to have made
numerous difcoveries in geometry *, and in particular
to have firft obferved that any angle in a femicircle is a
right angle ; a difcovery which gave him great joy, and
for which he thanked the mufes by a facrifice.
Among the difciples of Thales were Anaximander
and Anaxagoras: the firft of thefe wrote an elemen¬
tary treatife or introduftion to geometry, the earlieft of
which there is any mention in hiftory ; and the laft is
faid to have attempted the quadrature of the circle, a
problem which has baffled the fkill of mathematicians
of every age.
Pythagoras followed Thales, and had the merit of
difcovering one of the moft beautiful and important pro-
pofitions of the whole fcience, namely, that the fquare
of the hypothenufe of a right-angled triangle is equal to
the fquares of the two other fides. He is faid to have
been fo tranfported with joy at this difcovery, that he
facrificed a hundred oxen to the gods as a teftimony of
his gratitude. The truth of this anecdote has however
been doubted, on account of the philofopher’s moderate
fortune and religious opinions concerning the tranfmigra-
tion of fouls.
Zenodorus is the earlieft of the geometers whofe
writings have reached modern times, a part of them
having been preferved by Theon, in his commentary
on Ptolemy.
Hippocrates of Chios cultivated geometry, and dif-
tinguiffled himfelf by the quadrature of the curvilineal
fpace. contained between half the circumference of Introduc-
one circle, and the fourth part of the circumference of tion-
another circle, their concavities being both turned the ' v
fame way, and the radius of the former to that of the
latter as 1 to He alfo wrote elements of geome¬
try which are now loft.
The founding of the fchool of Plato forms one of the
the earlieft and moft important epochs in the hiftory of
geometry ; for to that philofopher we are faid to be
indebted for the difcovery of the Geometrical Anahjfis,
by which the fcience has been greatly extended, and
which is indeed abfolutely neceffary for the refolution
of problems of a certain degree of difficulty.
The Conic Sections, and the theory of Geometrical
Loci, are commonly reckoned among the improvements
which geometry received from his difciples; and there
is reafon to fuppofe that thefe, as well as many other im¬
portant difcoveries which we have not room here to
enumerate, were firft fuggefted by the attempts of the
geometers of the Platonic fchool to refolve two cele¬
brated problems, namely, to t rife cl, or divide into
three equal parts, a given angle ; and to conltrudt a
cube which ftiould be the double of another cube ;
which laft problem Hippocrates had fliown to be equi¬
valent to the finding of two mean proportionals between
two given lines. The efteem in which Plato held the
fcience of geometry is fully evinced by the following in-
feription over the door of his fchool : Let no one enter
here that is ignorant of geometry.
The fcience of geometry was likewife cultivated in
all its branches by the philofophers of the Alexandrian
fchool, among whom Euclid claims, in a particular
manner, our attention. This celebrated mathematician
lived about 300 years before the Chriftian aern, and
probably ftudied geometry at Athens under the difciples
of Plato. From Greece he went to Alexandria, allur¬
ed thither no doubt by the fame of the celebrated
fchool of that city, and by the favours conferred by the
firft Ptolemy upon learned men. He compofed elements
of geometry in a fyftematic form, comprehending
in them fuch propofitions belonging to the firft prin¬
ciples of the fcience as had been difeovered by ma¬
thematicians previous to his time. This work has
had the Angular good fortune to preferve the higheft re¬
putation in all ages and in all countries where fcience
has been cultivated, and it has ferved as the ground¬
work of innumerable other treatifes, few of which, if
any, have excelled it. Many commentaries have been
written on it, and it has been tranflated into almoft all
the
03®
Introduc-
G E O M
llie “European and Oriental languages, Euclid is like-
wife known to have written other works on geometry ;
of thefe we have his Data, which may be regarded as a
continuation of his elements j and an account of a work
of his on porifms (fee Porisms) preferved in the writ¬
ings of Pappus, but which has {uffered fo much fiom
time as to be almoft unintelligible.
After Euclid, lived Archimedes, who cultivated and
improved all the branches of the mathematics known
at that period, and in a particular manner geometry.
He was the firil that found nearly the ratio of the dia¬
meter of a circle to its circumference, and he fquared
the parabola. He likewife wrote treatifes on the Sphere
and Cylinder, on Spirals, on Conoids and Spheroids,
befides others on mixt Mathematics. He dfo extend¬
ed and improved the Geometrical Analyfis, the prin¬
ciples of which had been eftablithed in the fchool of
Plato. Many of the writings of Archimedes have been
loft *, but fuch as remain prove him to have been one of
the greatert geometers that ever lived, and indeed the
Newton of antiquity.
Apollonius of Perga was nearly contemporary with
Archimedes, that is, he flouriftied about the end of the
fecond century before the Chriftian sera. He ftudied
o-eometry in the Alexandrian fchool under the fucceifors
of Euclid, and he greatly extended the theory of the
conic feftions (fee introduftion to Conic Sections).
He alfo compofed treatifes on different parts of Geome¬
trical Analyfis, but of thefe only one has come down
to us entire •, it is entitled de feBione rationis, and was
difeovered in the Arabic tongue, from which it has
been tranflated into Latin by Dr Halley, Such accounts
however are preferved in the mathematical collechons of
Pappus of his other treatifes, that feveral of them have
been reftored by modern mathematicians. We may
mention in particular his treatifes de Locis Plants, de
SeBione Spatii, de SeBione Determinata, de TaBiambus,
each of which is divided into two books.
Having mentioned Archimedes and Apollonius, by
far the moft illuftrious mathematicians of the period in
which they lived, we (hall pafs over feveral others who
contributed nothing to the improvement of the feience,
and therefore are but little known to us. We (hall
however briefly notice Theodofus, who lived about JO
years A. C. and who is the author of a work on
Spherics, which is conftdered as one of the moft valu¬
able of the books on the ancient geometry.
Pappus and Theon of Alexandria deferve to be men¬
tioned as among the moft celebrated of the commen¬
tators and annotators on the ancient geometry. We
are particularly indebted to Pappus (who lived about
the middle of the fourth century) for our knowledge of
various difeoveries and treatifes of the ancient geome¬
ters, which, but for the account he has given of them
in his mathematical colleBions, would have been for ever
loft to mathematicians of modem times.
Proclus, the head of the Platonic fchool at Athens,
cultivated mathematics about the middle of the fifth
century ; and although it does not appear that he made
any difeoveries in the fcience, yet he rendered it fome
fervice by his example and inftrucHon. He wrote a
commentary on the firft book of Euclid, which con¬
tains many curious obfervations refpedting the hiftory
and metaphyfics of mathematics.
We have now briefly noticed the principal epochs in
E T E Y
the hiftory of. geometry, and the moft celebrated men fttfroduc-
who have contributed to its improvement from the , tl6n- ^
earlieft periods of hiftory to the end of the fifth cen¬
tury j but long before this time the a-ra of difeoyery
feems to have been paft, and the fcience on the decline.
Still however the Alexandrian fchool exifted, and it
was poflible that a Euclid or an Apollonius might again
arife in that feminary. But the taking of Alexandria
by the Arabs in the year 641 gave a death-blow to
the iciences, not only in that capital, but throughout
the whole Greek empire. The library, a trealure of
infinite value, was burnt, and the ftores of learning
which had been accumulating for ages were annihilated
for ever.
Although by this unfortunate event the feienees fuf-
fered an irreparable lofs, it mult be attributed to the
fanaticifm of the new religion which the conquerors had
adopted, rather than to national ignorance or barbarity ;
for before that period, the fciences, when on the decline
in Greece, had found an afylum among them, and about
120 years after the death of Mohammed they again
took them under their protedlion.
The Arabs tranflated the greater part of the works
of the Greek geometers, and chiefly thofe introductory
to aftronomy. They even began to ftudy the more
fublime geometry of the ancients } for Apollonius''s
Conic Sections became familiar to them, and fome of
the books of that work have only reached us in an
Arabic verfion. They gave to Irigonometry its pre-
fent Ample and commodious form, and greatly Am¬
plified its operations by the introduction of fines inftead
of the chords of double arcs, which had been formerly
ufed.
After geometry, as well as its kindred mathematics
fciences, had remained for feveral centuries under the
proteClion of the Arabs, it was again received into
Spain, Italy, and the reft of Europe, about the year
1400. Among the earlieft writers on the fubieCt af¬
ter this period, were Leonardus Pif anus, trad Lucas Pa*
ciolus or de Bur go.
The limits within which we muft neceffarily confine
this Iketch of the hiftory of the feience, will not, how¬
ever, allow us to enumerate all the improvements which
it has received fince the reftoration ot letters in Europe j
for a lift of the names of thofe who have contributed
more or lefs to its extenfion, would include almoft every
mathematician of note from the time of Leonardus Pi-
fanus to the prefent day.
The writings of the ancient geometers have been
afliduoufly fought after, and held in great repute 5 for
it appears that as far as they carried fome ot tLeii
theories, they left but little room for improvement,
and of this remark we think the writings of Euclid,
of Archimedes, and of Apollonius, aftord remarkable
inftances. Euclid’s elements of geometry have been
confidered, at leaft in this country, as one of the beft
books that could be put into the hands of the mathe¬
matical ftudent, particularly that edition of its firft fix
and eleventh and twelfth books which was given to the
world by the late Dr Sitnfon. An excellent fyftem of
geometry, comprehending the firft fix books of the il¬
luftrious ancient, together with three fupplementary
books, has of late years been publiftied by Mr ProfeJJ'or
Playfair, of the 'Univerfity of Edinburgh. We be¬
lieve no modern fyftem has excelled that of Euclid
ect I.
Firft (as reilorcd to its original purity by Dr Simfon) in
'rinciples. refpe6i: of logical accuracy and fyliematic arrangement.
Xhere is one, however, which we muft particularly
attention on account of its great excellence, and the ufe
631
we have made of it in the Fyftem We are no w to prefent
to our readers. It is that of Mr Legendre, which we Princ'Pies-.
confider as the moft complete and extenlive that has yet
appeared.
GEOMETRY.
SECT. I. THE FIRST PRINCIPLES.
f ate
jCXL.
k-1*
ft. 2.
Definitions.
I. Geometry is a fcience which treats of the pro¬
perties and relations of quantities having extenfion, and
which are called magnitudes. Extenfion is diftinguifh-
ed into length, breadth, and thicknefs.
II. A Point is that which has pofition, but not mag¬
nitude.
III. A Line is that which has only length. Hence
the extremities of a line are points, and the interfeftions
of one line with another are alfo points.
IV. A Straight or Right Line is the Ihorieft way from
one point to another.
V. Every line which is neither ftraight, nor compo-
fed of ftraight lines, is a Curve Line. Thus AB is a
ftraight line, ACDB is aline made up of ftraight lines,
and AEB is a curve line.
VI. A Superficies, or Surface, is that which has only
length and breadth. Hence the extremities of a fuper-
ficies are lines, and the interfedlions of one fuperficies
with another are alfo lines.
VII. A Plane Superficies is that in which any two
points being taken, the ftraight line between them lies
wholly in that fuperficies.
VIII. Every fuperficies which is neither plane nor
compofed of plane fuperficies, is a Curve Superficies.
IX. A Solid is that which has length, breadth, and
thicknefs. Hence the boundaries of a folid are fuper¬
ficies 5 and the boundary which is common to two folids,
which are contiguous, is a fuperficies.
X. A Plane ReEtilinal Angle is the inclination of two
ftraight lines to one another, which meet together, but
are not in the fame ftraight line. The point in which
the lines meet one another is called the Vertex of the
angle.
When there is only one angle at a point, it may be
exprefled by the letter placed at that point *, thus the
angle contained by the lines EF and EG may be called
the angle E : if, however, there be feveral angles, as at
B, then each is exprefled by three letters, one of which
is the letter that ftands at the vertex of the angle, and
the others are the letters that ftand fomewhere upon the
lines containing the angle, the letter at the vertex being
placed between the other two. Thus the angle con¬
tained by the lines BA and BD is called the angle
ABD or DAB.
AngleS in common with other quantities admit of
addition, fubtratftion, multiplication, and divifion. Thus
the fum of the angles ABD and DBC is the angle
ABC j the difference of the angles ABC and ABD is
the angle DBC.
XL When a ftraight line ftanding on another ftraight
line makes the adjacent angles equal to one another,
each of them is called a Right Angle, and the ftraight
line which ftands on the other is called a Perpendicular
to it. Thus, if DC meet AB, and make the angle*
ACD, DCB equal to one another ; each of them is a
right angle, and DC is a perpendicular to AB.
XII. An Obtufe Angle h that which is greater than a Fig. 4.
right angle, and an Acute Angle is that which is lefs than
a right angle. Thus ABC being fuppofed a right angle,
DBC is an obtufe angle, and EEC an acute angle.
XIII. Parallel Straight Lines are fuch as are in the Fig. 5.
fame plane, and which being produced ever fo far both
ways, do not meet.
XIV. A Plane Figure is a plane terminated every
where by lines.
If the lines be ftraight, the fpace which they en-Fig. 6.
clofe is called a Reclilineal figure, or a Polygon, and the
lines themfelves conftitute the Perimeter of the poly-
gon.
XV. When a polygon has three fides (which is the
fmalleft number it can have) it is called a Triangle ;
when it is has four, it is called a Quadrilateral; when
it has five, a Pentagon ; when fix, a Hexagon, &c.
XVI. An Equilateral triangle is that which has Fig. 7. S. 9,
three equal fides (fig. 7.) ; an Ifofceles triangle is that
which has only two equal fides (fig. 8.) ; and a Sca¬
lene triangle is that which has all its fides unequal
(fig. 9.).
XVII. A Right-angled triangle is that which has Fig. i«.
a right angle j the fide oppofite to the right angle is
called the Hypothenufe. Thus in the triangle ABC,
having the angle at B a right angle, the fide AC is the
hypothenufe.
XVIII. An Obtufe-angled triangle is that which has Fig. 9. 11.
an obtufe angle (fig. 9.) ; and an acute-angled triangle
is that which has three acute angles (fig. 11.).
XIX. Of quadrilateral figures, a fiquare is that which Fig. 12. 13.
has all its fides equal, and all its angles right angles 14-15-1(5*
(fig. 12.). A Re&angle is that which has all its angles
right angles, but not all its fides equal, (fig. 13.). A
Rhombus is that which has all its fides equal, but its an¬
gles are not right angles, (fig.-14.). A Parallelogram,
or Rhomboid, is that which has its oppofite fides parallel
(fig. 15.). A Trapezoid is that which has only two of
its oppofite fides parallel, (fig. 16.).
XX. A Diagonal is a ftraight line which joins the jqg,
vertices of two angles, which are not adjacent to each
other ; fuch is AC.
XXL An Equilateral Polygon is that which has all
its fides equal ; and an Equiangular Polygon is that
which has all its angles equal. If a polygon be both
equilateral and equiangular, it is called a Regular Po/y-
gon.
XXII. Two polygons are equilateral between them¬
felves, when the fides of the one are equal to the fides .
of the other, each to each, and in the fame order ; that
is, when in going about each of the figures in the fame
dire&ion, the firft fide of the one is equal to the firft
fide of the other j the fecond fide of the one is equal to:
the
632
Firft
Principles,
G E O M
the fecond fide of the other } the third to the third, and
fo on. The fame is to be underftood of two polygons
which are equicrngu/ar between themfelves.
Explanation of Terms.
An Axiom is a propofition, the truth of which is evi¬
dent at firfi fight.
A Theorem is a truth which becomes evident by a pro-
eefs of reafoning called JAemonf ration.
A Problem is a queftion propofed, which requires a
folution.
A Lemma is a fubfidiary truth employed in the
demondration of a theorem, or the folution of a prob¬
lem.
The common name of Propofition is given indifferent¬
ly to theorems, problems, and lemmas.
A Corollary is a confequence which follows from one
or feveral propofitions.
A Scholium is a remark upon one or more propofi¬
tions that have gone before, tending to diow their con¬
nexion, their redriXion, their extenfion, or the man¬
ner of their application.
A Hypo thefts is a fuppofition made either in the enun¬
ciation of a propofition, or in the courfe of a demon-
dration.
Explanation of Signs.
E T R Y. Sea. I.
The expredion A* means the fquare of the quantity Fuft
A, and A> means the cube of A ; alfo PQ.2, and P(0
mean, the one the fquare, and the other the cube, of a
line whofe extremities are the points P and Q.
On the other hand, the fign y' indicates a root to
be extraXed ; thus ^ A X B means the fquare root of
the produX of A and B.
Axioms.
j. Two quantities, each of which is equal to a third,
are equal to one another.
2. The wdiole is greater than its part.
2. The whole is equal to the fum of ail its parts.
4. Only one draight line can be drawn between two
points.
5. Two magnitudes, whether they be lines, fur-
faces, or folids, are equal, w’hen, being applieu the one
to the other, they coincide with one another entirely,
that is, when they exaXly fill the fame fpaee.
6. All right angles are equal to one another.
Note.—The references are to be underdood thus :
(7.) refers to the 7th propofition of the feXion in which
it occurs ; (4. 2.) means the 4th propofition of the 2d
feXion j (2. cor. 28. 4.) means the 2d corollary to the
28th propofition of the 4th feXion.
Theorem I.
That the demondrations may be more concife, we _
lhall make ufe of the following figns borrowed from A ftraight line CD, which meets with another Fig. 17.
Algebra j and in employing them we diall take for makes with it two adjacent angles, winch,
granted that the reader is acquainted with at lead the taken together, are equal to two right angles,
manner of notation and fird principles of that branch of #
mathematics. _ At the point C let CE be perpendicular to AB.
To exprefs that two quantities are equal the fign rr is The angle ACD is the fum of the angles ACE, ECD j
put between them j thus A = B, fignifies that the quan- therefore, ACD + BCD is the fum of the three angles
tity denoted by A is equal to the quantity denoted by B. ACE, ECD, BCD. 1 he fird of thefe is a right
To exprefs that A is lefs than B, they are written angle, and the two others are together equal to a right
thus •, A ^ B. angle; therefore, the fum of the two angles ACD,
To exprefs that A is greater than B, they are written BCD, is equal to two right angles,
thus; At^ B. Cor. i. If one of the angles is a right angle, the
The fign -f- (read plus) written between the letters other is alfo a right angle,
which denote two quantities, indicates that the quanti- Cor. 2. All the angles ACE, ECD, DCF, FCB,Fig. iS.
ties are to be added together ; thus A + B means the at the fame point C, on the fame fide of the line AB,
fum of the quantities A and B. x are taken together, equal to two right angles. For
The fign — (read minus') written between two let- their fum is equal to the two angles ACD, DCB.
ters, means the excefs of the one quantity above the
other ; thus A—B means the excefs of the quantity THEOREM II.
denoted by A above the quantity denoted by B. The . . .
fi<ms + and — will fometimes occur in the fame ex- Two ftraight lines which coincide with each other
predion; thus A-}-C—D means that D is to be fub- in two points, alfo coincide in all their extent,
traXed from the fum of A and C, alfo A—D-J-C and form but one and the fame ftraight line.
means the fame thing. . ^ ^ „
The fign X put between two quantities means their Let the points which are common to the two ImesFig. 19-
produX, if they be confidered as numbers ; but if they be A and B ; in the firft place it is evident that they
be confidered as lines, it fignifies a reXangle having mud coincide entirely between A and B ; otherwne,
thefe lines for its length and breadth ; thus A X B two ftraight lines could be drawn from A to B, which
means the produX of two numbers A and B ; or elfe is impofiible (axiom 4.). Now let us fuppofe, if podi-
a reXanole having A and B for the fides about one of ble, that the lines when produced Separate from each
its rieht angles. We diall likewife indicate the pro- other at a point C, the one becoming ACD, and the
duX of two quantities, in fome cafes, by writing the other ACE. At the point C let Cl be drawn, fo as
letters clofe together ; thus m A will be ufed to exprefs to make the angle ACF a right angle; then, ACE be-
the produX of m and A, and fo on with other expref- ing a ftraight line, the angle FCE is a right angle
fions, agreeable to the common notation in algebra. (1. cor. I.) ; and becaufe ACD is a ftraight line, the
|Se& I* G E O M
Firft angle FCD Is alfe a riglit angle, therefore the angle
Principles. pCE is equal to FCD, a part to the whole, which is
w—y——' imp0fljbie . therefore the ftraight lines which have the
common points A, B cannot feparate when produced,
therefore they muft form one and the fame itraight
line.
Theorem III.
Fig. 20. If two adjacent angles ACD, DCB make together
two right angles, the two exterior lines AC,
CB, which form thefe angles, are in the fame
ftraight line.
For if CB is not the line AC produced, let CE be
that line produced, then, ACE being a itraight line,
the angles ACD, DCE are together equal to two
right angles (i.) •, but, by hypothefis, the angles
ACD, DCB are together equal to two right angles,
therefore ACD-fDCB=ACD+DCE. From thefe
equals take away the common angle ACD, and the
remaining angles DCB, DCE are equal, that is, a
part equal to the whole, which is impolhble, therefore
CB is the line AC produced.
Theorem IV.
pjs 2t< If two ftraight lines AB, DE cut each other, the
vertical or oppofite angles are equal.
For fince DE is a ftraight line, the fum of the
angles ACD, ACE is equal to two right angles (i.),
and fince AB is a ftraight line, the fum of the angles
ACE, BCE is equal to two right angles, therefore
the fum ACD-J-ACE is equal to the fum ACE-f-
BCE ; from each of thtfe take away the fame angle
ACE, and there remains the angle ACD equal to its
ofite angle BCE.
n like manner, it may be demonftrated, that the
angle ACE is equal to its oppofite angle BCD
Cor. i. From this it appeal's,' that if two ftraight
lines cut one another, the angles they make, at the
point of their interfe£Hon are, together, equal to four
right angles.
Cor. 2. And hence all the angles made by any
number of lines meeting in one point are, together,
equal to four right angles.
Theorem V.
Pig, 22. Two triangles are equal, when they have an
angle, and the two Tides containing it of the
one equal to an angle, and the two Tides con¬
taining it of the other, each to each.
Let the triangles ABC, DEF have the angle A
equal to the angle D, the fide AB equal to DE, and
the fide AC equal to DF *, the triangles ftiall be equal.
For if the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle
DEF, fo that the point A may be on D, and the line
AB upon DE, then the point B ftiall coincide with
E, becaufe ABrzDE } and the line AC (hall coincide
with DF, becaufe the angle BAG is equal to EDF ;
and the point C (hall coincide with F, becaufe ACzr
DF ; and fince B coincides with E, and C with F,
the line BC ti all coincide with EF, and the two tri-
Vol. IX. Part II.
E T R Y. 633
angles (hall coincide exaiftly, the one with the other ; ^ir.ft
therefore they are equal (ax. 5.). Pn,i..p.e»
CoR. Hence it follows, that the bafes, or third fides
BC, EF of the triangles are equal, and the remaining
angles B, C of the one are equal to the remaining
angles E, F of the other, each to each, namely, thole
to which the equal fides are oppofite.
Theorem VI.
•
Two triangles are equal, when they have a fide, Fig. 2*.
and the two adjacent angles of the one equal to
a fide, and the two adjacent angles of the other,
each to each.
Let the fide BC be equal to the fide EF, the angle
B to the angle E, and the angle C to the angle F,
the triangle ABC (hall be equal to the triangle DEF.
For if the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle
DEF, fo that the equal fides BC, EF may coincide;
then becaufe the angle B is equal to E, the fide,BA
(hall coincide with ED, and therefore the point A (hall
be foniewhere in ED $ and becaufe the angle C is
equal to F, the fide CA (hall coincide with FD, and
therefore the point A (hall be fomew here in FD ; now
the point A being fomewhere in the lines ED, and
FD, it can only be at D their interfeflion •, therefore
the two triangles ABC, DEF muft entirely coincide,
and be equal to one another.
Cor. Hence it appears that the remaining angles
A, D of the triangles are equal, and the remaining
fides AB, AC of the one are equal to the remaining
fides DE, DF of the other, each to each, viz. thoie
to which the equal angles are oppofite.
Theorem VII.
Any two fides of a triangle are together greater FiS
than the third.
For the fide BC, for example, being the (horteft
way between the points B, C, (def. 4.) muft be lefs
than BA-j-AC.
Theorem VIII.
If from a point O, within a triangle ABC, thereri§
be drawn ftraight lines OB, OC to the extre¬
mities of BC one of its fides, the fum of thefe
lines (hall be lefs than that of AB, AC the two
other fides.
Let BO be produced to meet CA in D 5 becaufe
the ftraight line OC is lefs than OD-f-DC, to each of
thefe add BO, and BO -j- OC^rT-BO -j-OD -j-DC 5 that
is BO+OC^BD+DC.
Again, fince BD^AB A + AD, to each of thefe add
DC and we have BD-j-DC^lB Aq-AC, but it has
been (hewn that BO-f OC^iBDq-DC, much more
then is BO-f-OC^lBA-J-AC.
Theorem IX.
If two fides AB, AC of a triangle ABC are equal Fjg- =4*
to two fides DE, DF of another triangle DEF, 25*
each to each ; but if the angle BAC contained
4 L by
%• *4-
F%- 25.
i'ig. 26,
Fig. 22.
Fig- 2?-
GEO M
by the former is greater than the angle EDF
contained by the latter ; the third fide BC of the
firft triangle {hall be greater than the third fide
EF of the fecond.
Suppose AG drawn fo that the angle CAG~D,
take AGr=DE and join CG \ then the triangle GAC
is equal to the triangle E13t, (6.) and therefore
GC=EF. Now there may be three cafes, according
as the point G falls without the triangle BAG, or on
the fide BC, or within the fame triangle.
Case I. Becaufe GC-etriGI-j-IC, and AB^i
AI-j-IB, (7.) therefore GC-|-AB^GI-1-AI-|-{C
-P-1B, that is GC-f-AB^AG + BC, from each of
thefe unequal quantities take away the equal quantities
AB, AG, and there remains GC^lBC, therefore
EF^BC.
Case II. If the point G fall upon the fide BC,
then it is evident that GC, or its equal Eh, is lefs than
BC.
Case III. Laftly, if the point G fall within the
triangle BAC, then AG-j-GC^cil.AB-}-BC, (0.)
therefore, taking away the equal quantities AG, AB,
there remains GC^lBC or Ei^rlBC.
Cor. Hence, converfely, if EF be lefs than BC, the
angle EDF is lefs than BAC ; for the angle EDF can¬
not be equal to BAC, becaufe then (5.) EF would be
equal to BC ; neither can the angle EDF be greater
than BAC, for then (by the theor.) EF would be greater
than BC,
Theorem X.
Two triangles are equal, when the three fides of
the one are equal to the three fides of the other,
each to each.
Let the fide AB=DE, AC~DF, and BC=EF j
then (hall the angle A=D, B-=E, CerF.
For if the angle A were greater than D, as the fides
AB, AC, are equal to DE, DF, each to each, it would
follow, (9.) that BC would be greater than EF, and if
the angle A were lefs than the angle D, then BC would
be lefs than EF ; but BC is equal to EF, therefore the
angle A can neither be greater nor lefs than the angle
D, therefore it muff be equal to it. In the lame man¬
ner it may be proved, that the angle B—E, and that
the angle C = F.
Scholium.
It may be remarked, as in Theorem V. and The¬
orem VI. that the equal angles are oppofite to the
equal fides.
Theorem XI.
In an ifofceles triangle the angles oppofite to the
equal fides are equal to one another.
Let the fide AB^AC, then (hall the angle C—B.
Suppofe a ffraight line drawn from A the vertex of
the triangle to D the middle of its bafe j the two tri¬
angles ABD, ACD have the three fides of the one
equal to the three fides of the other, each to each,
namely AD common to both, AB=AC,by hypothefis,
E T R Y. Sea. I.
and BD—DC,by confiruftion,therefore (preced.theor.) Firft
the angle B is equal to the angle C. . . , rinCipgj
Cor. Hence every equilateral triangle is alfo equian¬
gular.
Scholium.
From the equality of the triangles ABD, ACD, it
follows, that the angle BADrrDAC, and that the
angle BDA=ADC •, therefore thefe two laft are right
angles. Hence it appears, that a ftraight line drawn
from the vertex of an ifofceles triangle to the middle
of its bafe is perpendicular to that bafe, and divides
the vertical angle into twro equal parts.
In a triangle that is not ifofceles, any one of its three
fides may be taken indifferently for a boje ; and then it:
vertex is that of the oppofite angle. In an ifofceles
triangle, the bafe is that fide which is not equal to the
others.
Theorem XII.
If two angles of a triangle are equal, the oppofite Fig. 2S.
fides are equal, and the triangle is ifofceles.
Let the angle ABC~ACB, the fide AC {hall be
equal to the fide AB. For if the fides are not equal,
let AB be the greater of the two 5 take BD—AC, and
join CD ; the angle DBC is by hypothefis equal to
ACB, and the two fides DB, BC are equal to the two
fides AC, BC, each to each ; therefore the triangle
DBC is equal to the triangle ACB *, (5.) but a part,
cannot be equal to the whole; therefore the fides AB,
AC cannot be unequal, that is, they are equal, and the
triangle is ifofceles.
Theorem XIII.
Of the two fides of a triangle, that is the greater Fig. 2$.
which is oppofite to the greater angle ; and con¬
verfely, of the two angles of a triangle, that is
the greater which is oppofite to the greater
fide.
First, let the angle C >^B, then {hall the fide AB-
oppofite to C be greater than the fide AC oppofite to
B Suppofe CD drawn, -fo that the angle BCD=B- j
in the triangle BDC, BD is equal to DC, (12.) but
AD+DC'^AC, and AD-}-DC—AD+DB—AB,
therefore AB^-AC.
Next, let the fide AB-^AC, then {hall the angle
C oppofite to AB, be greater than the angle B, oppohte
to AC. For if C were lefs than B, then, by what has
been demonftrated, AB-^AC, which is contrary to
the hypothefis of the propofition, therefore C is not lels
than B : and if C were equal to B, then it would fol-
low that AC=AB, (12.) which is alfo contrary to the
hypothefis j therefore C is not equal te B, therefore it
is greater.
Theorem XIV.
From a given point A without a ftraight line DE, j-jg, jc,
no more than one perpendicular can be drawn
to that line.
FoR fuppofe it poffible to draw two, AB and AC ^
1 produce
Sea. I.' GEOM
Firll produce one of tliem AB, fo that BF:=AB, and join
Principles. The triangle CBF is equal to the triangle ABC,
for the angle CBF is a right angle, as well as CBA,
and the fide BFrrB A j therefore the triangles are equal,
(5.) and hence the angle BCFrrBCA ; but the angle
EC A is by hypothefis a right angle; therefore the
angle BCF is alfo a right angle; hence AC and
CF lie in a ftraight line, (3.) and confequently two
ftraight lines ACF, ABF may be drawn between two
points, A, F, which is impoflible, (ax. 4.) therefore it
is equally impoflible that two perpendiculars can be
drawn from the fame point to the fame ftraight line.
Theorem XV.
Fig- 30. j£ from a p0xnt A, without a ftraight line, DE, a
• perpendicular AB be drawn upon that line, and
alfo different oblique lines AE, AC, AD, &c.
to different points of the fame line.
Firft, The perpendicular AB fhall be fhorter than
any one of the oblique lines.
Secondly, The two oblique lines AC, AE, which
meet the line DE on oppofite fides of the per¬
pendicular, and at equal diftances BC, BE from
it, are equal to one another.
Laflly, Of any two oblique lines AC, AD, or AE,
AD, that which is more remote from the per¬
pendicular is the greater.
Produce the perpendicular AB, fo that BF^BA,
and join FC, FD.
1. The triangle BCF is equal to the triangle BCA ;
for the right angle CBF—CBA, the fide CB is com¬
mon, and the fide BF=BA, therefore the third fide
CF=AC, (5.) but AF^iAC-f-CF, (7.) that is
2AB^2AC ; therefore AB^lAC, that is, the per¬
pendicular is fliorter than any one of the oblique lines.
2. If BE=BC, then, as AB is common to the two
triangles ABE, ABC, and the right angle ABE=r ABC,
the triangles ABE, ABC fhall be equal, (5.) and
AE=AC.
3. In the triangle DFA, the fum of the lines AD,
DF is greater than the fum of AC, CF, (8.) that is,
2AD'^’2AC; therefore ADt^AC, that is, the
oblique line, which is more remote from the perpendi¬
cular, is greater than that which is nearer.
Cor. l. The perpendicular meafures the diftance of
any point from a ftraight line.
Cor. 2. From the fame point, three equal ftraight
lines cannot be drawn to terminate in a given ftraight
line ; for if they could be drawn, then, two of them
would be on the fame fide of the perpendicular, and
equal to each other, which is impoflible.
Theorem XVI.
3T If from C, the middle of a ftraight line AB, a per¬
pendicular CD be drawn to that line. Firft,
Every point in the perpendicular is equally
diftant from the extremities of the line AB.
Secondly, Every point without the perpendi¬
cular is at unequal diftances from the fame ex¬
tremities A, B.
1. Let D be any point in CD, then, becaufe the two
E T P. Y. (5.35
oblique lines DA, DB are equally diftant from the ^ .F>rft
perpendicular, they are equal to one another ( I <>."), * r‘nuPle8-<
therefore every point in CD is equally diftant from the
extremities of AB.
2. Let E be a point out of the perpendicular ; join
EA, EB, one of thefe lines muft cut the perpendicular
in F; join BF, then AF—BF, and AErrBF-f-FE ;
but BF-f-FE-^'BE, (7.) therefore AE'^'BE, that
is, E any point out of the perpendicular is at unequal
diftances from the extremities of AB.
Theorem XVII. PI ter
CCXLI.
Two right-angled triangles are equal, when the fig- a*5
hypothenufe and a fide of the one are equal to
the hypothenufe and a fide of the other, each
to each.
Let the hypothenufe ACrrDF, and the fide
AB—DE ; the triangle ABC {hall be equal to DEF.
The propofition will evidently be true (10.) if the re¬
maining fides BC, EF are equal. Now, if it be poffible
to fuppofe that they are unequal, let BC be the greater,
take BG—EF, and join AG; then the triangles ABG,
DEF, having the fide ABzrDE, EG—EF, and the
angle B=:E, will be equal to one another (5.), and will
have the remaining fide AGzrDF; but by hypothefis
DFiz:AC ; therefore AG=AC ; but AG cannot be
equal to AC (15.), therefore it is impoflible that BC
can be unequal to EF, and therefore the triangles
ABC, DEF are equal to one another.
Theorem XVIII.
Two ftraight lines AC, ED, which are perpendi-p;g
cular to a third ftraight line AE, are parallel to
each other.
For if they could meet at a point O, then two per¬
pendiculars OA, OE, might be drawn from the fame
point O, to the ftraight line AE, which is impoflible
CM-)-
In the next theorem, it is neceflary to afliime ano¬
ther axiom, in addition to thofe already laid down in
the beginning of this fedtion.
Axiom.
7. If two points E, G in a ftraight line AB are Fig. 34.
fituated at unequal diftances EF, GH from another
ftraight line CD in the fame plane, thefe two lines,
when indefinitely produced, on the fide of the leaft
diftance GH, will meet each other.
Theorem XIX.
If two ftraight lines AB, CD be parallel, the per-Fig. 35.
pendiculars EF, GH to one of the lines, which
are terminated by the other line, are equal, and
are perpendicular to both the parallels.
For if EF and GH, which are perpendicular to CD,
were unequal, the lines AB, CD would meet each
other (by die above axiom) which is contrary to the
fuppofition that they are parallel. And if EF, GH be
4 L 2 not
63S
not perpendicular to AB, let EK be perpendicular to
i,'s' EF, meeting GH in K ; then becaufe EK and FH are
H   v perpendicular to EF, they are parallel (18.), and there¬
fore, by what has been juft (hewn, the perpendiculars
EF. KHI, muft be equal ; but by hypothefis EFrrGH,
therefore KA —GH, which is impoftible •, therefore Eh
is perpendicular to AB j and in the fame way it may
be •hewn hat GH is perpendicular to AB.
C R. H nee it appears, that through the fame point
E. no more than one parallel can be drawn to the lame
ftraight bne CD.
Theorem XX.
FI,r 6 Straight lines AB, EF, which are parallel to the
fame ftraight line CD, are parallel to each
other.
For let HKG be perpendicular to CD, it will alfo
be j erpendicular to both AB and EF (i9-)> therefore
thefe laft lines are parallel to each other.
Theorem XXI.
Fig. 37. If a ftraight line EF meet two parallel ftraight
lines AB, CD, it makes the alternate angles
AEF, EFD equal.
Let EH and GF be perpendicular to CD, then
thefe lines will be parallel (18.), and alfo at right
angles to AB (19.), and therefore FH and GE are
equal to one another (i9-)> therefore the triangles
FGE, FHE, having the fide FG=:HE, and GEmFH,
and FE common to both, will be equal 5 and hence the
angle FEG will be equal to EFH, that is, FEA will
be equal to EFD.
Cor. 1. Hence if a ftraight line KL interfeft two
parallel ftvaight lines AB, CD, it makes the exterior
angle KEB equal to the interior and oppofite angle
EFD on the fame fide of the line. For the angle
AEF=KEB, and it has been (hewnthat AEFzzEFD j
therefore KEB~EFD.
Cor. 2. Hence alfo, if a ftraight line EF meet two
parallel ftraight lines AB, CD, it makes the two inte¬
rior angles BEF, EFD on the fame fide together, equal
to two right angles. For the angle AEt has been
{hewn to be equal to EFD, therefore, adding the angle
FEB to both, AEF + FEBrrEFD+FEB j but
AEF+FEB is equal to two right angles, therefore
the fum EFD-J-FEB is alfo equal to two right angles.
Theorem XXII.
Fig- 38. If a ftraight line EF, meeting two other ftraight
lines AB, CD, makes the alternate angles
AEF, EFD equal, thofe lines ihall be parallel.
For if AE is not parallel to CD, fuppofe, if poflible,
that fome other line KE can be drawn through E, pa¬
rallel to CD ; then the angle KEF muft be equal to
EFD (21.), that is (by hypothefis), to AEF, which is
impoffible ; therefore, neither KE, nor any other line
drawn through E, except AB, can be parallel to CD.
Seft. I,
Cor. If a ftraight line EF interfering two other Firft
ftraight lines AB, CD, makes the exterior angle GEB FnnciPle^
equal to the interior and oppofite angle EFD on the ""
fame fide; or the two interior angles BEF, EFD on
the fame fide equal to two right angles ; in either cafe
the lines are parallel. For, if the angle GEB=EFD,
then alfo AEF~EFD, (q-)- And if BE1 -j-EIDrz:
two right angles, then, becaufe BEF-f-AEFrrtwo
right angles (1.), BEF-f-EFD“BEt-f-AEb, and
taking BEF from both, EFDrrAEF, therefore (by
the theorem) in each cafe the lines are parallel.
Theorem XXIII.
If a fide AC of a triangle ABC be produced to-Fig. 33.
wards D, the exterior angle BCD is equal to
both the interior and oppofite angles BAC,
ABC.
Let CE be parallel to AB, then theangle BzrBCE,
(21.) and the angle ArzECD, (1 cor. 21.) therefore
B + A=BCE-fECD=BCD.
Cor. The exterior angle of a triangle is greater than
either of the interior oppofite angles.
Theorem XXIV.
The three interior angles of a triangle ABC taken Fig. 40.
together are equal to two right angles.
For if AC be produced to D, then A-f-BzrBCD,
( 22.) ; to each of theie equal quantities add ACB, then
ftialiA-fB + ACB-BCD + BCA;butBCD + BCA
zrtwo right angles, (x.) therefore A-j-Bq-ACB
z=two right angles.
Cor. I. If two angles of one triangle be equal to
two angles of another triangle, each to each j the
third angle of the one (hall be equal to the third angle
of the other, and the triangles fhall be equiangular.
Cor. 2. If two angles of a triangle, or their fum,
be given, the third angle may be found, by fuotradling
their fum from two right angles.
Cor. 3. In a right-angled triangle, the fum of the
two acute angles is equal to a right angle.
Cor. 4. In an equilateral triangle, each of the
angles is equal to the third part of two right angles, or
to two thirds of one right angle.
Theorem XXV.
The fum of all the interior angles of a polygon is Fig 41-
equal to twice as many right angles wanting
four as the figure has fides.
Let ABCDE be a polygon ; from a point F within
it draw ftraight lines to all its angles, then the polygon
{half be divided into as many triangles as it has fides j
but the fum of the angles of each triangle is equal to
two right angles, (24.) therefore the lum of all the
angles of the triangles is equal to twice as many right
angles as there are triangles, that is, as the figure has
fides; but the fum of all the angles of the triangles is
geometry.
3
30
a. ii.
GEOMETRY.
637
Of the
Circle.
Fig. 43
equal to the fum of all the angles of the polygon, to¬
gether with the fum of the angles at the point F, which
laft fum is equal to four right angles, (2 Cor. 4.) there¬
fore the fum of all the angles of the polygon, together
with four right angles, is equal to twice as many right
angles as the figure has fides, and confequently the fum
of the angles of the polygon is equal to twice as many
right angles, wanting four, as the figure has fides.
Cor. The four interior angles of a quadrilateral are
taken together equal to four right angles.
Theorem XXVI.
The oppofite fides of a parallelogram are equal,
and the oppofite angles are alfo equal.
Draw the diagonal BD ; the two triangles ADB,
DEC have the fide BD common to both, and AB,
Theorem XXVII.
Of the
Circle.
If the oppofite fides of a quadrilateral ABCD arc Fig. 42.
equal, fo that AB=DC, and AD—BC ; then
the equal lides are parallel, and the figure is a
parallelogram.
Draw the diagonal BD. The two triangles ABD,
CDB have the three fides of the one equal to the three
fides of the other, each to each, therefore the triangles
are equal (xo.)} and the angle ADB, oppofite to AB,
is equal to DEC oppofite to DC, therefore the fide AD
is parallel to BC (22.). For a fimilar reafon AB is
parallel to DC \ therefore the quadrilateral ABCD is
a parallelogram.
Theorem XXVIII.
DC being parallel, the angle ABD—BDC (21.) alfo
AD, BC being parallel, the angle ADBzzrDBC,
therefore the two triangles are equal (6 ), and the fide
AB, oppofite to the angle ADB, is equal to DC, op¬
pofite to the equal angle DEC. In like manner the
third fide AD is equal to the third fide BC, therefore
the oppofite fides of a parallelogram are equal.
In the next place, becaufe of the equality of the fame
triangles, the angle A is equal to the angle C, and alfo
the angle xADC compofed of the two angles ADB,
BDC is equal to the angle ABC compofed of the
angles CBD, DBA ; therefore the oppofite angles of
a parallelogram are alfo equal.
If two oppofite fides AB, DC, of a quadrilateral Fig. ^
are equal and parallel, the two other fides are
in like manner equal and parallel *, and the
figure is a parallelogram.
Draw the diagonal BD. Becaufe AB is parallel
to CD, the alternate angles ABD, BDC are equal,
(21.) •, now the fide AB—DC, and DB is common to
the triangles ABD, BDC, therefore thefe triangles are
equal, (5.) and hence the fide ADrrBC, and the angle
ADB=DBC, confequently AD is parallel to BC,
(22.) therefore the figure ABCD is a parallelogram.
SECT. II. OF THE CIRCLE.
Definitions.
I. A ClECI.E is a plane figure contained by one line
which is called the circumference, and is fuch, that all
ftraight lines drawn from a certain point within the
figure to the circumference, are equal to one another.
And this point is called the centre of the circle.
II. Every ftraight line CA, CE, CD, &c. drawn
from the centre to the circumference, is called a radius
or femidiameter; and every ftraight line, fuch as AB,
which paffes through the centre, and is terminated
both ways by the circumference, is called a dia’ieter.
Flence it follows that all the radii of a circle are equal,
and all the diameters are alfo equal, each being the
double of the radius.
III. An Arch of a circle is any portion of its cir¬
cumference, as FHG. >
The chord or fublenfe of an arch is the ftraight line
FG which pins its extremities.
IV. A Segment of a circle is the figure contained by
an arch, and its chord. If the figure be the half of
the circle it is called a Semicircle.
Note. Every chord correfponds to two arches, and
confequently to two fegments j but in fpeaking of theie,
it is always the fmalleft that is meant, unlefs the con¬
trary be expreffed.
V. A SeBor of a circle is the figure contained by
an arch DE and the two radii CD, CE, drawn to the
extremities of the arch. If the radii be at right angles
to each other it is called a Quadrant.
VI. A ftraight line is faid to be placed or applied in
a circle, when its extremities are in the circumference piaf;e
of the circle as FG. _ CCXLIIE
VII. A redilineal figure is faid to be infcribed in a fig. 115.
circle when the vertices of all its angles are upon the
circumference of the circle j in this cafe the circle is
faid to be circumfcnbed about the figure.
VIII A ftraight line is faid to touch a circle, or to
be a tangent to a circle, when it meets the circumference
in one point only \ fuch, for example, is BD, fig. 49.
The point A which is common to the ftraight line and
circle, is called the Point of ContaB.
IX. A polygon is faid to be defcribed or circum- Fig. 11S.
fcribed about a circle when all its fides are tangents to
the circle j and in this cafe the circle is faid to be
fcribed in the polygon.
Theorem I.
Plate
CCXLI.
Any diameter AB, divides the circle and its Cir- fig. 43.
cumference into two equal parts.
For if the figure AEB be applied to AFB, fo that
the bafe AB may be common to both, the curve line
AEB muft fall exadiy upon the curve line AFB $
otherwife there would be points in the one or the other
unequally diftant from the centre, which is contrary to
the definition of a circle..
Theorem
638
Of the Theorem IT.
Every chord is lefs than the diameter.
Tig. 44.
Let the radii CA, CD be drawn from the centre to
the extremities of the chord AD ; then the ftraight
line AD is lefs than AC-|-CD, that is AD-^lAB.
Theorem III.
A ftraight line cannot meet the circumference of
a circle in more than two points.
For if it could meet it in three, thefe three points
would be equally diftant from the centre, and there¬
fore three equal ftraight lines might be drawn from the
fame point to the fame ftraight line, which is impofli-
ble (2 cor. 15. 1.).
Theorem IV.
Fig. 45. In the fame circle, or in equal circles, equal arches
are fubtended by equal chords, and, converfely,
equal chords fubtend equal arches.
IF the radius AC be equal to the radius EO, and
the arch AMD equal to the arch ENG j the chord
AD (hall be equal to the chord EG.
For the diameter AB being equal to the diameter
EF, the femicircle AMDB may be applied exactly
up n the femicircle ENGF, and then the curve line
AMDB {hall coincide entirely with the curve line
ENGF, but the arch AMD being fuppofed equal to
ENG, the point D muft fall upon G, therefore the
chord AD is equal to the chord EG.
Converfely, if the chord AD=EG, the arch AMD
is equal to the arch ENG. *
For if the radii CD, OG be drawn, the two trian¬
gles ACD, EOG have three Tides of the one equal to
three fides of the other, each to each, \iz. AC — EO,
CDrrrOG and AD=EG, therefore thefe triangles are
equal, (10. I.) and hence the angle ACD=EOG.
Now if the femicircle ADB be placed upon EGF, be-
caufe the angle ACD=EOG, it is evident that the
radius CD will fall upon the radius OG, and the point
D upon G, therefore the arch AMD is equal to the
arch ENG.
Theorem V.
Tig. 45. In the fame circle, or in equal circles, the greater
arch is fubtended by the greater chord, and,
converfely, (if the arch be lefs than half the cir¬
cumference) the greater chord iubtends the
greater arch.
For let the arch AH be greater than AD, and let
the chords AD, AH, and the radii CD, CH be drawn.
The two fides AC, CH, of the triangle ACH, are
equal to the two fides AC, CD, of the triangle x\CD j
and the angle ACH is greater than ACD •, therefore
the third fide AH is greater than the third fide AD,
(9. 1.) therefore the chord which fubtends the greater
arch is the (jreatcr. Converfely, i the chord AH be
greater than AD, it may be inferred (cor. 9. 1. f o.n
the fame triangles that the angle ACH is greater than
II.
ACD, and that thus the arch AH is greater than Of the
AD. Circle-
Note. Each of the arches is here fuppofed lefs than ^ "J
half the circumference j if they were greater, the con¬
trary property would have place, the arch increafing as
the chord diminiihes.
Theorem VI.
The radius CG, perpendicular to a chord AB, Fig. 46,
bifects the chord (or divides it into two equal
parts), it aifo bife&s the arch AGB fubtended. by
the chord.
Draw the radii CA, CB 5 thefe radii are two equal
oblique lines in refpedl of the perpendicular CD, there¬
fore they are equally diftant from the perpendicular
(15. I.) that is AD^DB.
In the next place, becaufe CG is perpendicular to
the middle of AB, every point in CG is at equal di-
ftances from A and B, (16. 1.) therefore, if GA, GB
be drawn, thefe lines are equal, and as they are the
chords of the arches AG, BG, the arches are alfo
equal. (4.).
Scholium.
Since the centre C, the middle D of the chord AB,
and the middle G of the arch fubtended by that chord,
are three points fituated in the fame ftraight line per¬
pendicular to that chord j and that two points in a
ftraight line are fufficient to determine its pofition *, it
follows, that a ftraight line which paffes through any
two of thefe points muft neceffarily pafs through the
third $ and muft be perpendicular to the chord. It alfo
follows, that a perpendicular to the middle of a chord
palfes through the centre, and the middle of the arch
fubtended by that chord.
Theorem VII.
If three points A, B, C, be taken in the circum- pig. 47,
ference of a circle, no other circumference which
does not coincide with the former, can be made
to pafs through the fame three points.
Let the chords AB, BC be drawn, and let OD,
OF be drawn from the centre, perpendicular to, and
conlequently bifedfting thofe chords. The centre of
every circle palling through A and B muft neceffarily
be fomewhere in the perpendicular DO, (laft theor.)
and in like manner the centre of every circle palling
through B and C, muft be fomewhere in the perpen¬
dicular OF, therefore the centre of a circle palling
through A, B, and C, muft be in the interledtion of
the perpendiculars DO, FO \ and confiquently can on¬
ly be at one and the lame point O j therefore, only one
circle can be made to pafs through the fame three points
A, B, c . . . r ^
Cor. One circumference of a circle cannot mterfecc
another in more than two points, for if they could have
three common points they would have the fame centre,
and confequently would coincide with each other.
Theorem VIII.
Two equal chords are equally diftant from the Tig. 4S.
.centre 5
GEOMETRY,
Sea. II. GEO M
Of the centre; and of unequal chords, that which is
, Circle. nearer the centre is greater than that which is
v more remote.
Let the chord ABrzDE, fuppofe the chords bi-
fefted by the perpendiculars CF, CG, from the cen¬
tre, and draw the radii CA, CD. The right-angled
triangles CAF, CDG have equal hypothenufes CA,
CD \ the fide AF (rr-JAB) of the one is alfo equal
to the fide DG of the other, therefore, their
remaining fides CF, CG (which are the diftances of
the chords from the centre) are equal (17. 1.).
Next let the chord AH be greater than DE ; the
arch AKH fhall be greater than DME. Upon the
arch AKH take ANB equal to DME j draw the
chord AB, and fuppofe COF drawn from the centre
perpendicular to AB, and Cl perpendicular to AH.
It is evident that CF^CO, and (15. 1.) CO^CI ;
much more then is CF^CI ; but CFzrCG, becaufe
the chords AB, DE are equal j therefore CGt^CI j
that is, the chord nearer the centre is greater than that
which is farther from it.
Theorem IX.
Fig. 49. The perpendicular BD, drawn at the extremity of
a radius CA, is a tangent to the circle.
For any oblique line CE is greater than the perpen¬
dicular CA, (15. 1.) therefore the point E is without
the circle j therefore the line BD has but one point A
common with the circumference, and confequently it
is a tangent to the circle. (Def. 8.).
Scholium.
Through the fame point A, only one tangent, AD,
can be drawn to the circle. For if it be poffible to
draw another, let AG be that other tangent ; draw
CF perpendicular to AG; then CF fhall be lefs than
CA, (15. x.) therefore F muft be within the circle $
and confequently AF when produced muft neceflarily
meet the circle in another point befides A } therefore
it cannot be a tangent.
Theorem X.
S°- If BC, the diftance of the centres of two circles,
61K SI* be lefs than the fum of their radii; and alfo the
greater radius lefs than the fum of the diftance
of their centres and the lefler radius j the two
circles interfedl each other.
For that the circles may interfetft each other in a
point A, it is neceffary that the triangle ABC be pof¬
fible ; therefore, not only muft CB be lefs than CA
-j-AB, but alfo the greater radius AB muft be lefs
than AC-f-CB ; (7. 1.) and it is evident, that as of¬
ten as the triangle ABC can be conftrudled, the cir¬
cumferences defcribed on the centres B, C, fhall inter-
fed each other in two points A, D.
Theorem XL
F‘g. 51. If the diftance CB of the centres of two circles
E T R Y. 639
be equal to the fum of the radii CA, BA, the tJie
circles fhall touch each other externally. . Cll^clc• ,
It is evident that they have a common point Aj
but they cannot have more j for if they had two, then
the diftance of the centres muft neceflarily be lefs than
the fum of the radii.
Theorem XII.
If the diftance CB of the centres of two circles Fig. 53.
be equal to the difference of the radii, the two
circles fhall touch each other internally.
In the firft place, it is evident that the point A is
common to them both j they cannot, however, have
another ; for that this may happen, it is neceffary that
the greater radius AB be fmaller than the fum of the
radius AC and the diftance CB of the centre, (10.)
which is not the cafe.
Cor. Therefore, if two circles touch each other, ei¬
ther internally or externally, their centres and the
point of contad are in the fame ftraight line.
Theorem XIII.
In the fame circle, or in equal circles, equal an- Fig. 54.
gles ACB, DCE, at the centres, intercept up¬
on the circumference equal arches AB, DE.
And, converfely, if the arches AB, DE are
equal, the angles ACB, DCE are equal.
First, if the angle ACB be equal to DCE, the
one angle may be applied upon the other •, and as the
lines containing them are equal, it is manifeft that the
point A will fall upon D, and the point B upon E $
thus the arch AB will coincide with, and be equal to
the arch DE.
Next, if the arch AB be equal to DE, the angle
ACB is equal to DCE ; for if the angles are not
equal; let ACB be the greater •, and let ACI be taken
equal to DCE ; then, by what has been already demon-
ftrated, the arch AIrrDE j but by hypothefis ABrn
DE j therefore, AI=AB which is impoflible; there¬
fore the angle ACB=DCE.
Theorem XIV.
The angle BCD at the centre of a circle is double F,*g. $s>
the angle BAD at the circumference, whenFis'56'
both ftand on the fame arch BD.
First let the centre of the circle be within the an-Fig. 5S"
gle BAD ; draw the diameter AE. The exterior an¬
gle BCE of the triangle BCA is equal to both the in¬
ward and oppofite angles BAG, CBA ; (23.1). but the
triangle BCA being ifofceles, the angle BAC = CBA ;
therefore the angle BCE is double of the angle BAG.
For the fame reafon, the angle DCE is double of the
angle DAE, therefore the whole angle BCD is double
of the whole angle BAD.
Suppofe in the next place that the centre is with-Fig. 55.
out the angle BAD $ then, drawing the diameter AE,
it may be demonftrated, as in the firft cafe, that the
angle ECD is double of the angle EADj and that the
angle.
Theorem XVII.
640
GEOMETRY.
Setf. III.
Of Proper- angle ECB, a part of the firft, is double the angle
tion. a part of the other-, therefore the remaining an-
* ¥ gle BCD is double the remaining angle BAD.
Theorem XV.
Fig. S7. All angles BAD, BFD in the fame fegment BAFD
Fig. 5S. of a circle are equal to one another.
Fig- 57- If the fegment be greater than a femicircle, from
the centre C draw CB and CD; then the angles BAD
and BFD being (by laft theorem) each equal to half
BCD, they mult be equal to one another.
Fig. 58. But if the fegment BAFD be lefs than a femicircle,
let H be the interfe&ion of Bf and AD ; then, the
triangles ABH and FDH having the angle AHB of
the one equal to FHD o‘ the other, (4. 1.) and ABH
=FDH, (by cafe 1.) will have the remaining angles
of the one equal to the remaining angles of the other;
that is the angle BAH=:HFD, or BAD=BhD.
Theorem XVI.
Fig- S9‘ The oppofite angles of any quadrilateral figure
ABCD deferibed in a circle are together equal
to two right angles.
Draw the diagonals AC, BD ; becaufe the angle
ABD—ACD. and CBD=C AD, (laft theor.) the lum
ABD+CBD=ACD-f-CAD;or ABC-ACD + CAD;
to each of thele equals add ADC, and ABC+ADC—
ACD-j-CAD-j-ADC; but the laft three angles, being
the angles of the triangle ADC, are taken togethe r equal
to two right angles, (24. x ) therefore ABC-f-ADC =
two right angles. In the fame manner, the angles BAD,
BCD^may be fhewn to be together equal to two right
angles.
In a circle, the angle BAD in a femicircle is a^
right angle, but the angle ABD in a fegment lg’6o*
greater than a femicircle is lefs than a right an¬
gle *, and the angle AED in a fegment lefs
than a femicircle is greater than a right angle.
Let C be the centre, join CA, and produce BA to
F. Becaufe CBrrCA, the angle CABrrCBA ;
(11. 1 ) and becaule CD~CA, the angle CAD
—CDA, therefore the whole angle BADrrCBA
-f-CDA ; but thefe two laft angles are together equal
to DAF, (23. 1.) therefore the angle BADzrDAF;
and hence each of them is a right angle.
And becaufe ABD+ADB is a right angle, therefore
ABD, an angle in a fegment greater than a femicircle,
is lefs than a right angle.
And becaufe ABDE is a quadrilateral in a circle,
the oppofite angles B and E are equal to two right an¬
gles (laft theor.), but B is lefs than a right angle; there¬
fore the angle E, which is in a fegment lefs than a fe-
micircle, is greater than a right angle.
Theorem XVIII.
The angle BAG contained by AC, a tangent, and F!g. 6u
AB, a chord drawn from the point of contad,
is equal to any angle ADB in the alternate feg¬
ment of the circle.
Draw the diameter AE, and join DE. The angles
EAC, EDA, being right angles, (laft theor.) are
equal to one another •, and of thefe, EAB, a pait of
the one, is equal to EDB, a part of the other (15-)
therefore the remainder, BAG, of the former is equal
to the remainder, BDA, of the latter.
SECT. III. OF PROPORTION.
Definitions.
I. WHEN one magnitude contains another a certain
number of times exadlly, the former is faid to be a mu/-
tiple of the latter, and the latter a part of the former.
II. When feveral magnitudes are multiples of as many
others, and each contains its parts the fame number of
times,the former are faid to be equimultiples of the latter,
and the latter like parts of the former.
III. Betwixt any two finite magnitudes of the fame
kind there fubfifts a certain relation in refpeft to quan¬
tity, which is called their ratio. The two magnitudes
compared are called the terms of the ratio, the firft the
antecedent, and the fecond the cotfequent.
IV. If there be four magnitudes, or quantities, A, B,
C, D, and if A contain fome part of B juft as often
as’c contains a like part of D, then, the ratio of \ to
B is faid to be the fame with (or equal to) the ratio of
C to D.
It follows immediately from this definition, that if A
contain B juft as often as C contains D, then the ratio
of A to B is equal to the ratio of C to D; for in that
cafe it is evident that A will contain any part of B juft
as often as C contains a like part of D.
V. When two ratios are equal, their terms are called
proportionals.
To denote that the ratio of A to B is equal to
the ratio of C to D, they are ufually written thus,
A : B :: C : D, or thus, A : B=C : D, which jsread
thus; A is to B as C to D; fueh an expreflion is call¬
ed an analogy or a proportion.
VI Of four proportional quantities, the laft term is
called a fourth proportional to the other three taken in
order.
VII. Three quantities A, B, C, are faid to be pro¬
portionals, when the ratio of the firft A to the fe¬
cond B is equal to the ratio of the fecond B to the
third C. . .
VIII. Of three proportional quantities, the middle
term is faid to be a mean proportional between the other
two, and the laft a third proportional to the firft and fe¬
cond. . .
IX. Quantities are faid to be continual proportionals,
when the firft is to the fecond, as the fecond to the
third, and as the third to the fourth, and fo on.
X. When there is any number of magnitudes
A, B, C, D, of the fame kind, the ratio of the firft A
to’the laft D is faid to be compounded of the ratio of
A
Sea. III. G E O M
Of Proper, a to B, and of tlie ratio of B to C, and of the ratio of
tion- C to D.
XL If three magnitudes A, B, C, be continual pro¬
portionals $ that is, if the ratio of A to B be equal to
the ratio of B to C ; then the ratio of the firft A to
the third C is faid to be duplicate of the ratio of the firit
A to the fecond B. Hence, fince by the laft defini¬
tion the ratio of A to C is compounded of the ratio of
A to B and of B to C, a ratio which is compounded
of two equal ratios is duplicate oi either of them.
XII. If four magnitudes A, B, C, D be continual
proportionals, the ratio of the fird A to the fourth D is
laid to be triplicate the ratio of the firft A to the fecond
B. Hence a ratio compounded of three equal ratios
is triplicate of any one of them.
XIII. Ratio of Equality is that which equal magni¬
tudes bear to each other.
The next four definitions explain the names given by
geometers to certain ways of changing either the order
or magnitude of proportionals, fo that they ftill continue
to be proportional
XIV Inverfe Ratio is when the antecedent is made
the confequent, and the confequent the antecedent.
Bee Theor. 3.
XV. Alternate proportion is when antecedent is com¬
pared with antecedent, and confequent with confequent.
See Theor. 2.
XVI. Compounded ratio is when the fum of the an¬
tecedent and conf-quent is compared either with the
antecedent, or with the confequent. See Theor. 4.
XVII. Divided ratio is when the difference of the
antecedent and confequent is compared either with the
•antecedent or with the confequent. See Iheor. 4.
Axioms.
1. Equal quantities have each the fame ratio to the
fame quantity ; and the fame quantity has the fame ratio
to each of any number of equal quantities.
2. Quantities having the lame ratio to one and the
fame quantity, or to equal quantities, are equal among
themfelves •, and thofe quantities, to which one and the
fame quantity has the fame ratio, are equal.^
3. Ratios equal to one and the fame ratio are alfo
equal, one to the other.
' 4. If two quantities be divided into, or compofed of
parts that are equal among themfelves, or all of the
fame magnitude, then will the whole of the one ha\ e
the fame ratio to the whole of the other, as the num¬
ber of parts in the one has to the number of equal parts
in the other.
Theorem I.
Equimultiples of any two quantities have to each
other the fame ratio as the quantities them¬
felves.
Let A and B be any two quantities, and, m being
put to denote any number, let m A, w B be equimul¬
tiples of thofe quantities, m A (hall have to m B the
fame ratio that A has to B.
Let the ratio of A to B be equal to the ratio
of one number p to another number y, that is, let
A contain p fuch equal parts as B contains y,
Vol. IX. Part II.
E T R V. .. 641
f Ax. 4.I then, if x be put for one of thofe equal paits, OfPropor-
we have u—
A=pX, B=qx,
and confequently, multiplying both by the fame num¬
ber OT,
m A—mp x, m B~w q x,
or, which is evidently the fame,
m A—p X fax, m B—q x.
Hence it appears that mA contains the quantity nix
as a part p times \ and that m B contains the lame
quantity q times j therefore the ratio of m A to w B
is the fame as the ratio of the number p to the number
q ( Ax. 4.) ; but the ratio of A to B is alfo equal to
the ratio of p to q, (by hypothefis), therefore the ratio
of m A to mB is equal to the ratio of A to B
(Ax. 3 ).
Cor. Hence like parts of quantities have to each
A B
other the fame ratio as the wholes : that is, — : — : :
m m
A : B ; for A and B are equimultiples of — and
B^
m *
Theorem II.
If four quantities of the fame kind be proportion¬
als, they fhall alfo be proportionals by alterna¬
tion.
Let A, B, C, D be four quantities, of the fame
kind, and let A : B :: C : I)} then lhall A : C ::
B : D.
Let the equal ratios of A to B, and of C to D, be
the fame as the ratio of the number p to the number
q ; then A will contain p fuch equal parts as B con¬
tains q, (Ax. 4.) and C will, in like maimer, contain
p fuch equal parts as D contains q ; ’et each of the
equal parts thus contained in A and B be x, and let
each of thofe contained in C and D be y, then
A—p x, B—qx, C—py, D—qij.
Now as A—p x, and C=/>y; it is manifeft that A
and C are equimultiples of v and y. therefore the ratio
of A to C is equal to the raiio ol k to y, (1.) and as
B=qx, and D=qy B and D are in like manner
equimultiples ot x and y ; therefore the ratio of B to
D is equal to the ratio of x to y ; therefore the ratio of
A to C is equal to the ratio of B to D.
Cor. If the firft of four proportionals be greater
than the third, the fecond is greater than the fourth j
and if the firft be lefs than the third, the fecond is lefs
than the fourth.
Theorem III.
If four quantities be proportionals, they are alfo
proportionals by inverfion.
Let A : B :: C : D *, then (hall B : A :: D : C.
For let the equal ratios of A to B, and of C to Df
be the fame as the ratio of the number p to the number
a then as B will contain q fuch equal parts as A con-
n 4 M tains
642
Of Proper, tains p (Ax. 4.), B will be to A as 9 is to/>; and as
t'°n jrj wj]j contain q fuch equal parts as C contains />, 13
wiii ke to c alfo as q to />, therefore the ratio of B to
A is equal to the ratio of D to C (Ax. 3.).
Theorem IV.
If four quantities be proportionals, they are alfo
proportionals by compofition, and by divifion.
Sed. III.
m A—mpx, n Brrtf q x. Of Propor.
mC—rnpy, nY>—nqy, . tl”n' _r
and hence the ratio of m A to « B is equal to the ra¬
tio of the number mp to the number « y, (Ax. 4.)
and the ratio of m C to n D, is equal to the fame ra¬
tio of 771 p to 11 y, therefore (Ax. 3O m A : « B ..
m C : n D.
Theorem VI.
GEOMETRY
)
Let A : B :: C : D, then will
A-fB: A::C-i.D: C, and A + B: B:: C-fD : D;
alfo A—B: A :: C—D: D, and A—B : B :: C—D : D.
Let us fuppofe, as in the two preceding theorems,
that the ratios of A to B, and of C to D, are each
equal to the ratio of the number p to the number y, fo
that A contains p fuch equal parts as B contains y,
and C contains p fuch equal parts as 13 contains y;
and let x as before denote each of the equal parts con¬
tained in A and B, and y each of the equal parts con¬
tained in C and D } then, fince
K—p x, ¥>—qx, Czzpy, D=yy,
therefore A-\-^~p x-\-q x—^p-^q^x;
C-fD=/>y+yy=(/»+y)y.
If there be any number of quantities, and as many
others, which, taken two and two, have the
fame ratio •, the firft lhall have to the laft of the
fir ft feries the fame ratio which the firft of the
other feries has to the laft.
First, let there bethree quantities A, B,C, A, B, C,
and other three H, K, L, and let A : B :: hf K* B
H : K, and B : C :: K : L, then will A : C :: H : L.
For let the equal ratios of A to B, and of H to L,
be the fame with the ratio of a number p to another
number y, fo that x and y being like parts of A and
H, and alfo like parts of B and K, as in the former
theorems,
Now as A-j-B contains x p+q times, and A contains
the fame quantity p times, and B contains it y times,
(by the 4th axiom),
A-{-B : A ::/>+y : pi and A-f-B : B :: />4-y *• y,
and as C-fD contains y p-\-q times, and C contains
it p times, and D contains it y times.
C+D : C :: />+y : />, and C-J-D : D :: />+y : y.
Thus it appears that the ratios of A-j-B to A, and of
C-j-D to C, are equal to the fame ratio, namely, that
of p q X.Q p j therefore (Ax. 3.) A + B : A :: C-j-
D : C. It alfo appears that the ratios of A-j-B to B,
and C-j-D to D are each equal to the ratio of
p-\-q to y; therefore (Ax. 3.) A + B : B :: C
-j-D : D.
In the fame manner the fecond
may be proved, namely, that
part of the theorem
A—B ; A :: C—D : C and A—B : B :: C—D : D.
Theorem V.
If four quantities be proportionals, and there be
taken any equimultiples of the antecedents,
and alfo any equimultiples of the confequents *,
the refulting quantities will ftill be propor¬
tionals.
Let A : B :: C : D, and w A, m C be any equi¬
multiples of the antecedents, and » B, ft D any equi¬
multiples of the confequents \ then m A : « B ::
C : « D.
The quantities />, y, x and y being fuppofed to ex-
prefs the fame things as in the foregoing theorems j be-
caufe
A—px, B=y v, C=py, D=y y,
therefore, multiplying the antecedents by the number
tn, and the confequents by n,
1
A=px, B=yx, H=/»y, Kz=yy.
Alfo let C contain y equal parts, each equal to v, and
let L contain y equal parts, each equal to 2, fo that
C—y v, Lrrryaq
then becaufe B : C :: K : L, that is, q x : q v .. qy .
q and qx and qv are equimultiples of x and 1’,
alfo y y and y z are equimultiples of y and 2, therefore
(T & Ax 2.) a? : xi :: y : 58, hence (by laft theorem)/) a; :
qvv.py:ql, that is, (becaufe A=p x, C=qv, H
—py, L=y 2) A : C :: H : L.
Next, let thefe four quantities, A,B,
C, D, and other four H, K, L, M,
fuch, that A : B :: H : K, and B : C ::
K : L, and C : D:: L : M, then will
A : D H : M. ^ tr r
For, becaufe A : B :: H : K, and B : C :: K . i- ,
therefore, by the firft cafe, A : C :: H : L ; and be¬
caufe C : D :: L : M, therefore, by the fame caie,
A : D :: H : M. The demonftration applies in the
fame manner to any number of quantities. *
Cor. Hence it appears, that ratios compounded ot
the fame number of like or equal ratios are equal to
one another.
Note.—When four quantities are proportionals in the
manner explained in this theorem, they are laid to be
fo from equality of el if a nee ; and it is ulual for mathe¬
matical writers to fay that they are fo, ex ccquah or ex
cequo.
A, B, C, D,
H, K, L, M.
Theorem VII.
If there be any number of quantities, and as many
others, which taken two and two in a crofs or¬
der have the fame ratio *, the firft {hall have to
the laft of the firft feries the fame ratio which
the firft has to the laft of the other feries.
First;
Sea. III. ■ G E O M
Proportions First, let tliere be three quantities A, B, aTIEE
of Figures. ancj other three H, K, L, fuch that A : fj’ r’l
 B K : L, and B : C :: H : K i then will ■ ’ ■ *
A : C :: H : L.
For let the equal ratios of A to B, and of K to L
be equal to the ratio of the number p to the number y,
fo that as before
K—pXy JS—q x, K—/>y, 'L—qy.
Alfo, let C be fuppofed to contain q equal parts,
each equal to a, and let H contain p equal parts, each
equal to i;, fo that
C—<7 s, H=/< v ;
Then, becaufe B : C :: H : K, that is, q a \ q % \\
pv :py; therefore (i. & Ax. 3.) a;: ss: y, and confe-
quently ( z.') p x \ q % w p v : q y, that is (becaufe
==A, q %—C,p w=H, qy—h)A : C :: H : L.
Next, let there be four quantities
A, B, C, D, and other four H, K, L, M,
fuch, that A : B :: L : M, and B : C ::
K : L, and C : D :: H : K, then will A : D :: H :
Mj for becaufe A : B :: L : M, and B : C :: K : Lj
by the foregoing cafe A : C :: K : M ; and again
becaufe C : D :: H : K ; therefore, by fame cafe, A :
D :: H : M. The demonftration applies in the fame
manner to any number of quantities.
Note.—In this theorem, as in the laft, the four
quantities A, D, H, M, are faid to be proportionals
from equality of dijiance; but becaufe in this cafe the
proportions are taken in a crofs order, it is common to
fay, that they are fo, ex cequalis in proportione perturba-
ta} or ex cequo inverfely.
Theorem VIII.
If to the two confequents of four proportionals
there be added any two quantities that have the
fame ratio to the refpetlive antecedents, thefe
fums and the antecedents will ftill be propor¬
tionals.*
Let A : B :: C : D
and A : B' :: C : D'
(where B' and D; denote two quantities diUinct from
thofe denoted by B and D) •, then will
" A : B-fB' :: C : D-j-JX
For fince A : B :: C : D, by inverfion, (3.) B : A ::
X) : C, but A : B' :: C : D', therefore (6.) B : B' ::
D : D', and by com poll t ion, (4.) and inverfion B :
B+B' :: D : D-f-D', and fince A : B :: C : D ;
therefore (6.) A : B-f-B' :: C : D-f-D'.
Cor. 1. If inftead of two quantities B', D', there be
any number B', B", &c. and D', D", &c. which ta-
E T R Y. 643
ken two and two have the fame ratio to the antecedents Proportions
A, C, that is, if of Figurcs-.
A: B :: C : D,
A: B':: C : D',
A : B ':: C : D" j
then will A : B + B'-j-B" :: C : C-f-D'+D".
For fince A : B-f-B' :: C : D-f-D' (by the theor.)
and A : B" :: C : D",
therefore, by the propofition,
A : B+B'+B" :: C : D + D'-fD".
Cor. 2. If any number of quantities of the fame
kind be proportionals, as one of the antecedents is to
its confequent, fo is the fum of all the antecedents to
the fum of all the confequents.
Let A : B :: C : D :: E : F,
then becaufe A : A :: B : B,
and A : C :: B : D,
and A : E :: B : F j
therefore, A : A-f-C-{-E :: B : B-f-D-f-F $ and by
alternation,
A : B :: A-f-C+E : B-f-D+F.
■
In treating of proportion we have fuppofed that the
antecedent contains fome part of the confequent a cer¬
tain number of times exactly, which part is therefore a
common meafure of the antecedent and confequent.
But there are quantities which cannot have a common
meafure, and which are therefore faid to be incommen-
furable ; fuch, for example, are thefides of two fquares,
one of which has its furface double that of the other.
Although the ratio of two incemmenfurable quanti¬
ties cannot be exprefied in numbers, yet we can always
affign a ratio in number’s which {hall be as near to that
ratio as we pleafe. For let A and B be any two quan¬
tities whatever, and fuppofe that x is fuch a part of A
that N—px; then if q denote the number of times that
x can be taken from B, and d the remainder, we
have ¥> — q x-\-d, and yarrrB—d ; and becaufe
p : q :: px : q x, therefore p : q A : B—d. Now as
d is lefs than x, by taking x fufficiently {mail r/may be
lefs than any propofed quantity, fo that T&—d may dif¬
fer from B by lefs than any given quantity ; therefore
two numbers p and q may always be afligned, fueh,
that the ratio of /> to <7 {hall be the fame as the ratio of
A to a quantity that differs lefs from B than by any
given quantity, however fmall that quantity may be.
Hence we may conclude, that whatever has been de¬
livered in this fedlion relating to commenfurable quan¬
tities, may be confidered as applying equally to fuch as
are incommenfurable.
A, B, C, D,
H, K, L, M.
SECT. IV. THE PROPORTIONS OF FIGURFS.
Definitions.
I. Equivalent Figures are fuch as have equal fur-
faces.
Two figures may be equivalent, although very dif-
fimilar ^ thus a circle may be equivalent to a fquare, a
triangle to a rectangle, and fo of other figures.
We {hall give the denomination of equal figures to
4 M 2 thofe
644
Proportions
of Figures.
Fig. 62.
Fig. 63.
Plate
CCXLII.
Fig. 64.
Fig. 65.
Fig. 66.
Fig. 67.
thofe which, being applied the one upon the other, co¬
incide entirely ; thus, two circles having the fame ra
dius are equal j and two triangles having three Tides of
the one equal to three Tides of the other, each to each,
are all equal.
II. Two figures are Jimilar, when the angles of the
one are equal to the angles of the other, each to each;
and the homologous fides proportionals. T he homolo¬
gous fides are thole which have the fame pofition in the
two figures', or which are adjacent to the equal angles.
The angles themfelves are called homologous angles.
Two equal figures are always fimilar, but fimilar
figures may be very unequal.
III. In two different circles, Jlmilar fe&ors, fimi/ar
arches, fimilar fegments, are fuch as correfpond to equal
angles at the centre. Thus the angle A being equal
to the angle O, the arch BC is fimilar to the arch DE,
and the fedtor ABC to the fector ODE, &c.
IV. The Altitude of a parallelogram is the perpendi¬
cular which meafures the diftance between the oppolite
fides or bafes AB, CD.
V. The Altitude of a triangle is the perpendicular
AD drawn from the verticai angle A upon the bafe
BC.
VI. The Altitude of a trape%o:d is the perpendicular
EF drawn between its two parallel bafes AB, CD.
VII. The Area and the furface of a figure are. terms
of nearly the fame fignification. The term area, how¬
ever, is more particularly ufed to denote the fuperficial
quantity of the figure in refpedl of its being meafured,
or compared with other furfaces.
Theorem I.
Parallelograms which have equal bafes and equal
altitudes are equivalent.
/
Let AB be the common bafe of the parallelograms
ABCD, EB F, which being fuppofed to have the
fame altitude, the fides DC, FE oppofite to the bafes
will lie in DE a line parallel to AB. Now, from the
nature of a parallelogram, AD—BC, and AFrrBEj
for the fame reafon DC—AB, and IE=AB ; there¬
fore, DC=FE, and taking away DC and FE from the
fame line DE, the remainders CE and D! are equal j
hence the triangles DAF, CBE have three fides of the
one equal to three fides of tne other, each to each ; and
confequently are equal (10. 1.). Now it from the qua¬
drilateral ABED, the triangle ADF be taken away,
there will remain ihe parallelogram ABEI1 ; and if
from the fame quadrilateral ABED, the triangle CBE,
equal to the former, be taken away, there will remain
the parallelogram ABCD; therefore the two parallelo¬
grams ABCD, ABEF, which have the fame bafe, and
the fame altitude, are equivalent.
Cor. Every parallelogram is equivalent to a re<51-
angle of the fame bafe and altitude.
Theorem II.
Every triangle ABC is the half of a parallelogram
ABCD, having the fame bafe and altitude.
For the triangles ABC, ACD are equal (28. I.).
Cor. 1. Therefore a triangle ABC is the half of a
redangle BCEF of the fame bafe and altitude.
GEOMETRY. Sett. IV.
Cor. 2. All triangles having equal bafes, and equal Proportions
, . , . V . 0 of t retires,
altitudes, are equivalent. . r V ^
Theorem III.
Two re£Iangles of the fame altitude are to each pig. gs,
other as their bafes.
Let ABCD, AEFD be two redangles, which have
a common altitude AD; the redangle ABCD {hall
have to the redangle AEFD the fame ratio that the
bafe AB has to the bale AE.
Let the bafe AB have to the bafe AE the ratio of
the number p (which we (hall fuppofe "y*) t° the num¬
ber q (which may be 4.) that is, let AB contain p (7.)
fuch equal parts as AE contains q (4.), then, if perpen¬
diculars be drawn to AB and AE at the points of di-
vifion, the redangles ABCD and AEl D will be divid¬
ed, the former into p, and the latter into q redangles,
which will be all equal (1.) for they have equal bales,
and the fame altitude ; thus the redangle ABCD will
alfo contain p fuch equal parts as the redangle AEI'D
contains q; therefore the redangle ABCD is to
AEFD as the n'umbcr p to the number q (Ax. 4. 3.),
that is, as the bafe AB to AE.
Theorem IV.
Any two re&angles are to each other as the pro-Fig. 71.
duds of any numbers proportional to their fides.
Let the numbers m, n,p, q, have among themfelves
the fame ratios that the fides of the redangles ALCD,
AEFG have to each other; that is, let AB contain
fuch equal parts, whereof AD contains n, and AE
contains p, and AF contains q; then {hall ABCD :
AEFG :: m n . p q.
Let the redangles be fo placed that the fides AB,
AE may be in a ftraight line, then AD and AG will
alfo lie in a ftraight line (3. 1.). Now (3.)
ABCD : AEHD :: AB : AE :: m \ p,
but m : p :: n m \ n p, { \. 3.)
therefore ABCD : AEHD :: n m : np.
Again, AEHD : AEFG :: AD : AG :: n : y;
but n \ q v. pn \ pqi
therefore, AEHD : AEFG wpn .pq?
and it was {hewn that
ABCD : AEHD :: nm : np or pn,
therefore, (6.3.) ABCD : AEI G :: mn \pq*
Scholium.
Hence it appears, that the produd of the bafe by tnc
altitude of a redangle may be taken for its meafure,
obferving that by fuch produd is meant that of the
number of linear units in the bafe by the number of
linear units in the altitude. 1 his mealure is however
not abfolute, but relative, for it muff be fuppoied, that
in comparing one redangle with another, the fides of
both are mealured by the fame linear unit. For ex¬
ample, if the bafe of a redangle A be three units,
and its altitude 10, the redangle is reprefented by
2 X 10 or 30 ; this number confidered by itfelf has no
2 meaning,
Se£l. IV. G E O M
Proportions meaning, but if we have a fecond reftangle B, the bafe
oi Figures. 0r |s twelve units, and altitude feven, this fecond
reflangle lhall be reprefented by the number i 2 X 7 or
84, and hence it may be concluded that the two rect¬
angles are to each other as 30 to 84 •, therefore, if in
eftimating any fuperficies the reftangle A be taken for
1 the meafuring unit, the reClangle JB lliall have for its
abfolute meafure that is, it fhall be luperficial
units.
It is more common, as well as more flmple, to take
for a fuperficial unit a fquare, the fide of which is an
unit in length •, and then the meafure which we have
regarded only as relative becomes abfolute j for ex¬
ample the number 30, which is the meafure of the
reClangle A, reprefents 30 fuperficial units or 30
fquares, each having its. fide equal to an unit. To il-
luftrate this, fee fig. 72.
Theorem V.
E T R Y. 645
AL X E-F. But ALrrDK, and becaufe the triangle Propoitiom
1BL is equal to the triangle KCI, the fide BLzzCK, 0 -oare-<
therefore AB-{-CD“AL-f-EK~2AL j hence AL
is half the fum of the parallel fides AB, CD 5 and as
the area of the trapezoid is equal to FE X AL, it is alfo
equal to FEx(—)•
Theorem VIII.
If four ftraight lines AB, AC, AD, AE, be pro-Fig. 6^.
portionals •, the re£tangle ABFE, contained by
the two extremes, is equivalent to the re£langle
ACGD contained by the means. And con-
verfely, if the re£tangle contained by AB, AE,
the extremes, be equivalent to the retlangle
contained by AC, AD the means, the four lines
are proportionals.
Fig. 67. The area of any parallelogram is equal to the pro¬
duct of its bafe by its altitude.
For the parallelogram A BCD is equivalent to the
rectangle FBCE, which has the fame bafe BC, and
the fame altitude AO (Cor. l.)j but the meafure of
the reftangle is BCx AO, (4.) therefore the area of
the parallelogram is BC X AO.
Cor. Parallelograms having the fame bafe, or equal
bafes, are to each other as their altitudes ; and parallelo¬
grams having the fame altitude are to each other as
their bafes; for in the former cafe put B for the com¬
mon bafe and A and A' for the altitudes, then the
areas of the figures are B X A and B X A'; and it is
manifeft that BxA : BxA' :: A : A'-, and in the'
latter cafe, putting A for the common altitude, and B
and B' for the bafes, it is evident that B X A : B' X A
:: B : B'.
Theorem VI.
Fig. 67. The area of a triangle is equal to the produ£t of
its bafe by the half of its altitude.
For the triangle ABC is half of the parallelogram
ABCD, which has the fame bafe BC, and the fame al¬
titude AO (2.), but the area of the parallelogram is
BC X AO ( f.), therefore that of the triangle is 4- BC
X AO, or BCx 4 AO.
Gor. Two triangles of the fame altitude are to each
other as their bafes •, and two triangles having the fame
bafe are to each other as their altitudes.
Theorem VII.
F'g- 73* The area of a trapezoid ABCD is equal to the
product of its altitude EE by half the fum of its
parallel fides AB, CD.
Through the point I, the middle of BC, draw’ KL
parallel to the oppofite fide AD, and produce DC to
meet KL. In the triangles 1BL, 1CK, IB is equal to
IC by conftruftion, and the angle CIKzrBIL, and the
angle ICKzrlBL (21 1.) therefore thefe triangles are
equal ; and hence the trapezoid ABCD is equivalent
to the parallelogram ALKD, and has for its meafure
Let the rectangles be fo placed as to have the com¬
mon angle A, and let BF, DG inlerfedt each other ill
H. Be caufe the reCtangles AEHD, ACGD have the
fame altitude AD,
ABHD : ACGD :: AB : AC 5 (3.),
and becaufe the reClangles ABHD, ABFE have the’
fame altitude AB, for the fame reafon
ABHD : ABFE :: AD : AE j
but by hypothefis AB : AC :: AD : AE, therefore
(Ax. 3. 3.) ABHD : ACGD :: ABHD : ABFE,
therefore (Ax. 2. 3.) the redtagle ACGD—ABFE.
Next fuppole that the re6tangle ACGDzrABFEj
then ABHD :ACGD:: ABHD: ABFE, (Ax. 1.3.)
but ABHD : ACGD :: AB : AC, (5.) and ABHD
ABFE :: AD : AE, therefore AB : AC:: AD AE.
Cor. If three itraight lines be proportionals, the
rectangle contained by the extremes is equal to the
fquare of the mean *, and if the rectangle contained by
the extremes be equal to the fquare of the mean, the
three ftraight lines are proportionals.
Theorem IX.
If four ftraight lines be proportionals, and alfoFig. 70.
other four, the rectangles contained by the cor-
refponding terms lhail be proportionals ; that is,
if AB : BC :: CD : DE, and BF : BG :: DH:
DI, then fhall rectangle AF : reel. BM :: rect.
CH : reft. DQ.
For in BG and DI, produced if neceffary, take
BF—BF, and DH—DH, and let FP be parallel t©
BC, and HN to DE ; then (3.)
reft. AF : reft. BP :: AB : BC,
and reft. CH : reft. DN :: CD : DE j
but AB : BC :: CD : DE, (by hypothefis) therefore,
reft. AF : reft. BP :: reft. CH : reft. DN $
now (3.) reft BP : reft. BM :: BE : BG, and reft.
DN : reft. DO :: DH : DI j but BF : BG :: DH :
DI, (by hypoth.) therefore,
reft. BP ; reft. BM ;; reft. DN ; reft. D£> j
buk
646 G E O M
Proportions but it bas been {hewn that
omgures^ ^ af . ^ Bp .. rea% ch : reel. DN,
therefore (6. 3.)
reft. AF : reft. BM :: reft. CH : reft. DQ.
Cor. Hence the fquares of four proportional ftraight
lines are themfelves proportionals.
E T B Y. IV.
for BH = DE, and BKrrFE ; therefore, AKLErr (Wrtom
ABHE-f- EDGE •, but thefe two parts conftitute the ot 1Sure?’f
excefs of the fquare ABIE above the fquare DHIG,
the former of which is the fquare upon AB, and the
latter the fquare upon BC, therefore (AB-}-BC)x
(AB—BC)= AB*—BC\
Theorem XIII.
Theorem X.
Fig. 74. If a flraight line AC be divided into any two parts
at B, the fquare made upon the whole line AC
{hall be equal to the fquares made upon the two
parts AB, BC, together with twice the rect¬
angle contained by thofe two parts : which may
be exprefled thus, ACzrr AB1 -j-BC* 2AB x h>C.
Suppose the fquare ACHE to be conftrudted ; taue
AF=AB, draw EG parallel to AC, and BH parallel
t0 CD-
The fquare ACHE is made up of four parts; the
firft ABJfis the (quare upon AB, becaufe AE=AB ;
the fecond IGDHis the fquare upon BC, for AC—AE,
and AB = AF, therefore AC—ABmAE-—AF, that
is BCrrEF •, butBC=IG, and EFrrDG, (26. 1.)
therefore IGDH is the fquare upon BC, and the re-
maining two parts are the two reftangles BCG I,
FEHI, which have each for their meafure AB xBC,
therefore the fquare upon AC is equal to the fquares
upon AB and BC, and twice the rectangle AB X BC.
Theorem XI.
Fig. 75. If a ftraight line AC be the difference of two
ftraight lines AB, BC ; the fquare made upon
AC fhall be equal to the excefs of the two
fquares upon AB and BC above twice the re£l-
angle contained by AB and BC ; that is,
AC*=AB1-bBC*—2AB x BC.
Construct the fquare ABIE, take A Err AC, and
draw CG parallel to BI, and HK parallel to AB j and
complete the fquare EFLK. 'I he two reftangles
CBIG, GLKD have each AB X BC for their meafure •,
and if thefe be taken from the whole figure AB1LKE A,
that is from ABi-}-BC*, there will remain the Iquare
ACHE, that is, the fquare upon AC.
Theorem XII.
r 6' The reftangle contained by the fum and the dif-
‘5 7 ' ference of two ftraight lines is equal to the dif¬
ference of the fquares upon thofe lines j that is
(AB+BC)x(AB_£C) = AB’-BCC
Construct upon AB and AC the fquares ABIE,
ACHE; produce AB, fo that BKmBC, and complete
the reftangle AKLE. The bafe AK of the reftangle
is the fum of the tw:o Hues AB, BC 5 and its aititude
AE is the difference of the fame lines*, therefore, the
reft angle AKLE=r( AB + BC) (AB—BC) but the
fame reft angle iscompofed of twoparts A BH E -j-BK L K,
•f which, BHLK is equal to the reftangle EDGE,
The fquare upon the hypothenufe of a right-angled Fig. 77.
triangle is equal to the fum of the fquares upon
the two other fides.
Let ABC be a right-angled triangle j having form¬
ed the fquares upon its three {ides, draw a perpendicu¬
lar AH from the right angle upon the hypothenufe,
and produce it to E, and draw the diagonals AF, CH.
The angle ABF is evidently the fum of ABC and a
right angle, and the angle HBC is alfo the fum of
ABC and a right angle *, therefore the angle ABF=
HBC 5 now ABrrBH, for they are fides of the fame
{quare, and BC^Bh for the fame reafon, therefore the
triangles ABF, HBC have two fides, and the included
angle of the one equal to two fides and the included
angle of the other, each to each, therefore the triangles
are equal (5. I.) but the triangle ABF is the half of
the reftangle BBEh (which for brevity s fake we {hall
call BE) becaufe it has the fame bafe BE, and the
fame altitude BH, (2.) and the triangle HBC is in like
manner half of the fquare AH, for the angles B_AC,
BAL being both right angles, CA and AL conftitute
a ftraight line parallel to BH, (3* 1 •) and thus the
triangle HBC, and the fquare AH have the fame bafe
HB, and the fame altitude AB j from which it follows
that the triangle is half of the fquare (2.). It has now
been proved that the triangle ABF is equal to the tri¬
angle HBC ; and that the reftangle BE is double of
the former, and the fquare AH double of the latter j
therefore the reftangle BE is equal to the fquare AH.
It may be demonftrated in like manner that the reft¬
angle CHEG, or CE, is equal to the fquare AI ; but
the reftangles BE, CE make up the {quare LCGF,
therefore the fquare BCGF upon the hypothenufe is
equal to the fquares ALHB, AKIC upon the other
two fides.
Theorem XIV.
In a triangle ABC, if the angle C is acute, the FlS* 7s*
fquare of the oppofite fide AB is lels than the
fquares of the fides which contain the angle C j
and if AD a perpendicular be drawn to BC
from the oppofite angle, the difference ftiall be
equal to twice the rectangle BCxCD j that is,
AE*=AC* + CB*—2BC x CH.
First. Suppofe AH to fall w ithin the triangle, then
BB=rBC—CH, andconfequently (11.) BB^BC’-f-
 2BC X CH ; to each of thele equals add AH* j
then, obferving that BH*-fHA2=:BA*, and CH
BA^CA*,
AB^B^+CA1—2 BC x CH.
Next fuppofe AB to fall without the triangle, fo
that BH=CB-BC, and therefore BB-CD* +
BC*—2BCxCB, (II.) to each of thefe add AH2 as
Sea. IV. G E O M E T R Y. 647
Proportions before, and we get
^ AB*=BC*-j-CA*—2BC x CD.
Theorem XV.
Fig. 79. In a triangle ABC, if the angle C is obtufe, the
fquare of the oppofite fide AB is greater than
the fum of the fquares of the fides which con¬
tain the angle C ; and if AD a perpendicular
be drawn to BC from the oppofite angle, the
difference lliall be equal to twice the redangle
BC x CD, that is,
AB*= ACI-f-BCI-l-2 BC x CD.
For BD^BC + CD, and therefore (10.) BDJ=
BC^CD^aBC X CD ; to each of thefe equals add
AD% then, obferving that AD2 + DB*=:AB% and
AD2 + DC2=AC%
AB*=BC* + CA2-}-2 BCxCD.
Scholium.
It is only when a triangle has one of its angles, a
right angle, that the fum of the fquares of two of its
fides can be equal to the fquare of the third fide; for if
the angle contained by thofe lides be acute, the fum of
their fquares is greater than the fquare of the oppofite
fide, and if the angle be obtufe, that fum is leis than
the fquare of the oppofite fide.
Theorem XVI.
Fig. 80. If a ftraight line AE be drawn from the vertex of
any triangle ABC to the middle of its bafe BC ;
the fum of the fquares of the fides is equal to
twice the fquare of half the bafe, and twice
the fquare of the line drawn from the vertex
to the middle of the bafe •, that is, AB*-}-ACJ—
2 BEs-j-2 AE2 ;
Draw AD perpendicular to BC, then
AB2=BE2 + EA2—2 BEx ED, (14.)
and AC2—CE2-{-EA*-{-2 CE X ED, (15.)
therefore, by adding equals to equals, and obferving
that BE—CE, and therefore BE2 = CE2, and 2BEx
ED=2CExED,
AB2 +AC2=r2 BE2+ 2 AE2.
Theorem XVII.
Fig Si a ftraight line DE drawn parallel to one of the
fides of a triangle ABC divides the other two
fides AB, AC proportionally, fo that AD : DB
:: AE : EC.
Join BE and CD. The triangles BDE, CDE,
having the fame bafe DE, and the fame altitude, ...re
equivalent, (2.) and the triangles ADE, B.DE, having
the fame altitude, are to one another as their bafes, (6.)
that is, ADE: BDE:: AD: DB j the triangles ADE,
CDE, having alio the tame altitude, are to one ano¬
ther as their bafes;tbat is, ADE : CDE :: AE . EC,
but the triangle BDE has been proved equal to CDE}
therefore, becaufe of the common ratio in the two pro- Proportions
portions, we have (Ax. 3 3.) of tigurea.
AD : DB :: AE : EC.
Cor. Hence by compofition AB : AD :: AC : AE;
and AB : BD :: AC : CE.
Theorem XVII.
Converfely, if two of the fides AB, AC of a tri-Fig. 3r.
angle are divided proportionally by the ftraight
line DE, fo that AD : DB :: AE : EC, then
fhall the line DE be parallel to the remaining
fide BC.
For if DE is not parallel to BC, fuppofe fome
other line DO to be parallel to BC; then, AB : BD ::
AC : CO (17.) ; and lince by hypothefis AD : DB
AE : EC, and confequently, by compofition, AE :
BD ':: AC : CE, therefore, AC : CO :: AC : CE ;
therefore, CO=CE (2 Ax. 3.) which is impoffible ;
therefore DO is not parallel to BC.
Cor. If it be fuppofed that BA : AD :: CA :
AE, ftill DE will be parallel to BC ; for by divifion
BD : AD :: CE : AE, this proportion being the
fame as in the Theorem, the conclufion muft be the
fame.
Theorem XIX.
A ftraight line AD, which bife&s the angle BAG Fig. 82.
of a triangle, divides the bafe BC into two feg-
ments proportional to the adjacent fides BA,
AC ; that is, BD : DC :: BA : AC.
Through the point C draw CE parallel to AD, fo
as to meet BA produced. In the triangle BCE, the
line AD is parallel to one of its fides CE, therefore
BD : DC :: BA : AE ; now the triangle CAE is
ifofceles, for, becaufe of the parallels AD, CE, the
angle ACErrDAC, and the angle AEC=BAD,
(21. 1.) but by hypothefis DACrnBAD ; therefore
ACEzrAEC ; and confequently AE= AC, (12. I.)
therefore, fubftkuting AC inftead of AE in the above
proportion, it becomes BD : DC :: BA : AC.
Theorem XX.
If two triangles be equiangular, their homologous Fig. 84.
fides are proportional, and the triangles are
fimilar.
Let ABC, CDE be two equiangular triangles,
which have the angle BAC=CDE, ABCrrDCE,
and ACB=DEC ; the homologous fides, or the fides
adjacent to the equal angles, {hall be proportional ; that
is, BC : CE :: AB : CD :: AC : DE.
Place the homologous fides BC, CE in the Erne
direction, and produce the fides BA, ED, till they
meet in F. Becaufe BCE is a {Iraight line, and the
angle BCA is equal to CED, the lines CA, EF are
parallel, (22. I.) and in like manner, becaufe the angle
ABCnrDCE, the lines BE, CD are parallel; there¬
fore the figure A CDF is a parallelogram, and hence
AF—CD, and CA —DF (26. 1.). In the triangle
BFE the line AC is parallel to the fide FE, therefore
geometry.
64.8
Proportions BC : CE :: BA : AF j or fince xA-FrrCD, BC : CE ::
of Figures jg^ . Again, in the fame triangle, becaufe CD
v .. ragej (.]je BI1, BC : CE r: ED : DE, 01,
frnce FD= AC, BC : CE :: AC ; DE •, having now
fhewn that BC : CE :: BA : CD, and that BC :
CE :: AC : DE, it follows that BA : CD :: AC :
DE j therefore the equiangular triangles BA.C, CDE
have their homologous (ides proportional; and nence
(def. 2.) the triangles are fimilar.
Scholium.
It is manifeft, that the homologous frdes are oppofrte
to the equal angles.
Theorem XXI.
Fig. 83. jp tw0 triangles have their homologous Tides pro¬
portional, they are equiangular and fimilar.
Suppose that BC : EF :: AB : DE :: AC : D1T •,
then (hall A=D, B=E, C=F. At the point E
make the angle FEG=B, and at the point 1' make
EFGrrC •, then the third angle G ihall be
the third angle A. and the two triangles ABC, GEF
Ihall be equiangular-, therefore, by the laft theorem
BC • EF :: AB : GE; but by hypothefis BC : Eh
AB : DE, therefore GErrDE (Ax. 2. 3.). In hke
manner, becaufe by the fame theorem BC : Eh::
CA : EG and by hypothefis BC : EF :: CA : FD >
therefore FG=FD but it was fhewn that EGrriUJ,
therefore, the triangles GEE, DEE, having the fides
of the one equal to thofe of the other, each to each,
are equal, but, by conftruaion, the triangle GEh is
equiangular to ABC, therefore alfo the triangles DEh,
ABC are equiangular and 'fimilar.
Theorem XXII.
Sea. IV.
q. The perpendicular AD is a mean proportional Proportions
between the two fegments BD, DC.
1. The triangles BAD, BAG have the common
angle B 5 befides, the right angle B AC is equal to the
right angle BDA, therefore the third angle BAD of
the one, is equal to the third angle BC A of the other ;
therefore, thefe triangles are equiangular and fimilar j
and in the fame manner it may be fhewn, that the tri¬
angle DAC is equiangular and fimilar to B AC there¬
fore the three triangles are equiangular and fimilar to
each other. . , .
2. Becaufe the triangle BAD is fimilar to the tri¬
angle BAC, their homologous fides are proportional.
Now the lide BD of the leffer triangle is homologous
to the fide BA of the greater, becaufe they are oppo-
fite to the equal angles BAD, BC \ ; in like manner
BA, confidered as a fide of the lefier triangle, is homo¬
logous to the fide BC of the greater, each being oppo-
fite to a right angle •, therefore, BD : B A :: B A . BC.
In the fame manner it may be fhewn that CD : C A ..
CA : ("IB, therefore each fide is a mean proportional
between the hypothenuie and the fegment adjacent to
that fide.
3 By comparing the homologous fides of toe two
fimilar triangles ABD, ACD, it appears that BD .
DA :: DA : DC therefore the perpendicular is a
mean proportional between the fegments of the hypo-
thenufe.
Theorem XXIV.
Two triangles, which have an angle of the one Fig. 87.
equal to an angle of the other, are to each other
as the rectangles of the fides which contain the
equal angles; that is, the triangle ABC is to
the triangle ADE, as the rectangle AB x Ac.
_  rv ATVw A 17
Fig- 8
Fig. S6.
Two triangles which have an angle of the one
equal to an angle of the other, and the fides
about thefe angles proportional, are fimilar.
Let the angle A“D, and let AB : DE .. AC .
DF, the triangle ABC is fimilar to DEF. lake
AG=DE, and draw GH parallel to BC, then the
angle AGH=i ABC, (21. 1.) therefore the triangle
AGH is equiangular to ABC, and confequently (
AB : AG :: AC : AH; but by hypothefis AB :
DE :: AC : DF, and by conftruaion AG=rDE,
therefore AHrrrDF; the two triangles AGH, DEF
are therefore equal, (5. I.) but the triangle AGH is
fimilar to ABC, therefore DEF is fimilar to ABC.
Theorem XXIII.
In a right-angled triangle, if a perpendicular
AD be drawn from the right angle upon the
hypothenufe, then,
j. The triangles ABD, CAD on each fide of the
perpendicular are fimilar to the whole tiiangle
BAC, and to one another.
2. Each fide AB or AC is a mean proportional
between the hypothenufe BC, and the adjacent
fegment BD or DC.
Join BE ; becaufe the triangles ABE, ADE have
a common vertex E, they have the fame altitude,
therefore ABE : ADE :: AB : AD, (Cor. to 6.) ;
but AB : AD :: ABXAE : ADxAE, (3.) there¬
fore,
ABE : ADE :: ABxAE : ADxAE.
In the fame manner it may be demonftrated that
ABC : ABE :: AB X AC : ABx AE ;
Therefore (6.3.) ABC: ADE:: AB x AC: AD X AE.
Cor Therefore the two triangles are equivalent, if
the reftangle AB X AC= AD X AE, or (8.) if AB :
AD :: AE : AC, in which cafe, the fide-, about me
equal angles are faid to be reciprocally proportional.
Scholium,
What has been proved of triangles is alfo true of
parallelograms, they being the doubles of iuch tri¬
angles.
Theorem XXV.
jq fimilar triangles are to each other as the v
fquares of their homologous Tides.
Se£t. IV.
Proportions Let tKe angle A—D, the angle Br=E, and there-
ot t igures.^ £()re tjle allgle C=:F,
then (20.) AB : DE :: AC : DF j
now AB : DE :: AB : DE,
for the two ratios are identical, therefore (9.)
AB* : DE* :: AB x AC : DExDFj
but ABC : DEF :: ABx AC : DExDF, (24.)
therefore ABC : DEF :: AB* : DE*, (Ax. 3. 3.)
therefore the two fimilar triangles ABC, DEF, are
to each other as the fquares of the homologous tides
AB, DE, or as the fquares of any of the other homo¬
logous tides.
Theorem XXVI.
Fig. Sp. Similar polygons are compofed of the fame num-
' her of triangles which are fimilar and fimilarly
fituated.
In the polygon ABCDE, draw from one of the
angles A the diagonals AC, AD to all the other
angles. In the polygon FGHIK, draw in like man¬
ner from the angle F, homologous to A, the diagonals
FH, FI to the other angles.
Becaufe the polygons are timilar, the angle ABC is
equal to its homologous angle FGH (Def. 2.) alfo the
tides AB, BC are proportional to FG, GH, to that
AB : FG :: BC : GH, therefore the triangles ABC,
FGHaretimilar( 22.); therefore the angle BCA~GHF,
andthefe being taken from the equal angles BCD,GHI,
the remainders ACD, FHI are equal; but the triangles
ABC, FGH being fimilar, AC : FH :: BC : GH,
betides, becaufe of the fimilarity of the polygons, BC :
GH :: CD : HI; therefore AC :FH :: CD : HI j now
it has been already thewn that the angle ACD =: FHI,
therefore the triangles ACD, FHI are fimilar (22.).
It may be demonftrated in the fame manner that the
remaining triangles are fimilar, whatever be the num¬
ber of tides of the polygon ; therefore two fimilar poly¬
gons are compofed of the fame number of inangles,
timilar to each other, and fimilarly fituated.
Theorem XXVII.
Fig. 89. The perimeters of fimilar polygons are as the ho¬
mologous fides, and the polygons themfelves
are as the fquares of the homologous fides.
For, fince by the nature of fimilar figures AB:
FG :: BC ; GH :: CD : HI, &.c. therefore,
(2. cor. 8. 3.) AB-j-BC-f-CD, &c. the perimeter of
the firtt figure, is to FG-j-GH-f-HI, &c. the perime¬
ter of the fecond, as the fide AB to its homologous
fide FG.
Again, becaufe the triangles ABC, FGH are fimi¬
lar, ABC : FGH :: AC* : FH* (25.), in like man¬
ner ACD : FHI :: AC* : FH*, therefore,
ABC : FGH :: ACD : FHI.
By the fame manner of reafoning,
ACD : FHI :: ADE : FIK,
Vol. IX. Part II.
64.9
and fo on if there be more triangles ; hence, from this Proportions
feries of equal ratios, it follows (2. cor. 8. 3.) that ot ^ 1^urg!“.
ABC-f-ACD-f-ADE, or the polygon ABCDE, is v
to FGH-j-FHI-j-FIK, or the polygon FGHIK, as
one of the antecedents ABC is to its confequent FGH,
or as AB* to FG* ; therefore, fimilar polygons are
to each other as the fquares of their homologous
fides.
Cor. 1. If three fimilar figures have their homolo¬
gous fides equal to the three fides of a right-angled
triangle, the figure having the greateft fide Ihall be
equal to the two others; for thelie three figures are
proportional to the fquares of their homologous fides,
and the fquare of the hypothenufe is equal to the
fquares of the other two fides.
Cor. 2. Similar polygons have to each other the
duplicate ratio of their homologous fides. For let L
be a third proportional to the homologous fides AB,
FG, then (def. 11. 3.) AB has to L the duplicate ra¬
tio of AB to FG ; but AB : L : : AB* : ABxL
(3-)> or> hnce AB X LzrrFG*, (cor. to 8.) AB : L ::
AB* : FG*: : ABCDE : FGHIK, therefore the figure
ABCDE has to the figure FGHIK, the duplicate
ratio of AB to FG.
Theorem XXVIII.
The fegments of two chords AB, CD, which cut Fig- S3*
each other within a circle, are reciprocally pro¬
portional, that is AO : DO :: CO : OB.
Join AC and BD ; and becaufe the triangles AOC,
BOD have the angles at O equal (4. 1.), and the
angle Az=D and the angle C = B (15. 2.) the tri¬
angles are fimilar ; therefore the homologous fides are
proportional, (20.) that is, AO : DO :: CO : BO.
CoR. Hence AO X BOrrCO X DO, (8.) that is,
the reftangle contained by the legments of the one
chord is equal to the rectangle contained by the feg¬
ments of the other.
Theorem XXIX.
If from a point O without a circle, two ftraight Fig. 90.
lines be drawn, terminating in the concave arch
BC ; the whole lines fhall be reciprocally pro¬
portional to the parts of them without the cir¬
cle, that is OB : OC :: OD : OA.
Join AC, BD ; then the triangles OAC, OBD
have the common angle O, alfo the angle B—C
(15. 2.), therefore the triangles are fimilar, and the
homologous fides are proportional, that is, OB : OC
:: OD : OA.
Cor. Therefore (8.) OA x OBzrOC X QD, that
is, the rectangles contained by the whole lines, and the
parts of them without the circle, are equal to one ano¬
ther.
Theorem XXX.
If from a point O without a circle a ftraight line Fig. 9*.
OA be drawn touching the circle, and alfo a
ftraight line OC cutting it,, the tangent Ihall be
a mean proportional between the whole line
4 N which
GEOMETRY.
650 G E O M
Problems. which cuts the circle, and the part of it without
circle, that is, OC : OA :: OA : OD.
For if AC, AD be joined, the triangles OAD,
OCA, have the angle at O common to both, alfo the
angle ACD or ACO is equal to DAO (18. 2.), there-
fore the triangles are limilar (20.), and confequently
CO : OA :: OA : OD.
Cor. Therefore (cor. to 8.) CO X ODrrOA*, that
is, the fquare of the tangent is equal to the reftangle
contained by the whole line which cuts the circle, and
the part of it without the circle.
Theorem XXXI.
Fig. <??• In the fame circle, or in equal circles, any angles
ACB, DEF are to each other as the arches AB,
DF of the circles intercepted between the lines
which contain the angles.
E T 11 Y. Sed. V.
Suppose the arch AB to have to the arch DF the Problems,
ratio of the number /> to the number q ; then the arch '
AB being fuppofed divided into equal parts A g, g h,
h B, the number of which is />, the arch DF lhall con¬
tain q equal parts Dk, kl, 1m, mn, nF, each of which
is equal to any one of the equal parts into which AB
is divided. Draw ftraight lines from the centres of the
circles to the points of divifion, thefe lines will divide
ACB into p angles and DEF into q angles, which are
all equal (13. 2.) therefore, the angle ACB has to
the angle DEF the ratio of the number p ’to the num¬
ber y, which ratio is the fame as that of the arch AB
to the. nrch DF.
Cor. Hence it appears that angles may be meafured
and compared with each other by means of arches of
circles defcribed on the vertices of the angles as-eentres,
obferving, however, that the radii of the circles mu&
be equal.
SECT. V. PROBLEMS,
Problem I.
Plate To bife£l: a given ftraight line ABj that is, to di-
CCXLIII. vide it into two equal parts.
fig. 513.
From the points A and B as centres, with any radius
greater than the half of AB, defcribe arches, cutting
each other in D and D on each fide of the line AB.
Draw a ftraight line through the points D, D, cutting
AB in C } the line AB is bifefted in C.
For the points D, D, being equally diftant from the
extremities of the line AB, are each in a ftraight line
perpendicular to the middle of AB, (16. 1.), therefore
the line DCD is that perpendicular, and confequently
C is the middle of AB.
Problem II.
j:g.94. To draw a perpendicular to_ a given ftraight line
BC, from a given point A in that line.
Take the points B and C at equal diftances from A j
and on B and C as centres, with any radius greater
than BA, defcribe arches, cuttiyg each other in D ^
draw a ftraight line from A through D, which will be
the perpendicular required. For the point D, being at
equal diftances from the extremities of the line BC,
muft be in a perpendicular to the middle of BC (16.1.),
therefore AD is the perpendicular required.
Problem III.
Fig- 55* To draw a perpendicular to a given line, BD,
from a given point A without that line.
On A as a centre, with a radius fufficiently .great,
defcribe an arch, cutting the given line in two points B,
D ; and on B and D as centres, with a radius greater
Shan the half of BD, defcribe two arches, cutting each
4
other in E ; draw a ftraight line through the points A
and E, meeting BD in C ; the line AC is the perpen¬
dicular required.
For the two points A and E are each at equal di¬
ftances from B and D $ therefore, a line pafling
through A and E is perpendicular to the middle of
BD, (16. 1.).
Problem IV.
At a given point A, in a given line AB,. to makeDg
an angle equal to a given angle K.
On K as a centre, with any radius, defcribe an arch
to meet the lines containing the angle K, in L and I'T
and on A as a centre, with the fame radius, defcribe yn
indefinite arch BO } on B as a centre, with a radius
equal to the chord LI, defcribe an arch, cutting the
arch BO in D } draw AD, and the angle DAB {hall
be equal to K.
For the arches BD, LI having equal radii and equal
chords, the arches themfelves are equal (4. 2.), there¬
for the angles A and K are alfo equal (13* 2')*
Problem V.
To bifea a given arch AB, or a given angle C. Fig- 57*
First. To bifeft the arch AB, on A and B as
centres, with one and the fame radius, defcribe arches
to interfeft in D ; join CD, cutting the arch in E, and
the arch AE {hall be equal to EB.
For, fince the points C and D are at equal diftances
from A, and alfo from B, the line which joins them
is perpendicular to the middle of. the choid AJ3
(16. !•), therefore, the arch AB is bifefted at E,
Secondly. To bifeft the angle C j on C as a centre,
with any diftance, defcribe an arch, meeting the lines
containing the angle in A and B y then find the P01^
Sea. v.
problems. D as before, and the line CD will manifeftly bifeft the
-v ' angle C, as required.
Scholium.
By the fame conftruftion we may bifefl each of the
arches AE, EB ; and again we may bifeft each of the
halves of thefe arches, and fo on; thus by fucceflive
fubdivifions, an arch may be divided into four, eight,
fixteen parts, See.
Problem VI.
Fig. 9S. Through a given point A, to draw a ftraight line
parallel to a given ftraight line BC.
Ok A as a centre, with a radius fufficiently large,
deferibe the indefinite arch EO j on E for a centre,
with the fame radius, deferibe the arch AF ; in EO
take ED equal to AF, draw a line from A through
D, and AD will be parallel to BC.
For if AE be joined, the angle EAD is equal to
AEB (13. 2.), and they are alternate angles, there¬
fore AD is parallel to BC, (22. 1.).
Problem VII.
Fig. pp. To conftrudl; a triangle, the Tides of which may be
equal to three given lines A, B, C.
Take a ftraight line, DE, equal to one of the given
lines A ; on D as a centre, with a radius equal to
another of the lines B, deferibe an arch j on E as a
centre, with a radius equal to the remaining line C, de¬
feribe another arch, cutting the former in F *, join DF
and EF, and DEF will be the triangle required, as is
fufticiently evident.
Scholium.
It is neceffary that the fum of any two of the lines be
greater than the third line (7. 1.).
Problem VIII.
Fig. 100. To conftru£t a parallelogram, the adjacent Tides
of which may be equal to two given lines A, B,
and the angle they contain equal to a given
angle C.
Draw the ftraight line DE=.A ; make the angle
GDE=C, and take DGrrB 5 deferibe two arches,
one on G as a centre, with a radius GF“DE, and the
other on E, with a radius EF=rDG j then DEFG
ftiall be the parallelogram required.
For by conftrudtion the oppofite Tides are equal,
therefore, the figure is a parallelogram, (27. 1.) and
it is fo conftrufted, that the adjacent lides and the
angle they contain have the magnitudes given in the
problem.
Cor. If the given angle be a right angle, the figure
will be a reftangle j and if the adjacent fides be alfo
equal, the figure will be a fquare.
651
Problems.
Problem IX. y 11 ^
To find the centre of a given circle, or of a cir-Fig. ior.
cle of which an arch is given.
Take any three points A, B, D, in the circumfer¬
ence of the circle, or in the given arch, and having
drawn the ftraight lines AB, BD, bifedt them by the
perpendiculars EG, FH ; the point C where the per¬
pendiculars interfedt each other is the centre of the
circle, as is evident from Theorem VI. fedt. 2.
Scholium.
By the very fame conftrudtion a circle maybe found
that lhall pafs through three given points A, B, C •, or
that (hall be deferibed about a given triangle ABC.
Problem X.
To draw a tangent to a given circle through a Fig. ioj,
given point A. I03*
If the given point A be in the circumference
(fig. 102.), draw the radius AC $ and through A,
draw AD perpendicular to AC, and AD will be a
tangent to the circle, (9. 2.). But if the given point A
be without the circle, (fig. 103.) draw AC to the cen¬
tre, and bifedt AC in O, and on O as a centre, with
OA or OC as a radius, deferibe a circle which will cut
the given circle in two points D and D' ; join AD
and ADr, and each of the lines AD, AD', will be a
tangent to the circle.
For, draw the radii CD, CD', then each of the
angles ADC, AD'C is a right angle, (17. 2.) ; there¬
fore AD and AD' are both tangents to the circle,
(9. 2.).
Cor. The tangents AD, AD' are equal to one
another, (17. 1.)
Problem XI.
To inferibe a circle in a given triangle ABC. Ftg. 104.
Bisect A and B any two angles of the triangle by
the ftraight lines AO, BO, which meet each other in
O •, from O draw OD, OE, OF, perpendiculars to its
fides j thefe lines ftiall be equal to one another.
For in the triangles ODB, OEB, the angles ODB
=rOEB, and the angle OBDrrOBE ; therefore the
remaining angles BOD, BOE, are equal •, and as the
fide OB is common to both triangles, they are equal to
one another, (6. 1.), therefore the fide OD~OEj in
the fame manner it imy be demonftrated, that OD
rzOF; therefore the lines OD, OE, OF, are equal to
one another, and confequently a circle deferibed on O
as a centre, with OD as a radius, will pafs through E
and F; and as the fides of the triangle are tangents to
the circle, (9. 2.) it will be inferibed in the triangle.
Problem XII.
Upon a given ftraight line AB, to deferibe a Teg- Fig. 105.
4 N 2 ment
GEOMETRY.
652
Problems. ment of a circle that may contain an angle equal
' to a given angle C.
Produce AB towards D, and at the point B make
the angle DBE equal to the given angle C J draw BO
perpendicular to BE, and GO perpendicular to the
middle of AB, meeting BO in O ; on O as a centre,
with OB as a radius, defcribe a circle, which will pals
through A, and AMB {hall be the fegment required.
For lince FE is perpendicular to BO, FE is a tan¬
gent to the circle, therefore the angle EBD (which is
equal to C by conftrudtion) is equal to any angle
AMB in the alternate fegment, (18. 2.).
Sea. V,
— B } and on DF as a diameter defcribe a femicircle Problems.
DGF 5 draw EG perpendicular to DF, meeting the. v '
circle in G } the line EG {hall be the mean proportional
required.
For, if DG, FG, be joined, the angle DGF is a
right angle, (17. 2.) therefore, in the right-angled tri¬
angle DGF, GE is a mean proportional between DE.
and EF, (23. 4.).
Problem XVI.
To divide a given fhraight line AB into two parts, Fig. no,
fo that the greater may be a mean proportional
between the whole line and the other part.
GEOMETRY.
Fig 106
Fig. 107.
Fig. 108.
Fig. top.
Problem XIII.
To divide a ftraight line, AB, into any propofed
number of equal parts ; or into parts having to
each other the fame ratios that given lines have.
First, Let it be propofed to divide the line AB,
(fig. 106.) into five equal parts. Through the extre¬
mity A draw an indefinite line AG, take AC of any
magnitude, and take CD, DE, EF, and FG, each
equal to AC, that is, take AG equal to five times
AC j join GB, and draw Cl parallel to GB, the line
AI fhall be one-fifth part of AB, and AI being taken
five times in AB, the line AB {hall be divided into
At B, one of the extremities of the line, draw BC
perpendicular to AB, and equal to the half of AB j
on C as a centre, with CB as a radius, defcribe a cir¬
cle *, join AC, meeting the circle in D 5 make AF =
AD, and AB thall be divided at F in the manner re¬
quired.
For lince AB is perpendicular to the radius, it is a
tangent to the circle (9. 2.)> and if AC be produced to
meet the circle in E, AB : AF :: AE : AB, (30. 4.) and
by divifion, AB—AF : AF :: AE—AB : AB j but
AB—AF—BF, and fince DE=2BC= AB, therefore
AE—AB=rAD=:AF, therefore BF : AF :: AF ;
AB.
five equal parts.
For fince Cl is parallel to GB, the fides AG and
AB are cut proportionally in C and I ; but AC is the
fifth part of AG ; therefore AI is the fifth part of AB.
Next, let it be propofed to divide AB (fig. 107.) in¬
to parts, having to each other the ratios that the lines
P, Q, R, have. Through A draw AG, and in AG
take ACzrP, CD=Q., DEruR j join EB, and draw
Cl and DK parallel to EB 5 the line AB fliall be
Scholium.
When a line is divided in this manner it is faid to be
divided in extreme and mean ratio.
Problem XVII.
To make a fquare equivalent to a given
gram or to a given triangle.
parallelo-Fig. 112,
Fig. 125.
divided as required.
For, becaufe of the parallels Cl, DK, EB, the parts
AI, IK, KB, have to each other the fame ratios that
the parts AC, CD, DE have, (17. 4.) which parts are
by conftruftion equal to the given lines P, R.
Problem XIV.
To find a fourth proportional to three given lines,
A, B, C.
Draw two ftraight lines DE, DF, containing any
angle ; on DE take DA= A, and DBrrB, and on
DF take DC=C ; join AC, and draw BX parallel to
AC •, then, BX {hall be the fourth proportional re¬
quired.
For, becaufe BX is parallel to AC, DA : DB ::
DC : DX (17. 4.) that is, A : B :: C : DX, there¬
fore DX is a fourth proportional to A, B, and C.
Cor. The fame conftruflion ferves to find a third
proportional to two lines A and B j for it is the fame
as a fourth proportional to the lines A, B, and B.
Problem XV.
To find a mean proportional between two ftraight
lines, A, B.
Upon any ftraight line DF take DEssA, and EF
First, Let ABCD be a given parallelogram,
(fig. 112.) the bafe of which is AB, and altitude DE j
find XY a mean proportional between AB and DE,
(by problem 15O and XY fhall be the fide of the
fquare required.
For fince by conftru£lion AB : XY :: XY : DE,
therefore, XYl=ABxDE (8. 4.) =r parallelogram
ABCD (5. 4.).
Next, let ABC be a given triangle (fig. 113.) BC
its bafe, and AD its altitude j find XY a mean pro¬
portional between half the bale and the altitude, and
XY {hall be the fide of the fquare required.
For fince 4BC : XY :: XY : AD ; therefore (8. 4.)
XYz=^BCxAD=triangle ABC (6. 4.).
Problem XVIII.
Upon a given line EF, to conftruft a re£langle rig. n#.
EFGX equivalent to a given re£tangle ALCD.
Find a fourth proportional to the three lines EF,-
AB and AD j (by problem 14.) draw EX, perpendi¬
cular to EF, and equal to that fourth proportional,
and complete the rectangle EFGX, which will have
the magnitude required.
For fince EF : AB :: AD : EX, therefore (8. 4.)
EFx EX=ABx AD, that is, the reftangle EEGX
is equal to the redangle ABCD.
Problem.
Se3. V.
PubieiiiS.
'—  ' Problem XlX.
Fig. hi. To make a triangle equivalent to a given polygon
ABODE.
First, draw the diagonal CE, fo as to cut off the
triangie CDE ; draw DG parallel to CE, to meet AE
produced in G •, join CG, and the given polygon
ABODE ihall be equivalent to another polygon ABCG
which has one fide fewer.
For fince DG is parallel to CE, the triangle CGE
is equivalent to the triangle CDE, (2. cor. 2. 4.) to
each add the polygon A BCE, and the polygon
ABCDE Ihall be equivalent to the polygon ABCG.
In like manner, if the diagonal CA be drawn, alfo
BF parallel to CA, meeting EA produced, and CF
be joined, the triangle CFA is equivalent to the tri¬
angle CB A, and thus the polygon ABCDE is trans¬
formed to the triangle CFG.
In this way a triangle may be found equivalent to
any other polygon, for by transforming the figure into
another equivalent figure that has one fide fewer, and
repeating the operation, a figure will at lalt be found
which has only three fides.
Scholium.
As a fquare may be found equivalent to a triangle,
by combining this problem with Prob. XVII. a fquare
may be found equivalent to any redlilineal figure what¬
ever.
Problem XX.
Phte Upon a given line FC to conftru£l: a polygon fimi-
fCCXLII. iar to a given polygon ABCDE.
Draw the diagonals AC, AD ■, at the point F,
make the angle GFH=BAC, and at the point G,
make the angle FGH=ABC; thus a triangle FGH
will be conftrudted fimilar to ABC. Again, on FH
conftruft in like manner a triangle FIH, fimilar to
ADC and limilarly fituated •, and on FI conftruft a
triangle FKI fimilar to AED and fimilarly fituated j
and thefe triangles FGH, FHI, FIK {hall form a po¬
lygon FGHIK fimilar to ABCDE (26. 4.).
Problem XXI.
CCXLIII. To inferibe a fquare in a given circle.
% iis-
Draw twro diameters AC, BD, fo as to interfedh
each other at right angles j01n lhe extremities of the
diameters A, B, C, D, and the figure ABCD {hall be
a fquare inferibed in the circle.
For the angles AOB, BOC, &c. being all equal, the
chords AB, BC, CD, DA are equal; and as each of
the angles of the figure ABCD is in a femicircle, it is
a right angle, (17. 2.) therefore the figure is a fquare.
Problem XXII.
%. 116. To inferibe a regular hexagon and alfo an equila-
lateral triangle in a given circle.
From any point A in the circumference, apply AB
Gs
and BCeach equal to AO theradius; draw the three dia- Problems,
meters AD, BE, CF, and join their adjacent extn mi- v—
ties by the lines AB, BC, 6cc. and the figure ABCDEh
thus formed is the hexagon required.
For the triangles AOB, BOC being by conilruc-
tion equilateral, each of the angles aOB, BOC is
one-third of two right angles, (4. cor. 24. 1.) and
fince AOB-f-BOC-f COD—two right angles, therefore
COD—one-third of two right angles, therefore,,
the three angles AOB, BOC, COD, are equal, and
as thefe are equal to the angles AGF, IOE, EGD ;
the fix angles at the centre are all equal ; theretore,
the chords AB, BC, CD, DE, EF, FxA are all equal;
thus the figure is equilateral. It is alio equiangular,
fur the angles FAB, ABC, &c. are in equal leg¬
men ts, each having for its bait; the chord of two-fixths
of the circumference, therefore, the angles A, B, &c.
are equal (15. 2.).
If llraight lines be drawn joining A, C, E, the ver¬
tices of the alternate angles-of the hexagon, there will
be formed an equilateral triangle inferibed in a circle ;
as is fufficiently evident.
Scholium.
As the form of reafoning by which it has been fliewn
that an equilateral hexagon inicribed in a circle is alfo
equiangular, will apply alike to any equilateral poly¬
gon ; it may be inferred that every equilateral polygon
inferibed in a circle is alio equiangular.
Problem XXIII.
To iaferibe a regular pentagon in a given circle,
Draw any radius AO, and divide it into two parts
AF, FO, Inch, that AO : OF :: OF : aF ; g6.)
from A place AG in the circumference equal to OF ;
join OG, and draw the chord AHB perpendicular to
OG, the chord AB Ihall be a fide of the pentagon re¬
quired.
Join GF, and becaufe AO : OF :: OF : AF, and
that AG = OF, therefore, AO : AG :: aG : AF j
now the angle A is common to the two triangles O AG,
GAF, and it has been ihewn that the fides about that
angle in the two triangles are proportionals ; therefore
(22. 4 ) the triangles are fimilar, and the triangle
AOG being ifofceies, the triangle AGF is alio ilb-
fceles, fo that AG—GF ; but AG = FO, (by conftruc-
tion) therefore, GF=:FO, and the angle FOG=FGO,
and FOG + FGO —2 FOG ; but AFG =: FOG -fr-
FGO, (23. i.) and AFG—FAG, therefore Fa.G=:
2 FOG ; hence in the ilofceles triangle AOG, eaeii of
the angles at the bale is double the vertical angle
AOG, therefore the fum of all the angles is equal to
five times the vertical angle AOG ; but the ium of all
the angles is equal to two right angles, (24. 1.) there¬
fore the angle AOG is one-fiith of two right angles,
and confequently AOBrr 2AOGrrtwo-fifths of two
right angles equal one-fifth of four right angles, there¬
fore the arch AB is one-fifth of the whole cireumfer-
ence. If we now fuppofe ftraight lines BC, CD, DE,
to be applied in the circle each equal to AB, the
chord of one-filth of the circumference, and AE to be
joined, the figure thus formed will be an equilateral
pentagon, and it is alfo equiangular (Schol. 2i.).
Problem
G E O M E T R Y.
654 G E O M
Of the
Qiiadrature Problem XXIV.
of the
. <"1‘Cie'-. Having given ABCD, &c. a regular polygon in-
fcribed in a circle, to defcribe a regular polygon
of the fame number of Tides about the circle.
Draw GH a tangent to the circle at T the middle
of the arch AB j do the fame at the middle of each of
-the other arches BC, CD, &c. thefe tangents (hall
form a regular polygon GHIK; &c. defcribed about
the circle.
Join GG, OH, &c. alfo OT and ON. In the tri¬
angles OTH, ONH, the fide OT=ON, and OH is
common to both, and OTH, ONH, are right angles,
'therefore the triangles are equal (17. 1.) and the
E T R Y. Seft. VI.
angles TOHrrNOH ; now B is the middle of the Of the
arch TN, therefore OH pafles through B ; and in the Qiiaclrat«re i
fame manner it appears that I is in the line OC produ-
ced, &c. Now becaufe OT bifefts the arch AB it is . e‘ j
perpendicular to the chord AB (6. 2.), therefore GH
is parallel to AB (9 2. and 18. 1.), and HI to BC,
therefore the angle GHO=ABO, and IHO=CBO,
and hence GHIrrABC ; and in like manner it ap¬
pears, that HIKzrBCD, &c. therefore the angles of
thie circumfcribed polygon are equal to thof’e of the '
infcribed polygon. And becaufe of the parallels, GH :
AB :: OH : OB, and HI : BC :: OH : OB, there¬
fore, GH : AB :: HI ; BC •, but ABrrrliC ; there¬
fore GH=HI. For the fame reafon HI—IK, &c.
therefore, the polygon is regular, and fimilar to the in*
icribed polygon.
SECT. VI. OF THE QUADRATURE OF THE CIRCLE.
Axiom.
Fig. 120. IF ABC be an arch of a circle, and AD, CD be
two tangents at its extremities, interfering each other
in D ; the fum of the tangents AD, DC is greater
than the arch ABC.
'Fig. 118. Cor. Hence the perimeter of any polygon defcribed
about a circle, is greater than the circumference of the
circle.
Proposition I. Theorem.
S'ig.np- -Equilateral polygons, ABCDEF, GHIKLM, of
the fame number of fides infcribed in circles are
fimilar, and are to one another as the fquares of
the radii of the circles.
As each of the polygons is by hypothefis equilateral,
it will alfo be equiangular (Schol. 22. 5.). Let us
fuppofe, for example, that the polygons are hexagons j
then, as the fum of the angles is the fame in both, viz.
eight right angles (2^. 1.), the angle A will be one-
fixtb part of eight right angles, and the angle G will
be the fame •, therefore ArrG •, in like manner B—H,
C=K, &c. and as the figures are equilateral, AB :
GH :: BC : HI :: CD : IK, &c. therefore (2. def. 4.)
the figures are fimilar. Draw AO, BO, GP, HP to
the centres of the circles 5 then, becaufe the angle
AOB is the fame part of four right angles that the arch
AB is of the whole circumference; and the angle
GPH the fame pirt of four right angles that GH is of
the whole circumference (13. 2.) the angles AOB,
GPH are each the fame part of four right angles j
therefore they are equal j the ifofceles triangles AOB,
GPH are therefore fimilar, (22 4.) and confequently
AB : GH :: AO : GP, therefore (9. and 27. 4.) po¬
lygon ABCDEF: polygon GHIKLM AO1 : GP\
Prop. II. Theorem.
Fig 121. A circle being given, two fimilar polygons maybe
found, the one infcribed in the circle, and the
other defcribed about it, which fhall differ from
each other by a fpace lefs than any given fpace.
Let AG be the fide of a fquare equal to the given
fpace j and let ABG be fuch an arch of the given cir¬
cle, that AG is its chord. Bifefl the fourth part of
the circumference, (5. 5.) then bifeft one of its halves,
and proceed in this manner, till, by repeated bifec-
tions, there will at length be found an arch AB lefs
than AG. As the arch thus found will be contained
in the circumference a certain number of times exadly,
its chord AB is the fide of a regular figure infcribed in
the circle j apply lines in the circle, each equal to AB,
thus forming the regular figure ABC, &c. and defcribe
a regular figure DEF, &c. of the fame number of fides
about the circle. Then, the excefs of the circumferi-
bed figure above the infcribed figure fhall be lefs than
the fquare upon AG. For draw lines from D and E
to O the centre j thefe lines will pafs through A and
B (24. 5.) *, alfo, a line drawn from O, to H the
point of contact of the line DE, will bifeft AB, and
be perpendicular to it ; and AB will be parallel to
DE. Draw the diameter AL, and join BL, which
will be parallel to HO (18. 4.). Put P for the cir¬
cumfcribed polygon, and p for the incribed polygon \
then, becaufe the triangles ODH, OAK are evidently
like parts of P and />, P : ODH : OAK (1. 3.) }
but the triangles ODH, (DAK being fimilar, ODH :
OAK : : OH* : OK* (25. 4.), and on account of
the fimilar triangles OAK, LAB, OA* or OH* :
OK* :: LA* : LB* (20. and 9 4.) 5 therefore, F :
LA* : LB*, and by divifion and inverfion, P : P—p ::
LA* : LA*—LB*, or AB* ; but LA*, that is, the
fquare defcribed about the circle, is greater than the
equilateral polygon of eight fides deicribed about the
circle, becaule it contains that polygon, and for the
fame reafon the polygon of eight fides is greater than
the polygon of fixteen fides, and fo on \ therefore LA*
•^P, and as it has been proved that P : P—p:: LA*:
AB*, of which proportion, the firfl term P is lefs than
the third LA*; therefore (2. 3.) the fecond P—p is
lefs than the fourth AB*, but AB*^lAG*, therefore
P—/>^AG*.
Cor. 1. Becaufe the polygons P and p differ from
one another more than either of them differs from the
ciffcle, the difference between each of them, and the
circle, is lefs than the given fpace, viz. the fquare of
AG. And therefore, however fmall any fpace, may
be,
Sefl. VI. G E O M E T R Y. 655
Of the be, a polygon may be infcribed in the circle, and ano-
Quadrature ther defcribed about it, each of which {hall differ from
‘>.i.t!1ia the circle by lefs than the given fpace.
ue' i Cor, 2. A fpace which is greater than any polygon
that can be infcribed in a circle, but which is lefs than
any polygon that can be defcribed about it, is equal to
the circle itfelf.
Prop. III. Theorem.
Fig. m. The area of any circle is equal to a re&angle con¬
tained by the radius, and a ftraight line equal
to half the circumference.
Let ABC, &c. be any equilateral polygon infcrib¬
ed in the circle, and DEF, &e. a fimilar polygon de¬
fcribed about it j draw lines from the extremities of
AB and DE a fide of each polygon to O the centre j
and let OKH be perpendicular to thefe fides. Put P
for the perimeter of the polygon DEF, &c. and p for
the perimeter of the polygon ABC, &c. and n for the
number of the fides of each. Then, becaufe n x -jDE
= tP, «XiDExOH = JPxOH, but «x^DEx
OH—# X triangle DOE — polygon DEF, &c. there¬
fore, 4 P X OH zz polygon DEF, &c. j and in like
manner it appears, that 4/) X OK rz polygon ABC,
&c. Now let Q denote the circumference of the
circle, then, becaufe and OHy^OK, there¬
fore x OHy^Ti&XOK, that is -iQ^xOH is great¬
er than the infcribed polygon. Again, becaufe ^0.
^ 4-P (axiom), therefore -^QxOH-^l^PX OH, that
is, iQ,X OH is lefs than the circumfcribed polygon :
Thus it appears that -jrQX OH is greater than any po¬
lygon infcribed in the circle, but lefs than any polygon
defcribed about it j therefore, 4£),xOH is equal to the
circle. (2.).
Prop. IV. Theorem.
Fig. up. The areas of circles are to one another as the
fquares of their radii.
Let ABCDEF and GHIKLM be equilateral po¬
lygons of the fame number ef fides infcribed in the cir¬
cles, and OA, PG their radii; and let f) be fuch a
fpace, that xAOs : GP* :: circle ABD : £) ; then, be¬
caufe AO* : GP* :: polygon ABCDEF : polygon
GHIKLM, and AO*: GP* :: circle ABE : £), there¬
fore polygon ABCDEF : polygon GHIKLM :: cir¬
cle ABE : but circle ABE-^'polygon ABCDEF,
therefore Q^"^3' polygon GHIKLM j that is, ^ is
greater than any polygon infcribed in the circle GHL.
In the fame manner it is demonftrated that £) is lefs
than any polygon defcribed about the circle GHL *,
therefore Q is equal to the circle GHL (2.). And
becaufe AO* : GP* :: circle ABD : Q^, therefore
AO* : GP* :: circle ABE : circle GHL.
Cor. r. The circumferences of circles are to one ano¬
ther as their radii. Put M for half the circumference
of the circle ABE, and N for half the circumference
of GKLj then, circle ABE ; circle GHL :: AO* :
GP*; but 4M X AOzr circle ABE, alfo fN xGP=
circle GHL, (3.) therefore 4-MxAO : fNxGP ::
AO* : GP*, and by alternation -jrMx AO : AO* ::
^NxGP : GP*, therefore (3. 4.) 4M : AO :: iN :
GP, and again by alternation -I'M : fN •• AO : GP,
therefore M ; N :: AO ; GP.
Cor. 2. A circle defcribed with the hypothenufe of a Of the
right-angled triangle as a radius, is equal to two circles c^?^ure
defcribed with the other two fides as radii. Let the fides cjrcie<
of the triangle be a, b and the hypothenufe //, and let the w—v—
circles defcribed with thefe lines as radii be A, B and H.
becaufe A : H :: a* : A*
and B : H :: £* : .
therefore A-j-B : H :: a*-}-^* (8. 3.)
but a*-f-i*=^2 (13. 4.), therefore A+B=H.
Prop. V. Problem.
Having given the area of a regular polygon infcrib-Fig. n?.
ed in a circle, and alfo the area of a fimilar po¬
lygon defcribed about it *, to find the areas of
regular infcribed and circumfcribed polygons,
each of double the number of fides.
Let AB be the fide of the given infcribed polygon,
and EF parallel to AB that of the fimilar circumfcrib¬
ed polygon, and C the centre of the circle j if the chord
AM, and the tangents AP, B(^ be drawn, the chord
AM fhall be the fide of the infcribed polygon of double
the number of fides j and PQ^ or 2 PM that of the fimi¬
lar circumfcribed polygon. Put A for the area of the
polygon, of which AB is a fide, and B for the area of
the circumfcribed polygon } alfo a for the area of the
polygon of which AM is a fide, and b for the area of the
fimilar circumfcribed polygon j then A and B are by
hypothefis known, and it is required to find a and b.
I. The triangles ACD, ACM, which have a com¬
mon vertex A, are to one another as their bafes CD,
CM; befides, thefe triangles are to one another as the po¬
lygons, of which they form like parts, therefore A : ::
CD : CM. The triangles, CAM, CME, which have
a common vertex M, are to each other as their bafes CA,
CE ; they are alfo to one another as the polygons a and
B, of which they are like parts 5 therefore, a : B :: CA ;
CE ; but becaufe of the parallels DA, ME, CD : CM
:: CA : CE *, therefore, A : a :: a : B •, therefore, the
polygon a, which is one of the two required, is a mean ,
proportional between the two known polygons A and
B, fo that az=:*JA x B.
II. The triangles CPM, CPE, having the fame alti¬
tude CM, are to one another as PM to PE. But as
CP bifefts the angle MCE, PM : PE CM : CE
(19. 4.) :: CD : CA :: A : therefore, CPM :
CPE :: A : rtj and confequently CPM-f-CPE, or
CME : CPM :: A-fa : A, and CME : 2 CPM :: .
A-fa : 2 A ; but CME and 2 CPM, or CMP A, are
to one another as the polygons B and b, of which they
are like parts; therefore, A-f a : 2 A :: B : Now
the polygon a has been already found, therefore by this
laft proportion the polygon b is determined j that is,
, 2 Ax B
&. 4 •
A-f 0
Prop VI. Problem.
To find nearly the ratio of the circumference of
a circle to its diameter.
Let the radius of the circle m, then, the fides of
the infcribed fquare being the hypothenufe of a right-
angled triangle of which the radii are the fides, (fee
656
GEOMETRY.
£e<3. VII.
fig. 115.) the area of the infcribed fquare will be 25
(13. 4.) and thecireumfcribed fquare, being the fquare
of the diameter, will be 4. Now, retaining the notation
of laft problem, if we make A~ 2 andB=r 4, the formulae
 a  2A X B
a— y/A X B,£——j-— gives us a—2.8284271, &c.
the area of the infcribed o&agon, and ^==3.3137085,
&.c. the area of the circumfcribed oftagon. By fublti-
tuting thefe numbers in the formulae, inftead of A and
B, we (hall obtain the areas of the infcribed and circum-
fcribing polygons of 16 fides } and thence we may find
thole of 32 lides, and fo on as in the following table :
N° of /ides.
4
8
16
32
64
128
256
5*2
,02A
2048
4096
8192
16384
32768
Ins. ’Polygons.
2.000:. 000
2.8:84271
3.0614674
3-12I4451
3-i365485
3*I4°3311
3.1412772
3-1415729
3*i4i5923
3-i4t5925
3-i415926
Circ. Polygons.
4.0000000
3*3 r37c85
3.1825979
3 x5i7249
3.1441184
3.1432236
3-I4175°4
3.1416321
3.1416025
3-I4I595I
3-1415933
3.1415928
3 l415927
3<I41592^
Hence it appears that the areas of a regular polygon of
32768 fides infcribed in the circle, and of a fimi-
lar polygon defcribed about it, differ fo little from
each other, that the numbers which exprefs them
are. the fame as far as the eighth decimal place.
And as the circle is greater than the one polygon, and
lefs than the other, its area will be nearly 3.1415926.
But the area is the produft of the radius and the half of
the circumference •, therefore, the radius being unity,
half the circumference is 3.1415926 nearly j and the
radius is to half the circumference, or the diameter is
to the circumference, nearly as 1 to 3.1415926.
Scholium.
In this way the ratio of the diameter to the circum¬
ference may be found to any degree of accuracy j but
neither by this, nor any other method yet known, can
the ratio be exadtly determined.
Archimedes, by means of inferibed and circum¬
fcribed polygons of 96 fides, found that the diameter is
to the circumference as 7 22, nearly, which ratio is
nearer to the truth than can beexpreffed by any fmaller
numbers j and Metius found it to be more nearly as
Ir3 to 355’ Both of thefe expreflions are convenient
on account of the fmallnefs of the numbers, but later
mathematicians have carried the approximation to a
much greater degree of accuracy, ihus, it has been
found that the diameter being 1, the circumference is
greater than 3.1415926535897932, but lefs than the
fame number having its lait figure increafed by unity ;
and fome have even had the patience to carry the
approximation as far as the 150th place of decimals.
SECT. VII.
Definitions.
I. A firaight line is ptrpendicular, or at right angles,
to a plane, when it is perpendicular to every ftraight
line meeting it in that plane. The plane is alfo per¬
pendicular to the line.
II. A line is parallel to a plane, when they cannot
meet each other, although both be produced. The
plane is alfo parallel to the line. *
III. Parallel planes are fuch as cannot meet each
other, though produced.
IV. It will be demonftrated (Theor. 3.) that the com¬
mon feftion of two planes is a firaight line; this be¬
ing premifed, the inclination of two planes is the angle
contained by two ftraight lines drawn perpendicular
to the line, which is their common feftion, from any
point in it, the one perpendicular being drawn in the
one plane, and the other in the other plane.
This angle may be either acute or obtufe.
V. If it Ibe a right angle the two planes are perpen¬
dicular to each other.
VI. A folid angle is that which is made by the meet¬
ing of more than two plane angles, which are not in
the fame plane, in one point. Thus the folid angle
S is formed by the plane angles ASB, BSC, CSD,
DSA.
Theorem I.
One part of a ftraight line cannot be in a plane
and another part above it.
3
For from the definition of a plane (7. def. I.) it is
manifeft that if a ftraight line coincide with a plane in
two points it muit be wholly in the plane.
Theorem II.
Two ftraight lines which cut each other in a plane p]ate
determine its pofition ; that is, the plane can co-CCXLlV.
incide with thefe lines only in one pofition. 123‘
Let the ftraight lines AB, AC cut each other in
A ; conceive a plane to pafs through A B, and to be
turned about that line, till it pafs through the point C ;
and this it can manifeftly do only in one pofition ; then,
as the points A and C are in the plane, the whole
line AC muft be in the plane ; therefore there is on¬
ly one pofition in which the plane can coincide with
the fame two lines AB, AC.
CoR. Therefore a triangle ABC, or three points
A, B, C not in a ftraight line, determine the pofition
of a plane.
Theorem III.
If two planes AB, CD interfedh each other, their F;g. 123.
interfe&ion is a ftraight line.
Let E and F be two points in the line of common
feflion, and let a ftraight line EF be drawn between
them ; then the line EF muft be in the plane AB,
657
Sed. VII.
GEOMETRY.
(7. def. 1.) and the fame line muft alfo be in the fame
plane CD, therefore it muft be the common fetftion of
them both.
Theorem IV.
frg-125* If a ftraight line AP is perpendicular to two
ftraight lines PB, PC at P the point of their
interfecftion; it will alfo be perpendicular to the
plane MN, in which thefe lines are.
Draw any other line P£) in the plane MN, and
from •my point in that line draw QD parallel to
PB ; make DC~DP ; join CO, meeting PB in B •,
and join AB, AQ, AC. Becaufe DQ is parallel to
PB, and PDzrDC j therefore BQ=r^C, and BC is
bifedted in Hence in the triangle BAC,
AB’+ \C*=2 AQ* + 2BQ^, (16. 4.)
and in the like manner, in the triangle PBC,
PB3 + PC,= 2P^ + 2 CO*;
therefore, taking equal quantities from equal quantities,
chat is, fubirailing the two laft quantities, which are put
equal to each other, from the two firft, and obferving
that as APB, A PC are by hypothefis right-angled tri¬
angles, AB*—BP*=AP*, and AC*—CP*-rAP*, we
have
AP* +AP*z=2 A^*—2 PQ%
andtherefore AP*—AO*—PQ*,or AP*-}-?^)*:;: AQ*-,
therefore the triangle APQ is right-angled at P,?
(fchol. 1^. 4.) and confequently AP is perpendicular
to the plane MN (Def. 1.).
Cor. 1. The perpendicular AP is Ihorter than any
oblique line AQ, therefore it meafures the diftance of
the point A from the plane.
Cor. 2. From the lame point P in a plane no more
than one perpendicular can be drawn. For if it be pof-
fible that there can be two perpendiculars, conceive a
plane to pafs through them, and to interfea the plane
MN in the ftraight line PQj then thefe perpendicu¬
lars will be in the fame plane, and both perpendicular
to the fame line PQ, at the fame point P in that line,
which is impoflible.
It is alio impoftible that from a point without a plane
two perpendiculars can be drawn to the plane j for if
the ftraight lines AP, AQ could be twofuch perpendi¬
culars, then the triangle APQ would have two right
angles, which is impoflible.
Theorem V.
BC or BD is perpendicular to the plane palling through
the lines AD and PD, or AP and DE j hence BD is
perpendicular to DE, but PD is alfo perpendicular
to DE, (19. I.) therefore DE is perpendicular to the
two lines DP, DB $ and therefore it is perpendicular
to the plane MN pafling through them.
Cor. 1. Converfely, if the ftraight lines AP, DE
are perpendicular to the fame plane MN, they are pa¬
rallel for if not, through D draw a parallel to AP ;
this parallel will be perpendicular to the plane MN,
(by the theorem) therefore, from the fame point D
two perpendiculars may be drawn to a plane, which is
impoflible (4.).
Cor. 2. i wo ftraight lines A and B which are pa¬
rallel to a third line C, though not in the fame plane,
are parallel to each other. For fuppofe a plane to be
perpendicular to the line C, the lines A and B parallel
to this perpendicular are perpendicular to the fame
plane therefore, by the preceding corollary they are
parallel between themfelves.
Theorem Vi.
Two planes MN, PO, perpendicular to the fame Fig. 127.
ftraight line AB, are parallel to each other.
For, if they can meet each other, let O be a point
common to both, and join OA, OB ; then the line
AB, which is perpendicular to the plane MN, muft be
perpendicular to AO, a line drawn in the plane MN
from the point in which AB meets that plane. For
the fame reafon AB is perpendicular to BO $ there¬
fore OA, OB are two perpendiculars drawn from the
fame point O, to the fame ftraight line AB, which is
impoflible.
Theorem VII.
The interfeaions EF, GH of two parallel planes nv
MN, PO with a third plane FG, are parallel ^
For if the lines EF, GH, fituated in the fame plane
are not parallel, they muft meet if produced ^ there¬
fore, the planes MN, PQ, in which they are, muft
alio meet, which is contrary to the hypothefis of their
being parallel.
Theorem VlII.
Any ftraight line AB, perpendicular to MN, one r-
of two parallel planes MN, PQ, is alfo perpen- ’S' 127
dicular to PQ the other plane.
ng. 125. If a ftraight line AP be perpendicular to a plane
MN, every ftraight line DE parallel to AP is per¬
pendicular to the fame plane.
Let a plane pafs through the parallel lines AP, DE,
and mterfect the plane MN in the line PD -, through
D draw BC at right angles to PD -, take DCrrDB,
and join PB, PC, AB, AC, AD. Becaufe DBrrDC,
t erefore PBzrPC ; (cor. 5. 1.) and becaufe AP is per¬
pendicular to the plane MN, fo that APB, APC are
right angles, AB-AC, (cor. 1.) therefore ABC is
an liofceles triangle; and fince its bafe BC is bifeded at
D, riC is perpendicular to AD ; (fchol. 11. 1.) but by
conftrudion BC is perpendicular to PD; therefore (4.)
Vol. IX. Part II.
— - --V - 6 m tne plane
.rQ, and let a plane pafs through the lines AB BC
and meet the plane MN in the line AD then AD
will be parallel to BC, (7.), and fince AB is per¬
pendicular to the plane MN, it muft be perpendicular
to the hne AD, therefore it is alfo perpendicular to
EC ; (I9. 1.) hence (Def. 1.) the line AB is perpen.
dicular to the plane PQ. , r
Theorem IX.
Parallel ftraight lines EG, FH, comprehended be- r-
tween two parallel planes MN, PQ, are equal. FlS’I2S'
Let a plane pafs through the lines EG, FH, and
4 ^ meet
658
G E O M
meet the parallel planes in £F and GH j then EF
and GH are parallel (7.) as well as EG and FH j
therefore, EGHF is a parallelogram, and EF—GH.
Cor. Hence two parallel planes jyre everywhere at
the fame diftance from each other, hor, if EF and
GH are perpendicular to the two planes, they are pa¬
rallel, (l. cor. 5.) therefore they are equal.
Theorem X.
Fig. up. If two ftraight lines CA, EA, meeting one another,
be parallel to two other lines DB, FB, that meet
one another, though not in the fame plane with
the firlt two ; the lirft two and the other two
fhall contain equal angles, and the plane palling
through the firft two lhall be parallel to the
plane palling through the other two.
Take AC=BD, AE=BF, and join CE, DF, AB,
CD, EF. Becaufe AC is equal and parallel to BD,
the figure ABDC is a parallelogram •, therefore, CD
is equal and parallel to AB. For a fimilar reafon Er
is equal and parallel to AB 5 therefore alio CE is equal
and parallel to DF (2 cor. 5. and 28. 1.) j therefore
the triangles CAE, DBF are equal, (10. I.} hence the
angle CAEnDBF. . .. .
In the fecond place, the plane ACE is parallel to
the plane BDF : For fuppofe that the plane parallel to
BDF, pafling through the point A, meets the lines CD,
EF in any other points than C and E, (for example in
G and H), then (9.) the three lines AB, GD, FH
are equal; but the three lines AB, CD, EF have been
Ihewn to be equal*, therefore, CD=:GD, and IH
EF, which is abfurd, therefore the plane ACE is pa¬
rallel to BDF.
Theorem XI.
E T 11 Y. Se£t. VII.
lines PB, PD, therefore it is perpendicular to their
plane MN.
Cor. If the plane AB be perpendicular to the plane
MN, and from any point P, in their common inter-
fection, a perpendicular be drawn to the. plane MN } this
perpendicular lhall be in the plane AB 3 for ir it is not,
a perpendicular AP may be drawn in the plane AB
to the common interfeftion BP, which will be at the
fame time perpendicular to the plane MN *, therefore,
at the fame point P, there may be two perpendiculars
to a plane NM, which is impoflible (4.).
Theorem XIII.
If two planes AB, AD are perpendicular to a third, F,g- ^
their common interfeftion AP is perpendicular
to the third plane.
For, if through the point P, a perpendicular be
drawn to the plane MN, this perpendicular lhall be m
the plane AB, and alfo in the plane AD, (cor. 12.)
therefore it is at their common interfe&ion AP.
Theorem XIV.
If two firaight lines be cut by parallel planes, they Fig. 131..
fhall be cut in the fame ratio.
Let the line AB meet the planes MN, P£>, RS in
A E B ; and let CD meet them in C, F, D, then
lhall AE : EB :: CF : ED. For draw AD meeting
the plane PQ in G, and join AC, EG, GF, BD j the
lines EG, BD, being the common feftions of the plane
of the triangle ABD and the parallel planes PQ., RS,
are parallel (7.), and in like manner it appears, that
AC, GF are parallel j therefore AE : EB(:: Ac*.
GD) :: CF : ED.
Fig. 130.
Fig. 130.
If a ftraight line AP be perpendicular to a plane
MN, any plane APB, palling through AP, lhall
be perpendicular to the plane MN.
Let BC be the interfe&ion of the planes AB, MN ;
if in the plane MN the line DE be drawn perpendicular
to BP, the line AP, being perpendicular to the plane
MN, lhall be perpendicular to each of the ftraight lines
BCjDE ■, therefore the angle APD is a right angle •,
now PA and PD are drawn in the planes AB, MN
perpendicular to their common left ion, therefore
( Def.) the planes AB, MN are perpendicular to
each other.
Scholium.
When three ftraight lines, fuch as AP, BP, DP, are
perpendicular to each other, each is perpendicular to
the plane of the two other lines.
Theorem XII.
If the plane AB is perpendicular to the plane MN 5
and in the plane AB a ftraight line PA be
drawn perpendicular to BP, the common inter-
feaion of the planes, then fhall PA be perpen¬
dicular to the plane MN.
For if in the plane MN, a line PD be drawn per¬
pendicular to PB, the angle APD fhall be a right an-
* gle, becaufe the planes arc perpendicular to each othci,
therefore, the line AP is perpendicular to the two
Theorem XV.
a folid angle be contained by three plane an-Fig. 132.
gles, the fum of any two of thefe is greater
than the third.
It is evidently only neceffary to .demonftrate the
ieorem, when the plane angle which is compared with
ie fum of the other two is greater than either of
mm ; for, if it were equal to or lefs than one of them,
le theorem would be manifeft : therefore let S be a
lid angle formed by three plane angles ASB, AoU,
ISC, of which ASB is the greateft. In the plane
iSB make the angle BSDzzBSC *, draw any ftraight
ne ADB, and having taken SCrrSD, join AC BU ,
ae triangles BSC, BSD having two ftdes, and the m-
luded angle of the one equal to two Tides, and the in-
luded angle of the other, each to each, are ^qua (5* 1
herefore BD=BC 5 now AB^lAC-fBC, therefore,
akins BD from the firft of thefe unequal quantities,
nd BC from the fccond, we get AD-=^AC 5 and as
he triangles ASD, ASC have SD=SC, and SA com-
non to both, and AD^lAC, therefore (9. 1.) the
ingle ASD^ASC 5 and, adding DSB to the one,
md CSB to the other, ASB-^ASC-j-BSC.
Theorem XVI.
[f each of two folid angles be contained by three Fig 133.
Sea. VIII. G E O M
of Solids plane angles equal to one another, each to each,
bounded by tjie pianes in which the equal angles are, have
pjanes. ■*••• A i ^ »
■ ‘ ' . the fame inclination to one another.
Let the angle ASB~DTE, the angle ASC
—DTF, and the angle BSCrrETF; the two planes
ASB, ASC, (hall have to each other the fame inclina¬
tion as the two planes DTE, DIF.
Take A any point in SA, and in the two planes
ASB, ASC, draw AB and AC perpendiculars to AS,
then (def. 4.) the angle BAG is the inclination of
thefe planes 5 again, take TD=SA, and in the planes
TDE, TDF draw DE and DF perpendiculars to TD,
and the angle EDF {hall be the inclination of thefe
other planes-, join BC, EF. The triangles ASB,
DTE have the fide AS~DT, the angle SABrrTDE
and ASB:=DTE, therefore the triangles are equal,
and thus ABrrDE, and'SBrrTE : In like manner it
appears that the triangles ASC, DTF are equal, and
therefore, that ACrrDF, and SC—LF. Now the
triangles BSC, ETF, having BS=rIE, SCrriF, and
E T R Y. 659
the angle BSCrrETF, are alfo equal, and therefore) 0t"Solids
BC—EF •, but it has been fhewn that ABrrDE, and ^
that ACirDF ; therefore the triangles BAC, EDF u——v ■■ , j
are equal, and confequently the angle BACrrEDF ",
that is, the inclination of the planes ASB and ASC is
equal to the inclination of the planes DTE and DTF.
In the fame manner it may be proved that the other
planes have the fame inclination to one another.
Scholium.
If the three plane angles which contain the folid
angles, are equal each to each, and if befides the angles
are alfo difpofed in the fame order in the two folid
angles, then thefe angles when applied to one another
will coincide, and be equal. But if the plane angles
be difpofed in a contranj order, the folid angles will
not coincide, although the theorem is equally true in
both cafes. In this laft cafe the folid angles are called
Symtnetrical angles.
SECT. VIII. OF SOLIDS BOUNDED BY PLANES.
Definitions.
I. A SOLID is that which has length, breadth, and
thicknefs.
II. A Prifm is a folid contained by plane figures,
of which two that are oppofite are equal, fimilar, and
parallel -, and the others are parallelograms.
Fig. 134. To conftruft this folid, let ABCDE be any poly¬
gon -, if in a plane parallel to ABC there be drawn
flraight lines FG, GH, HI, &c. equal and parallel to
the fides AB, BC, CD, &c. fo as to form a polygon
FGHIK equal to ABCDE, and llraight lines AF,
EG, CH, &c. be drawn, joining the vertices of the ho¬
mologous angles in the two planes *, the planes or faces
ABGF, BCHG, &c. thus formed will be parallelo¬
grams ; and the folid ABCDEFGH1K contained by
thefe parallelograms and the two polygons, is the prifm
itfelf.
III. The equal and parallel polygons ABCDE,
FGHIK are called the Bafes of the prifm, and the
diftance between the bafes is its Altitude.
Fig. 135. IV. When the bafe of a prifm is a parallelogram,
and confequently the figure has all its faces parallelo¬
grams, it is called a parallelepiped. A parallelepiped
is re&angu/ar when all its faces are reftangles.
Plate V. A Cube is a reftangular parallelepiped contained
CGXLV. by fix equal fquares.
8g. 144. VI. A Pi/rarnid is a folid contained by feveral
planes, which meet in the fame point A, and terminate
in a polygonal plane BCD.
VII. The polygon ABCDE is called the Bafe of
the pyramid 5 the point S is its Vertex ; and a per¬
pendicular let fail from the vertex upon the bafe is call¬
ed its Altitude.
VIII. Two folids are fmilar, when they are^ con¬
tained by the fame number of iimilar planes, fimilarly
fituated, and having like inclinations to one another.
Theorem I.
Two prifms are equal when the three planes which CCXLIV.
contain a folid angle of the one are equal to fig. i34«
the three planes which contain a folid angle
of the other, each to each, and are fimilarly fi¬
tuated.
Let the bafe ABCDE be equal to the bafe a bede,
the parallelogram ABGF equal to the parallelogram
abgf and the parallelogram BCHG equal to the
parallelogram bchg; the prifm ABCI (hall be equal
to the prifm a b c i.
For let the bafe ABCDE be applied to its equal the
bafe abode, fo that they may coincide with each
other •, then, as the three plane angles which form the
folid angle B are equal to the three plane angles which
form the angle b, each to each, viz. AP>C~abc
ABG=tf bg, and GP>C—gbc, and as thefe angles are
fimilarly fituated, the folid angles B and b are equal
(1 5. 7.) therefore the fide BG (hall fall upon the fide
bg ; and becaufe the parallelograms ABGF, «7 are
equal, the fide FG (hall fall upon its equal fg; in like
manner it may be fhewm, that GH falls upon g h,
therefore the upper bale FGHIK coincides entirely
with its equal fg h ik, and the two folids coincide with
each other, or occupy the fame {'pace, therefore the
prifms are equal.
Scholium.
A prifm is entirely determined, when its bafe
ABCDE is known, and its edge BG is given in mag¬
nitude and pofition-, for if through the point G, GF be
drawn equal and parallel to AB, and GH equal and
parallel to BC, and the polygon FGHIK be deferib-
ed equal to ABCDE (20. 5.), it is evident that the
4 O 2 points
66o
Of Solids
bounded by
Planes.
Tig- 135-
GEOMETRY.
Sea. VIII.
points FKI will have determinate pofitions •, therefore
any two prifms conftrudled with the fame data cannot
be unequal.
Theorem II.
In any parallelepiped the oppofite planes are equal
and parallel.
Theorem IV.
Of Solids
bounded by
Planes.
If two parallelepipeds AG, AL have a common v'
bafe ABCD, and have their upper bafes in the ^
fame plane, and between the fame parallel
ftraight lines EK, HL, the two parallelepipeds
are equivalent to each other.
From the nature of the folid (4. def.) the bafes
ABCD, EFGH are equal parallelograms, and their
fides are parallel, therefore the planes AC, EG are
parallel *, and becaufe AD is equal and parallel to BC,
and AE is equal and parallel to BF, the angle DAE
—CBF, and the plane DAE is parallel to the plane
CBF, ( 10. 7.) therefore alfo the parallelogram DA EH
is equal to the parallelogram CBtG. It may in like
manner be demonflrated, that the oppofite parallelo¬
grams ABFE, DCGH are equal and parallel.
Cor. Hence, in a parallelepiped, any one of the fix
planes which contain it may be taken for its bafe.
Theorem III.
Fig. 136. The plane BDHF, which pafles through two pa¬
rallel oppolite edges BF, DH, of a parallele¬
piped AG, divides it into two triangular prifms
ABDHEF, GHFBGD, equal to one another.
For the triangles ABD, EFH, having their fides
equal and parallel, are equal, and the lateral faces
ABFE, ADHE, BDHF are parallelograms •, there¬
fore the folid ABDHEF is a prifm ; for like reafons
the folid GHFBCD is a prifm. Again, becaufe the
plane angles which contain the folid angle at G are
equal to thofe which contain the folid angle at A, viz.
the angle FGHzrDAB, FGCnDAE, and HGC
= BAE, the planes in which thefe angles are have the
fame Inclination to one another, (16. 7.) ? asi however,
thefe angles are not difpofed in the fame order, but in
a contrary order, the folid angles cannot be made to
coincide with one another, and confequently the prifms
cannot be proved equal by fuperpofition, as in Theo¬
rem I. Their equality may however be eftablifhed by
reafoning thus :
The inclination of each of any two adjacent faces of
a prifm to the bafe, and the length of an edge being
given, the prifm is evidently reftrifted to one determi¬
nate magnitude j and it will evidently have the fame
magnitude whichfoever of the two fides of the bafe it
may Hand upon •, that is, whether it be conftru&ed
above or below the bafe. Now if the upper bale UGH
of the one prifm be applied to the lower bafe DAB of
the other, fo that the fides EG, GH, EH may be upon
the fides DA, AB, DB equal to them, then the prifm
GHFBCD will have the pofition ABDHEF'; and
the two faces ABFE', ADH'E' of the prifm below
the bafe will have each the fame inclination to it, as
the equivalent faces ABFE, ADHE of the prilm above
the bafe ; and the edge AE' is equal to the edge AE ;
therefore the conditions which determine the magni¬
tude of both prifms are identical, and confequently the
prifms are equal.
2
Because AE is parallel to BF, and HE to GF,
the angle AEIzrBFK, HEIrrGFK, and HEA
= GFB j of thefe fix angles the three firft form the
folid angle E, and the three others form the folid
angle F j therefore fince the plane angles are equal
each to each, and fimilarly fituated, the folid angles E
and F are equal. Now il the pritm AEiDHIVl be
applied to the prifm BFKCGL, fo that their bafes
AEI, BEK, which are equal, may coincide with each
other, then, becaufe the lolid angle E is equal to the
folid angle F, the fide EH {hall fall upon I’ G, arid
this is all that is neceffary to prove that the two prifms
coincide entirely, for the bafe AEI and the edge EH
determine the prifm AEM, and the bafe BEK and the
edge FG determine the prifm BFL; therefore the prifms
are equal. But if from the lolid AEL, the prifm A EM
be taken away, there will remain the parallelepiped
AIL ; and if from the fame i’olid AEL, the pram
BEL be taken away, there will remain the parallele¬
piped AEG •, therefore the parallelepipeds AIL, AEG
are equivalent to each other.
Theorem V.
Parallelepipeds upon the fame bafe, and having the Fig. 139.
fame altitude, are equivalent to one another.
Let ABCD be the common bafe of the two paiaj.-
lelopipeds AG, AL, which, becaufe they have the
fame altitude, will have their upper bafes in the fame
plane •, then, becaufe EE and AB are equal and parallel,
as alfo IK and AB *, EF is parallel to IK, (cor. 2. 5. 7.)
for a fimilar reafon GF is parallel to LK. Let the
fides. EF, HG, as alfo the fides LK, IM, be pro¬
duced, fo as to form by their interfeaions the parallelo¬
gram NOPQ ; it is manifeft that this parallelogram is
equal to each of the bales EFGH, IK LIVE Now, if
we fuppofe a third parallelepiped, which, with the fame
lower bafe ABCD, has for its upper bafe NOPQ,, this
third parallelepiped will be equivalent to the parallele¬
piped AG, (4.) for the fame reaion the third parallele¬
piped will be equivalent to the parallelepiped AL j.
therefore the two parallelepipeds AG, AL, which have
the fame bafe and the fame altitude, are equivalent to
one another.
Theorem VI.
Any parallelepiped AG is equivalent to a re£l-Fig. 159.
angular parallelepiped, having the fame altitude,1^-
and an equivalent bafe.
At the points A, B, C, D, let A I, BK, CL, DM,
be drawn perpendicular to the plane ABCD, and ter¬
minating in the plane of the upper bale; then, IK,
Sea. VIII. G E O M
Of Solids KL, LM, MI, being joined, a parallelepiped AL will
bounded by t^us formed, which will manifeftly have its lateral
.faces AK, BL, CM, DI reftangles; and if the bafe
' AC is alfo a reftangle, the folid AL will be a re£t-
angular parallelepiped equivalent to the parallelepiped
AG. But if ABCD is not a reftangle, (fig. 140.)
draw AO and BN perpendicular to CD, and OQ^
and NP perpendicular to DC, meeting ML in
and P 5 the lolid ABNOIKP^ will manifeitly be a
reflangular paralellopiped, which will be equal to the
parallelepiped AL, for they have the fame bale ABKI,
and the fame altitude, viz. AO therefore the rect¬
angular parallelepiped AP is equivalent to the paral¬
lelepiped AG, (fig. 139.) and they have the fame al¬
titude, and the bafe ABNO of the former is equiva¬
lent to the bafe ABCD of the latter.
Theorem VII.
Fig-134* Any feCtion NOPOR of a prifm, made by a
plane parallel to its bafe ABCDE, is equal to
the bafe.
For the parallels AN, BO, CP contained between
the parallel planes ABC, NOP are equal (9. 7.) j and
thus all the figures AEON, BCPO, &c. are parallelo¬
grams ; hence the fide ON= AB, OP=BC, PQrrCD,
&c. alfo, the equal fides are parallel, therefore, the
angle ABCrr NOP, the angle BCDrrOPQ^, &c.
therefore the two polygons ABCDE, NOPOR, have
their fides and angles equal, each to each 5 therefore,
they are equal.
p]ate Theorem VIII.
^ Two rectangular parallelepipeds AG, AL, which
have the fame bafe ABCD, are to each other as
their altitudes AE, AL
Suppose that the altitudes AE, AI are to each
other as the numbers/> and <7, fo that AE will contain
p fuch equal parts as AI contains q Let AE and AI
be divided into p and q equal parts refpe&ively, and
let planes pafs through the points of divifion parallel to
the bafe ABCD ; thus the parallelepiped AG will be
divided into p folids, which will alfo be parallelepipeds
having equal bafes (7.) and equal altitudes, there¬
fore they will be equal among themfelves j and in like
manner the parallelepiped AL will be divided into q
equal folids 5 and as each of the folids in AG is equal
to each of the folids in AL, the parallelepiped AG
will contain p fuch equal parts as the parallelepiped AL
contains q; therefore the parallelepiped AG will be
to the parallelepiped AL as the number p to the num¬
ber y, that is, as AE the altitude of the former to AI
the altitude of the latter.
Theorem tX.
jfig-142. rectangular parallelepipeds AG, AK, which
have the fame altitude AE, are to each other as
their bafes ABCD, AMNO.
Let the two folids be placed, the one by the fide of
the other, as reprefented in the figure, and let the plane
ONKL be produced, fo as to meet the plane DCGH
E T R Y. 661
in PO, thus forming a third parallelopipcd AQ, which Of Solids
may be compared with each of the parallelepipeds AG, b0p^s y
AK. The two folids AG, A£), having the fame bafe 
ADHE, are to each other as their altitudes AB, AO,
(8 ) and, in like manner, the two folids A£), AK,
having the fame bafe AOLE, are to each other as
their altitudes AD, AM j that is,
folid AG : fol. Ap :: AB : AO
fol. A& : JoL AK :: AD : AM j
but AB : AO :: bafe AC : bafe AP (3. 4.)
and AD : AM bafe AP : bafe AN,
therefore,
fol. AG : fol.AQ :: bafe AC : bafe AP,
fol. A(^: fol. AK bafe AP : bafe AN,
therefore (7. 3.)
fol. AG. fol. AK :: bafe AC : bafe AN.
Theorem X.
Re&angular parallelepipeds are to each other asFig
the produ&s of the numbers proportional to
their bafes and altitudes, or as the products of
the numbers proportional to their three dimen-
fions.
Let AG be a parallelepiped, the three dimenfions
of which are expreffed by the lines AB, AD, AE, and
AZ another parallelepiped the dimenfions of which are
expreffed by the lines AO, AM, AX. Let the two
folids AG, AZ be fo placed that their furfaces may.
have a common angle BAE j produce fuch of the
planes as are neceffary fo as to form a third parallelepi¬
ped AK, having the fame altitude as the parallelepi¬
ped AG. By the laft propofition
fol. AG : fol. AK :: bafe AC : bafe AN,
and by the laft theorem but one,
fol. AK : fol. AZ :: AE : AX,
but, confidering the bafes AC, AN as meafured by
numbers, as alfo the altitudes AE, AX,
bafe AG : bafe AN :: AY. y^bofe AC : AE X bafe AN
and AE : AX :: AYybafe AN : AXybafe AN
therefore,
fol. AG : fol. AK :: AEx^ AC : AEx^ AN,
fol. AK : fol. AZ :: AE x bafe AN : AX X bafe AN,
therefore, (7. 3.)
fol. AG : fol. AZ :: AYybafe AC : AX x bafe AN j
which proportion, by fubftituting for the bafes AC,
AN their numerical values ABxAD and AO X AM
becomes
fol.AG:fol. AZ:: AB X AD x AE: AO x AM x AX,
Scholium.
Hence it appears that the produtft of the bafe of a
reftangular parallelepiped by its altitude or the produft
of its three dimenfions, may be taken for its numerical
meafure.
662 GEOMETRY. SeR. VIII.
Of Solids meafure ; and it is upon this principle that all other
bounded by fyjjdg are eftimated. When two parallelopipeds are com-
, Plares- pared together by means of their bafes and altitudes,
their bafes mull be confidered as meafured by the fame
fuperfieial unit, and their altitudes by the fame linear
unit ; thus if P and (,) denote two parallelopipeds, and
the bafe of P contains three fuch equal fpaces as that
of contains four 5 and the altitude ot P contains two
fuch equal lines, as that of Q_ contains five, then,
P : Q:: 3X2 : 4X5 :: 6 : 2°.
If all the dimenfions of each folid are ufed in compar¬
ing them together, then the fame linear unit mull; be
employed in eftimating all the dimenfions of both fo-
lids ; thus, if the length, breadth, and height of the
folid P be four, three, and fix linear units, rel'pedivelj j
and thofe of £, feven, two, and five of the fame unit}
then P : Q :: 4X3X6 : 7X2X5 :: 72 : 7°-.
As lines are compared together by confidenng how
often each contains fome other line taken as a meafur-
ing unit, and furfaces by confidering how often each
contains a fquare whofe fide is that unit 5 fo lolids may
be compared, by confidenng how olten each contains
a cube, the fide or edge of which is the fame linear
Unit.- Accordingly, the dimenfions of the parallelopi¬
peds P and Q being as we have juft now fuppofed, the
proportion P : Q :: 72 : 70 maybe confidered as indi¬
cating that P contains 72 fuch equal cubes as ^con¬
tains 70.
The magnitude of a folid, its bulk, or its extenlion,
eonftitutes its foluhty, or its content; thus we fay, that
the folidity or the content of a rectangular parallelepi¬
ped is equal to the product of its bafe by its altitude j
or to the product of its three dimenfions.
Theorem XI.
The folidity of any parallelepiped, or in general
of any prifm, is equal to the produdt of its bale
by its altitude.
1. Any parallelepiped is equivalent to a rectangu¬
lar parallelepiped of the fame altitude, and an equiva¬
lent bafe (6.) •, and it has been (hewn, that the folidity
of fuch a parallelepiped is equal to the produCt of its
bafe and altitude.
3. Every triangular priim is the half of a parallele¬
piped of the fame altitude, but having its bale double
that of the prifm (3.) j therefore, the folidity of the
priim is half that of the parallelepiped, or it is half
the produCl of the bafe of the parallelepiped by its al¬
titude, that is, it is equal to the produft of the bafe of
the prifm by its altitude.
3. Any other prifm may be divided into as many
triangular prifms as the polygon which forms its bale
can be divided into triangles, but the lolidity of each
of thefe is equal to the produCl of its bale by their com¬
mon altitude ; therefore, the folidity of the whole prifm
is equal to the produCl of the fum of all their bafes by
the common altitude, or it is equal to the produCt of
the bafe of the prifm, which is the fum of them all, by
its altitude.
Cor. Two prifms having the fame altitude are to
each other as their bafes} and two prifms having the
fame bafe are to each other as their altitudes.
Of Soiids
Theorem XII. bounded by
rlanes.
Similar prifms are to one another as the cubes ofF][r> I4>
their homologous fides.
Let AG, IP be two fimilar prifms, of which AB,
IK are two homologous fides, the prifm AG is to the
prifm IP as the cube of AB to the cube of IK. Let
E and N be two homologous angles of the prifms, and
ES, NV perpendiculars to the planes of their bafes $
join IV; take IR= AE, and in the plane 1NV draw
RT perpendicular to IV •, then RT lhall be perpendi¬
cular to the plane IL (11. and 12. of y.), alio Ri
fhall be equal to ES ; for if the folid angles A and I
were applied the one to the other, the planes which con¬
tain them would coincide (fchol. 16. 7-)> an^ the point
E would fall upon the point R, and therefore the per¬
pendicular ES would coincide with the perpendicular
RT (2. cor. 4. 7.). Now the content of a prifm being
the produft of its bafe by its altitude (11.), it follows
that prifm AG : prifm IP :: ESx^A •• NV X
bafe \\* j but^fl/e AC : bofe IL :: AB* : IK* (27. 4.)
and therefore confidering the lines exprefled by num¬
bers, ES X bafe AC or RT X bafe AC : NV X befe
IL :: RTxAB* : NV X IK* (5. 3.) therefore prtfm
AG : prifm IP :: RT X AB* : NVXIK’j but RT :
NV RI or AE : NI (20. 4.) :: AB : IK (def. of
fim. figs.), and confequently RT x AB* : NV X IK* ::
AB5 : IK1 * 3 (5. 3.) j therefore prifm AG \ prfm IP ::
AB3 : IK3.
Cor. Similar prifms are to one another in the tripli¬
cate ratio of the homologous fides. For let Y and Z
be two fuch lines that AB : IK :: IK : Y :: Y : Z,
then the ratio of AB to Z is triplicate the ratio of AB
to IK (12. def. 3.). Now, fince AB : IK :: IK : Y,
therefore AB* : IK* :: IK* : Y*, (9. 4 ) and, multi¬
plying the antecedents by AB, and confequents by
IK, AB3 : IK3 :: AB XIK* : IKxY* :: AB x IK :
Y*, but Y*=:IK X Z (8. 4.); therefore AB1 : IK3 ::
AB X IK : IK X Z :: AB : Z, but prfm AG : prfm
IP :: AB3 : IK3,therefore prfm AG : prfm IP :: AB r
Z, which laft ratio is triplicate the ratio of AB to IK.
Theorem XIII.
If a triangular pyramid ABCD be cut by a plane Fig. 144.
bed parallel to its bafe, the fedion b c d fi¬
milar to the bafe BCD.
For becaufe the planes bed, BCD are parallel, their
interfeftions be, BC with a third plane BAG are pa¬
rallel (7. 7.) ; and, for a like reafon, c d \s parallel to
CD, and db to DB ; therefore the angle bcd^zRCD,
cdb—CDB, and c=rDBC (10. 7.) J hence the tri¬
angles bed, BCD are equiangular, and confequently
Cor. I. If two triangular pyramids ABCD, EFGH,
which have equal bafes, and equal altitudes, be cut by
planes bcd,fgh that are parallel to the bafe«, and at
equal diftances from them, the feftions are equal. For
conceive the bafes of the pyramids to be in the fame
plane, then their vertices will be in a plane parallel to
their bafes, and the feftions b cd,fg h will alio he in
a plane parallel to their bafes, therefore, AL : A ..
Sea. VIII. G E O M
Of loliti.. EF : E / (14. 7.), but becaufe the triangles ABC,
bounded by c are fimilar, AB : A. b :: BC : be, and, in like
Planes^ manner EF : E/:: FG \ f g, therefore, BC : ::
FG : fg, and BC* : b c* :: FG* \fg* (9. 4.) j but
BC* '.be1 :: triangle BCD : tnan. bed, and bG* :
fg1 :: trian. FGH : trian. fgh (25. 4.) therefore,
trian. BCD : trian. bedw trian. FGH : trian. f g h,
but trian. BCD—trian. FGH (by hyp.) therefore
trian. b c d~tnan. f g h. ,
Scholium.
It is eafy to fee that what is here demonflrated of tri¬
angular pyramids, is equally true of polygonal pyra¬
mids having equal bafes and altitudes.
Theorem XIV.
F*g-145- A feries of prifms of the fame altitude may be cir-
cumfcribed about any pyramid ABCD, iuch that
the fum of the prifms (hall exceed the pyramid
by a folid lefs than any given folid Z.
Let Z be equal to a prifm Handing on the fame bafe
with the pyramid, viz. the triangle BCD, and having
for its altitude the perpendicular drawn from a certain
point E in the line AC upon the place BCD. It is
evident that CE multiplied by a certain number m
will be greater than AC 5 divide CA into as many
equal parts as there are units in m, and let thefe be
CF, FG, GH, HA, each of which will be lefs than
CE. Through each of the points F, G, H, let planes
be made to pafs parallel to the plane BCD, making
with the fides of the pyramid the ftftions FPO, GRS,
HTU, which will be all fimilar to one another, and
to the bafe BCD (13.). From the point B draw in the
plane of the triangle ABC the ftraight line BK paral¬
lel to CF, meeting FP produced in K. In like man¬
ner, from D draw DL parallel to CF, meeting F£) in
L ; join KL, and it is plain that the folid KBCDLF
is a prifm. By the fame conilruftion let the prifms
PM, RO, TV be deferibed. Alfo let the ftraight
line IP, which is in the plane of the triangle ABC be
produced till it meet BC in h ; and let the line M£)
be produced till it meet DC in g. Join hg, then hCg
QFP is a prilm ; and is equal to the prilm PM
(cor 11 ). In the fame manner is deferibed the priim
m S equal to the prifm RO, and the prifm q U equal
to the prifm TV. The fum, therefore, of all the in-
feribed prifms h Q, m S and y U is equal to the fum
of the prifms PM, RO and TV, that is, to the fum of
all the circumfcribed prifms except the priim BL ;
wherefore, BL is the excefs of the prifms circumfcribed
about the pyramid above the prifms inferibed within it.
But the prifm BL is lefs than the prifm which has the
triangle BCD for its bafe, and for its aPitude the per¬
pendicular from E upon the plane BCD, which prifm
is, by hypotheft5, equal to the given folid Z j therefore
the excefs of the circumfcribed above the inferibed
prifms is lefs than the folid Z. But the excefs of the
circumfcribed prifms above the inferibed is greater
than their excefs above the pyramid ABCD, becaufe
ABCD is greater than the fum of the inferibed prilms j
much more therefore is the excefs of the circumtcribed
prifms above the pyramid lefs than the folid Z. A le-
sies of prifms of the fame altitude has therefore been
E T R Y. 663
circumfcribed about the pyramid ABCD exceeding it Of Solids
by a folid left than the givtn folid Z. b“wa«s. '
' V '
Theorem XV.
Pyramids that have equal bafes and altitudes are Fig. 145.
equal to one another.
Let ABCD, EFGH be two pyramids that have
equal bafes BCD, FGH, and alfo equal altitudes 5 the
pyramid ABCD is equal to the pyramid EFGH.
If they are unequal, let the pyramid EFGH exceed
the pyramid ABCD by the folid Z. Let a feries of
prifms of the fame altitude be circumfcribed about the
pyramid ABCD that ftiall exceed it by a folid lefs than
Z, (14.) and let another feries equal in number to the
former, and having all the fame altitude, be deferibed
about the pyramid EFGH ; then, becaufe the pyramids
have equal altitudes, the altitude of each of the prilms
deferibed about the one pyramid is equal to the altitude
of each of the prifms deferibed about the other py¬
ramid ; therefore the feftions of the pyramids which
are the bafes of the correfponding prilms will be at
equal diftances from the bafes of the pyramids, and
hence thefe fe&ions will be equal j (1. cor. 13 ) and
becaufe the prifms have all the lame altitude, the cor¬
refponding prifms will be equal, and the fum of the
prifms deferibed about the pyramid ABCD will be
equal to the fum of the prifms deferibed about the
pyramid EFGH. Let the pyramid EFGH be denot¬
ed by P, and the pyramid ABCD by />, and put
for the fum of the prifms deferibed about P, and q for
the prifms deferibed about p : Then by hypothefis
Z—P—/>, and by conftruftion ZrzP^q—p, therefore
P—p-p^q—p, and confequently B'gP'q j but it has
been {hewn that yrrQ,, therefore P^Q, that is, the
pyramid EFGH is greater than the fum of the prifm
deferibed about it, which is impoflible, therefore the
pyramids ABCD, EFGH are not unequal, that is,
they are equal.
Theorem XVI.
Every prifm having a triangular bafe may be di-Fig. 147.
vided into three pyramids that have triangular
bafes, and that are equal to one another.
Let ABC, DEF be the oppolite bafes of a trian¬
gular prifm. Join AE, EC, CD ; and becaufe ABED
is a parallelogram, of which AE is the diameter, the
triangle ADE is equal to the triangle iVBE j there¬
fore the pyramid of which the bafe is the triangle
ADE and vertex the point C, is equal to the pyramid
of which the bafe is the triangle ABE, and vertex>
the point C. But the pyramid of which the bafe is
the triangle ABE and vertex the point C, that is the
pyramid ABCE, is equal to the pyramid DEFC,
(15.) for they have equal bafes, viz. the triangles
ABC, DFE, and the fame altitude, viz. the altitude
of the prifm ABCDEF. Therefore, the three pyra¬
mids ADEC, ABEC, DFEC are equal to one another j
but thefe pyramids make up the whole prifm ABCDEF j
therefore, the prifm ABCDEF is divided into three
equal pyramids.
Cor. 1. From this it is manifeft that every pyra¬
mid
664
GEOMETRY.
Of Cylin- mJd |s the third part of a prifm which has the fame
^andthe^* an<^ t^le ^ame altitude with it; for if the bafe
of the prifm be any other figure than a triangle, it
may be divided into prifms having triangular bafes.
Sphere
Sea. IX.
Cor. 2. Pyramids having equal altitudes are to one Of Cylin-
another as their bafes; becaufe the prifms upon the1*61'5’f°nes>
fame bafes, and of the fame altitude, are to one another
as their bafes.
and the
Sphere.
SECT. IX. OF CYLINDERS, CONES, AND THE SPHERE.
Definitions.
I. A Cylinder is a foiid figure defcribed by the revo¬
lution of a right-angled parallelogram about one of its
fides, which remains fixed
The Axi'< of the cylinder is the fixed ftraight line
about which the parallelogram revolves
The Safes of the cylinder are the circles defcribed
by the two revolving oppofite fides of the parallelo¬
gram.
II. A Cone is a foiid figure defcribed by the revo¬
lution of a right-angled triangle about one of the fides
containing the right angle, which fide remains fixed.
The Axis of the cone is the fixed line about which
the triangle revolves.
The Bafe of the cone is the circle defcribed by that
fide containing the right angle which revolves.
III. A Sphere is a foiid figure defcribed by the re¬
volution of a femicircle about a diameter.
The Axis, of a fphere is the fixed line about which
the femicircle revolves.
The Centre of a fphere is the fame with that of the
femicircle.
The Diameter of a fphere is any ftraight line which
pafies through the centre, and is terminated both ways
by the fuperficies of the fphere.
IV. Similar cones and cylinders are thofe which
have their axes and diameters of their bafes propor¬
tional.
Theorem I.
Vig. 14S. if from any point E in the circumference of the
bafe of a cylinder ABCD, a perpendicular EF
be drawn to the plane of the bafe AEB, the
ftraight line EF is wholly in the cylindric fuper¬
ficies.
Let HG be the axis, and AGHD the reftangle,
which by its revolution defcribes the cylinder. Btcaufe
HG is perpendicular to AG in every pofition of the
revolving rectangle, it is perpendicular to the plane of
the circle defcribed by AG ; and becaufe AD, the line
which defcribes the cylindric fuperficies, is parallel to
GH, it is alfo perpendicular to the plane of that circle.
(5 7.). Now when by the revolution of the reflangle
AGHD the point A coincides with the point E, the
line EF will coincide with AD, and thus will be whol¬
ly in the cylindric fuperfiefes; for otherwife two per¬
pendiculars might be drawn to the fame plane, from
the fame point, which is inripoffible ( 2 cor. 4. 7.).
Theorem II.
Fig. 149. A cylinder and a parallelepiped having equivalent
bafes and the fame altitude are equal to one ano¬
ther
Let ABCD be a cylinder, and EF a parallelepiped
having equivalent bafes, viz. the circle AGB and the
parallelogram EH. and having alfo equal altitudes ; the
cylinder ABCD is equal to the parallelepiped EF If
not, let them be unequal; and firft let the cylinder be
lefs than the paralh lopiped EF; and from the paral-
lelopipe ! EF let here be cut off a part E(^ by a plane
P(L parallel to NF, equal to the cylinder ABCD.
In the circle AGB inferibe the polygon AGKr LM
that (hall differ from the circle, by a (pace Ids .ban
the parallelogram PH, (1 cor. 2 6.) and cut oft' rum
the parallelogram EH a part OR equal to the polygon
AGKBLM, then it is manifeft that the parallelogram
OR is greater than the parallelogram OP, therefore the
point R will fall between P and N. On the poly¬
gon AGKBLM let an upright prifm be conftituted
of the fam< altitude with the cylinder, which will there¬
fore be lefs than the cylinder, becaufe it is within it;
(1.) and if through the point R a plane RS parallel to
NF be made to pafs, it will cut off the parallelepiped
ES equal to the prifm AGBC, becaufe its bafe is
equal to that of the prifm, and its altitude is the fame.
But the prifm AGBC is lefs than the cylinder ABCD,
and the cylinder ABCD is equal to the parallelepi¬
ped E^), by hypothefis; therefore, ES is lefs than EQ,
and it is alfo greater, which is impoftible. The cy¬
linder ABCD therefore is not lefs than the parallele¬
piped EF; and in the fame manner it may be ftiewn
not to be greater than EF, therefore they are equal.
Theorem III.
If a cone and cylinder have the fame bafe and the Fig. 150.
fame altitude, the cone is the third part of the
cylinder.
Let the cone ABCD, and the cylinder BFKG
have the fame bafe, viz. the circle BCD, and the fame
altitude, viz. the perpendicular from the point A upon
the plane BCD; the cone ABCD is the third part
of the cylinder BFKG. If not, let the cone ABCD
be the third part of another cylinder LMNO having
the fame altitude with the cylinder BFKG; but let the
bafes BCD, LIM be unequal, and firft let BCD be
greater than LIM. Then, becaufe the circle BCD is
greater than the circle LIM, a polygon may be in-
feribed in BCD that ftiftl differ from it lefs than LIM
does, (1. cor. 2. 6.) and which therefore will be great¬
er than LIM. Let this be the polygon BECFD ;
and upon BECFD let there be conftituted the pyramid
ABECFD, and the prifm BCFKHG. Becaufe the
polygon RECFD is greater than the circle LIM, the
prifm BCFKHG is greater than the cylinder LMNO,
for they have the fame altitude, but the prifm has the
greater bafe. But the pyramid ABECFD is the third
part of the prifm BCFHG (16. 8.) ; therefore it is
greater
Sea. ix. G E O M
Of Cylin- greater than the third part of the cylinder LMNO.
^.Cone5,Now the cone ABECFD is by hypothefis the third
Sphere. Part l^e cy^nder LMNO, therefore, the pyramid
■ ABECFD is greater than the cone ABCD, and it is
alfo kfs, beeaufe it is infcribed in the cone, which is
impoflible. Therefore the cone ABCD is not lefs
Ijhan the third part of the cylinder BFKG. And in
the fame manner, by circumfcribing a polygon about
the circle BCD, it may be Ihewn, that the cone ABCD
is not greater than the third part of the cylinder BFKG;
therefore, it is equal to the third part of the cylin¬
der.
Theorem IV.
Fig. 151. If a hemifphere and cone have equal bafes and
altitudes, a feries of cylinders may be infcribed
in the hemifphere, and another feries may be cir-
cumfcribed about the cone, having all the fame
altitudes with one another, and fuch that their
fum fhall differ from the fum of the hemi¬
fphere and the cone by a folid, lefs than any
given folid.
Let ADB be a femicircle, of which the centre is C,
•and let CD be at right angles to AB ; let DB and DA
be fquares defcribed on DC, draw CE, and let the fi¬
gure thus conftrufted revolve about DC : then the qua¬
drant BCD will defcribe a hemifphere havingC for its
centre, and the triangle CDE will defcribe a cone
having its vertex at C, and having for its bafe the cir¬
cle defcribed by DE, equal to that defcribed by BC,
which is the bafe of the hemifphere. Let W be a
given folid, a feries of cylinders may be defcribed in
the hemifpere ADB, and another defcribed about the
cone ECI, fo that their fum {hall differ from the fum
of the hemifphere and cone, by a folid lefs than the
folid W.
Upon the bafe of the hemifphere let a cylinder be
eonftituted equal to W, and let its altitude be CX.
Divide CD into fuch a number of equal parts, that
each of them fhall be lefs than CX ; let thefe be CH,
HG, GF and FD. Draw FN, GO, HP parallel to
CB, meeting the circle in K, L, and M, and the
ftraight line CE in R, and S. Draw K/, L^, M/5,
perpendicular to GO, HP, and CB ; and draw Qy,
R r, S x, perpendicular to the fame lines. It is evident
that the figure being thus conftrufted, if the whole re¬
volve about CD, the rectangles F^ G^, H// will de¬
fcribe cylinders that will be circumfcribed by the hemi-
fphere BDA} and that the reCtanglqs DN, Fy, G r,
Hx will alfo defcribe cylinders that will circumfcribe
the cone ICE. Now it may be demonftrated, as was
done of the prifms infcribed in a pyramid (14. 8.), that
the hemifphere exceeds the fum of all the cylinders de¬
fcribed within it, by a folid lefs than the cylinder ge¬
nerated by the reCtangle HB, that is, by a foltd lefs
than W. In the fame manner it may be demonftrated,
that the fum of the cylinders circumfcribing the cone
ICE, is greater than the cone by a folid lefs than the
cylinder generated by the reftangle DN, that is, by a
folid lefs than W. Therefore, fince the fum of the
cylinders infcribed in the hemifphere together with a
folid lefs than W, is equal to the hemifphere ; and
Vojl. IX. Part II.
E T R Y. 665
fince the fum of the cylinders defcribed about the cone Of Cyiin-
is equal to the cone together with a folid lefs than W j ders,Cones,
adding equals to equals, the fum of all the cylinders Spher^
together with a folid lefs than W is equal to the hemi- —y—
fphere and cone together with a folid lefs than W j
therefore, the difference between the whole of the cy¬
linders, and the fum of the hemifphere and the cone,
is equal to the difference of two folids, each of which
is lefs than W j but this difference muft alfo be lefs
than W $ therefore the difference between the two fe¬
ries of cylinders, and the fum of the hemiiphere and
cone is lefs than the given folid W.
Theorem V.
The fame things being fuppofed as in lafl theorem, Fig. i5i.
the fum of all the cylinders infcribed in the he¬
mifphere, and defcribed about the cone, is equal *
to a cylinder having the fame bafe and altitude
with the hemifphere.
I OR, the fame conftrudlion being fuppofed as in laft.
theorem, let L be the point in which GO meets the
circle ADB, then becaufe CGL is a right angle, if
CL be joined, the circles defcribed with the radii CG
and GL are equal to the circle defcribed with the ra¬
dius CL or GO (2. cor. 4. 6.). Now CGzrGR, be-
caufe, CD:=:DE, therefore, the circles defcribed by the
revolution of the radii GR and GL about the point
G are together equal to the circle defcribed by'the re¬
volution of the radius GO about the fame point G 5
therefore alfo the cylinders that Hand upon the two firft
of thefe circles having the common altitude GH are
equal to the cylinder which ftands upon the remaining
circle, and which has the fame altitude GH. The cy¬
linders defcribed by the revolution of the redangles
Gg andGr are therefore equal to the cylinder de-
fcribtd by the redangle GP. And as the fame may be
fhewn of all the reft, the cylinders defcribed by'the
redangles H /i, Gg, Ff, and by the rectangles H x,
G r, Fy, DN, are together equal to the cylinder de¬
fcribed by DB, that is, to the cylinder having the fame
ba’fe and altitude with the henvifphere.
Theorem VI.
Every fphere is two-thirds of the circumfcribing Fig. 151,
cylinder.
Let the figure be conftruded as in the two laft the¬
orems, and if the hemifphere defcribed by the quadrant
BDC be not equal to two-thirdst>f thecylindcr defcribed
by the redangle BD, let it be greater by the folid W.
Then as the cone defcribed by CDE is one-third of the
cylinder defcribed by BD, the cone and the hemifphere
together will exceed the cylinder by W. But that cylin¬
der is equal to the fum of all the cylinders defcribed by
the redangle H/z, G^, Ff, H x, G r, Fy, DN 5 there¬
fore, the hemifphere and the cone added together ex¬
ceed the fum of all thefe cylinders by the folid W,
which is abfurd j for it has been fhewn (4.) that the he¬
mifphere and the cone together differ from the fum of
thefe cylinders by a folid lefs than W. The hemifphere
is therefore equal to two-thirds of the cylinder <ie-
4 E fen bed
666
Of Cylin- fcribed by the rectangle BD \ and therefore the whole
ders. Cones, fphere ;s two-thirds of the cylinder deferibed by twice
^ lhe the reftangle BD, that is, to two-thirds of the circum-
■  . bribing cylinder.
GEOMETRY. Sefl. IX.
We here conclude the Elements of Geometry. Their Of Cy lin
application, conftituting what is fometimes called Prar-^^ones
tical Geometry, will be given under the article Men- gj;'heree
SURATION. Uni v —
A Table IhewinB the Theorem of the foregoing Treatife, that correfponds to each of the molt ma-
terial Propofitions in the firft fix, and in the eleventh and twelfth, books of Euclid s Elements.
Prop.4
5
6
8
13
14
15
16
Euclid. Geometrv.
Book 1 jTheor. bed
J7
18
19
20
21
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
S2
33
34
35
36
37
38
1
5-
11.
12.
10.
1.
3-
4-
23-
24.
{
1
7-
8.
9. 1.
6. 1.
Euclid.
Book I
Pr. 41.
47-
48. |
Book II.
Pr. 4.
5*
7*
12.
I3-
Book III
Pr. 3.
22. I.
10
21. I.
20. I.
3 7
■4* f I*
’5- J
23-
24.
2}
28. I.
26. I.
•f
12. j
Geometrv
Fheor. Sed
2. 4.
13. 4.
fcholium
Euclid.
Book III.
15- 4-
Bheor. bed.
10.
I 2.
II.
15-
14.
Bheor. Sed
I.
2 cor. to
2. 4.
14
15
16.
20.
21.
22.
26
27
6. 2.
cor.
7- 2.
12. 2.
11. 2.
8. 2.
2. 2.
8. 2.
9. 2.
14. 2.
15. 2.
16. 2.
I3*
2.
Pr. 28.
29
31*
32-
35
:}
36-{
Book V.
Theor. Sed,
Pr. 4.
12.
*5-
16.
177
18. [
19 J
[9
22.
23-
24.
Book VI.
Pr
"{
Geometry.
Bheor. Scd
2.
I7-
18.
28.
29.
3°-
Euclid.
Book VI
1.
2.
4- 3-
Pr. 2
3
4
5
6
8
M
*5
16
17
J9
20
31
33
7-
8.
Book XI.
I heor. Sed.
cor.
5- 4-
cor.
6. 4.
Pr. I.
3-
Geometry.
fheor. Sed
17-
18.
I9*
20.
21.
22.
23-
cor.
24. 4.
8. 4-
25. 4.
26. 4.
27. 4.
1 cor.
27. 4.
31* 4-
fheor. Sed
I. 7.
3- 7-
4. 7.
I cor.
5- 7-
5- 7-
Euclid. Geometry.
Book XI. fheor Sedj
4
10.
13
{
14.
15-
16.
17-
18.
19.
20.
24.
25-
28.
29.
3°* 1
S2-
33-
2 cor.
5- 7
10. 7
2 cor.
4-
6.
10.
7-
14.
11.
l3-
20.
2. 8
8. 8
9. s
12. 8
Book XII. fheor Sed
Pr. I.
2.
7*
10.
1. 6.
4. 6.
16. 8.
3- 9-
GEO
George. GEORGE I. II. and III. kings of Great Britain.
xm—y  1 —George I. the fon of Erneft Auguftus, duke of
Brunfwick Lunenburgh, and eleftor of Hanover, fuc-
ceeded to the throne of Great Britain in 17I4> *n v^r*
tue of an aft of parliament, palfed in the latter part
of the reign of King William III. limiting the luccef-
fion of the crown, after the demife of that monarch,
and Queen Anne (without iffue), to the princefs Sophia
of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being Prote-
ftants.—George II. the only fon of the former, fuc-
ceeded him in 1727, and enjoyed a long reign of glory ;
dying amidft the molt rapid and extenfive conquefts in
the 77th year of his age. He was fucceeded by his
grandfon George III. our prefent fovereign. For par¬
ticulars, fee Britain, N° 374—701.
GEO
George, or Knights of St George, has been the de- George,
nomination of feveral military orders, whereof that of "v
the Garter is one of the molt illultrious. See Garter,
and St George, below.
King GEORGE'S IJlands, are two illands in the South
fea, lying in W. Long. 144. $6. S. Lat. 14. 28. I hey
were firft difeovered by Commodore Byion in I705»
and were fince vifited by Captain Cook in 1774* Com¬
modore Byron’s people had an encounter with the in¬
habitants, which proved fatal to fome of the natives j
but Captain Cook was more fortunate. A lieutenant
and two boats well-armed were fent on (bore by Cap¬
tain Cook j and landed without oppofition. As loon
as the gentlemen landed, the iflanders embraced them
by touching nofes, a mode of civility ufed in New Zea-
/.
.A,
. |
, y’A- ^ - ^ ^ ' i *
PLATE CCXLI.
GEOMETRY.
: M
C 1
H
* ■ t ' 4V v ' ' ’ > \ r \
■ ' > v ' • V
KO-
»
9
r .
GEOMETRY.
1‘LJTK CCXLlV.
1
n
George.
*Vol. i.
p. i.
t Hift,
vol. li.
p. 404.
GEO
land, which is 900 leagues diftant, and the only place
befides this where the cuftora has been obferved to pre¬
vail. Notwithftanding this ceremony, however, very
little real friend (hip feemed to take place on the part
of the iilanders. They crowded about the boats as the
people were ftepping into them, and feemed in doubt
whether they fhould detain them or let them go j at lad,
however, not thinking themfelves fufficiently ftrong,
they feemed contented with their departure, and aflifted
them in pufhing off their boats •, but fome of the moft
turbulent threw ftones into the water, which fell very
near them, and all feemed to glory that they had
as it were driven them off. The Britidr brought off
five dogs of a white colour with fine long hair, with
which the ifland feemed to be plentifully fupplied.
Thefe they purchafed with fmall nails, and fome ripe
bananas which had been brought from the Marquefas,
On this ifland Mr Forfter found a kind of feurvy-
grafs, which the natives informed him they were wont
to bruife and mix with (hell fith ; after which, they
threw it into the fea whenever they perceived a flioal of
fiih. This preparation intoxicates them for fome time ;
and thus they are caught on the furface of the water
without any other trouble than that of taking them
out. The name of this plant among the natives is
enow. The largeft ifland, which they call Tiookea, is
fome thing of an oval fliape, and about 10 leagues in
circuit •, the other ifland, which lies two leagues to the
weftward of Tiookea, is four leagues long from north-
eaft to fouth-weft, and from three to five miles broad.
The foil of both is extremely fcanty 5 the foundation
con fids of coral, very little elevated above the furface
of the water.
George, St, or George of Cappadocia; a name
whereby feveral orders, both military and religious, are
denominated. It took its rife from a faint or hero
famous throughout all the Eaft, called by the Greeks
Miyx*ofixg1v£, q. d. great martyr.
On fome medals of the emperors, John and Manuel
Comneni, we have the figure of St George armed, hold¬
ing a fword or javelin in one hand, and in the other a
buckler, with this infeription ; an O, and therein a little
P
A,andrE — TIO , making O AFI02 FEOPriOS, 0
o
ho/y George. He is generally reprefented on horfeback,
as being fuppofed to have frequently engaged in com¬
bats in that manner. He is highly venerated through¬
out Armenia, Mufcovy, and all the countries which ad¬
here to the Greek rite : from the Greek, his worfliip
has long ago been received into the Latin church } and
England and Portugal have both chofen him for their
patron faint. 1
Great difficulties have been raifed about this faint
or hero. His very exiftence has been called in quef-
tion. Dr Heylin, who wrote firft and moft about him,
concluded with giving him entirely up, and fuppofing
him only a fymbolical device ; and Dr Pettingal has
turned him into a mere Bafilidian fymbol of victory.
Mr Pegg, in a paper in the Archceologia *, has at¬
tempted to reftore him. And, finally, Mr Gibbon f
has funk him into an Arian biffiop in the reigns of
Conftantius and Julian.—The biftiop alluded to,
GEORGE the Cappadocian, was fo furnamed, according
to our author, from his parent? or education j and was
\
GEO
born at Epiphania in Cilicia, in a fuller’s (hop. “ From
this obfeure and fervile origin he railed himlelf by the
talents of a parafite : and the patrons, whom he af-
fiduoufly flattered, procured for their worthlefs depen¬
dent a lucrative commiffion, or contradt, to fupply
the army with bacon. His employment was mean :
he rendered it infamous, He accumulated wealth by
the bafeft arts of fraud and corrupiion ; but his mal-
verfations were fo notorious, that George was com¬
pelled to efcape from- the purfuits of juftice. After
this difgrace, in which he appears to have faved his
fortune at the expence of his honour, he embraced, with
real or affedted zeal, the profeffion of Arianifm. From
the love, or the oftentation, of learning, he colledled
a valuable library of hiftory, rhetoric, philofophy, and
theology ; and the choice of the prevailing fadtion pro¬
moted George of Cappadocia to the throne of Athana-
fius.” His condudl in this ftation is reprefented by
our hiftorian as polluted by cruelty and avarice, and
his death confidered as a juft punilhment for the enor¬
mities of his life, among which Mr Gibbon feems to
rank his “ enmity to the gods.”
The immediate occafion of his death, however, as
narrated by ecclefiaftical writers, will not probably
appear calculated to add any ftain to his memory.
“ There was in the city of Alexandria a place in which
the heathen priefts had been ufed to offer human facri-
fices. This place, as being of no ufe, Conftantius gave
to the church of Alexandria, and George the biftiop
gave orders for it to be cleared, in order to build a
Chriftian church on the fpot. In doing this they dif-
covered an immenfe fubterraneous cavern, in which
the heathen myfteries had been performed, and in it
were many human fkulls. Thefe, and other things
which they found in the place, the Chriftians brought
out and expofed to public ridicule. The heathens,
provoked at thjs exhibition, fuddenly took arms and
rulhing upon the Chriftians, killed many of them with
fwords, clubs and ftones : fome alfo they ftrangled,
and feveral they crucified. On this the Chriftians pro¬
ceeded no farther in clearing the temple •, but the hea¬
thens, purfuing their advantage, ftized the biftiop as
he was in the church, and put him in prifon. The
next day they defpatched him ; and then fattening the
body to a camel, he was dragged about the ftreets all
day, and in the evening they burnt him and the camel
together. This fate, Sozomen fays, the biffiop owed
in part to his haughtinefs while he was in favour with
Conftantius, and fome fay the friends of Athanafius
were concerned in this maffacre •, but he alcribes it
chiefly to the inveteracy of the heathens, whofe iuper-
ftitions he had been very aftive in aboliftiing.
This George, the Arian bilhop of Alexandria,
was a man of letters, and had a very valuable library,
which Julian ordered to be feized for his own ufe j
and in his orders concerning it, he fays that many of
the books were on philofophical and rhetorical fub-
jefts, though many of them related to the doftrine
of the impious Galileans (as in his fneering contemp¬
tuous way he always affe&ed to call the Chriftians).
‘ Thefe books (fays he) I could wifti to have utterly
deftroyed ; but left books of value ftiould be deftroy-
ed along with them, let thofe alfo be carefully fought
for.’ . - _
But Mr Gibbon gives a different turn to the affair
4 P 2 of
[ 667 1
George.
GEO [ 668 ] GEO
of George’s murder, as well as relates it "with dif¬
ferent circumftances. w the Pagans (fays he) excited
his devout avarice j and the rich temples of Alexandria
■were either pillaged or infulted by the haughty pre¬
late, who exclaimed, in a loud and threatening tone,
* How long will thefe fepulchres be permitted to
ftand ?’ Under the reign of Conftantius, he was ex¬
pelled by the fury, or rather by the juilice of the
people : and it was not without a violent ftruggle,
that the civil and military powers of the ftate could
reftore his authority, and gratify his revenge. The
meffenger who proclaimed at Alexandria the acceflion
of Julian, announced the downfal of the arehbifhop.
George, with two of his obfequious minifters, Count
Diodorus and Darcontius matter of the mint, wras
ignominioutly dragged in chains to the public prifon.
At the end of 24 days, the prifon was forced open by
the rage of a fuperltilious multitude, impatient of the
tedious forms of judicial proceedings. T he enemies of
gods and men expired under their cruel infults j the
lifelefs bodies of the archbithop and his affociates- were
carried in triumph through the ttreets on the back of a
camel $ and the inactivity of the Athanalian party was
elteemed a Ihining example of evangelical patience.
The remains of thefe guilty wwetches were thrown
into the fea ; and the popular leaders of the tumult
declared their refolution to difappoint the devotion of
the Chriftians, and to intercept the future honours of
ihefe martyrs, who had been punifhed like their pre-
decelTors, by the enemies of their religion. The fears
of the Pagans were jufl, and their precautions ineffec¬
tual. The meritorious death of the archbifhop obli¬
terated the memory of his life. The rival of Atha-
nafius was dear and facred to the Arians, and the feem-
ing converfion of thofe feftaries introduced his wor-
fhip into the bofom of the Catholic church. Ihe
odious ftranger, difguiling every circumftance of time
and place, affirmed the maik of a martyr,.a faint, and
a Chriftian hero j and the infamous George of Cappa¬
docia has been transformed into the renowned St
George of England, the patron of arms, of chivalry,
and of the Garter.”-
Knights of St George. See Garter. There have
been various other orders under this denomination, moft
of which are now extinft } particularly one founded by
the emperor Frederic III. in the year I47°> ^ guar<^
the frontiers of Bohemia and Hungary againlt the
Turks ) another, called St George of Alfatna, founded
by the kings of Arragon } another in Auftria and Ca-
xinthia •, and another in the republic of Genoa, ftill
fubfifting, &c.
Religious of St GEORGE. Of thefe there are di¬
vers orders and congregations 5 .particularly canons re¬
gular of St George in Alga, at Venice, eftablithed by
authority of Pope, Boniface IX, in the year 1404. Ihe
foundation of this order was laid by Bartholomew Co-
lonna, who preached in 139^» Padua, and fome
other villages in the ftate of Venice. Pope Pius V.
in 1570, gave thefe canons precedence of all other re¬
ligious. Another congregation of the fame inliitutein
Sicily, &c.
St George del Mina, the capital of the Dutch
fettlements on the Gold coaft of Guinea, fituated
feven or eight miles weft of Cape-coaft caftle the capi¬
tal of the Britilh fettlements there. W. Long. f. and George. 1
N. Lat. 50. _ . —w—'
Sr GEORGE, a fort and town of Afia, in the penin-
fula on this fide the Ganges, and on the coaft of Coro¬
mandel, belonging to the Britith j it is otherwife called
Madras, and by the natives Chilipalam. It fronts the
fea, and has a fait w'ater river on its back fide, which
hinders the freth water fprings from coming near the
town, fo that they have no good water within a mile
of them. In the rainy feafons it is incommoded by in¬
undations ; and from April to September, it is fo feorch-
ing hot, that if the fea breezes did not cool the air,
there would be no living there. There are two towns,,
one of which is called the White Town, which is walled
round, and .has feveral bulwarks and baftions to defend,
it : it is 400 paces long and 150 broad, and is divided
into regular ftreets. Here are two churches, one for
the Proteftants, and the other for the Papifts $ as alfo.
a good hofpital, a town hall, and a prifon for debtors.
They are a corporation, and have a mayor and aider-
men, with other proper officers. The Black 1'own is
inhabited by Gentoos, Mahometans, and Portuguefe
and Armenian Chriftians, and each religion has its
temples and churches.. This,, as well as the White
Town, is ruled by the Englifti governor-and his coun¬
cil. The diamond mineJ are but a week’s journey
from this place, which renders them pretty plentiful,
but there are no large ones fihc» that great diamond
was procured by Governor Pitt. This colony produces
very little of its own growth or manufadture for fo¬
reign markets, and the trade is in the hands of the Ar¬
menians and Gentoos. The chief things the Britifli
deal in, befides diamonds, are calicoes, chintz, muf-
lins,. and the like. This colony may confift of 80,000
inhabitants in the towns and villages, and there are
generally 400 or 500 Europeans. Their rice is brought
by fea from Gangam and Orixa, their wheat from Su¬
rat and Bengal, and their- fire wood from the iflands
of Diu} fo that an enemy, with a fuperior force at
fea, may eafily diftrefs them. The houfes of the
White Town. ar,e built with brick, and have lofty
rooms and flat roofs; but the Black Town confifts
chiefly of thatched cottages. The military power is-
lodged in the governor and council, who are alfo the
laft refort in civil caufes. The company have two
chaplains,, who officiate by turns, and have each icol. a-
year, befides the advantages of trade. They never at¬
tempt to make profelytes, but leave that to the Popiftj
miffionaries. The falaries of the Company’s writers-
are very fmall : but if they have any fortune of their
own, they may make it up .by trade j which muft ge¬
nerally be the cafe, for they commonly grow rich.. It,
was taken by the French in 1746, who reftored it at
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.
St George's, the largeft of the Bermuda or Summer
iflands.. W. Long. 65. JO. N. Lat..32. 30.
Crofs of ST George, a red one in a field argent,
which makes part of the Britifti ftandard.
George, a lake in Eaft Florida, alfo denotnina-
ted Great lake, about 15 miles broad, and 20 feet
deep. There are fome beautiful iflands in it, the.
largeft of which is about two miles broad, commanding
a delightful and very extenfive profpeft. There are
manifeft traces of a large town of the aborigines, and.
theu.
GEO [ 669 ] GEO
the ifland itfelf appears to have been the favourite re- expefted to find them perfeft beauties.
fidence of' an Indian prince. It lies to the fouth of
Lake Champlain, and its waters lie about 100 feet
higher. It abounds with fillies of a fuperior quality,
fuch as the Ofwego bafs, and fpeckled trouts of confi-
derable magnitude. The French at one period called
it Lake Sacrament, as they were at the trouble to bring
from it their water for facramental purpofes, to the
churches they had planted in Canada.
GEORGETOWN, the name of feveral towns in
America, fuch, for inllance, as Georgetown in Mary¬
land, about 65 miles S. W. of Philadelphia ; George¬
town in the county of Lincoln, and diftrift of Maine,
lying on both fides of Ktnnebeek river, 148 miles
S. W. of Philadelphia, where the Roman Catholics
have a very flouriihing college : it is the name of a
village in Fayette county, Pennsylvania, where a num¬
ber of boats are annually built j and of a poll town in
the diftrift of t,he fame name, where the Epifcopalians,
Baptifts, and Methodifts, have each a place of worlhip,
although the number of houfes in it does not much
exceed 300, which are conflrucled chiefly of wood. It
lies 127 miles S. W. of Wilmington, and 681 from
Philadelphia.
GEORGIA, a country of Afia, bounded on the
north by Circaffia, on the eaft by Dagheftan and
Shirvan, on the fouth by Armenia, and on the weft
by the Euxine or Black fea •, comprehending the
greateft part of the ancient Colchis, Iberia, and Alba¬
nia. About the etymon of the name of this country,
authors are not agreed. The moft probable opinion
is, that it is a corruption by foftening of Kurgiar
from the river Kur j whence alfo it is fuppofed that
the inhabitants are called by the Perfians indifferently
Gurgi and Kurgi; and the .country Kurgi/lan and Gur-
gijlan : It is divided by a ridge of mountains into eaft-
ern and weftern j. the former of which is again fiabdi-
vided into the kingdoms of Caket, Carduel or Car-
thuel, and Goguetia j and the latter into the provin¬
ces of Abcaffia, Mireta^or Imeretia, and Guriel. Ano¬
ther divifion is into Georgia Proper, Abcaflia, and
Mingrelia. A third divifion will be afterwards men¬
tioned.
44 Georgia, (fays Sir George Chardin) is as fertile a
country as can be feen •, the bread is as good here as
in any part of the world •, the fruit of an exquifite fla¬
vour and of different forts : no place in Europe yields
better pears and apples, and no place in Afia better
pomegranates^ The country abounds with cattle, ve-
nifon, and wild fowl of all forts-: the river Kur is well
ftocked with fifh ; and the wine is fo rich, that the king
of Perfia has always fame of it for his own table. Ihe
inhabitants are robuft, valiant, and of a jovial temper ;
great lovers of wine,, and efteemed very trufty and
faithful ; endowed with good natural parts, but, for
want of education, very vicious. The women are ge¬
nerally fa fair and comely, that the wives and concu¬
bines of the king of Perfia and his court are for the
moft part Georgian women. Nature has adorned them
with graces nowhere elfe to be met with : it is im-
poflible to fee them without loving them y they are of
a good fize, clean limbed, and well fliaped. Another
traveller, however, of no mean chara&er, thus expreffes
himfelf with refpeft to the women : “ As to the Geor¬
gian women, they did not at all furprife, us j for we
They arc, in-^ Georgia.
deed no way difagreeable ; and may be counted beau¬
ties, if compared with the Curdes. They have an air
of health that is pleafing enough 5 but, after all, they
are neither fo handfome nor fo well fliaped as is re¬
ported. Thofe who live in the towns have, nothing
extraordinary more than the others 5 fo that I may, I
think, venture to contradict the accounts that have
been given of them by moft travellers.”
This country formerly abounded with great cities, as
appears not only from its hiftory, but from the ruins of
many of them ftill vifible, which fhow that they mult
have been very large, opulent, and magnificently built.
Thefe were all deftroyed by the inundations of northern
barbarians from Mount Caucafus, as the Alans, Huns,
Suevi, and fame others, fo much noted in hiftory for
their ftrength, courage, and conquefts.
The lateft divifion of this country is into nine pro¬
vinces ; five of which are fubjeft to the famous prince
Heraclius, forming what is commonly called the king¬
dom of Georgia $ and four are under the dominion of
David, compofing the kingdom or principality of Ime¬
retia See Imeretia.
This whole country is fo extremely beautiful, that
fome fanciful travellers have imagined they had here
found the fituation of the original garden of Eden.
The hills are covered with forefts of oak, afli, beech,
chefnuts, walnuts, and elms, encircled with vines,
growing perfe&ly wild, but producing vaft quantities
of grapes. From thefe is annually made as much wine
as is neceffary for the yearly confumption j the re¬
mainder is left to rot on the vines. Cotton grows
fpontaneoully, as well as the fineft European fruit
trees. Rice, wheat, millet, hemp, and flax, are railed
on the plains, almoft without culture. The valleys '•
afford the fineft pafturage in the world j the rivers are
full of fifh ; the mountains abound in minerals, and the
climate is delicious ; fo that nature appears to have la-
vifhed on this favourite country every produftion that
can contribute to the happinefs of its inhabitants.
On the other hand, the rivers of Georgia being fed
by mountain torrents, are at all feafons either too rapid
or too (hallow for the purpofes of navigation : the Black i
fea, by which commerce and civilization might be in¬
troduced from Europe, has been till very lately in the
exelufive pofTeffum of the Turks ': the trade of Geor¬
gia by land is greatly obftru£ted by the high moun¬
tains of Caucafus ; and this obftacle is ftill increafed
by the fwarms of predatory nations, by which thofe
mountains are inhabited.
It is faid, that in the 15th century, a king of Geor¬
gia divided among his five fons the provinces of Car-
duel and Caket, Imeretia, Mingrelia, Guriel, and
Abcaffia. Thefe petty princes were too jealous to
unite for their common defence, and too weak fingly
to refift a foreign enemy, or even to check the en¬
croachments of their great vaffals, who foon became
independent. By forming a party among thefe nobles,
the Turks gradually gained poffeflion of all the weft¬
ern provinces, while the Perfians occupied the govern¬
ments of Carduel and Caket. Since that period the
many unfuceefsful attempts of the Georgians to reco¬
ver their liberty have repeatedly produced the devaf-
tation of their country. Abbas the Great is faid to
have carried off in one expedition from the provinces
- of.
GEO [ 670 ] GEO
Georgia. 0f Carduel and Caket no lefs than 80,000 families •, a
* ,L number which, probably, exceeds the whole actual po¬
pulation of thofe provinces. The moft horrible cruel¬
ties were again exercifed on the unhappy people, at
the beginning of the prefent century, by the mercilefs
Nadir j but thefe were trifling evils, compared with
thofe ariflng from the internal diffenfions of the great
barons. This numerous body of men, idle, arrogant,
and ferocious, poffeffed of an unlimited power over the
lives and properties of their vaffals, having no employ¬
ment but that of arms, and no hopes of aggrandizing
themfelves but by the plunder of their rivals, were
conftantly in a ftate of warfare ; and as their fuccefs
was various, and the peafants of the vanquifhed were
conftantly carried off and fold to the Turks or Per-
ftans, every expedition increafed the depopulation of
the country. At length they invited the neighbour¬
ing mountaineers, by the hopes of plunder, to take
part in their quarrels ; and thefe dangerous allies, be¬
coming acquainted with the country, and being fpec-
tators of the weaknefs of its inhabitants, foon com¬
pleted its defoladon. A few fqualid wretches, half
naked, half ftarved, and driven to defpair by the mer¬
cilefs exactions of their landlords, are thinly difperfed
over the moft beautiful provinces of Georgia. The
revolutions of Periia, and the weaknefs of the Turks,
have indeed enabled the princes of the country to re¬
cover their independence j but the fmallnefs of their
revenue has hitherto difabled them from reprefling ef-
feftually the tyranny of the nobles, and relieving the
burdens of the peafants.
The capital of Georgia is Teflis, where Prince He-
.radius refides (See Teflis). Of this prince, fo
clebrated for his exploits and fuccefs in fhaking off
the Ottoman yoke, we have the following account by
the late Profeffor Guldenftaedt when he travelled into
thefe parts in 1770. “ Heraclius, or, as he is called,
the Tzar Iracli, is above 60 years old, of a middle
lize, with a long countenance, a dark complexion,
large eyes, and a fmall beard. He paffedhis youth at
the court and in the army of the celebrated Nadir
Shah, where he contra£led a fondnefs for Perfian cu-
ftoms and manners, which he has introduced into his
kingdom. He has feven fons and fix daughters. He
is much revered and dreaded by the Perfian khans
his neighbours } and is ufually chofen to mediate be¬
tween them in their difputes with each other. When
they are at war, he fupports one of the parties with a
few troops, who diffufe a fpirit and courage among the
reft, becaufe the Georgian foldiers are efteemed tjie
braveft of thofe parts j and Prince Heraclius himfelf is
renowned for his courage and military fldll. When
on horfeback he has always a pair of loaded piftols at
his girdle, and, if the enemy is near, a mulket flung
over his Ihoulder. In all engagements he is the fore-
moft to give examples of perfonal bravery j and fre¬
quently charges the enemy at the head of his troops
with the fabre in his hand. He loves pomp and ex¬
pence } he has adopted the drefs of Perfia 3 and regu¬
lates his court after the manner of that country. From
the example of the Rufliair troops, who were quartered
in Georgia during the laft Turkilh war, he has learnt
the ufe of plates, knives, and forks, difties and houfe-
hold furniture, See.”
The fubjefts of Heraclius arc eftimated at about
'3
60,000 families; but this, notwithftanding the prefent Georgi?
delolated ftate of the country, is probably an under T—j
valuation. The peafants belonging to the queen, and
thofe of the patriarch, pay no tax to the prince, and
therefore do not appear on the books of the revenue
officers. Many fimilar exemptions have likewife been
granted by the prince to his fons-in-law, and his fa¬
vourites. Befides, as the impoft on the peafants is not
a poll-tax, but a tax on hearths, the inhabitants of a
village, on the approach of the colle£tors, frequently
carry the furniture of feveral huts into one, and deftroy
the remainder, which are afterwards very eafily repla¬
ced. It is probable, therefore, that the population of
Georgia does not fall fliort of 350,000 fouls. The
revenues may be eftimated at about 150,000 rubles,
or 26,250!. They confift of, 1. The cuftoms, farmed
qt 1750I.—2. Rent paid by the farmers of the mint,
at Teflis, 1750I.—3. The tribute paid by the khans
of Erivan and Ganflia, 7000I.—and, 4. The hearth
money levied on the peafants, amounting to 1 ^,750!.
The common coins here are the abaffes, of about 15d.
value, and a fmall copper coin, ftamped at the mint at
Teflis. Befides thefe, a large quantity of gold and fil-
ver money is brought into the country from Perfia
and Turkey, in exchange for honey, butter, cattle,
and blue linens.
The government of Georgia is defpotic j but, were it
not for the affiftance of the Ruffian troops, the prince
would be frequently unable to carry his decrees into
execution. The puniffiments in criminal cafes are
fliockingly cruel $ fortunately they are not frequent,
becaule it is feldom difficult to efcape into fome of the
neighbouring countries, and becaufe the prince is more
enriched by confifcating the property of the criminal,
than by putting him to torture. Judicial combats are
confidered as the privilege of nobility, and take place
when the caufe is extremely intricate, or when the
power and intereft of two claimants are fo equal, that
neither can force a decifion of the court in his favour.
This mode of trial is called an appeal to the judgment
of God.
The drefs of the Georgians nearly refembles that of
the Coffacks j but men of rank frequently wear the ha¬
bit of Perfia. They ufually dye their hair, beard, and
nails with red. The Georgian women employ the
fame colour to ftain the palms of their hands. On
their heads they w ear a cap or fillet, under which their
black hair falls on their forehead : behind it is braid¬
ed into feveral trefl'es. Their eyebrows are painted
with black, in fuch a manner as to form one entire line,
and their faces are perfedlly coated with white and
red. Their robe is open to the girdle, fo that they
are reduced to conceal their breafts with their hands.
Their air and manner are extremely voluptuous. Be-
ing generally educated in convents, they can all read
and write j a qualification which is very unufual among
the men, even of the higheft rank. Girls are be¬
trothed as foon as poffible, often at three or four years
of age. In the ftreets the women of rank are always
veiled, and then it is indecent in any man to accoft
them. It is likewife uncivil in converfation to inquire
after the wives of any of the company. Thefe, how'-
ever, are not ancient cuftoms, but are a confequence of
the violences committed by the Perfians, under Shah
Nadir.
. 'Travellers
GEO [ 671 ] GEO
Travellers accufe the Georgians of drunkennefs, fu-
perftition, cruelty, floth, avarice, and cowardice ; vices
which are everywhere common to (laves and tyrants,
and are by no means peculiar to the natives of this
country. The descendants of the colonifts, carried off
by Shah Abbas, and fettled at Peria, near Ifpahan,
and in Mafanderan, have changed their character with
their government j and the Georgian troops, employed
in Perfia againft the Affghans, were advantageoufly
ditfinguhhed by their docility, their difcipline, and
their courage.
The other inhabitants of Georgia are Tartars, Odi,
and Armenians, called in the Georgian language So-
makhi. Thefe laft are found all over Georgia, fome-
times mixed with the natives, and fometimes in vil¬
lages of their own. They fpeak among themfelves
their own language, but all underftand and can talk
the Georgian. Their religion is partly the Armenian,
and partly the Roman Catholic. They are the molt
oppreffed of the inhabitants, but are (fill diftinguilhed
by that inftinffive induftry which everywhere charac¬
terizes the nation.
Eefides thefe, there are in Georgia confiderable num¬
bers of Jews, called, in the language of the country,
Una. Some have villages of their own 5 and others
are mixed with the Georgian, Armenian, and Tartar
inhabitants, but never with the OlTi. They pay a (mail
tribute above that of the natives.
Georgia, one of the United States of America,
lying between South Carolina and Florida. It ex¬
tends 120 miles upon the fea-coaft, and 300 miles
from thence to the Apalachian mountains, and its
boundaries to the north and fouth are the rivers Sa¬
vannah and Alatamaha. The whole coaft is bordered
with iflands ; the principal of which are Skidaway,
Waffaw, OlTabaw, St Catherine’s, Sapelo, Frederica,
Jekyl, Cumberland, and Amelia.
The fettlement of a colony between the rivers Sa¬
vannah and Alatamaha was meditated in England in
1732, for the accommodation of poor people in Great
Britain and Ireland, and for the further fecurity of
Carolina. Private compaflion and public fpirit con-
fpired to promote the benevolent defign. Humane
and opulent men fuggefted a plan of tranfporting a
number of indigent families to this part of America
free of expence. For this purpofe they applied to the
king, George II. and obtained from him letters pa¬
tent, bearing date June 9, 1732, for legally carrying
into execution what they had generoully projefted.
They called the new province Georgia, in honour of
the king, who encouraged the plan. A corporation,
confiding of 21 perfons, was condituted by the name
of, The Trudees for fettling and edablidring the colo¬
ny of Georgia. /»*
In. November 1732, 116 fettlers embarked for Geor¬
gia to be conveyed thither free of expence, furnifhed
with every thing requifite for building and for culti¬
vating the foil. Mr James Oglethorpe, one of the
trudees, and an adfive promoter of the fettlement, em¬
barked as the head and diredlor of thefe fettlers.
They arrived at Cbarledown early in the next year.
Mr Oglethorpe, accompanied by William Bull, diortly
after his arrival, vifited Georgia 5 and after furveying
the country, marked the fpot on which Savannah now
£Unds, as the fitted to begin their fettlement. Here
they accordingly began and built a fmall fort, and a - Georgia,
number of fmall huts for their defence and accommoda- ^y—“““
tion. Such of the fettlers as were able to bear arms
were embodied, and well appointed with officers, arms,
and ammunition. A treaty of friendflrip was con¬
cluded between the fettlers and their neighbours the
Creek Indians, and every thing wore the afptjft of
peace and future profperity. But the fundamental
regulations eftabliffied by the truftees of Georgia were
ill adapted to the circumfiances and (ituation of the
poor fettlers, and of pernicious confequences to the
profperity of the province. Yet although the truftees
were greatly mifiaken with refpedl to their plan of
fettlement, it mult be acknowledged their views were
generous. Like other diilant legillators, who framed
their regulations upon principles of fpeculation, they
were liable to many errors and miftak-es ; and however
good their delign, their rules were found improper and
imprafticable. Thefe injudicious regulations and re-
ftriftions, the wars in which they were involved with
the Spaniards and Indians, and the frequent infurrec-
tions among themfelves, threw the colony into a (fate
of confufion and wretchednefs too great for human
nature long to endure. Their oppreifed fituation was
reprefented to the trufiees by repeated complaints till
at length finding that the province languiffied under
their care, and weary with the complaints of the
people, they in the year 1752 furrendered their char¬
ter to the king, and it was made a royal government.
—In the year 1740, the Rev. George Whitefield
founded an orphan houfe academy in Georgia about
12 miles from Savannah. Mr Whitefield died at New¬
bury port, in New England, in O&ober 1770, in the
56th year of his age, and was buried under the Pref-
byterian church in that place. From the time Geor-»
gia became a royal government in 1752 till the peace
of Paris in 1763, (he ftruggled under many difficulties,
arifing from the want of credit and friends, and the
frequent moleftations of enemies. The good effeifts of
the peace were fenfibly felt in the province of Georgia,
From this time it began to flouriffi under the fatherly-
care of Governor Wright. To form a judgment of the
rapid growth of the colony, we need only attend to *
its exports. In the year 1763, they confifted of 7500
barrels of rice, 9633 pounds of indigo, 1250 buffiels of
Indian corn, which, together with deer and beaver
(kins, naval (lores, provifions, timber, &c. amounted to
no more than 27,021!. fterling. Ten years afterwards,
in 1773, they amounted to 121,677!. fterling. The
chief articles of export from this (late are, rice, tobac¬
co, indigo, fago, lumber of various kinds, naval (lores,
leather, deer (kins, fnake-root, myrtle, bees wax, corn, ,
live (lock, &c.
During the American war, Georgia was overrun by
the Britiffi troops, and the inhabitants were obliged to
flee to the neighbouring dates for fafety, . Since the
peace the progrefs of the population of this (late is faid
to have been aftoniffiingly rapid j though it has been a
good deal checked within thefe few years by the hoftile
irruptions of the Creek Indians, who continually harafs
the frontiers of the (late. Treaties have been held, and
a ceffation of hoftilities agreed to, between the parties,
but all have hitherto proved ineffeftual to the accom-
pliffiment of a peace.
Thefe Indians inhabit the middle parts of the (late,
and 1
GEO [ 6j:
Georgia, and are the moft numerous tribe of Indians of any
 » within the limits of the United States. Their whole
number is 17,280, of which 5860 are fighting men.
Their principal towns lie in latitude 32° ar*d longitude
i i° 20' from Philadelphia. They are fettled in a hilly
but not mountainous country. The foil is fruitful in
a high degree, and well watered, abounding in creeks
and rivulets, whence they are called the Creek In¬
dians. The Seminolas, a divifion of the Creek na¬
tion, inhabit a level flat country on the Apalachicola
and Flint rivers, fertile and well watered. I he Chac-
taws or Flatheads inhabit a very fine and extenfive traft
of hilly country, with large and fertile plains inter¬
vening, between the Alabama and Mifliflippi rivers, in
the weftern part of this Hate. This nation have
43 towns and villages, in three divifions, containing
12,123 fouls, of which 4041 are fighting men. ihe
Chicaiaws are fettled on the head branches of the "l om-
beckbe, Mobile, and Yazoo rivers, in the north-weft
corner of the ftate. Their country is an extenfive
plain, tolerably well watered from fprings, and of a
pretty good foil. They have 7 towns, the central
one of which is in latitude 340 23', and longitude 14
30' weft. The number of fouls in this nation, have
been reckoned at 1725, of which 575 are fighting
That part of Georgia which has been laid out in
counties is divided into the following, viz. Chatham,
Effingham, Burke, Richmond, Wilkes, Liberty, Glynn,
Camden, Wafliington, Greene, franklin j and the chief
towns are, Savannah, Ebenezer, Waynefborough and
Louifville, Augufta, Waffiington, Sunbury, Brunfwick,
St Patrick’s, Golphinton, Greenlburg.—Savannah was
formerly the capital, and is ftill the largeft town (fee
SAVANNAH). But the prefect feat of government in
this ftate is AuguJIa, fituated on the fouth-weft bank of
Savannah river, about 134 miles from the fea, and 117
north-weft of Savannah. The town, which contains
not far from 200 houfts, is on a fine large plain j and
as it enjoys the beft foil, and the advantage of a cen¬
tral fituation between the upper and lower countries,
is rifing fall into importance. Louifville, however, is
defigned as the future feat of government in this flate.
It has lately been laid out on the bank of Ogeechee
river, about 7® miles from its mouth, but is not yet
built. . .
Savannah river forms a part of the divifional line
which feparates this ftate from South Carolina. It
is formed principally of two branchfs, by the names of
Tugulo and Keowee, which fpring from the mountains.
Ogeechee river, about 18 miles fouth of the Savannah
is a fmall river, and nearly parallel with it in its
courfe. Alatamaha, about 60 miles fouth of Savannah
river, is formed by the jun£lion of the Okonee and
Okemulgee branches. It is a noble river, but of diffi¬
cult entrance. Like the Nile, it difcharges itfelf by
■ feveral mouths into the fea. Befides thefe, there is
Turtle river, Little Sitilla, Great Sitilla, Crooked ri¬
ver, and St Mary’s, which form a part of the fouthern
boundary of the United States. The rivers in the
middle and weftern parts of this flate are the Apalachi¬
cola, which is formed by the Catahouchee and Flint
rivers, Mobile, Pafcagoula, and Pearl rivers. All
thefe running fouthwardly, empty into the gulf of
Mexico.
1
GEO
In the grand convention at Philadelphia in 1787, Georgia,
the inhabitants of this ftate were reckoned at 90,000, —v—■
including three-fifths of 20,000 negroes. But from
the number of the militia, which has been afcertained
with a confiderable degree of accuracy, there cannot
be at moft more than half that number. No general
charafter will apply to the inhabitants at large. Col-
lefted from different parts of the world, as intereft, ne-
ceffity, or inclination led them, their character and
manners muft of courfe partake of all the varieties
which diftinguifti the feveral flates and kingdoms from
whence they came. There is fo little uniformity, that
it is difficult to trace any governing principles among
them. An averfion to labour is too predominant, ow¬
ing in part to the relaxing heat of the climate, qjpd
partly to the want of neceffity to excite induftry. An
open and friendly hofpitality, particularly to ftrangers,
is an ornamental chara&eriftic of a great part of this
people.
In regard to religion, politics, and literature, this
ftate is yet in its infancy. In Savannah is an Epifco-
pal church, a Prefbyterian church, a fynagogue, and a
German Lutheran church, fupplied occafionally by a
German minifter from Ebenezer, where there is a large
convenient ftone church, and a fettlement of fober and
induftrious Germans of the Lutheran religion. In Au-
gufla they have an Epifcopal church. In Midway is
a fociety of Chriftians eftabliffied on the congrega¬
tional plan. Their anceflors emigrated in a colony
from Dorchefter, near Bofton, about the year i7co*
and fettled at a place named Dorchefter, about 20 miles
fouth-weft of Charleftown, South Carolina. In 1752,
for the fake of a better climate and more land, almoft
the whole fociety removed and fettled at Midway.—
They, as a people, retain in a great meafure that fim-
plicity of manners, that unaffedled piety and brotherly
love, which charaflerized their anceftors, the firft iet-
tlers of New England. The upper countries are fup¬
plied pretty generally by Baptift and Methodift mini-
fters j but the greater part of the ftate is without mini-
fters of any denomination.
The numerous defefts in the late conftitution of
this ftate, induced the citizens pretty univerfally to
petition for a revifion of it. It was accordingly re-
vifed, or rather a new one was formed, in the courfe of
the year 1789, nearly upon the plan of the conftitu¬
tion of the United States, which has lately been adopt¬
ed by the ftate.
The charter containing the prefent fyftem of edu¬
cation in this ftate was paffed in the year 1785.. A
college, with ample and liberal endowments, is infli-
tuted in Louifville, a high and healthy part of the
country, near the centre of the ftate. Ihere is alfo
provifion made for the inftitution of an academy in
each county in the ftate, to be fupported from the
fame funds, and confidered as parts and members of
the fame inftitution, under the general fuperintendance
and direction of a prefident and board of truftees, ap¬
pointed for their literary accompiifhments from the
different parts of the ftate, and invefted with the cu-
ftomary powers of corporations. he inftitution thus
compof&d is denominated the umverjity of Georgia.—
The funds for the fupport of this inftitution are prin¬
cipally in lands, amounting in the whole to about
50,000 acres, a great part of which is of the beft qua-
lity,
GEE. [ 673 ] GEE
Georgia lily, and at prefent very valuable. There are alfo
11 nearly 6000I. fterling in bonds, houfes, and town lots
Geranlc. jn tjie town Df Augufta. Other public property to
""' the amount of 1000I. in each county has been fet
apart for the purpofes of building and furnithing their
refpective academies. The funds originally defrgned
for the fupport of the orphan houfe are chiefly in rice
• plantations and negroes.
Georgia, a townthip in the county of Franklin, con¬
taining about 400 inhabitants. It is iituated on Lake
Champlain, oppofite to the north end of South Hero
ifland.
Georgia, a clufter of barren iflands in the South
fea, to the eaftward of the coaft of Terra del Fuego, in
lat. 540 30' S. and long. 37° W. One ofthefe iilands
is 9c miles in length, and 30 in breadth.
GEORGIC, a poetical compofition upon the fub-
je£l of hufbandry, containing rules therein, put into a
pleafing drefs, and fet off with all the beauties and em¬
bed iihments of poetry. The word is borrowed from
the Latin georgicus, and that of the Greek
of yn, terra, “ earth,” and opero, “ I work,
or labour,” of sgyo!/, opus, “ work.” Hefiod and Virgil
are the two greateft mafters in this kind of poetry.—
The moderns have produced nothing in this kind, ex¬
cept Rapin’s book of Gardening ; and the celebrated
poem entitled Cyder, by Mr Philips, who, if he had
enjoyed the advantage of Virgil’s language, would have
been fecond to Virgil in a much nearer degree.
GeORGIUM Sidus. See ASTRONOMY Index.
GEPID7E, GepidES, or Gepidi, in Ancient Geo*
graphy, according to Procopius, were a Gothic people,
or a canton or branch of them , fome of whom, in the
migration of the Goths, fettled in an ifland at the mouth
of the Villula, which they called Gepidos after their
own name, which denotes lazy or flothful ; others in
Dacia, calling their fettlement there Gepidia.
GERANIUM, Crane’s Bill, in Botany, a genus
of plants belonging to the mpnadelphia clais ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 14th order,
Grain ales. See Botany Index.
GERAR, or Gerara, in Ancient Geography, the
fouth boundary of Canaan near Berfeba •, fituated be¬
tween Cades and Sur ; two deferts well known, the
former facing Egypt, the latter Arabia Petrma.
GERARDE, John, a furgeon in London, and
the greatefl: botanift of his time, was many years chief
gardener to Lord Burleigh ; who was himfelf a great
lover of plants, and had the bell colledtion of any
nobleman in the kingdom, among which were a great
number of exotics introduced by Gerarde. In 1597
he publilhed his Herbal, which was printed at the ex¬
pence of J. Norton, who procured from Francfort the
fame blocks in wrood as were ufed in the herbal of Ta-
bernaemontanus. In 1663, Thomas Johnfon, an apo¬
thecary, publifhed an improved edition of Gerarde’s
book ; which met with fuch approbation by the univer-
fity of Oxford, that they conferred on him the degree
of doftor of phyflc. The defcriptions in the herbal are
plain and familiar •, and both thefe authors have labour¬
ed more to make their readers underhand the charac¬
ters of the plants, than to inform them that they
themfelves underhood Greek and Latin. The herbal
of Gerarde is now to be coniidered only as a literary
curiofity. The figures in general exprefs very ac-
Vol. IX. Part II.
curately the chsra£ters of the plants they are intended Gerarde
to reprefent. N
GERARDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the . ;eri‘1“n}'
didynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 40th order, Perfonatce. See Botany Index.
GERFALCON. See Falco, Ornithology In¬
dex.
GERGESA, in Ancient Geography, a Transjordan
town, no otherwife known than by the Gergefeni of St
Matthew, and Gergefcci of Mofes; fuppofed to have
flood in the neighbourhood of Gadara and near the fea
of Tibe rias The Gergefci, one of the (even ancient
people of Canaan, lefs frequently mentioned than the
reft, appear to have been lefs confiderable and more
obfeure : their name is from Girgaji, one of Canaan’s
ions. See Girgashites.
GERIZIM. See Garizim.
GERM, in vegetation. See Germen.
GERMAN, in matters of genealogy, fignifies whole,
entire, or own. Germani, quafi eadem Jlirpe genit'i;
(Fed.). Hence,
Brother GERMAN, denotes a brother both by the
father’s and mother’s fide, in contradiitin&ion to ute¬
rine brothers, &c. who are only fo by the mother’s
fide.
Coujins GERMAN, are thofe in the firft or neareft
degree, being the children of brothers or fillers.
Among the Romans we have no inftance of mar¬
riage between coufins german before the time of the
emperor Claudius, when they were very frequent.
Theodofius prohibited them under very fevere penal¬
ties, even fine and profeription. See Consanguinity.
German, or Germanic, alfo denotes any thing be¬
longing to Germany ; as the German empire, German
flute, &c.
GERMANDER. See Teucrium, Botany Index.
GERMANICUS Ctesar, the fon of Drufus, and
paternal nephew to the emperor Tiberius, who adopted
him •, a renowned general, but ftill more illuftrlous for
his virtues. He took the title of Gcrmanicus from his
conquefts in that country ; and though he had the mo¬
deration to refufe the empire offered to him by his
army, Tiberius, jealous of his fuccefs, and of the uni-
verfal efteem he acquired, caufed him to be poifoned,
A. D. 29, aged 34. He was a protector of learning 5
and compofed fome Greek comedies and Latin poems,
fome of which are ftill extant.
GERMANTOWN, in the county of Philadelphia,
Pennfylvania, in North America, about feven miles
from the city of Philadelphia. It was once efteemed
the fecond towm in the country, till many inland towns
in a ihort time rofe fuperior to it, both for the extent
of their eftabliihments and number of inhabitants.
The knitting of cotton, thread, and worfted ftockings,
is carried on in it to a confiderable extent. The prin¬
cipal congregation of the people called Mennonifts is
in Germantown, who derive their name from one Men-
no Simon, a learned man of Witmars in Germany.
Although inimical to the doctrine of general falvation,
they w ill not fwear, fight, bear any civil office, go to
lawr, or take intereft for money. Germantown is alfo
memorable for a bloody battle which was fought in it
on the 4th of October, 1777. ° *
GERMANY, a very extenfive empire of Europe,
but which, in different ages of the world, has had
4 Q. * very
Ciemmny.
Limits of
ancient
Germany.
Nations in.
habiting
Lower Ger
many.
GER [ 674 ]
very different limits. Its name, according to the moft
probable conje6lure, is derived from the Celtic words
Ghar man, lignifying a warlike man, to which their
other name, Allman, or Aleman, likewife alludes.
The ancient hiftory of the Germans is altogether
wrapped up in obfcurity } nor do we, for many ages,
know any thing more of them than what may be learn¬
ed from the hiitory of their wars with the Romans.
The firft time we find them mentioned by the Roman
hiftorians, is about the year 211 B. C. at which time
Marcelius iubdued Infubria and Liguria, and defeated
the Gaefatae, a German nation fituated on the banks
of the Rhine. From this time hiftory is filent. with
regard to any of thefe northern nations, till the irrup¬
tion of the Cimbri and Teutones, who inhabited the
moft northerly parts of Germany. J he event of their
enterprife is related under the articles Ambrones,
Cimbri, and Teutones. We muft not, however,
imagine, becaufe thefe people happened to invade
Italy at the fame time, that therefore their countries
were contiguous to one another. I he Cimbri and
Teutones only dwelt beyond the Rhine ", while the
Ambrones inhabited the country between Switzerland
and Provence. It is indeed very difficult to fix the li¬
mits of the country called Germany by the Romans.
The fouthern Germans were intermixed with the Gauls,
and the northern ones with the Scythians 5 and thus
the ancient hiftory of the Germans includes that of the
Dacians, Huns, Goths, &c. till the deftmaion of
the weftern Roman empire by them. Ancient Ger¬
many, therefore, we may reckon to have included the
northern part of France, the Netherlands, Holland,
Germany fo called at prefent, Denmark, Pruffia, Po¬
land, Hungary, part of Turkey in Europe, and Muf-
covy.
The Romans divided Germany into two regions j
Belgic or Lower Germany, which lay to the fouth-
ward of the Rhine ; and Germany Proper, or High
Germany. The firft lay between the rivers Seine and
the Rhine ; and in this we find a number of different
nations, the moft remarkable of which wrere the fol¬
lowing.
1. The Ubii, whofe territory lay between the Rhine
and the Mofa or Maefe, and whole capital was the ci¬
ty of Cologne. 2. Next to them were the Tungri,
fuppofed to be the fame whom Caefar calls Eburones and
Condrufi; and whofe metropolis, then called Attuatica,
has fince been named Tongres. 3. Higher up from
them, and on the other fide of the Mofelle, were the
Treviri, whofe capital was Augufta Trevirorum, now
Triers. 4. Next to them were the Tribocci, Nemetes,
and Vangiones. d he former dwelt in Alface, and had
Argentoratum, now Strajburg, for their capital j the
others inhabited the cities of Worms, Spire, and
Mentz. 5. The Mediomatrici were fituated along the
Mofelle, about the city of Metz in Lorrain : and above
them were fituated another German nation, named
Raurici, Rauraci, or Rauriaci, and who inabited that
part of Helvetia, or Switzerland, about Bafil. To the
weftward and fouthward of thefe were the Nervii, Suef-
fiones, Silvaneaes, Leuci, Rhemi, Lingones, &c. who
inhabited Belgic Gaul.
Between the heads of the Rhine and Danube was
feated the ancient kingdom of Yindelicia, whofe capi¬
tal was called Augufta Vindeliconm, now Augsburg. Be-
G E R
low it on the banks of the Danube were the kingdoms Germany,
of Noricum and Pannonia. The firft of thefe was di- J
vided into Noricum Ripenfe and Mediterraneum. It
contained a great part of the provinces of Auftria,
Stiria, Carinthia, Tyrol, Bavaria, and fome others
of lefs note. The latter contained the kingdom of
Hungary, divided into Upper and Lower ^ and ex¬
tended from Illyricum to the Danube, and the moun¬
tains Csetii in the neighbourhood of Vindebona, now
Vienna. _ 3
Upper or High Germany lay beyond the Rhine and Nations in.
the Danube. Between the Rhine and the Elbe were habiting
the following nations. 1. The Chauci, Upper and^'sh^r-
Lower ; who were divided from each other by the rivermany'
Vi (urges, now the Wefcr. Their country contained
what is now called Bremen, Lunenburg, Friezdand, and
Groninghen. The Upper Chauci had the Cherufci, and
the lower the Chamavi on the fouth-eaft, and the Ger¬
man ocean on the north-weft. 2. The Frifii, Upper
and Lower, were divided from the Lower Chauci by the
river Amifia, now the Ems j and from one another by
an arm of the Rhine. Their country ftill retains the
name of Friejland, and is divided into eaft and weft j
but the latter is now difmembered from Germany, and
become one of the Seven United Provinces. 3. Be¬
yond the Ifela, now the Ifel, which bounded the coun¬
try of the Frifii, vrere fituated the Brufteri, who inha¬
bited the tratt now called Broecmorland; and the
Marfi, about the river Luppe. On the other fide of that
river were the UJipii or Ufipetes ; but thefe were famed
for often changing their territories, and therefore found
in other places. 4. Next to thefe were the Juones, or
inhabitants of Juliers, between the Maefe and the
Rhine. 5. The Catti, another ancient and warlike
nation, inhabited Heffe and Thuringia, from the Hart-
zian mountains to the Rhine and Wefer : among whom
were comprehended the Mattiaci, whofe capital is by
fome thought to be Marpurg, by others Baden. 6. Next
to thefe were the Sedufii bordering upon Suabia •, the
Norifci, or the ancient inhabitants of Northgow, whofe
capital was Nuremberg j and the Marcomanni, whofe
country anciently reached from the Rhine to the head
of the Danube, and to the Neckar. The Marcoman¬
ni afterwards went and fettled in Bohemia and Mora¬
via, under their general or king Maroboduus : and fome
of them in Gaul, whence they drove the Boii, who
had feated themfelves there. 7. On the other fide of
the Danube, and between the Rhine and it, were the
Hermunduri, who poffeffed the country now called
Mifnia in Upper Saxony •, though fome make their
territories to have extended much farther, and to have
reached quite to, or even beyond, the kingdom of Bo¬
hemia, once the feat of the Boii, whence its name.
8. Beyond them, on the north of the Danube, was
another feat of the Marcomanni along the river Albis,
or Elbe. 9. Next to Bohemia were fituated the Qua-
di, whofe territories extended from the Danube to Mo¬
ravia, and the northern part of Auftria. Thefe are
comprehended under the ancient name of Suevij part
of whom at length forced their way into Spain, and
fettled a kingdom there. 10. Eaft ward of the Quadi
were fituated the Baftarnse, and parted from them by
the Granna, now Gran ; a river that falls into the Da¬
nube, and by the Carpathian mountains, from them
called Alpcs Bqftarnicev. The country of the Baftarnae
indeed
G E R
[ <575 1
G E R
(Germany, indeed made part of the European Sarmalia, and fo
‘“—‘■v—— was without the limits of Germany properly fo called $
but we find thefe people fo often in league with the
German nations, and joining them for the deftru£Hon
of the Romans, that we cannot but account them as
one people.
Between thofe nations already taken notice of, feat-
ed alfo on the other fide of the Danube and the, Hercy-
nian foreft, were feveral others whofe exaft fituation is
uncertain, viz. the Martingi, Burii, Borades, Lygii or
Logiones, and feme others, who are placed by our
geographers along the forelt above mentioned, between
the Danube and the Viftula.
On this fide the Hercynian foreft, were the famed
Rhsetii, now Grifons, feated among the Alps. Their
country, which was alfo called Wejleni Illyricum, was
divided into Rhaetia Prima or Propria and Secunda ,•
and was then of much larger extent, fpreading itlelf
tow'ards Suabia, Bavaria, and Auftria.
On the other fide of the Hercynian foreft were,
I. The Suevi, who fpread themfelves from the Viftula
to the river Elbe. 2. The Longobardi, fo called accord¬
ing to fome on account of their wearing long beards,
but, according to others, on account of their confift-
ing of two nations, viz. the Bardi and Lingones.
Thefe dwelt along the river Elbe, and bordered fouth-
ward on the Chauci above mentioned. 3. The Bur-
gundi, of whofe original feat we are uncertain. 4. The
Semnones j who, about the time of Tiberius, were feat¬
ed on the river Elbe. 5. The Angles, Saxons, and
Goths, were probably the defcendants of the Cimbn j
and inhabited the countries of Denmark, along the
Baltic fea, and the peninfula of Scandinavia, containing
Norway, Sweden, Lapland, and Finmark. 6. The
Vandals were a Gothic nation, who, proceeding from
Scandinavia, fettled in the countries now called Meck-
lenburgh and Brandenburgh* Of the fame race were
the Dacians, who fettled themfelves in the neighbour
hood of the Palus Maeotis, and extended their territo¬
ries along the banks of the Danube.
Thefe were the names of the German nations who
performed the moft remarkable exploits in their wars
Wars of the w^h the Romans. Befides thefe, how-ever, we find
Scordifci mention made of the Scordifci, a Thracian nation,
who afterwards fettled on the banks of the Danube.
About the year 113 B. C. they ravaged Macedon, and
cut off a whole Roman army fent again ft them •, the
general, M. Porcius Cato, grandfon to Cato the cen-
for, being the only perfon who had the good fortune to
make his efcape. After this, they ravaged all Thef-
faly j and advanced to the coafts of the Adriatic, into
which, becaufe it ftopped their farther progrefs, they
difcharged a ftiower of darts. By another Roman ge¬
neral, however, they were driven back into their own
country with great flaughter 5 and foon after, Metel-
lus fo weakened them by repeated defeats, that they
were incapable, for forae time, of making any more
attempts on the Roman provinces. At laft, in the
confullhip of M. Livius Drufus and L. Calpurnius Pi-
fo, the former prevailed on them to pafs the Danube,
which thenceforth became the boundary between the
Romans and them. Notwithftanding this, in the time
of the Jugurthine war, the Scordifci repaffed the Da¬
nube on the ice every winter, and being joined by the
Triballi a people of Lower Msefia, and the Daci of
| with the
Romans.
Upper Madia, penetrated as far as Macedon, commit- German},
ting everywhere dreadful ravages* So early did thefe u-—v—
northern nations begin to be formidable to the Ro¬
mans, even when they were moft renowned for warlike
exploits. 5
Till the time of Julius Ctefar, however, we hear Expedition
nothing more concerning the Germans. About
years B. C. he undertook his expedition into Gaul;
during which, his afliftance was implored by the iE-
dui, againft Arioviftus, a German prince who op-
preffed them. Caffar, pleafed with this opportunity of
increafing his power, invited Arioviftus to an inter¬
view $ but this being declined, he next fent deputies,
defiring him to reftore the hoftages he had taken from
the Aidui, and to bring no more troops over the
Rhine into Gaul. To this a haughty anfwer was re¬
turned } and a battle foon after enl’ued, in which Ario-
viiius was entirely defeated, and with great difficulty
made his efcape.
In 55 B. C. Caefar having fubdued the Sueffiones,
Bellovaci, Ambiani, Nervii, and other nations of Bel-
gic Gaul, haftened to oppofe the Ulipetes and Tench-
theri. Thefe nations having been driven out of theit
own country by the Suevi, had croffed the Rhine with
a defign to fettle in Gaul. As foon as he appeared,
the Germans fent him a deputation, offering to join
him, provided he would affign them lands. Caefar re¬
plied, that there was no room in Gaul for them, but
he would defire the Ubii to give them leave to fettle
among them. Upon this, they defired him to retreat
with the Ubii $ but in the mean time fell upon fome
Roman fquadrons: which fo provoked Caefar, that he
immediately marched againft them, and coming unex-
peftedly upon them, defeated them, with great flaugh¬
ter. They fled in the utmoft confufion ; but the Ro¬
mans puriued them to the conflux of the Rhine and
the Maefe, where the flaughter was renewed with fuch
fury, that almoft 400,000 of the Germans perifhed.
After this, Caefar being refolved to fpread the terror of
the Roman name through Germany, built a bridge
over the Rhine, and entered that country. In this
expedition, however, which was his laft in Germany,
he performed no remarkable exploit. A little before
his death, indeed, he had projefted the conqueft of
that, as well as of a great many other countries j but
his affaffination prevented the execution of his de-
figns. Nor is there any thing recorded of the Ger¬
mans till about 17 B. C. when the Tenchtheri made an
irruption into Gaul, and defeated M. Lollius, procon-
ful of that province. At laft, however, they were re-
pulfed, and forced to retire with great lofs beyond the
Rhine. ^
Soon after this the Rhaetii invaded Italy, where they Rhstii in-
committed the greateft devaftations, putting all the vade Italy*
males they met to the fword, without diftin&ion of
age : nay, we are told, that when they happened
to take women with child, they confulted their au¬
gurs to know whether the child w as a male or female;
and if they pronounced it a male, the mother was im¬
mediately maffacred. Againft thefe barbarians was
fent Drufus, the fecond fon of Livia, a youth of ex¬
traordinary valour and great accomplifhments. He
found means to bring them to a battle 5 in which the
Romans proved viftorious, and cut in pieces great
numbers of their enemies, with very little lofs on their
4 Q. 2 °wn
Germany.
They are
fubdued,
together
with the
Vindelici
and Norici
S
and the
Tannoni-
ans.
Exploits of
Drufus in
Germany.
G E R [ 676
own fide, Thofe who efcaped the general {laughter,
being joined by the Vindelici, took their route towards
Gaul, with a defign to invade that province. But
Auguftus, upon the firft notice of their march, de-
fpatched againlt them Tiberius with feveral chofen le¬
gions. He was no lefs fuccefsful than Drufus had
been •, for having tranfported his troops over the lake
Brigantium, now Conftance, he fell unexpectedly on
the enemy, gave them a total overthrow, took molt of
their ftrong holds, and obliged the whole nation to
fubmit to fuch terms as he chofe to impofe upon them.
Thus were the Vindelici, the Pihaetii, and Norici, three
of the molt barbarous nations in Germany fubdued.
Tiberius, to keep the conquered countries in awe,
planted two colonies in Vindelicia, and opened from
thence a road into Rhtetia and Noricum. One of the
cities which he built for the defence of his colonies, he
called, from his father Drufus, Drufomagus; the other
by the name of Auguftus, Augufla Vindelicorum ; which
cities are now known by the names of Mimminghen and
Augsburg. He next encountered the Pannonians, who
had been fubdued by Agrippa, but revolted on hear¬
ing the news of that great commander’s death, which
happened ix years B. C. Tiberius, however, with
the afliftance of their neighbours the Scordifci, foon
forced them to fubmit. They delivered up their
arms, gave hoftages, and put the Romans in pofleffion
of all their towns and ftrong holds. J iberius fpared
their lives ; but laid wafte their fields, plundered their
cities, and fent the beft part of their youth into other
countries.
In the mean time, Drufus having prevented the
Gauls from revolting, which they were ready to do,
prepared to oppofe the Germans who dwelt beyond the
Rhine. They had collefted the moft numerous and
formidable army that had ever been feen in thofe parts •,
with which they were advancing towards the Rhine, in
order to invade Gaul. Drufus defeated them as they
attempted to crofs that river •, and, purfuing the ad¬
vantage he had gained, entered the country of the Uli-
petes, now Rehnchufen, and from thence advanced
againft the Sicambri in the neighbourhood of the
Lyppe and Yflel. Them he overthrew in a great
battle, laid wafte their country, burnt moft of their
cities, and following the courfe of the Rhine, ap¬
proached the German ocean, reducing the Frifii and
the Chauci between the Ems and the Elbe. In thefe
marches the troops fuffered extremely for want of pro-
vifions ; and Drufus himfelf was often in great danger
of being drowned, as the Romans who attended him
were at that time quite unacquainted with the flux and
reflux of the ocean.
The Roman forces went into Eaft Frieftand for their
winter quarters 5 and next year (10 B. C.) Drufus
marched againft the Tenchtheri, whom he eafily fub¬
dued. Afterwards, pafling the Lupias, now the Lyppe,
he reduced the Catti and Cherufd, extending his con-
quefts to the banks of the Vifurgis or Wefer ; which
he would have paffed, had he not been in want of pro-
vifions, the enemy having laid wafte the country to a
confiderable diftance. As he was retiring, the Ger¬
mans unexpedtedly fell upon him in a narrow paflage ;
and having furrounded the Roman army, ©ut a great
many of them in pieces. But Drufus having animated
his men by his example, after a bloody conflict, which
1
G E R
lafted the whole day, the Germans were defeated with Germany,
fuch {laughter, that the ground was. ftrewed for feveral
miles with dead bodies. Drufus found in their camp a
great quantity of iron chains which they had brought
for the Romans j and fo great was their confidence-,
that they had agreed beforehand about the divifion of
the booty. The Tenchtheri were to have the horfes,
the Cherufci and Sicambri the baggage, and the Ufi-
petes and Catti the captives. After this victory, Dru¬
fus built two forts to keep the conquered countries in
awe •, the one at the confluence of the Lyppe and the
Alme, the other in the country of the Catti on the
Rhine. On this occafion alfo he made a famous canal,
long after called in honour of him Fc//h Drufiana, to
convey the waters of the Rhine into the Sala or Sale.
It extended eight miles 5 and was very convenient for
conveying the Roman troops by water to the countries
of the Frifii and Chauci, which xvas the defign of the
undertaking.
The following year (9 B. C.) Auguftus, bent on
fubduing the whole of Germany, advanced to the
banks of the Rhine, attended by his two fons-in-law
Tiberius and Drufus. The former he fent againft the
Daci, who lived up to the fouth of the Danube j and
the latter to complete the conqueft he had fo fuccefs-
fully begun in the weftern parts of Germany. The
former eafily overcame the Daci, and tranfplanted
40,000 of them into Gaul. The latter, having palled
the Rhine, fubdued all the nations from that river to
the Elbe \ but having attempted in vain to crofs this
laft, he fet out for Rome : an end, however, was put
to his conquefts and his life by a violent fever, with
which he was feized on his return.
After the death of Drufus, Tiberius again overran
all thofe countries in which Drufus had fpent the pre¬
ceding fummer \ and ftruck fome of the northern na¬
tions with fuch terror, that they fent deputies to fue
for peace. This, however, they could not obtain up¬
on any terms 5 the emperor declaring that he would
not conclude a peace with one, unlefs they all defired
it. But the Catti, or according to fome the Sicambri,
could not by any means be prevailed upon to fubmit ;
fo that the war was ftill carried on, though in a lan¬
guid manner, for about 18 years. During this period,
fome of the German nations had quitted their forefts,
and begun to live in a civilized manner under the pro-
tedlion of the Romans ; but one Quinftilius Varus be¬
ing fent to command the Roman forces in that coun¬
try} fo provoked the inhabitants by his extortions, that
not only thofe who ftill held out refufed to fubmit, but
even the nations that had fubmitted were feized with
an eager delire of throwing off the yoke. Among
them was a young nobleman of extraordinary parts I0
and valour, named He was the fon of Si- Arminius
gimer, one of the moft powerful lords among the
Catti, had ferved with great reputation in the Ro-againft the
man armies, and been honoured by Auguftus with the ^omans.
privileges of a Roman citizen and the title of knight.
But the love of his country prevailing over his grati¬
tude, he refolved to improve the general difeontent
which reigned among his countrymen, to deliver them
from the bondage of a foreign dominion. With this
view he engaged, underhand, the leading men of all
the nations between the Rhine and the Elbe, in a con-
fpiracy againft the Romans. In order to put Varus
G E R [ 677 ] G E R
Germany, off liis guard, he at the lame time advifed him to lhow
   himfelf to the inhabitants of the more dill ant provinces,
adminifter juftice among them, and accuftom them,
by his example, to live after the Roman manner, which
he faid w'ould more effeftually fubdue them than the
Roman fword. As Varus was a man of a peaceable
temper, and averfe from military toils, he readily con-
fented to this infidious propofal, and, leaving the neigh¬
bourhood of the Rhine, marched into the country of
the Cherufci. Having there fpent fome time in hear¬
ing caufes and deciding civil controverfies, Arminius
perfuaded him to weaken his army, by fending out
detachments to clear the country of robbers. When
this was done, fome diftant nations of Germany rofe
up in arms by Arminius’s direftions 5 while thofe
through which Varus was to pafs in marching againft
them, pretended to be in a ifate of profound tran-
quillity* and read/ to join the Romans againlt their
lt enemies.
Cuts off On the firft news of the revolt, Varus marched a-
Varus with gainil the enemy w ith three legions and fix cohorts j but
his army, being attacked by the Germans as he paffed through
a wood, his army was almofl: totally cut oft', while he
himfelf and moft of his officers fell by their own hands.
Such a terrible overthrow, though it raifed a general
confternation in Rome, did not, however, difliearten
Auguftus, or caufe him to abandon his enterprife. A-
bout two years after (A. D. 12.), Tiberius and Ger-
manicus were appointed to command in Germany.
The death of Auguftus, however, which happened
foon after, prevented Tiberius from going on his ex¬
pedition •, and Germanicus was for fome time hindered
from proceeding in his, by a revolt of the legions, firft
in Pannonia, and then in Germany. About the year
15, Germanicus having brought over the foldiers to
their duty, laid a bridge acrofs the Rhine, over which
he marched 12,oco legionaries, 26 cohorts of the al¬
lies, and eight alae (fquadrons of 300 each) of horfe.
With thefe he firft traverfed the Coefian foreft (part
of the Hercynian, and thought to lie partly in the duchy
of Cleves, and partly in Weftphalia), and fome other
woods. On his march he was informed that the Marfi
I2 were celebrating a feftival with great mirth and jol-
Esploits of lity. Upon this he advanced with fuch expedition,
Germani- that he furprifed them in the midft of their debauch $
cus* and giving his army full liberty to make what ha-
vock they pleafed, a terrible maffacre enfued, and
the country was deftroyed with fire and (word for 50
miles round, without the lofs of a fingle man on the
part of the Romans.—This general maffacre roufed
the .Brufteri, the Tubantes, and the Ufipetes j who,
befetting the paffes through which the Roman army
was to return, fell upon their rear, and put them in¬
to fome diforder ; but the Romans foon recovered
themfelves, and defeated the Germans with eonfider-
able lofs.
The following year (A. D. 16.), Germanicus taking
advantage of fome inteftine broils which happened
among the Catti, entered their country, where he put
great numbers to the fword. Moft of their youth,
however, efcaped by fwimming over the Adrana, now
the Oder, and attempted to prevent the Romans from
laying a bridge over that river: but being difappointed
in this, forne of them fubmitted to Germanicus, while
the greater part, abandoning their villages, took re*
fuge in the woods; fo that the Romans, without oppo- Germany,
fition, fet fire to all their villages, towns, &c. and ^
having laid their capital in afhes, began their march
back to the Rhine.
Germanicus had fcarce reach his camp, when he
received a meflage from Segeftes, a German prince,
in the intereft of the Romans, acquainting him that
he was befieged in his camp by Arminius. On this
advice, he. inftantly marched againft the befiegers j en¬
tirely defeated them j and took a great number of
prifoners, among whom was Thufneldis, the wife
of Arminius, and daughter of Segeftes, whom the
former had carried off, and married againft her father’s
will. Arminius then, more enraged than ever, for
the lofs of his wife, whom he tenderly loved, ftirred
up all the neighbouring nations againft the Romans.
Germanicus, however, without being difmayed by-
fuch a formidable confederacy, prepared himfelf to op--
pole the enemy with vigour: but, that he might not
be obliged to engage fuch numerous forces at once,
detached his lieutenant Csecina, at the head of 40 co¬
horts, into the territories of the Brmfteri; while his
cavalry, under the command of Pedo, entered the
country of the Frifii. As for Germanicus himfelf, he
embarked the remainder of his army, confifting of
four legions, on a neighbouring lake •, and tranfported
them by rivers and canals to the place appointed on
the river Ems, where the three bodies met. In their
march they found the fad remains of the legions con¬
duced by Varus, which they buried with all the cere¬
mony their circumftances could admit. After this
they advanced againft Arminius, who retired and poll¬
ed himfelf advantageoufly clofe to a wood. The Ro¬
man general followed him j and coming up with him,
ordered his cavalry to advance and attack the enemy.
Arminius, at their firft approach, pretended to fly;
but fuddenly wheeled about, and giving the fignal to a
body of troops, whom he had concealed in the wood,
to rulh out, obliged the cavalry to give ground. The
cohorts then advanced to their relief j but they too were
put into diforder, and would have been pulhed into a
morals, had not Germanicus himfelf advanced with*
the reft of the cavalry to their relief. Arminius did
not think it prudent to engage thefe frelh troops, but
retired in good order j upon which Germanicus alfo-
retired towards the Ems. Here he embarked with
four legions, ordered Caecina to recondufl the other
four by land, and fent the cavalry to the fea fide, with
orders to march along the Ihore to the Rhine. Though
Caecina was to return by roads well known, yet Ger¬
manicus advifed him to pafs, with all poflible fpeed, a
caufeway, called the '/ong bridges, which led acrofs valt
marlhes, furrounded on all fides with woods and hills
that gently rofe from the plain.
Arminius, however, having got notice of Caecina’s
march, arrived at the long bridges before Caecina, and
filled the Avoods with his men, •who, on the approach'
of the Romans, rulhed out, and attacked them with
great fury. The legions, not able to manage their
arms in the deep waters and Hippery ground, were ob¬
liged to yield 5 and would in all probability have been
entirely defeated, had not night put an end to the
combat. The Germans, encouraged by their fuc-
cefs, inftead of refreftiing themfelves with fleep, fpent
the whole night in diverting the courfes of the fprings
which
1
G E R [ 678 ] G E R
Germany, which rofe in the neighbouring mountains fo that,
«»—y——. before day, the camp which the Romans had begun
was laid under water, and their works were overturned.
Caecina was for fome time at a lofs what to do ; but
at lait refolved to attack the enemy by daybreak, and,
having driven them to their woods, to keep them there
in a manner belieged, till the baggage and wounded
men Ihould pals the caufeway, and get out of the
enemy’s reach. But when his army was drawn up, the
legions polled on the wings, felzed with a fudden pa¬
nic, deferted their Rations, and occupied a field beyond
the marlhes. Caecina thought it advifable to follow
them 5 but the baggage Ruck in the mire, as he at¬
tempted to crofs the marfiies, which greatly embarraf-
fed the foldiers. Arminius perceiving this, laid hold
of the opportunity to begin the attack j and crying
out, “ This is a iecond Varus, the fame fate attends
him and his legions,” fell on the Romans with inex-
preflible fury. As he had ordered his men to aim
chiefly at the horfes, great numbers of them were
killed j and the ground becoming flippery with their
blood and the Rime of the marfli, the reR either fell
or threw their riders, and, galloping through the ranks,
put them in diforder. Caecina diRinguiflied himfelf
in a very eminent manner j but his horfe being killed,
he would have been taken prifoner, had not the firR
legion refcued him. The greedinefs of the enemy,
however, faved the Romans from utter deRruftion j
for juR as the legions were quite fpent, and on the
point of yielding, the barbarians on a fudden abandon¬
ed them in order to feize their baggage. During this
refpite, the Romans flruggled out of the marfli, and
having gained the dry fields, formed a camp with all
poflible fpeed, and fortified it in the beR manner they
could.
The Germans having loR the opportunity of de-
Rroying the Romans, contrary to the advice of Ar¬
minius, attacked their camp next morning, but were
repulfed with great flaughter ; after which they gave
Csecina no more moleRation till he reached the banks
of the Rhine. Germanicus, in the mean time, having
conveyed the legions he had with him down the river
Ems into the ocean, in order to return by fea to the
river Rhine, and finding that his veffels were overload¬
ed, delivered the fecond and 14th legions to Publius
Vitellius, defiring him to conduct them by land. But
this march proved fatal to great numbers of them $ who
were either buried in the quickfands, or fwallowed up
by the overflowing of the tide, to which they were
as yet utter Rrangers. Thofe who efcaped, loR their
arms, utenfils, and provifions } and paffed a melan¬
choly night upon an eminence, which they had gained
by wading up to the chin. The next morning the
land returned with the tide of ebb; when Vitellius,
by a hafly march, reached the river Ufingis, by fome
thought to be the Hoerenfier, on which the city of
Groningen Rands. There Germanicus, who had reach¬
ed that river with his fleet, took the legions again on
board, and conveyed them to the mouth of the Rhine,
whence they all returned to Cologne, at a time when
it was reported they were totally lofl.
This expedition, however, coR the Romans very
dear, and procured very few advantages. Great num¬
bers of men had periflred ; and by far the greateR part
of thofe who had efcaped fo many dangers returned
without arms, utenfils, horfes, &c. half naked, lamed, Germany
and unfit for fervice. The next year, however, Ger- ^
manicus, bent on the entire reduftion of Germany, His ^ ,
made vafi preparations for another expedition. Hav-
ing confidered the various accidents that had befallen
him during the war, he found that the Germans were
chiefly indebted for their fafety to their woods and
marfhes, their fhort fummers and long winters ; and
that his troops fuftered more from their long and te¬
dious marches than from the enemy. For this reafon
he refolved to enter the country by fea, hoping by
that means to begin the campaign earlier, and furprife
the enemy. Having therefore built with great de-
fpatch, during the winter, 1000 vefiels of different forts,
he ordered them early in the fpring (A. D. 16.) to
fall down the Rhine, and appointed the ifland of the
Batavians for the general rendezvous of his forces.
When the fleet was failing, he detached Silius, one of
his lieutenants, with orders to make a fudden irrup¬
tion into the country of the Catti ; and, in the mean
time, he himfelf, upon receiving intelligence that 3
Roman fort on the Luppias was befieged, haflened
with fix legions to its relief. Silius was prevented, by
fudden rains, from doing more than taking fome fmall
booty, with the wife and daughter of Arpen, king
of the Catti; neither did thofe who befieged the fort
wait the arrival of Germanicus. In the mean time,
the fleet arriving at the ifland of the Batavians, the
provifions and warlike engines were put on board and
lent forward ; Ihips were afligned to the legions and
allies; and the whole army being embarked, the fleet
entered the canal formerly cut by Drufas, and from
his name called Fo//a Drufianci. Hence he failed pro-
fperoufly to the mouth of the Ems ; where, having
landed his troops, he marched direftly to the Wefer,
where he found Arminius encamped on the oppofite
bank, and determined to difpute his paffage. I he
next day Arminius drew out his troops in order of
battle ; but Germanicus, not thinking it advifable to
attack them, ordered the horfe to ford over under the
command of his lieutenants Stertinius and Emilius ;
who, to divide the enemy’s forces, croffed the river in
two different places. At the fame time Cariovalda,
the leader of the Batavian auxiliaries, croffed the river
where it is moR rapid ; but being drawn into an
ambufcade, he was killed, together with moR of the
Batavian nobility; and the reR would have been totally
cut off, had not Stertinius and Emilius haRened to
their afliflance. Germanicus in the mean time paffed
the river without moleflation. A battle foon after
enfued, in which the Germans were defeated with fo
great a flaughter that the ground was covered with
arms and dead bodies for more than 10 miles round ;
and among the fpoils taken on this occafion, were found,
as formerly, the chains with which the Germans had
hoped to bind their captives.
In memory of this fignal vi£fory Germanicus raifed
a mount, upon which he placed as trophies the arms of
the enemy, and inferibed underneath the names of the
conquered nations. This fo provoked the Germans,
though already vanquilhed and determined to abandon^
their country, that they attacked the Roman army
unexpectedly on its march, and put them into fome
diforder. Being repulfed, they encamped between a
river and a large forefi furrounded by a marfli except
OFC
G E R t 679 ] G E R
Germany, on one fide, where it was enclofed by a broad rampart
formerly raifed by the Angrivarii as a barrier between
them and the Cherufci. Here another battle enfued •,
in which the Germans behaved with great bravery, but
in the end were defeated with great daughter.
After this fecond defeat, the Angrivarii fubmitted,
and were taken under the protection of the Romans,
and Germanicus put an end to the campaign. Some
of the legions he fent to their winter quarters by land,
14 while he himfelf embarked wdth the reft on the river
His fleet Ems, in order to return by fea. The ocean proved at
^ very calm, and the wind favourable : but all of a
^ ' fudden a ftorm arifing, the fleet confiding of 1000
veflels, was difperfed : fome of them were fwallowed
up by the waves •, others were dallied in pieces againft
the rocks, or driven upon remote and inhofpitable
iflands, where the men either perilhed by famine, or
lived upon the flefli of the dead horfes with which the
Ihores foon appeared ftreved j for, in order to lighten
their veflels, and difengage them from the fhoals, they
had been obliged to throw overboard their horfes and
beafts of burden, nay, even their arms and baggage.
Moft of the men, however, were faved, and even great
part of the fleet recovered. Some of them were driven
upon the coaft of Britain ; but the petty kings who
reigned there generoufly fent them back.
On the news of this misfortune, the Catti, taking
new courage, ran to arms 5 but Caius Silius being de¬
tached againft them with 30,000 foot and 3000 horfe,
kept them in awe. Germanicus himfelf, at the head
of a numerous body, made a fudden irruption into the
territories of the Marfi, where he recovered one of
Varus’s eagles, and having laid wafte the country, he
returned to the frontiers of Germany, and put his
troops into winter quarters : whence he was foon recal¬
led by Tiberius, and never fuffered to return into Ger¬
many again.
After the departure of Germanicus, the more north¬
ern nations of Germany were no more molefted by
the Romans. Arminius carried on a long and fuc-
cefsful war with Maroboduus king of the Marcomanni,
whom he at laft expelled, and forced to apply to the
Romans for afliftance $ but, excepting Germanicus, it
feems they had at this time no other general capable
of oppofing Arminius, fo that Maroboduus was never
15 reftored. After the final departure of the Romans,
Oeathof however, Arminius having attempted to enflave his
!‘ ' country, fell by the treachery of his own kindred.
The Germans held his memory in great veneration ;
and Tacitus informs us, that in his time they ftill cele¬
brated him in their fongs.
Nothing remarkable occurs in the hiftory of Germa¬
ny from this time till the reign of the emperor Clau¬
dius. A war indeed is faid to have been carried on
by Lucius Domitius, father to the emperor Nero.
But of his exploits we know nothing more than that
he penetrated beyond the river Elbe, and led his army
farther into the countiy than any of the Romans had
ever done. In the reign of Claudius, however, the
German territories were invaded by Cn. Domitius
Corbulo, one of the greateft generals of his age. But
when he was on the point of forcing them to fubmit to
the Roman yoke, he was recalled by Claudius, who
was jealous of the reputation he had acquired.
In the reign of Vefpafian, a terrible revolt happened
among the Batavians and thofe German nations who Germany,
had fubmitted to the Romans ; a particular account of ^ ' f
which is given under the article Rome. The revolters Tlie jyaci.
were with difficulty fubdued j but, in the reign of ans invade
Domitian, the Dacians invaded the empire, and proved the Roman
a more terrible enemy than any of the other German emPirc‘
nations had been. After feveral defeats, the emperor
was at laft obliged to confent to pay an annual tribute
to Decebalus king of the Dacians ; wdiich continued
to the time of Trajan. But that warlike prince re-
fufed to pay tribute j alleging, when it was demand¬
ed of him, that “ he had never been conquered by
Decebalus.” Upon this the Dacians pafled the Da¬
nube, and began to commit hoftilitics in the Roman
territories. Trajan, glad of this opportunity to hum¬
ble an enemy whom he began to fear, drew together
a mighty army, and marched with the utmoft ex¬
pedition to the banks of the Danube. As Deceba¬
lus was not apprifed of his arrival, the. emperor pafled
the river without oppofition, and entering Dacia, laid
wafte the country with fire and fword. At laft he was
met by Decebalus with a numerous army. A bloody
engagement enfued, in wffiich the Dacians were de¬
feated 5 though the victory coft the Romans dear :
the wounded were fo numerous, that they wanted
linen to bind up their wounds $ and to fupply the
defeft, the emperor generoufly devoted his own ward¬
robe. After the viftory, he purfued Decebalus from
place to place, and at laft obliged him to confent to a
peace on the following terms : 1. That he fliould
furrender the territories which he had unjuftly taken-
from the neighbouring nations. 2. That he fhould
deliver up his arms, his warlike engines, Avith the ar¬
tificers who made them, and all the Roman deferters.
3. That for the future he ffiould entertain no deferters,
nor take into his fervice the natives of any country
fubjeft to Rome. 4. That he ftiould difmantle all his
fortrefles, caftles, and ftrong holds. And, laftly, That
he fliould have the fame friends and foes with the people
of Rome.
With thefe hard terms Decebalus Avas obliged to
comply, though fore againft his Avill 5 and being intro¬
duced to Trajan, threAV himfelf on the ground before
him, acknowledging himfelf his vaflal; after which the
latter, having commanded him to fend deputies to the
fenate for the ratification of the peace, returned to
Rome.
This peace Avas of no long duration. Four years
after (A. D. 105.), Decebalus, unable to live in fer-
vitude as he called it, began, contrary to the late
treaty, to raife men, provide arms, entertain deferters,
fortify his caftles, and invite the neighbouring nations
to join him againft the Romans as a common enemy.
The Scythians hearkened to his felicitations; but the
Jazyges, a neighbouring nation, refufing to bear arms
againft Rome, Decebalus invaded their country. Here¬
upon Trajan marched againft him 5 but the Dacian,
finding himfelf unable to withftand him by open force,
had recourfe to treachery, and attempted to get the
emperor murdered. His defign, how’ever, proved
abortive, and Trajan purfued his march into Dacia.
That his troops might the more readily pafs and re-
pafs the Danube, he built a bridge over that river 3
which by the ancients is ftyled the moft magnificent and *, ?eer,^r’"
t r * ™ 1 • 1 ^ ^ - cbjteclurCf
wonderful of all his works *,
To guard the bridge, No I3>
he
Germany.
T7
They are
fubdued by
Trajan.
iS
Marco-
manni and
Quadi for¬
midable to
the empire
19
Roman em¬
pire de¬
ll royed by
the Heruli,
20
Hiftory of
Germany
fmce the
time of
Charle¬
magne.
G E R [ 680 ] G
lie ordered two caftles to be built j one on this fide of Bohemia on the throne,
the Danube, and the other on the oppofite fide *, and
all this was accomplifhed in the fpace of one fummer.
Trajan, however, as the feafon was now far advanced,
did not think it advifeable to enter Dacia this year,
but contented himfelf with making the neceffary prepa¬
rations.
In the year 106, early in the fpring, Trajan fet out
for Dacia; and having paffed the Danube on the bridge
he had built, reduced the whole country, and would
have taken Decebalus himfelf, had he not put an end
to Ills own life, in order to avoid falling into the hands
of his enemies. After his death the kingdom of Da¬
cia was reduced to a Roman province ; and feveral
caftles were built in it, and garrilons placed in them,
to keep the country in awe.
After the death of Trajan, the Roman empire be¬
gan to decline, and the northern nations to be dally
more and more formidable. The province of Dacia
indeed was held by the Romans till the reign of Gal-
lienus •, but Adrian, who fucceeded Trajan, caufed the
arches of the bridge over the Danube to be broken
down, left the barbarians fhould make themielves ma¬
tters of it, and invade the Roman territories. In the
time of Marcus Aurelius, the Marcomanni and (^ua¬
di invaded the empire, and gave the emperor a terrible
overthrow. He continued the war, however, with
better fuccefs afterwards, and invaded their country in
his turn. It was during the courfe of this war that the
Roman army is faid to have been faved from deltrudtion
by that miraculous event related under the article
Christians, p. 70. col. 2.
In the end, the Marcomanni and Quadi were, by
repeated defeats, brought to the verge of deftrudtion,
infomucb that their country would probably have been
reduced to a Roman province, had not Marcus Aureli¬
us been diverted from purfuing his conquefts by the
revolt of one of his generals. After the death of Mar¬
cus Aurelius, the Germanic nations became every day
more and more formidable to the Romans. Bar from
being able to invade and attempt the conquefl of
thefe northern countries, the Romans had the greateft:
difficulty to reprefs the incurfions of their inhabitants.
But for a particular-account of their various invafions
of the Roman empire, and its total deftruftion by them
at laft, fee the article Rome.
The immediate deftroyers of the Roman empire
were the Heruli j who, under their leader Odoacer,
dethroned Auguftulus the lail Roman emperor, and pro¬
claimed Odoacer king of Italy. The Heruli were
foon expelled by the Oftrogoths ; and thefe in their
turn were fubdued by Juftinian, who annexed Italy to
the eaftern empire. But the popes found means to
obtain the temporal as well as fpiritual jurifdiction over
a confiderable part of the country, while the Lom¬
bards fubdued the reft. Thefe laft proved very trouble-
fome to the popes, and at length befieged Adrian I.
in his capital. In this diftrefs he applied to Charles
the Great, king of France ; who conquered both Italy
and Germany, and was crowned emperor of the tveft
in 800. . .
The pofterity of Charlemagne inherited the empire
of Germany until the year 880 ; at which time the dif¬
ferent princes aifumed their original independence, re-
jefted the Carlovinglan line, and placed Arnulph king
E R
Since this time Germany Germa-ny.
has ever been coniidered as an eleftive monarchy,
Princes of different families, according to the preva¬
lence of their intereft and arms, have mounted the
throne. Of thefe the moft confiderable, until the Au-
ftrian line acquired the imperial power were the
houfes of Saxony, Franconia, and Suabia, Ihe reigns
of thefe emperors contain nothing more remarkable
than the contefts between them and the popes •, for an
account of which fee the article Italy. From hence,
in the beginning of the 13th century, arofesthe fac¬
tions of the Guelphs and Gibellines, of which the for¬
mer was attached to the popes, and the latter to the
emperor 5 and both, by their virulence and inveteracy,
tended to difquiet the empire for feveral ages. The em¬
perors too were often at war with the infidels 5 and
fometimes, as happens in all elective kingdoms, with
one another, about the fucceflion.
But what more deferves our attention is the progrefs
of government in Germany, which- was in lome mea-
fure oppofite to that, of the other kingdoms of Europe.
When the empire raifed by Charlemagne fell afunder,
all the different independent princes aflumed the right
of el e ft ion ; and thole now diftinguithed by the name
of eleBors had no peculiar or legal influence in ap¬
pointing a fucceffor to the imperial throne •, they were
only the officers of the king’s houfehold, his fecretary,
his fteward, chaplain, marffial, or mafter of his
horfe, &c. By degrees, however, as they lived near
the king’s perfon, and had, like all other princes, in¬
dependent territories belonging to them, they increafed
their influence and authority 5 and in the reign or Otho
III. 984, acquired the foie right of ele&ing the em¬
peror. Thus, while in the other kingdoms of Europe,
the dignity of the great lords, who were all originally
allodial or independent barons, was diminiflied by the
power of the king, as in France, and by the influ¬
ence of the people as in Great Britain } in Germany,
on the other hand the power of the electors was
raifed upon the ruins of the emperor’s fupremacy,
and of the people’s jurifdi£lion. In iqq0* Frederic
III. duke of Auftria was elefted emperor, and the
imperial dignity continued in the male line of that fa¬
mily for 300 years. Flis fueceffor Maximilian mar¬
ried the heirefs of Charles duke of Burgundy •, where¬
by Burgundy and the 17 provinces of the Netherlands
were annexed to the houfe of Auftria. Charles V.
grandfon of Maximilian, and heir to the kingdom of
Spain, was elefted emperor in the year ^Sl9' Under
him Mexico and Peru were conquered by the Spa¬
niards 5 and in his reign happened the Reformation
in feveral parts of Germany 5 which, however, was not,
confirmed by public authority till the year 1648, by
the treaty of Weftphalia, and in the reign of Ferdi¬
nand III. The reign of Charles V. was continually
difturbed by his wars with the German princes and the
French king Francis I. Though fuccefsful in the be¬
ginning of his reign, bis good fortune towards the con-
clufion of it began to forfake him which, with other
reafons, occafioned his abdication of the crown. See
Charles V.
His brother Ferdinand I. who in. 1558 Succeeded
to the throne, proved a moderate prince with regard
to religion. He had the addrefs to get his fon Maxi¬
milian declared king of the Remans in his own life¬
time,
G E ft
<?rrmany, time, and died in 1564. By his lafl will he ordered,
i_." that if either his own male iffue, or that of his brother
Charles, fhould fail, his Au(Irian edates (liould revert
to his (econd daaghter Anne, wife to the eleflor'of
Bavaria, and her ifftie. We mention this deftinatioh,
as it gave rile to the late opposition made by the houfe
of Bavaria to the pragmatic fanction, in favour of the
emprefs queen of Hungary, oil the death of her father
Charles VI. The reign of Maximilian II. was difturb-
fM with internal commotions, and an invafion from the
Turks : but he died in peace ift 1576. He was fuc-
ceeded by hrs fern Rodolph 5 who was involved in wars
with the Hungarians, and in differences with his bro¬
ther Matthias, to whom he c^ded Hungary and Auf-
tria in his lifetime. He was fucceeded in the empire
by Matthias under whom the reformers, who went
under the names of Lutherans and Cafainijls, were lb
much divided among themfelves, as to threaten the
empire with a civil war. The ambition of Matthias
at laft tended to reconcile them •, but the Bohemians
revolted, and threw the imperial ccmmiflaries out of
a window at Prague. This gave rife to a ruinous war,
which 1 ailed 30 years. Matthias thought to have ex¬
terminated botli parties ; but they formed a confede¬
racy, called the Evangelic League^ which was counter¬
balanced by a Catholic league.
Matthias dying in 1618, was fucceeded by his cou-
fin Ferdinand II. ; but the Bohemians offered their
crown to Frederic the eleffor Palatine, the moll power¬
ful Proteftant prince in Germany, and fon-in-law to
his Biitannic majefty James I. That prince was incau¬
tious enough to accept of the crown : but he loft it,
by being entirely defeated by the duke of Bavaria and
the imperial generals at the battle of Prague *, and he
was even deprived of his electorate, the belt part of
which was given to the duke of Bavaria. The Pro-
teftant princes of Germany, however, had among them
at this time many able commanders, who were at the
head of armies, and continued the war with wonderful
obftinacy : among them were the margrave of Baden
Durlach, Chriftian duke of Brimfwick, and count
Mansfeld •, the laft was one of the belt generals of the
age. Chriftiern IV. king of Denmark declared for
them \ and Richelieu, the French mmrftef, was not
fond of feeing the houfe of Au'ftrnr aggrandized, d he
emperor, on the other hand, had excellent generals j
and Chriftiern, having put himfelf at the head of the
evangeirc league, was defeated by Tilly, an Iniperi-
alrft of great reputation in war. Ferdinand made fo
moderate a ufe of his advantages obtained over the
Proteftants, that they formed a frefh confpiracy at
Leipfic, of which the celebrated Guftavus Adolphus
king of Sweden was the head. Art' account of his
glorious tb&ories is yiven under the article SwEUEN.
At laft he was killed at the battle of Lutzen in 163 2.
But the Proteftant caufe did not die with him. He
had brought up a fet of heroes, fuch as the duke of
Saxe Wehner, Torfterdbn, Ranier, and others, who flmok
the Auftrian power •, till undent be* mediation of Sweden,
a general peace was eonOluded among all the belligerent
powers, at Munfter, in the year 1648 : which forms the
bafis of the prefetit political fyftem of Europe,
Ferdinand II. was fucceeded by his fon Ferdinand
III. This prince died in 1657 j and was fucceeded
by the emperor Leopold, a fevere, unamiable, and not
Vok, IX. Part II.
[ 63i ] . G E R
very fortunate prince. He had two great powers to Germany,
contend with, France on the one fide, and the Turks
on the other j and was a lofer in his war with both.
Louis XIV. at that time king of France, was happy
in having the two celebrated generals Conde and Tu-
renne in his fervice. The latter had already diftin-
guifhed himfelf by great exploits againft the Spaniards \
and, on the acceftion of Leopold, the court of France
had taken the opportunity of confirming the treaty of
Munfter, and attaching to her interelt feveral of the
independent princes of Germany. The tranquillity
which now took place, however, was not eftablifhed
upon any permanent bafis. War with Spain was re¬
fumed in the year 1668 j and the great fuccefles of
Turenne in the Netherlands ftimulated the ambition
of the prince of Conde to attempt the conqueft of
Tranche Compt6, at that time under the protection of
the houfe of Auftria. This was accomplifhed in three
weeks : but the rapid fueeefs of Louis had awakened
the jealoufy of his neighbours to fuch a degree, that a
league was formed againft him by England, Holland,
and Sweden j and the French monarch, dreading to
enter the lifts with fuch formidable enemies, confented
to the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which, among
other articles, Franche Compre wai reftored. The
flames of war, however, were renewed by the infatiable
ambition of the French monarch 5 who, having enter¬
ed into an alliance with Charles II. of England, aim¬
ed at nothing lefs than the total overthrow of the
Dutch republic. The events of that war are related
under the article United Provinces j here it is
fufficient to obferve, that the misfortunes of the
Dutch excited the compaflion of the emperor and
court of Spain, who now openly declared themfelves
their allies Turenne was oppofed by the prince of
Orange in conjumftion with the celebrated Imperial
general Montecuculi, whole artful conduct eluded
even the penetration of Turenne, and he fat down
fuddenly before the city of Bonne. Here he was
joined by the prince of Orange, who had likewife
found means to elude the vigilance of the French ge¬
nerals. Bonne furrendered in a fhort time, and
feveral other places in Cologne fell into the hands of
the allies ; who like wile cut off the communication
betwixt France and the United Provinces ; fo that
Louis was foon obliged to recal his armies, and aban¬
don all his conquefts with greater rapidity than they
had been made. In 1674 he was abandoned by his
ally Charles II. of England, and the bifliop of Munfter
and eleflor of Coloone were compelled to renounce
their allegiance to him •, but notwithftanding thefe
misfortunes, he continued everywhere to make head
againft his enemies, and even meditated new conquefts.
With a powerful army he again invaded Franche
Comptd in perfon, and in fix weeks reduced the whole
province to his obedience. In Alface, Turenne de¬
feated the Imperial general at Sintzhdm, and ravaged
the palatinate. Seventy thoufand Germans were fur-
prifed; a confiderable detachment was cut in pieces at
Mulhanfen ; the ele&tir of Brandenburg, who had
been intrufted with thte chief command, was routed
by Turenne near Colmar'5 s third body met with a
fimilar fate art Turkheim ; and the whole German
forces were obliged at laft to evacuate the province and *
repafe the Rhine.
4K In
G E R t 68
Germany, In confequence of thefe ditafters ihe imperial general
'J ^ JVIontecuculi was recalled to a£! againft Turenne. Ihe
military {kill of the two commanders feemed to be near¬
ly equal j but before the fuperiority could be adjudged
to either, Turenne was killed by a cannon ball as he
was reconnoitring a fituation for erecting a battery. By
his death the Imperialifts obtained a decided fuperio¬
rity. Montecuculi penetrated into Alface •, and the
French, under De Borges nephew to the deceafed ge¬
neral, were happy in being able to efcape a defeat.
Part of the German army now lat down before
Treves, where they were oppofed by Marefchal Crequi j
but the negligence of that general expofed him to fucn
a dreadful defeat, that he was obliged to fly into the
city with only four attendants. Here he endeavoured
in vain to animate the people to a vigorous defence.
The garrifon mutinied againft his authority j and,
when he refufed to ftgn the capitulation they made,
delivered him up prifoner to the enemy. Louis in the
mean time had taken the field in perfon againft the
prince of Orange j but the difaftrous ftate of affairs in
Germany induced him to recal the prince of Conde
to make head againft Montecuculi. In this campaign
the prince feemed to have the advantage. He com¬
pelled the Germans to raife the fieges of Hagenau and
Saverne j and at laft to repals the Rhine without ha¬
ving been able to force him to a battle.
This was the laft campaign made by thefe celebrated
commanders 5 both of them now, contented with the
fame they had acquired, retiring from the field to
fpend the remainder of their days in peace. Ihe ex¬
cellent difcipline, however, which the turn great French
generals had introduced into their armies, ftill conti¬
nued to make them very formidable, though it did
not always enfure them oi vi£lory. In Germany, the
duke of Lorrain, who had recovered Philipfburg, was
repeatedly defeated by Marefchal Crequi, who had
been ranfomed from his captivity, and become more
prudent by his defeat. In Flanders, the prince of
Orange was overmatched by the duke of Orleans and
Marftral Luxemburg. A peace was at length con¬
cluded at Nimeguen in 1679, by which the king of
France fecured himfelf Franche Compte with a great
many cities in the Netherlands j while the king of
Sweden was reinftated in thofe places of which he had
been ftripped by the Danes and Germans. Fhis tran¬
quillity, however, was of no long duration. Louis
employed every moment in preparations for new con-
quefts } poffeffed himfelf of the imperial city of Straf-
burg by treachery $ and difpoffeffed the ele£lor Pala¬
tine and the ele£tor of Treves of the lordftiips of Fal-
kemburg, Germanfheim, and Valdentz. On the moft
frivolous pretences he had demanded Aloft from the
Spaniards } and on their refufal, feized upon Luxem¬
burg. Plis condudt, in (hort, was fo intolerable, that
the prince of Orange, his inveterate enemy, found
means to unite the whole empire in a league againft
him. Spain and Holland became parties in the fame
caufe j and Sweden and Denmark feemed alio inclined
to accede to ihe general confederacy. Notwithftand-
ing this formidable combination, however, Louis feem¬
ed ftill to have the advantage. He made himfelf ma¬
iler of the cities of Philipfburg, Manheim, Franken-
4al, Spires, Worms, and Oppenheim: the fruitful
]
G E R
country of the Palatinate was ravaged in a dreadful man-1 Germany.,
ner j the towns were reduced to allies j and the people, ^
driven from their habitations, were everywhere left to
perilh through the inclemency of the weather and
want of provifions. By this cruelty his enemies were
rather exafperated than vanquiftied: the Imperialifts,
under the conduft of the duke of Lorrain, refumed
their courage, and put a Hop to the I rench conquefts.
At length all parties, weary of a deftru6five war, con-
fented to the treaty of Ryfwick in 1697. By this
treaty Louis gave up to the empire, Fribourg, Bri-
fac, Kheil, and Philiplburg } he confented alfo to de-
ftroy the fortifications of Stralburg. Fort Louis and
Traerbach, the works of which had exhaufted the
{kill of the great Vauban, with Lorrain, Treves, and
the Palatinate, were refigned to their refpedlive
princes ; infomuch that the terms to which the French
monarch now confented, after fo many viftories, were
fuch as could fcarce have been expe£fed under the-
preffure of the greateft misfortunes. The views of
Louis, however, in confenting to this apparently hu¬
miliating treaty, were beyond the views of ordinary
politicians. The health of the king of Spain was in
fuch a declining way, that his death appeared to be at
hand j and Louis now refolved to renew his preten-
fions to that kingdom, which he had formerly by
treaty folemnly renounced. His defigns in this re-
fpefl could not be concealed from the vigilance of
William III. of Britain ^ of which Louis being ien-
fible, and knowing that the emperor had claims of the
fame nature on Spain, he thought proper to enter into
a very extraordinary treaty with William. This was
no lefs than the partition of the whole Spanifh domi¬
nions, which were now to be diftributed in the follow¬
ing manner. To the young prince of Bavaria were to
be afligned Spain and the Eaft Indies j the dauphin,
fon to Louis, was to have Naples, Sicily, and the pro-
vince of Guipufcoa j while the archduke Charles,
to the emperor Leopold, was to have only .tke duch®
of Milan. By this fcandalous treaty the indignation
of Charles was roufed, fo that he bequeatkwPthe whole
of his dominions to the prince of Bavaria. This
fcheme, however, was difconcerted by the fudden death
of the prince j upon which anew trteaty _ of parti¬
tion was concluded between Louis and \Villiam. By
this the kingdom of Spain, together with the
India territories, were to be bellowed on the arch¬
duke Charles, and the duchy of Milan upon the duke
of Lorrain. The laft moments of the Spanilh monarch
were difturbed by the intrigues of the rival houfes of
Auftria and Bourbon } but the haughtiness of the Au-
ftrian minifters fo difgufted thofe of Spain, that they
prevailed upon their dying monarch to make a new
will. By this the whole of his dominions were be¬
queathed to Philip duke of Anjou, grandfon to the
king of France $ and Louis, prompted by his natural
ambition, accepted the kingdom bequeathed to his
grandfon, excufing himfelf to his allies in the belt man¬
ner he could for departing from his engagements with
them. For this, however, he was made to pay dear.
His infatiable ambition and his former fucceffes had
alarmed all Europe. The emperor, the Dutch, and the
king of England, entered into a new confederacy
againft him j and a bloody war enfued, which threatened
G E R [ 683 ] G E R
Germany, to overthrow the French monarchy entirely. While
this war (of which an account is given under the arti¬
cle Britain) was carried on with fuch fuccefs, the
emperor Leopold died in the year
He was fucceeded by his fon Jofeph, who put the
ele&ors of Cologne and Bavaria to the ban of the em¬
pire j but being ill ferved by Prince Louis of Baden
general of the empire, the French partly recovered
their affairs, notwithftanding their repeated defeats.
The duke of Marlborough had not all the fuccefs he
expected or defefved. Jofeph himfelf was fufpe&ed of
a defign to fubvert the Germanic liberties ; and it was
plain by his conduct, that he expected England fliould
take the labouring oar in the w’ar, which was to be en¬
tirely carried on for his benefit. Ihe Englifh were
difgufted at his flownefs and felfiihnefs: but he died in
1711, before he had reduced the Hungarians; and
leaving no male iffue, he was fucceeded in the empire
by his brother Charles VI. whom the allies were en¬
deavouring to place on the throne of Spain, in oppofi-
tion to Philip duke of Anjou, grandfon to Louis XIV.
When the peace of Utrecht took place in 1713,
Charles at firft made a ihow as if he would continue the
war ; but found himfelf unable, now that he was for-
faken by the Englifh. He therefore was obliged to
conclude a peace with France at Baden in 1714, that
he might attend the progrefs of the Turks in Hun¬
gary ; where they received a total defeat from Prince
Eugene at the battle of Peterwaradin. They received
another of equal importance from the fame general
in 1717, before Belgrade, which fell into the hands
of the Imperialifts; and next year the peace of Paffaro-
witz, betw-een them and the Turks was concluded.
Charles employed every minute of his leifure in ma¬
king arrangements for increafing and preferving his he¬
reditary dominions in Italy and the Mediterranean.
Happily for him, the crown of Britain devolved to the
houfe of Hanover ; an event which gave him a very
ideeifive weight in Europe, by the connexions between
George I. and II. and the empire. Charles was fen-
fible of this ; and carried matters with fo high a hand,
.that, about the years 1724 and 1725, a breach enfued
between him and George I. and fo unfteady was the
fyitem of affairs all over Europe at that time, that the
-capital powers often changed their old alliances, and
-concluded new ones contradictory to their intereft.
Without entering into particulars, it is fufheient to ob-
ferve, that the fafety of Hanover, and its aggrandize¬
ment, was the main objeft of the Britifh court ; as that
•of the emperor was the eftablifhment of the pragmatic
fandtion in favour of his daughter (the late emprefs
queen), he having no male iffue. Mutual conceffions
upon thofe great points reftored a good underftanding
between George II. and the emperor Charles : and the
eledlor of Saxony, flattered with the view of gaining
the throne of Poland, relinquifhed the great claims he
had upon the Auftrian fucceflion.
The emperor, after this, had very bad fuccefs in a
war he entered into with the Turks, which he had un¬
dertaken chiefly to indemnify himfelf for the great fa-
crifices he had made in Italy to the princes of the houfe
of Bourbon. Prince Eugene was then dead, and he
had no general to fupply his place. The fyflem of
France, however, under Cardinal Fleury, happened at
.that time to be pacific ; and flie obtained for him, from
the Turks, a better peace than he had reafon to ex- Germany.^
pe<ff. Charles, to keep the German and other powers v——v—
eafy, had, before his death, given his eldeft daughter,
the late tmprefs queen, in marriage to the duke of
Lorrain, a prince who could bring no acceflion of
power to the Auftrian family.
Charles died in 1740; and was no fooner in the
grave, than all he had fo long laboured for muft have
been overthrown, had it not been for the firmnefs of
George II. The young king of Pruflia entered and
conquered Silefia, which he laid had been wrongfully
difmembered from his family. The king of Spain and
the ele£tor of Bavaria fet up claims dire&ly incompa¬
tible with the pragmatic fan&ion, and in this they were
joined by France; though all thofe powers had folemn-
ly guaranteed it. The imperial throne, after a conli-
derable vacancy, was filled up by the eleftor of Bava¬
ria, who took the title of Charles VII. in January
1742. The French poured their armies into Bohemia,
where they took Prague ; and the queen of Hungary,
to take off- the weight of Pruflia, was forced to cede to
that prince the molt valuable part of the duchy of Si¬
lefia by a formal treaty.
Her youth, her beauty, and fufferings, and the
noble fortitude with which Ihe bore them, touched
the hearts of the Hungarians, into whofe arms Ihe
threw herfelf and her little fon ; and though they had
been ahvays remarkable for their difaffedtion to the
houfe of Auftria, they declared unanimoufly in her
favour. Her generals drove the French out of Bo¬
hemia ; and George II. at the head of an Englilh and
Hanoverian army, gained the battle of Dettingen, in
1743. Charles VII. was at this time miferable on
the imperial throne, and would have given the queen
of Hungary almoit her own terms ; but Ihe haughtily
and impolitic-ally rejedled all accommodation, though
advifed to it by his Britannic majefty, her belt and
indeed only friend. This obftinacy gave a colour for
the king of Pruflia to invadw Bohemia, under pretence
of fupporting the imperial dignity ; but though he
took Prague, and fubdued the greateft part of the
kingdom, he was not fupported by the French upon
which he abandoned all his conquefts, and retired into
Silefia. This event confirmed the obftinacy of the
queen of Hungary : who came to an accommodation
with the emperor, that (lie might recover Silefia.
Soon after, his Imperial majefty, in the beginning of
the year 1745, died; and the duke of Lorrain, then
grand duke of Tufcany, confort to the queen of Hun¬
gary, after furmounting feme difficulties, was chofen
emperor.
The bad fuccefs of the allies againft the French and
Bavarians in the Low Countries, and the lofs of the
battle of Fontenoy, retarded the operations of the
emprefs queen againft his Pruflian majefly. The lat¬
ter beat the emperor’s brother, Prince Charles of Lor¬
rain, who had before driven the Pruflians out of Bo¬
hemia ; and the conduft of the emprefs queen wa*
fuch, that his Britannic majefty thought proper to
guarantee to him the poffeflxon of Silefia, as ceded by
treaty. Soon after, his Pruflian majefty pretended
that he had difeovered a fecret convention which had
been entered into between the emprefs queen, the em¬
prefs of Ruflia, and the king of Poland as eleftor of
Saxony, to ftrip him of his dominions, and to divide
4 R 2 them
G E R [ 684. j G E R
Germany, them among themfelves. Upon this his Pruflian
v 1 majefty, very fuddenly, drove the king of Poland out
of Saxony, defeated his troops, and took poileflion
of Drefden j w hich he held till a treaty was made un¬
der the mediation of his Britannic majefly, by which
the king of Pruffia acknowledged the duke of Lor-
rain, great duke of Tufcany, for emperor. The
war, however, continued in the Low Countries, not
only to the difadvantage, but to the diicredit of the
Auflrians and Dutch, till it was finilhed by the treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle, in April 1748. By that treaty
Silelia was once more guaranteed to the king of Pruflia.
It was not long before that monarch’s jealoufies wrere
renewed and verified ; and the emprefs of Rufiia’s
views falling in with thofe of the emprefs queen and
the king of Poland, who were unnaturally fupported
by France in their new fchemes, a frelh war was
kindled in the empire. The king of Pruflia declared
againft the admiflion of the Ruflians into Germany,
snd his Britannic majofty againft that of the French.
Upon thefe tw:o principles all former differences be¬
tween thefe monarchs were forgotten, and the Britifti
parliament agreed to pay an annual fubfidy of 670,000!.
to his Pruflxan majefty during the continuance of the
war.
The flames of war now broke out in Germany with
greater fury and more deftru&ive violence than ever.
The armies of his Pruflian majefly, like an irrefiftible
torrent, burft into Saxony y totally defeated the imperial
general Brown at the battle of Lowofitz j forced the
Saxons to lay down their arms, though almoft impreg-
nably fortified at Pirna ; and the eleftor of Saxony fled
to his regal dominions in Poland. After this, his Pruf-
fian majefty was put to the ban of the empire j and the
French poured, by one quarter, their armies, as the
Ruflians did by another, into the empire. The con-
duft of his Pruflian majefty on this occafion is the moft
amazing that is to be met with in hiftory 5 for a parti¬
cular account of which, fee the article Prussia.
At laft, however, the taking of Colberg by the Ruf¬
fians, and of Schweidnitz by the Auftrians, was on the
point of completing his ruin, when his moft formidable
enemy, the emprefs of Ruflia, died January 5. 1762 j
George II. his only ally, had died on the 25th of Oc¬
tober 1760.
The deaths of thofe illuftrious perfonages were fol¬
lowed by great confequences. The Britifh miniftry
of George III. fought to finifh the war with honour,
and the new emperor of Ruflia recalled his armies.
His Pruflian majefty was, notwithftanding, fo very
much reduced by his Ioffes, that the emprefs queen,
probably, wrould have completed his deftruftion, had
it not been for the wife backwardnefs of other Ger¬
man princes, not to annihilate the houfe of Branden¬
burg. At firft the emprefs queen rejected all terms
propofed to her, and ordered 30,000 men to be added
to her armies.. The vifible backwardnefs of her gene¬
rals to execute her orders, and new fucceffes obtained
by h is Pruflian majefty, at laft prevailed on her to agree
to an armiftice, which was f'oon followed by the treaty
of Hubertfburgh, which fecured to his Pruflian majefty
the poffeflion of Silefia. Upon the death of the empe¬
ror her hufband, in 1769, her fon Jofeph, who had
been crowned king of the Romans in 1764, fucceeded
him in the empire.
This prince fliowed an aftive and reftleis difpo- Geimany.
fition, much inclined to extend his territories by con- 1 v—
queft, and to make reformations in the internal policy
of his dominions, yet without taking any proper me¬
thods for accomplithing his purpofes. Hence he was
almoft always difappoinied •, inl’omuch that he wrote
for himfelf the following epitaph : “ Here lies Jofepb,
unfortunate in all his undertakings.” In the year 1778,
a war commenced betwixt him and the king of Pruilia j
in which, notwithftanding the impetuous valour of that
monarch, Jofeph afted with fuch caution-that his ad-
verfary could gain no advantage over him ; and an ac¬
commodation took place without any remarkable ex¬
ploit on either fide. In 1781 he took the opportunity
of the quarrel betwixt Britain and the United Provin¬
ces, to deprive the latter of the barrier towns which
had been fecured to them by the treaty of Utrecht.
Thefe indeed had frequently been of great ufe to the
houfe of Auftria in its ftate of weaknefs j but Jofeph,
confcious of his owui firength, looked upon it as dero¬
gatory to his honour to allow' fo many of his cities to.
remain in the hands of foreigners, and to be garrifoned
at his expence. As at that time the Dutch were unable-
to refill, the imperial orders for evacuating the barrier
towms were inftantly complied with ; nor did the court
of France, though then in friendlhip with Holland,
make any offer to interpofe. Encouraged by this fuc-
cefs, Jofeph next demanded the free navigation of the
Scheldt $ but as this would evidently have been very
detrimental to the commercial interefts of Holland, a
flat refufal was given to his requifitions. In this the
emperor was much difappointed j having flattered him¬
felf that the Hollanders, intimidated by his power,
w’ould yield the navigation of the river as eafily as they
had done the Carrier. Great preparations were mad«
by the emperor, which the Dutch, on their part, ftem-
ed determined to refill. But while the emperor appear¬
ed fo much fet upon this acquifition, he fuddenly aban¬
doned the projeft entirely, and entered into a new
fcheme of exchanging the Netherlands for the duchy
of Bavaria. This was oppofed by the king of Pruffia 4
and by the interference of the court of France, the em¬
peror found himfelf at laft obliged alfo to abandon his
other fcheme of obtaining the navigation of the Scheldt.
A treaty of peace was concluded, under the guarantee
of his moft Chriftian majtfty. The principal articles
were, that the Hates acknowledged the emperor’s fove-
reignty over the Scheldt from Antwerp to the limits of
Seftingen •, they agreed to demolilh certain forts, and
to pay a confiderable fum of money in lieu of feme
claims which the emperor had on Maeftricht, and by
way of indemnification for laying part of his territories
under water.
The treaty with the Dutch was no fooner concluded
than a quarrel with the Turks took place, which ter¬
minated in an open war. It does not appear that the
emperor had at this time any real provocation, but
feems to have afted merely in confequence of his en¬
gagements with Ruffia to reduce the dominions of the
Grand Signior. All thefe foreign engagements, how¬
ever, did not in the leaft retard the progrefs of reforma¬
tion which the emperor carried on throughout his do¬
minions with a rapidity fcarcely to be matched, and
which at laft produced the revolt of the Auftrian Ne¬
therlands. In the courfe of his labours in this way, a
3 completo
G E R
gcrmany, complete code of laws was compiled.
u- firft greatly commended for their humanity, as exclud¬
ing almoil entirely every fpecies of capital punilhment j
vet, when narrowly conlidered, the commutations were
found to be fo exceedingly fevere, that the moft cruel
death would, comparatively fpeaking, have been an aft
of mercy. Even for fmaller crimes the puniihments
were fevere beyond meafure ; but the greatelf fault of
all was, that the modes of trial were very defeftive,
and the punifhments fo arbitrary, that the moft perfeft
and innocent eharafter lay at the mercy of a tyrannical
judge. The innovations in eccleftaftical matters were,
however, moft offenlive to his fubjefts in the Nether¬
lands. Among the many changes introduced into this
department, the following were fome of the moft re¬
markable. i. An abridgment of divine fervice. 2. A
total fuppreflion of vocal performers in choirs. 3. The
introduftion of the vernacular language inftead of the
Latin in adminiftering the facraments. 4. The prohi¬
bition of chanting hymns in private houfes. 5. The
fuppreflion of a great number of religious houfes, and
the reduftion of the number of the clergy. 6. The to¬
tal abolition of the papal fupremacy throughout the im¬
perial dominions. The fame fpirit of innovation dif-
played itfelf even in the moft minute matters. Many
favours were beftowed upon the Jews j and in I'ySb the
emperor wrote with his own hand to the different han¬
dicraft and trading corporations in Vienna, requefting
that their youths might be received as apprentices in
that city. Severe laws againft gaming were enafted
and put in execution with equal rigour. Heavy reftric-
tionswere alfo laid on all the focieties of free mafons in
Germany, while thofe in the Netherlands were totally
fupprefled.
The great number of innovations in religious mat¬
ters were highly refented by the inhabitants of the Ne¬
therlands, who have always been remarkable for their
attachment to the Romilh religion in its moft fuperfti-
tious form. Indeed the alterations in the civil confti-
tution were fo great, that even thofe who were leaft bi-
gotted in this refpeft began to fear that their liberties
were in danger, and an univerfal diffatisfaftion was
excited. The emperor behaved at firft in a very
haughty manner, and refufed to yield the fmalleft point
to the felicitations of his fubjefts. Finding, how¬
ever, that a general revolt was about to take place,
and being unable at that time, on account of the Turk-
ifh war, to fpare fuch a force as would be neceffary to
reduce the provinces to obedience, he thought proper, in
the autumn of 1787, to promife a reftoration of their
ancient conftitution and privileges. His promifes, how¬
ever, were found to be fo delufive, and his conduft was
fo arbitrary and capricious, that in the end of the year
1789 the ftates of all the provinces in the Auftrian Ne¬
therlands came to a refolution of entirely throwing off
the yoke. Articles of a federal union were drawn up,
and a new republic was formed under the title of the
Be/gic Provinces. The lituation of the emperor’s affairs
at that time did not allow him to take the meafures ne¬
ceffary for preventing this revolt j to which perhaps
his ill ftate of health alfo contributed. About the be¬
ginning of February 1790 his diftemper increafed to
fuch a degree as to be thought dangerous •, and continu¬
ing daily to grow worfe, he funk under it on the 20th
[ 6 8 5 | G E K '•
Thefe were at of the fame month, in the 40th year of his age, and 26th Germany.
of his reign. ' " v "
The leaders of the Auftrian revolution, however,
foon became fo difagreeable to their countrymen, that
they were obliged to fly •, and the congrefs, which had
been eftabliflied as the fupreme legiflative body, beha¬
ved with fuch tyranny, that they became generally de-
tefted. Meantime, the late emperor was fucceeded
by his brother Peter Leopold Joleph, grand duke of
Tufcany j under whofe adminiftration matters have
taken a more favourable turn. By his vifdom, mode¬
ration, and humanity, he has already in a great mealure
retrieved the bad confequences of his predeceffor’s con¬
duft, having made peace with the Ottomans, and re-
gained the allegiance of the Netherlands j and upon the
whole feems to be aftuated not more by a fenfe of his -
own rights, than by a regard to the rights and happinefs
of his fubjefts.
At prefent, Germany is bounded on the north by
the Baltic fea, Denmark, and the German ocean $
on the eaft, by Pruflxa, Hungary, and Poland ; and on
the weft, by the Low Countries, Lorrain, and Franche
Compte: fo that it now comprehends the Palatinate of
Cologne, Triers, and Liege, which formerly belonged
to the Gauls-, and is dilmembered of Frieiland, Gronin¬
gen, and Overyffel, which are now incorporated with
the Low Countries. 2r
Since the time of Charles the Great, this country has Situation,
been divided into High and Low Germany. I he firft extent. Sic,
comprehends the Palatinate of the Rhine, Franconia,^ ^er”
Suabia, Bavaria, Bohemia, Moravia, Auftria, Carin-uaa^’
thia, Carniola, Stiria, the Swifs, and the Grifons. The
provinces of Low Germany are, the Low Country of
the Rhine, Triers, Cologne, Mentz, Weftphalia, Heffe,
Brunfwick, Mifnia, Lufatia, High Saxony upon the
Elbe, Low Saxony upon the Elbe, Mecklenburg, Lu¬
nenburg, Brandenburg, and Pomerania. 23
Monarchy was firft eftabliihed in Germany by Clo-Conftiuu
dovick : after him Charlemagne extended his powertlon.ofthe
and his dominionsand fo great had the empire be-em^irei
come, that during his reign, and that of his fon, go¬
vernment w'as adminiftered in the provinces by perfons
vefted with power for that purpofe under the title of
Dukes. In the diftrifts of thefe provinces, juftice was
diftributed by a comes or count, which officer was in
Germany called Graf. But from their courts lay an
appeal to that of the emperor, before a prefident ftyled
Comes Pa/atinus, that is, “ Count Palatine, or of the
palace,” in German denominated Pfafegraf The
frontiers or marches were governed by a marquis,
ftyled by the Germans Markgraf fimilar to our lord
warden. Generally the centre of the empire was ruled
by an officer who poffeffed a fimilar power, but a greater
extent of dominion, than the Grave, under the title of
Landgrave. Towns and caftles, which were occafion-
ally honoured with the refidence of the emperor, were
governed by a Burggraf. It may be remarked, that
the fignification of the above-mentioned titles, and the
extent of power which they conferred upon the perfons
honoured with them, differ according to the fucceffive
ages and the gradual developement of the German con~
ftitution.
By reafon of family broils in the imperial houfe, and
civil wars in their dominions, the dignity of the fove-
yeign
G E H [ 686 1 GEE
■Germany, -reign was depreffed, and a new form in the govern-
v "L— ment raifed up. The dukes exalted themfelves above
the power of the emperer, and fecured for their Tons a
fucceffion to their greatnefs •, while the intereft of
the fovereign, in order to ftrengthen the bond of per¬
sonal attachment, ratified to others and their defcend-
ants that fway which had been formerly delegated
and dependant on his will. Hence arofe the modern
conftitution of diftinil principalities, acknowledging
one head in the perfon of an emperor. But (hortly
after the eleftion of Conrade duke of Franconia to the
throne, this new-gained authority of the princes be¬
came doubtful. However, after mod violent difturb-
-ances and confufions, the regulations yielded to by
Albert II. and his fucceffors, particularly by Frede¬
rick III. laid the foundation of the German conltitu-
tion ; but the -power and form of which were after¬
wards improved by Maximilian. Before Charles V.
• mounted the throne, on the death of Maximilian, the
ele&ors formed a bulwark againft the Imperial power,
by an inftrument called the capitulation ,* to which ar-
■ tides of government he and all emperors defied fince
have fworn, previous to their inveftiture with the Impe-
23 • rial dignity.
f'Of the elec- When the German monarchy received an eleflive
*0rs* > form, the right of eleflion was not limited to the great
officers of date, for other princes participated of this
-privilege. But the empire being governed by four
dukes, the princes under their authority, in order to
court their favour, gave to them the difpofal of their
votes, and of thofe of their vaflals. The three arch-
biffiops alfo, who were neceffarily prefent at the coro¬
nation, obtained the elefloral dignity. However, be-
fide this origin of the modern eleftors, the high da-
tions about court procured their poffeflbrs an influence
over other members, and their general refidence there
gave them a folid advantage in their condant and early
prefence at the diet of election. For in times of turbu¬
lence feveral emperors were elefted, when the princes
had not an opportunity to attend. And hence fprung
up a fanftion to that right, which the high officers of
the houfehold had affumed, of elefting without any
confultation of the other members of the empire. Pope
Gregory X. too, either conceiving that they did pof-
fefs, or willing that they ihould acquire, this right, ex¬
horted them in a bull to terminate the troubles of Ger¬
many by elefling an emperor. And fince that period
they have been held as the foie eleflors. But the pof-
feffion of this high power was drengthened by a league
amongd themfelves, called the eleRoral union, which
received additional confirmation from the emperor Louis
of Bavaria, and was formally and fully ratified by that
famous conditution of Charles IV. termed the golden
bull; according to which, the territories and the high
officers by which the eleftoral dignity is conveyed,
mud defcend according to the right of primogeniture,
and are indivifible.
The golden bull declares the following number and
titles of the ele&ors : The archbilhop of Mentz as
great chancellor of the German empire ; the elector of
Cologne as great chancellor of the empire in Italy 3
the eleftor of Triers as great chancellor of the empire
in Gaul and Arles j the king of Bohemia as Cup-
Bearer j the count Palatine as high deward 5 the duke
p/ Saxony as grand mardial j the margrave of Branden¬
burg as grand chamberlain. The number originally Germany,
was feven, but the emperor Leopold created the duke 111 "»“ -J
of Lunenburg, ancedor to our prefent Britifh fove¬
reign, an eleflor •, to whom the pod of arch-treafurer
was afterwards given and thus Hanover forms the
eighth eleftorate. But this number cannot be increa-
fed by the emperor without a previous ele&ion by the
eleftors themfelves •, who, thus capable of eletting and
of being eledted, may dyle themfelves Coimperantes ;
and they exercife part of the imperial authority, if a ^
vacancy of the throne happen. But when or before Eieflion(Sf
this occurs, the ele&ion of the emperor is proceeded to the empe.
after the following manner: The eleftor of Mentz,ror*
before the lapfe of a month after the death of the em¬
peror, fummons, as great chancellor of the empire, the
red of the elettors to attend on fome fixed day within
the fpace of three months from the date of the fummons.
The eledlors generally fend their ambaffadors to the
place of eledfion, which is held at Frankfort on the
Mayne •, but faving the right of the city of brankfort,
it may be held elfewhere.
When the diet of eledfors is aflembled, they proceed
to compofe the capitulation, to which the emperor
w hen eledled is to fwear. I he capitulation being ad-
juded, the eledfor of Mentz appoints a day for the
eledfion. When this day arrives, the gates of the city
are ffiut, and the keys delivered to the eledf or of Mentz.
The eledtors or their ambaffadors, Protedants except¬
ed, repair in great pomp to mafs j and after its cele¬
bration they take a folemn oath to choofe, unbiaffed
and uninfluenced, the perfon that appears mod proper
for the imperial dignity. After this they repair to
the facrifly, where the eledtor of Mentz fird alks, if
there be any impediment known againd their proceed¬
ing at prefent to an eledfion j and next he obtains a
promife, that the perfon eledted by the majority iffiall
be received as emperor. The declarations of the elec¬
toral ambaffadors, in refpedt to thofe two points, are
recorded by two notaries of the empire. Ihen all
witneffes withdraw *, and the eledtor of Mentz colledt-
ing the fuffrages, which are viva voce, and giving his
own lad, the witneffes are recalled, and he declares the
perfen whom the eledtors have chofen. But the elec¬
tion is not complete, nor is the new emperor pro¬
claimed, until the capitulation be fworn to either by
himfelf or by his ambaffadors if he be abfent. from
this time he is ffyled king of the Romans until the co¬
ronation takes place j which ceremony confers the
title of emperor. According to the golden bull, it
fhould be celebrated at Aix-la-Chapelle, out of re-
fpecl to Charlemagne, who refided there ; but laving
the right to Aix-la-Chapelle, it may take place elfe¬
where. The coronation is performed by the archbilhop
of Mentz or eledtor of Cologne. And, when he^ is
feated on his throne, the duke of Saxony delivers in¬
to his hand the fword of Charles the Great, with
which he makes fome knights of the holy Roman em¬
pire, and is alfo obliged to confer that honour upon
fuch others as are nominated by the refpedlive elec¬
tors. When be proceeds to dinner in the great hall,
he is feated at a table elevated two deps higher than
that of the eleaors,\ and is ferved by counts of the em-
,pire. The eledfors, each of whom has alfo his table,
are attended by the gentlemen of their refpedtive
courts. Thefe eledlors, who affifl perfonally at the ce-
rtmony,
G E R [ 687 ] G E R
Germany, remony, fit and eat at their own tables •, but thofe who
-—v ' are reprefented by ambaffadors have only their tables
covered oufcof form with plates, at which the ambaffa-
dors do not fit.
For the benefit of the empire during the reign of
an emperor, his prefumptive fuccefibr may be elected
king of the Romans. But this election confers at firft
a m<ve title 5 for by an exprefs article in his capitula¬
tion, the king of the Romans fwears not to interfere
with the government during the life of the emperor j
but on his deceafe the coronation confirms him em¬
peror without a fecond eleftion.
Should there not be a king of the Romans, and the
throne become vacant, the government is adminitlered
by vicars of the empire, who are the eledfors Palatine
and of Saxony, as count palatine and arch-marlhal of
the empire. Each has his diftridt and tribunal of the
vicariate; and by the golden bull it is eftablilhed, that
all adls of the vicars are valid ; but they are all fully
confirmed by the emperor; which confirmation, by an
article of his capitulation, he is bound to give.
There are alio vicars of the emperor. Thefe officers
are conftituted by a delegation of the imperial power
from the emperor to any prince of the empire, when
he is unable to execute his authority himfelf. But
thefe vicars ftand accountable to the emperor; their
adls may be annulled and their offices revoked, all de¬
pendent on the will of the emperor, and determinable
at his pleafure.
When the race of Charlemagne ceafed to govern in
Germany, the princes and Hates aflbciated to continue
the empire ; and that its majelly might be vifible, and
its laws enforced, they agreed to choofe an emperor.
From this emperor all eledtors and princes except thofe
before 1582 receive inveftiture of their dominions;
counts and free cities from the Aulic council. But
this inveftiture is no more than a fign of fubmiffion to
the majefty of the empire, which is depofited in the em¬
peror. For as the conftituted members of the empire
are dependent on that colledtive union from which they
derive protedlion, they therefore fhow this dependence
on the emperor, becaufe he reprefents the majefty of
that union or of that empire ; but in all other refpedls
they are independent and free.
Thefe princes or fovereigns may even wage war
with the prince wearing the imperial crown, as pof-
feffed of other titles and dominions unconnedled with
his imperial ftation. Nor can the fovereignty of any
member be affedled fo long as he remains loyal to the
empire ; which loyalty conftitutes his duty, and fecures
him its protedlion. But fhould he be guilty of any
violation againft the emperor, as head of the empire,
fuch a crime would commit him to the puniffiment of
its laws, and he would be put under the ban. For
this crime would be againft that colledlive body of fo¬
vereigns whofe union conftitutes the empire ; and there¬
fore any violation of that union is juftly puniffied with
deprivation of thefe territories which render fuch fo¬
vereigns members of the empire. Nor can this pu-
nilhment of the ban derogate from the dignity of thofe
princes who derive their fovereignty from this confti-
tution, and whofe fubjedtion is an adt of their own
confent. However, no member of the empire can at
prefent be put under the ban without being firft heard,
and without the concurrence of the eledlors, princes, Germany.^
and ftates, being previoufly obtained. . '
The emperor is endowed with many privileges, and Power5s 0f
his power partly appears in the exercife of his referved the enipe-
rights, or the peculiar prerogatives annexed to the im-ror.
perial dignity. He grants to princes the inveftiture of
their dominions; but to this he is bound as the laws
diredl. He confers titles, but promifes that they
fhall be beftowed only on fuch perfons as will maintain,
their dignity, and can fupport their rank. Befides, he
can give merely the title; for the power or privilege
of prince or count can be obtained only from their re-
fpedlive bodies. But in fome inftances, even titles are
of high importance. For the defeendants of a prince
are incapable of fucceffion, if their mother be of in¬
ferior rank to their father ; but the conferring of a title
ennobles her and removes the bar, if the collateral line
confents.
The emperor can alfo make cities, found univer-
fities, grant the privilege of fairs, See. He can alfo
difpenfe with the tedious terms of minority, and em¬
power princes to affume at an earlier age the govern¬
ment of their own dominions. He decides all rank
and precedency, and has a power of primee preces, that
is, of granting for once in every chapter of the em¬
pire a vacant feat. But he is not above the law'; for
eleftors have not only chofen but depofed emperors..
However, the influence of the capitulation is to pre¬
vent fuch rigorous proceedings: but (hould the capi¬
tulation be violated, the college of eledlors might pro¬
ceed to remonftrance; and if thefe remonftrances ffiould
be without effedt, in conjundlion with the diet, they
might refort to more forcible remedies. ^
The diet is that affembly of the ftates in which the Diet of tha
legiflative power of the empire refides ; and is compo- empire,
fed of the eledlors, princes, prelates, counts, and free
cities of the empire. It has fat fince 1663, and is
held ufually at Ratiffion. The emperor, when pre¬
fent, prefides in perfon; when abfent, by his commif-
fary, whofe communication of propofals from the em¬
peror to the afiembly is called the commijjbrial de¬
cree. The eledlor of Mentz, as chancellor of the
empire, is diredlor of the diet ; and to his chancery
are all things addreffed that are to be fubmitted to
the empire ; the reading of w hich by his fecretary to
the fecretaries of the other minifters at the diet is de¬
nominated per didlaturam, and conftitutes the form of
tranfmitting papers or memorials to the didlature of
the empire.—The diet is compofed of three diftindt
colleges, each of which has its particular diredlor.
The firft college is that of eledlors; of which the arch-
bilhop of Mentz is diredlor as firil eledlor. The fecond
college is that of princes. It confifts of princes, arch-
bilhops, and bilhops ; and of prelates, abbots, and
counts, who are not confidered as princes. Each prince
fpiritual and temporal has a vote, but prelates and
counts vote by benches. The prelates are divided in¬
to two benches, the counts into four; and each bench
has only one vote. The archduke of Auftria and the
archbiffiop of Saltzburg are alternately diredlors of
the college of princes. The third college is that of
the free cities of the empire; the diredlor of which
is the miniftsr of the city in which the diet happens
to fit.
In
©trmaivy.
I
G E R [ 688 ] G E R
In all thefe colleges, the fentirnents of the majo¬
rity are conclufive, except in relpetl of fundamental
laws, which aft'etl the whule empire, (jr luch matters as
relate to religion. In thefe they mutt be unanimous.
Where religion is intereited, the proceedings are
alfo different. The colleges are then conlidered as
coniilting of two bodies, the evangelic and the catho¬
lic > and if any religious point be propofed, it muff
meet not only the unanimous concurrence of the pro-
pofing body, but mutt have the majority of the other
to eftablilh it. This diltindtion arofe from a conjunc¬
tion called the evangelic body; which was formed by
the Pruteftant Hates and princes to guard the Pro-
teflant intereft in Germany, by watching over the
laws for the fecurity of their religion, and, in cafe
of violation, by obtaining redrefs from the imperial
throne. For in any part of the empire, as in the pa¬
latinate, where the count is a Papiit and the fubjedls
are Proteftants, fiiould oppreflions arife, application
would be made to the evangelic body through the di¬
rector. The eledtor of Saxony is direftor ot the evan¬
gelic body, though he is a Papitt : but therefore his
reprefentations in favour of the Proteftants have more
force •> and befide, thould he abufe an office which in¬
verts him with confiderable weight and influence, he
could be inftantly deprived of it.
The firft two colleges are ftyled fuperior, and in ef-
feCt. conftitute the diet : for all points that come be¬
fore the diet, are generally firft; deliberated in the col¬
lege of eleCtors, and pafs from that to the college of
princes j in which, if any objection arife, a free con¬
ference takes place between the directors of each col¬
lege. And ffiould they, in confequence of this free
conference, concur, they invite the third college to
accede to their joint opinion ; which invitation is ge¬
nerally complied with : but fhould this college return
a refuial, the opinion of the other two colleges is in feme
few cafes engroffed in the chancery, and delivered to
the emperor’s commiflary as the opinion of the empire.
The opinion of the third college is merely mentioned
at the clofe. However, though the fuperior colleges
do in effeCt conftitute the diet j yet the received maxim
is, that no two colleges conftitute a majority, that is,
the majority of voices at the diet 5 nor can the empe¬
ror confirm the opinion of two colleges as an opinion
of the diet. By the peace of Weftphalia, a decifive
vote was recognized as a right of the imperial cities,
which the two fuperior colleges fhould not infringe
upon *, their vote being, by the fundamental law, of
equal weight with that of the electors and princes.
After a meafure is approved of by the colleges, it
is fubmitted to his Imperial majefty to receive his ne¬
gative or confirmation. • Should he approve the point,
it is publiftied in his name as the refolution of the em¬
pire, which ftates are exhorted to obey, and tribunals
defired to confider as fuch.
The diet not only makes and explains law's, but de¬
cides ambiguous cafes. It muft alfo be conlulted be¬
fore war is made ; appoints the field marfhal who is to
command the army, and affigns him his council of
war. The diet alfb enters into and makes alliances,
but ufually empowers the emperor to negotiate them ^
and foreign ftates have their ambafladors, at the diet,
but the diet fends no miniiters to foreign courts.
In the origin of the empire, juftice was adminiftered Germimy.
in the diftrhfts of the provinces by counts, and appeals "v
lay from their courts to that of the emperor*before the ^mini-
count palatine. But as civil broils ftiook the power ftration of
of the emperor, they interrupted alfo the courfe ofjultice,&.&
juftiee. The consequent inconveniences cauled feve-
ral felicitations to be preferred from the ftates to dif¬
ferent emperors for the eftabliftiment of a court of juf¬
tice, which ftiould take cognizance of great as well as
fmall caufes. And at length fuch a court was ere&ed
by Maximilian I. under the title of the Imperial Cham¬
ber at Worms, in the year 1495 •, but was removed to
Spires in 1533, and toVVetzlarm 1696, where it is now
held. The members of this court are a judge of the
chamber and 23 affeffors, partly Proteftants, partly
Papifts. The prefident is appointed by the emperor,
the affeffors by the ftates. The court receives appeals
from inferior juriidiflions, and defides dubious titles j
and all caufes before it between prince and prince, or
princes and private perfons, are adjudged according to
the laws of the refpe&ive parties, or according to the
Imperial law. The tribunal is under the inlpeftion
of vifitors appointed by the ftates •, and, during their vi-
fitation, the fentences of the court are fubjeft to re-
vifion. Appeals lie afterwards alfo from the judgment
of the vifitors to that of the diet. 28
The emperors finding themlelves deprived of many Aulic toua-
of their powers, wifhed to raife their prerogatives cil.
by forming a tribunal, of which they ftiould name the
judge, and before whom cauies in the laft refort fhould
come. But Maximilian forefaw, in relpedl to the
new tribunal, that though a confcioufneis of its im¬
portance made the ftates ftruggle for its ereftion, the
expences of its eftablilhment would make them neglect
its fupport j and the event bore witnefs to his fagacity.
But when, through the omiffions and negligence of
the ftates, there happened to be a ceflation in the dif-
tribution of juftice by the Imperial chamber, he re¬
vived his court of the count Palatine, or Aulic coun¬
cil. And in order to gain the quiet acquiefcence of
the ftates, under the roalk of a partition of power, and
of generous moderation, he defired them to add eight
to the number of affeffors, and the falaries of all fhould
be difeharged by him. The ftates fwallowed the bait,
but foon perceived that they had loft part of their li¬
berty.
The emperor, by keeping the tribunal always open,
by filling its feats with men of firft-rate talents, and
by having its fentences duly and fpeedily executed,
drew all caufes before it. The ftates remonftrated,
declaring that the Imperial chamber ought to be not
only the fupreme, but foie tribunal of that kind. I he
emperor anfwered, that he had erefled the Imperial
chamber in confequence of their folicitations j but as
they had not fupplied the tribunal with judges, he pro¬
vided for that deficiency by a conftant adminiftration
eff juftice in the eftabliftiment of another.
The Aulic council now fubfirts with equal authority,
each receiving appeals from inferior jurifdiflions j but
neither appealing to the other, as the aernier refort from
both muft be had to the diet. However, to the Aulio
council belong the referved rights of the emperor j and
to the Imperial chamber alfo are annexed peculiar
powers. The imperial chamber fubiifts- during a va¬
cancy
G E R [ 689 ] G E R
Germany, cancy of the throne under the authority of the vicars
of the empire j whereas the Aulic council does not
exift until appointed by the fucceeding emperor.
The Aulic council confifts of a prelident, vice preli-
dent, and aflelTors, of whom fix are Proteftants.
The vice chancellor of the empire is alfo entitled to a
feat j and all decrees ilTuing from the council pafs
through his hands to thofe who are to execute them.
This tribunal obtains for the emperor, through the ap¬
peals from the courts of other princes, a new authority
befide that which he poffeffes from his referved rights j
but electors and fome princes, as thofe of Hanover,
Auftria, Brunfwick, Swedifh Pomerania, Hefle, are free
from this dependence on the emperor, to whofe Aulic
council their fubjefts cannot appeal 5 nor can it take
cognizance of ecclefiaftical or criminal caufes, both of
which appertain to territorial juftice ; which we (hall
prefently confider when we have furveyed the executive
infirument of Imperial juftice.
The divifion of the empire into circles is a regula¬
tion coeval with the eftabliihment of the Imperial
chamber by Maximilian, in order to ftrengthen the
arm of juftice with vigour to enforce its decrees. The
original divifion was into fix circles, which are called
the ancient circles; and are, Bavaria, Franconia, Suabia,
Lower Saxony, the Upper Rhine, and Weftphalia;
but the powerful princes, who at firft declined bring¬
ing their dominions under the form of circles, were
led by a political finefle of the emperors to adopt the
regulation, and increafe the number to ten, by forming
the four new circles-of Auftria, Burgundy, the Eledto-
rate Circle, and Upper Saxony.
Over thefe circles prefide directors, to whom the
tribunals of juftice commit the execution of their de¬
crees. The fix old circles have two diredors each,
•the four new have one each. The office of diredor is
•permanent and hereditary, as it belongs ahvays to the
firft prince in the circle, upon whom it confers high
authority ; for all the decrees of the Imperial chamber
and Aulic council are of no avail unlefs the diredor will
•execute them.
The diredors of the circles are not only inftruments
of war but of peace : for in cafe of an Imperial war,
they are to colled the troops of the circle; and if any
ilate or prince of their refpedive circles fuffers violation
from others, they are to yield protedion and enforce
the peace; or fhould there be any tumultuous uprifings
of the people, the fuppreffion of fuch belongs to them.
The emperor is the executive inftrument of the
whole empire 5 the diredors are fuch of the conftitu-
tive parts called circles. The profperity and fecurity
of which being at ftake, the diredors, as prefidents,
muft hold frequent diets in their refpedive circles, in
-order to confult on and adopt falutary meafures for
their fafety and welfare : but as the interefts of thofe
near to us are generally fo intimately blended with our
own, that the good of either cannot be purfued with¬
out the mutual concurrence of both, there arife nego¬
tiations on particular points between the diets of dif¬
ferent circles, which are therefore ftyled confederate
circles ; and thefe negotiations being more frequent
amongft the circles of the Upper and Lower Rhine,
or Weftphalia, they are denominated the correfponding
circles.
Every prince is fovereign in his own country ; and
Vol. IX. Part II.
may enter into alliances, and purfue by all political Germany. -
meafures his own private interefts, as other fovereigns
do j for if even an imperial war be declared, he ma7 powers of
remain neuter if the fafety of the empire be not at ftake. the Ger-
Each ftate or lovereign appoints in general three man prin-
colleges for its government. The firft is the geheimde-ces*
rath, or privy council; the fecund is the regierung, or
regency; the third the renthcammer, or chamber of
finances. Each of thefe has a prefident j and a mem¬
ber of the firft college is always prefident of the fe-
cond. The geheimderath reprefents the prince, and
luperintends the other two. The regierung regulates
limits of territories, holds conferences with other prin¬
ces, and is in moft countries a court of juftice : how¬
ever, in fome ftates there is alfo a court of juftice call¬
ed jufliH department. And befides the right of confe¬
rences afiigned to the regierung by the fovereign, w hen
there are difputes between princes, there is alfo an «//-
Jlrage, or arbitration appointed in order to decide them.
Attention muft be paid to this privilege of princes,
who muft be called on to appoint an auftrage before
refort be had to the Imperial tribunal, but to which
there ftill lies an appeal from the judgment of the au¬
ftrage. The renthcammer attends to the regulation of
domains and eftates, to the territorial revenues, and
management of the taxes.
Every fovereign or prince is arbitrary in laws of po¬
licy, but not of revenue 5 for no new tax or impoft
can be laid on his country without the confent of the
nobles and fubjefts. For this purpofe, on the land
tag, or day on which his fubjects are to be convened,
which is once in the period of four or five years, and
at no other time can he affemble them, he calls toge¬
ther the nobles-and commiffaries or deputies of the
towns of his dominions. The nobles ufually attend
in perfon, but may fend reprefentatives. To this af-
fembly the prince propofes the taxes, &,c. and a majo¬
rity of voices difpofes of the meafures.
Villages, though confiderable, fend no deputies to
this affembly ; becaufe they are either already repre-
fented by their refpeftive lords, or becaufe they rank
too low, being in a ftate of vaffalage when compared
to towns : for their inhabitants muft mend highways,
and can be impreffed as foldiers ; from both of which
inhabitants of towns are exempt.
On the land tag, the refpeftive quotas alfo of each
place are fixed, in order to difeharge the prince’s con¬
tingent in cafe of an Imperial war.
There is no fixed Handing army of the empire j but Military
the various ftates furnifh their quotas purfuant to the! ce anc*
agreement of 1681, when called upon by the diet in^1^1^”
cafe of war, viz.
Upper Saxony
Lower Saxony
Weftphalia
Upper Rhine
Low er Rhine
Burgundy
Franconia
Auftria
Bavaria
Suabia
Foot.
2707
2707
2707
2853
2707
2707
J902
5507
1494
2707
Total
4S
Horfe.
I321
1321
1321
491
600
1321
980
2321
800
1321
27,998 11,997
The
I
C E R
[ 690 ]
G E R
Germany. The whole number of forces in the fervice of the feve-
\.m y 1 1 ral German princes has been ftated at half a million •,
others calculate, that the ecclefiaftical princes can fur-
nifh 74,500 men, the temporal princes 379,000, and
the emperor 90,000, as head of the houfe of Auftria.
Total 543,500. .
The revenue accruing to the emperor as fuch in
time of peace, is very trilling, only about 20,000
crowns, being the contributions of a few imperial
towns ; but in cafe of war, extraordinary aids, called
Roman Months, laid on by the diet, are contributed by
the different circles at the following rate for raifing
millions of florins, viz.
3*
Produc¬
tions and
commerce.
Upper Saxony
Lower Saxony
Weftphalia
Upper Rhine
Lower Rhine
Burgundy
Franconia
Auftria
Bavaria
Suabia
Florins-
156,36°
156,360
156,360
101,411
i°5,654
156,360
*13,481
306,390
91,261
156,360
Ktr.
15
15
IJ
3°
5
15
25
20
5
15
Total
M99>997 40
The actual revenue of all Germany has been calculated
at nearly 18,000,000!. fterling, or 100 millions of dol-
From the great extent of the empire, every variety do not feem, indeed, to have had a tafte for grand and
of foil is to be met with •, but it is upon the whole elegant entertainments; "vprv tV,;t10r-
The former of thefe they did indeed carry to fuch an Germany,
excefs as came little fliort of downright ferocity j —v-*'
but, as to the latter, they not only valued themfelves
highly upon it, but were greatly efleemed by other
nations for it; infomuch that Auguftus, and feveral
of his fuccefrors, committed the guard of their per-
fons to them, and almoft all other nations either court¬
ed their friendfhip and alliance, or hired them as auxi¬
liaries $ though it muft be owned, at the fame time,
that their extreme love of liberty, and their hatred of
tyranny and oppreffion, have often hurried them to
treachery and murder, efpecially when they have
thought themfelves ill ufed by thofe who hired them $
for in all fuch cafes they were eaiily ftirred up, and
extremely vindictive. In other cafes, Tacitus tells us,
they were noble, magnanimous, and beneficent, with¬
out ambition to aggrandize their dominions, or invad¬
ing thofe from whom they received no injury ; rather
choofing to employ their ftrength and valour defenfive-
ly than offenfively ; to preferve their own, than to ra¬
vage their neighbours.
Their friendfhip and intercourfe was rather a com¬
pound of honeft bluntnefs and hofpitality, than of
wit, humour, or gallantry. All ftrangers were fure
to meet w ith a kind reception from them to the ut-
moft of their ability : even thofe who w ere not in a
capacity to entertain them, made it a piece of duty
to introduce them to thofe who could $ and nothing
was looked upon as more fcandalous and deteftable,
than to refufe them either the one or the other. They
32
Character
of the an¬
cient Ger¬
mans.
more fertile than otherwife. The middle parts are
moft produftive in corn and cattle j the fouthern abound
with excellent wines and fruits. The northern parts,
from their coldnefs, are rather unfavourable to vege¬
tation ; however, agriculture throughout improves ex¬
ceedingly. Their mines, though early explored, ftill
continue great fources of wealth. They produce, ex¬
cepting tin, almoft every mineral. Of quickfilver, one
mine alone is computed to yield 50,000 pounds weight
a-year. They furnifh the fineft fort of clay for porce¬
lain, and have excellent and extenfive fait works.
From the central fituation of Germany, its com¬
merce with the reft of Europe is very extenfive. Its
minerals are decidedly the firft native articles for trade j
after which its medicinal waters, fait, hemp, flax, linen,
iilk, wdnes, fruits, corn, cattle, fluffs, cloths, timber,
porcelain, wrought iron and fteel, drugs, oil, and co¬
lours, are the principal. The artizans furnifhed by
the revocation of the edift of Nantz, enable Germany
no longer to ftand in need of the wwought filks of other
countries. Great commercial fairs ftill exift in Ger¬
many, and it is confldered upon the whole that the
balance of trade is in its favour.
With regard to the character of the ancient Ger¬
mans, they are defcribed to us by the Greek and Ro¬
man rvriters as refembling the Gauls •, and differing
from other nations by the largenefs of their ftature,
ruddy complexion, blue eyes, and yellow bufhy hair,
haughty and threatening looks, ftrong conftitutions,
and being proof againft hunger, cold, and all kinds of
hardfhip.
Their native difpofition difplayed itfelf chiefly, in
their martial genius, and in their lingular fidelity.
they affefted in every thing,
in 'their houfes, furniture, diet, &c. rather plainnefs
and fimplicity, than fumptuoufnefs and luxury. If
they learned of the Romans and Gauls the ufe of money,
it w as rather becaufe they found it more convenient
than their ancient way of bartering one commodity for
another *, and then they preferred thefe ancient coins
which had been ftamped during the times of the Ro¬
man liberty, efpecially fuch as were either milled or cut
in the rims, becaufe they could not be fo eafily cheated
in them as in fome others, which were frequently no¬
thing but copper or iron plated over with filver. This
laft metal they likewife preferred before gold, not
becaufe it made a greater fhaw, but becaufe it w as more
convenient for buying and felling : And as they be¬
came in time more feared by, or more ufeful to, the
Romans ; fo they learned how to draw enough of it
from them to fupply their whole country, befides what
flowed to them from other nations.
As they defpifed fuperfluities in other cafes, fo
they did alfo in the connubial way : every man was
contented with one wife, except fome few of their
nobles, who allowed themfelves a plurality, more for
Ihow than pleafure •, and both were fo faithful to each
other, and chafte, true, and difinterefted in their
conjugal affe&ion, that Tacitus prefers their manners
in this refpedt to thofe of the Romans. The men
fought not dowries from their wives, but beftowed
them upon them. Their youth, in thofe cold climes,
did not begin fo foon to feel the warmth of love , as
they do in hotter ones : it was a common rule with
them not to marry young ; and thefe Avere moft
efteemed who continued longeft in celibacy, becaufe
they looked upon it as an effe£Uial means to make
J them
G E R
[ 69
rals.
Cermany. them grow tall and ftrong ; and to marry, or be con-
1 cerned with a woman, before they were full 20 years
old, was accounted fhameful wantonnefs. The wo¬
men (hared with their hufbands not only the care
of the family, and the education of their children,
but even the hardthips of war. They attended them
in the field, cooked the victuals for them, dreffed
their wounds, ftirred them up to fight manfully againft
their enemies, and fometimes have, by their courage
and bravery, recovered a victory when it was upon
the point of being fnatched from them. In a word,
they looked upon fuch conftant attendance on them,
not as a fervitude, like the Roman dames, but as a
duty and an honour. But what appears to have been
ftill a harder fate upon the ancient German dames
was, that their great Odin excluded all thofe from
his valhalla or paradife, who did not, by fome violent
death, follow their deceafed hulbands thither. Yet
notwithftanding their having been anciently in fuch
high repute for their wifdom and fuppofed fpirit of
prophecy, and their continuing fuch faithful and ten¬
der helpmates to their hufbands, they funk in time fo
low in their efteem, that, according to the old Saxon
law, he that hurt or killed a woman was to pay but
half the fine that he fliould have done, if he had hurt
33 or killed a man.
Their fune- There is fcarcely any one thing in which the Ger¬
mans, though fo nearly allied in mod of their other
cuftoms to the Gauls, were yet more oppofite to them
than in their funerals. Thofe of the latter were per¬
formed with great pomp and profufion ; thofe of the
former were done with the fame plainnefs and fimpli-
city which they obferved in all other things j the only
grandeur they affedled in them was, to burn the bodies
of their great men with fome peculiar kinds of wood $
but then the funeral pile was neither adorned with the
clothes and other fine furniture of the deceafed, nor
perfumed with fragrant herbs and gums: each man’s
armour, that is, his fword, ihield, and fpear, were flung
into it, and fometimes his riding horfe. The Danes,
indeed, flung into the funeral pile of a prince, gold,
filver, and other precious things, which the chief
mourners, who walked in a gloomy guife round the
fire, exhorted the byftanders to fling liberally into it
in honour of the deceafed. They afterwards depofited
their afhes in urns, like the Gauls, Romans, and other
nations *, as it plainly appears, from the vaft numbers
which have been dug up all over the country, as well
as from the fundry differtations which have been writ¬
ten upon them by feveral learned moderns of that na¬
tion. One thing we may obferve, in general, that
whatever facrifices they offered for their dead, whatever
prefents they made to them at their funerals, and
whatever other fuperftitious rites they might perform
at them, all was done in confequence of thofe excellent
notions which their ancient religion had taught them,
the immortality of the foul, and the blifs or mifery of
a future life.
Tlietr belief £t is impofiible, indeed, as they did not commit any
ifate^UtUre to writing till very lately, and as none of the an¬
cient writers have given us any account of it, to guefs
how foon the belief of their great Odin, and his para¬
dife, was received among them. It may, for aught
we know, have been older than the times of Tacitus,
34
i ] G E It
and he have known nothing of it, by reafon of their Ciennany.
1'crupulous care in concealing their religion from (Iran- v——'
gers : but as they conveyed their do&rines to pofterity
by fongs and poems, and moft of the northern poets
tell us that they have drawn their intelligence from
thofe very poems which were flill preferved among
them j we may rightly enough fuppofe, that whatever
doftrines are contained in them, were formerly pro-
felfed by the generality of the nation, efpecially fince
we find their ancient praflice fo exa&ly conformable to
it. Thus, fince the fureft: road to this paradife was, to
excel in martial deeds, and to die intrepidly in the
field of battle j and fince none were excluded from it
but bafe cowards, and betrayers of their country j it is
natural to think, that the fignal and exceflive bravery
of the Germans flowed from this ancient belief of
theirs : and, if their females were fo brave and faithful
as not only to (hare with their hulbands all the dangers
and fatigues of war, but at length to follow them by a
voluntary death, into the other world j it can hardly
be attributed to any thing elfe but a ftrong perfuafion
of their being admitted to live with them in that place
of blifs. This belief, therefore, whether received ori¬
ginally from the old Celtes, or afterwards taught them
by the fince deified Odin, feems, from their general
practice, to have been univerfally received by all the
Germans, though they might differ one from another
in their notions of that future life.
The notion of a future happinefs obtained by mar¬
tial exploits, efpecially by dying fword in hand, made
them bewail the fate of thofe who lived to an old age,
as diftionourable here, and hopelefs hereafter : upon
which account, they had a barbarous way of fending
them into the other world, willing or not willing.
And this cuftom lafted feveral ages after their receiving
Chriftianity, efpecially among the Pruflians and Veni-
di $ the former of whom, it feems, defpatched by a
quick death, not only their children, the fick, fervants,
&c. but even their parents, and fometimes themfelves ;
and among the latter we have inftances of this horrid
parricide being pra&ifed even in the beginning of the
14th century. All that need be added is, that, if thofe
perfons, thus fuppofed to have lived long enough, either
defired to be put to death, or at leaft feemed cheerfuK
ly to fubmit to what they knew they could not avoid,
their exit was commonly preceded with a faff, and their
funeral with a feaft 5 but if they endeavoured to (liun
it, as it fometimes happened, both ceremonies were per¬
formed with the deeped mourning. In the former, they
rejoiced at their deliverance, and being admitted into
blifs •, in the latter, they bewailed their cowardly ex¬
cluding themfelves from it. Much the fame thing was
done towards thofe wives who betrayed a backwardnefs
to follow their dead hufbands. . ,.
We muft likewife obferve, that, In thefe funerals, asRemaik-
well as in all their other feafts, they were famed for a^e (or
drinking to excefs j and one may fay of them, above
all the other defcendants of the ancient Celtcs, that
their hofpitality, banquets, &c. confided much more
In the quantity of ftrong liquors, than in the elegance
of eating. Beer and ftrong mead, which were their na¬
tural drink, were looked upon as the chief promoters of
health, ftrength, fertility, and bravery j upon which
account, they made no fcruple to indulge themfelves to
482, the
Character
of the mo¬
dern Ger¬
mans.
G E R [69
Germany, the utmoft in them, not only in their fcafts, and efpe-
■ cially before an engagement, but even in their common
meals.
The modern Germans in their perfons are tall and
flrong built. Theladieshave generally fine complexions j
and fome of them, efpecially in Saxony, have all the
delicacy of features and fhape that are fo bewitching in
a certain ifland of Europe.
Both men and women affeft rich dreffes, which in
fafhion are the fame as in France and England, but
the better fort of men are exceflively fond of gold and
filver lace, efpecially if they are in the army. The la¬
dies at the principal courts differ not much in their
drefs from the French and Englilh, only they are not
fo exceflively fond of paint as the former. At fome
courts they appear in rich furs ; and all of them are
loaded with jewels, if they can obtain them. The fe¬
male part of the burghers families, in many German
towns, drefs in a very different manner, and fome of
them inconceivably fantallic, as may be feen in many
prints publilhed in books of travels j but in this re-
fpefl they are gradually reforming, and many of them
make quite a different appearance in their drefs from
what they did 30 or 40 years ago. As to the peafan-
try and labourers, they drefs as in other parts of Eu¬
rope, according to their employments, conveniency,
and opulence. In Weffphaiia, and moft other parts of
Germany, they lleep between two feather beds, or ra¬
ther the upper one of down, with Iheets ftretched to
them, which by ufe becomes a very comfortable prac¬
tice. The moft unhappy part of the Germans are the
tenants of little needy princes, who fqueeze them to
keep up their own grandeur $ but, in general, the cir-
cumftances of the common people are far preferable to
thofe of the French.
The Germans are naturally a frank, honeft, hofpi-
tahle people, free from artifice and difguife. The
higher orders are ridieuloufly proud of titles, anceftry,
and (how. The Germans, in general, are thought to
want animation, as their perfons promife more vigour
and aftivity than they commonly exert even in the
field of battle. But when commanded by able gene¬
rals, efpecially the Italians, fuch as Montecuculi and
Prince Eugene, they have done great things, both
againft the Turks and the French. The Imperial arms
have feldom made any remarkable figure againft either
of thofe two nations, or againft the Swedes or Spaniards,
when commanded by German generals. This poftibly
might be owing to the arbitrary obftinacy of the court
of Vienna j for in many wars the Auftrians have exhi¬
bited prodigies of military valour and genius.
Induftry, application, and perfeverance, are the
great chara&eriftics of the German nation, efpecially
the mechanical part of it. Their works of art would
be incredible were they not vifible, efpecially in watch
and clockmaking, jewellery, turnery, feulpture, draw¬
ing, painting, and certain kinds of architecture. The
Germans have been charged with intemperance in eat¬
ing and drinking j and perhaps not unjuftly, owing
to the vaft plenty of their country in wine and pro-
vifions of every kind. But thofe practices feem now
to be wearing out. At the greateft tables, though
the guefts drink pretty freely during dinner, yet the
repaid is commonly finiihed by coffee, after three or
four public toafts have been drank. But no people
2 ] G E R
have more feafting at marriages, funerals, and birth- Gemany.
days. ’ >
The German nobility are generally men of fo much
honour, that a (harper in other countries, efpecially in
England, meets with more credit if he pretends to be
a German, than of any other nation.
The merchants and tradefmen are very civil and ob¬
liging. All the fons of noblemen inherit their father's
titles, which greatly perplexes the heralds, and ge-
nealogifts of that country. This perhaps is one of
the reafons why the German hufbahds are not quite fo
complaifant as they ought othenviie to be to their la¬
dies, who are not entitled to any pre-eminece at the
table j nor indeed do they feem to affe£I it, being far
from either ambition or loquacity, though they are faid
to be fomewhat too fond of gaming. From what has
been premil'ed, it may eafily be conceived, that many
of the German nobility, having no other hereditary
eftate than a high founding title, eafily enter into
their armies, and thofe of other fovereigns.. Their
fondnefs for title is attended with many other inconve-.
niencies. Their princes think that the cultivation of
their lands, though it may treble their revenue, is be¬
low their attention; and that, as they are a fpecies of
beings fuperior to labourers of every kind, they would
demean themfelves in being concerned in the improve¬
ment of their grounds., ^
The domeftic diverfions of the Germans are the fame Amufe-
as in England", billiards, cards, dice, fencing, dan-ment:..
cing, and the like. In fummer, people of faftiion le-
pair to places of public refort, and drink the waters.
As to their field diverfions, befides their favourite one
of hunting they have bull and bear baking,, and the
like. The inhabitants of Vienna live luxurioufly, a
great part of their time being fpent in feafting and ca-
roufing ; and in winter, wdien the feveral branches of
the Danube are frozen over, and the ground covered
with {now, the ladies take their recreation in (ledges
of different fhapes, fuch as griffins, tygers, (wans,
fcallop-ffiells, &.c. Here the lady fits, dr.effed in vel¬
vet, lined with rich furs, and adorned with laces and
jewels, having on her head a velvet cap j and the
(ledge is drawn by one horfe, ftag? or other crea¬
ture^ fet off with plumes of feathers, ribands,, and •
bells*. As this diverfion is taken chiefly in the night¬
time, fervants ride before the fledge with torches, and
a gentleman fitting on the (ledge behind guides the
horfe. # 3s
The Reformation firft fpread in Germany to moft Religion
advantage j and fince the religious peace of 1555,an(l ieara"
there have been eftablkhed the Roman Catholic, pre-1
vailing moftly in the fouth ; the Lutheran in the north ;
and the Calvinift, called alfo the Reformed, near the
Rhine. Civil wars" confiderably deranged this fettle-
ment : it was, however, eftabliftied by the celebrated
peace of Weftphalia, that the religion of the Seven
States fliould remain as in 1624. Roroiffi fupe¬
rior clergy confift of 8 archbiftiops, 40 biffiops, and
many abbots. The Proteftant clergy are governed by
eonfiftories under the fovereign of each (late. The
Corpus Catholicoruin is under the dire&ion of the arch-
biffiop, eleaor of Mentz j and the Corpus Evangehco-
rum, or Proteftants, under the eleaor of Saxony j who
have the care of the public concerns of their relpeaxve
bodies. T.
Literature
TATTOO TJA l'l
f/rnir.? Ea-rf front Lcrriflm .
G E R [ 693 ] G E R
Germany Literature is in a very advanced (late throughout under the exhaufted receiver of an air pump, vith a Gtrmiiu.-
!!. almoft all Germany, but particularly in the Proteftant view to eftablifh fomething certain on the cautes of ger- m
Germ in a- ^ates> jt js lla]f a century flnce the German mination. Some of them did^ not rife at all; and the Gemri(^
^ language has been purified and cultivated ; fince which greateft part of thole which did, made very weak and -y f
various works of tafte and elegance, as well as fuperior feeble produdlions. ihus it is for want of air that leeds
produ6tions in the different walks of fcience, have ap- which are buried at a very great depth in the earth,
peared in it. There are 38 univerfities in Germany } either thrive but indifferently, or do not rife at all.
±9 Proteftant, xy Catholic, and two which partake of They frequently preferve, however, their germinating
both •, befides a number of literary focieties and acade- virtue for many years within the. bowels of the earth j
mic inftitutions: and education in general is particu- and it is not unufual, upon a piece of ground.being
larly attended to even in the very loweft ranks. newly dug to a confiderable depth, to obferve it foon
We have faid nothing of the part which the ftates of after covered with fijveral plants, which had . not been
Germany, either individually or as a body, naturally feen there in the memory of man. Were this precau-
took in the late revolution in France. It would indeed tion frequently repeated, it would doubtlefs be the
be only an unneceffary repetition of the hiftory of tranf- means of recovering certain fpecies of plants which are
actions already detailed under France and Britain. Of regarded as loft or which perhaps, never coming to
the changes in the government of particular ftates, or the knowledge of botanifts, might hence appear the re-
rather in the names of the rulers, we ftiall fay nothing, fult of a new creation. Some feeds require a .gieater
Thefe changes, made at the inftigation of France, will quantity of air than others, ihus purflain which does
probably not fatisfy the inordinate ambition and grow- not rife till after lettuce in the fiee air, rifes before it
ing power of her prefent ruler, and therefore will not in vacuo; and both proiper but little, or peiith alto-
be permanent. gether, while creffes vegetate as freely as in the open
GERMEN, the feed bud 5 defined by Linnaeus to air.
be the bafe of the piltillum, which contains the rudi- GERONTES, in antiquity, a kind of Judges, or
ments of the feed 5 and, in progrefs of vegetation, magiftrates, in ancient Sparta, anfwering to what the
fwells and becomes the feed veffel. Areopagites were at Athens. See Areopagus.
In affimilating the vegetable and animal kingdoms, ' The word is formed of the Greek ysgav, which figm-
Linnams denominates the feed bud the ovarium or fies “ old man.” WTence alfo the w ords get antict
uterus of plants ; and affirms its exiftence to be chief- fomething belonging to an old man ; and Geronicon, a
ly at the time of the difperfion of the male duft by the famous book among the modern Gietks, containing the
anthene ; as, after its impregnation, it becomes a feed lives of the ancient monks. The ienate of gerontes was
veffel. See Botany. called gerujia, that is, aflembly or council of old men.
GERMEN, by Pliny and the ancient botanifts, is ufed The gerontes were originally inftituted by Lycur-
to fignify a bud containing the rudiments of the leaves, gus: their number, according to fome, was 28 j.and,
See Gemma. according to others, 32. They governed in conjunc-
GERMINATION, among botanifts, comprehends tion with the king, whofe authority they were intend-
the precife time which the feeds take to rife after they ed to balance, and to watch oyer the i.nterefts of the
have been committed to the foil.—The different fpecies people. Polybius defines their office in few words.,
of feeds are longer or ffiorter in rifing according to the when he fays, ipfos^ et cum ipjis, omnia adminijiran.
degree of heat which is proper to each. Millet, wheat, None were to be admitted, into this office under 60
and feveral of the graffes, rife in one day j blite, years of age, and they held it for life. 1 hey were fuc-
fpinach, beans, muftard, kidney beans, turnips, and roc- ceeded by the ephori.
ket, in three days j lettuce and dill, in four; cucum- GEROPOGON, a genus of plants belonging to the
ber, gourd, melon, and crefs, in five; radifti and beet, fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
in fix; barley, in fevtn ; orach, in eight; purflain, in under the 49*^ order, Compojhtv. See Botany Index.
nine; cabbage, in ten; hyffop, in thirty; parfley, in GERREIZ. See Rembrandt.^
forty or fifty days; peach, almond, walnut, chefnut, GERVAISE, or GervaSE, of lilbury, a famous
peony, horned poppy, hypecoum, and ranunculus fal- Englifh writer of the 13th century; thus named from
catus, in one year; role buftr, cornel tree, hawthorn, his being born at iilbury on the lhames. He w'asne-
medlar, and hazel nut, in two. The feeds of fome phew to Henry II. king of England ; and was in great
fpecies of orchis, and of fome liliaceous plants, never credit with Otho IV. emperor of Germany, to whom
rife at all. Of feeds, fome require to be fowed almoft: he dedicated a Defcription of the World,, and a Chro-
as foon as they are ripe, otherwife they will not fprout nicle. He alfo compofed a Hiftory of England, that
or germinate. Of this kind are the feeds of coffee and of the Holy Land, and other works,
fraxinella. Others, particularly thofe of the pea-bloom GERUND, in Grammar, a verbal noun of the neu-
flowers, preferve their germinating faculty for a feries ter gender, partaking of the nature of a participle, de-
of years. Mr Adanfon afferts, that the fenfttive plant clinable only in the Angular number, through all the
retains that virtue for 30 or 40 years. cafes except the vocative; as nom. amandum, gen. tf-
Air and water are the agents of germination. The mandi, dat. amando, accuf. amandum, abl. amando. the
humidity of the air alone makes feveral feeds to rife word is formed of the Latin gerundivus, and that from
that are expofed to it. Seeds too are obferved to rife the verb gerere, “ to bear.”
in water, without the intervention of earth; but wra- The expreffes not only thebut alfo^the
ter without air is infuffieient. Mr Flomberg’s experi- manner of an aflion ; as, “ he fell in running port.-
ments on this head are decifive. He put feveral feeds It differs from the participle,inthatitexpreffesthe/zOT£’,
which-
Gerund
n
Gelner.
G E S [694
which the participle does not $ and from the tenfe pro¬
perly fo called, in that it expreffes the manner, which
, the tenfe does not. See Grammar.
GERUND A, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Aufetani, in the Hither Spain, on the fouth or right
fide of the river Sambroca, Gerundenfes, the people,
Now Gironne in Catalonia, on the Ter. E. Long. 2.
35. N. Lat. 42.
GESNER, Conrad, a celebrated phyfician and
naturalifi, was born at Zurich in 1516. Having fi-
nifiied his ftudies in France, he travelled into Italy,
and taught medicine and philofophy in his own coun¬
try with extraordinary reputation. He was acquaint¬
ed with the languages 5 and excelled fo much in natu¬
ral hiftory, that he was furnamed the Pliny of Germany.
He died in 1564, leaving many works behind him $
the principal of which are, 1. A hiftory of animals,
plants, and foflils ; 2. BibliothecaVniverfa/is. A Greek
and Latin lexicon. This author is by Boerhaave em¬
phatically ftyled Monjlrum Eruditionis, “ a prodigy of
learning.” Thofe indeed (as Mr Coxe obferves in his
Letters on Switzerland) “ who are converfant wdth the
works of this great fcholar and naturalift, cannot reprefs
their wonder and admiration at the amplitude of his
knowledge in every fpecies of erudition, and the varie¬
ty of his difeoveries in natural hiftory, which was his
peculiar delight. Their wonder and admiration is ftill
further augmented, when they confider the grofs igno¬
rance of the age which he helped to enlighten, and
the fcanty fuccours he poffelfed to aid him in thus ex¬
tending the bounds of knowledge j that he compofed
his works, and made thofe difeoveries which would
have done honour to the moft enlightened period, un¬
der the complicated evils of poverty, ficknefs, and do-
meftic uneafmefs.”
Gesner, Solomon, the celebrated author of the
death of Abel and many other admired w'orks in the
German language, was born at Zurich in the year
1730. In his early years he ftiowed very fewr figns of
fuperior abilities; and his progrefs in the rudiments
of education was fo flow, that his mafter gave him up
as incapable of any greater attainments than writing
and the four firft rules of arithmetic. Upon this he
was placed under a clergyman in the neighbourhood,
a relation of his father’s, and who Ihowed himfelf bet¬
ter acquainted with the art of difeovering the natural
inclinations of his pupils. This gentleman often car¬
ried young Gefner with him into the fields, where he
made him obferve the beauties of nature j and find¬
ing that he took greater pleafure in fuch leflbns, and
feemed to liften to them with peculiar attention, he
occafionally repeated fome of the moft ftriking paf-
fages of the ancient authors, who have written on
thefe fubje&s, in the moft agreeable and pleafing man¬
ner. By this ingenious artifice, the mind of young
Gefner began to open, and its powers to expand ; and
it is, perhaps, owing to this circumftance, that he be¬
came fo fond of the language of Virgil and Theocritus.
When he arrived at a proper age to think of pur-
fuing fome line of bufinefs, Mr Gefner made choice of
that of a bookfeller, which was the profeflion of his
father, and in fome meafure of his family. Of five
houfes at Zurich in the printing and bookfelling bufi¬
nefs, two were occupied by Gefners: one belonged
to two brothers of that name j and the other, that in
1 G E S
which our poet had a (hare, was known by the firm
of Orel, Gefner, and Company. It was know n alfo by ^
the extent of its correfpondenee, and by the choice
and elegance of the works which it gave to the public.
Though Mr Gefner was a bookfeller, he did not,
however, damp his genius, by fubmitting to the drud¬
gery of bufinefs. He indulged himfelf freely in pur-
fuing his favourite objedl, and his partners never en¬
vied him that time which he devoted to meditation
and to ftudy. In 1752, he made a tour through Ger¬
many, not fo much for the purpofe of extending his
commerce, as to fee and be acquainted with thofe au¬
thors who have done honour to their country. The
following circumftance, which occurred during this
tour, deferves to be mentioned, as it is ftrikingly cha-
radteriftic of that timidity which often accompanies
true genius. When Mr Gefner was at Berlin, he was
admitted into a literary fociety, of which Gleim and
Lefling were members. Each of the authors who
compofed it ufed to read in turn fome pieces of their
own compofition, and Mr Gefner was very defirous of
fubmitting to thefe able critics a fmall work, which was
his firft attempt 5 but was far from refembling thofe
poets, whom Horace and other fatirifts have ridiculed,
and who ftun every one they meet by reciting their
verfes before them. As each of the members had done
reading, Gefner was obferved to move his hand with a
kind of tremor towards his pocket, and to draw it back
again without the manufeript which he ought to have
produced. Having not as yet publifhed any thing,
none of the company could guefs the caufe of a motion
which his modefty prevented him from explaining.
The work wdiich he had not the courage to {how, was
his fmall poem, entitled Night, which he publiftied on
his return to Zurich in 1753. It was confidered as an
original, of which no model is to be found among the
moderns j but in the opinion of the author, it was
only a piece of imaginary painting, or, to ufe an ex-
preflion of his own, in one of his letters to Mr Huber
who has tranflated his works, “ A caricature com¬
pofed in the moments of folly or intoxication.” In
this little poem he has introduced a fttort epifode on
the origin of the glow-worm, containing a poetical
explanation of this natural phofphorus, which has all
the beauty of Ovid’s Metamorphofes without their pro¬
lixity. The fuccefs of this effay emboldened the too
timid mufe of our young bookfeller, and he publilhed
a paftoral romance, called Daphnis, in three cantos.
The applaufe that was defervedly beftowed upon this
performance induced the author to publifh, fome time
after, his Idylls and fome other rural poems in imi¬
tation of thofe of Theocritus. Paftoral poetry, which
at this time was little known in Germany but by
tranfiations from foreign poets, began to find many
partisans, and to be preferred to every other kind.
Defirous, therefore, of tracing out a new path for him¬
felf, our poet thought that he could not do a more
acceptable fervice to his countrymen, than to paint
the felicity of innocence and rural life, and the tender
emotions of love and gratitude. The only author
w'orthy of notice who had preceded Mr Gefner in this
career, was Mr Roft of Leipfic, whofe paftoral poems
appeared for the firft time in 1744. This writer po-
lilhed the language of the German ftiepherds 5 he had
addrefs enough to unite fpirit and fimplicity in a kind
of
Gefner.
G E S [ 695 ] G E S
Gefner. of writing which appears infipid without the former,
—v and which becomes unnatural and difgufting if it is
too abundant. He fometimes throws a delicate veil over
thofe images which are deficient in decency, but it is
to be regretted that it is often too light. Such was
the antagonift againfi; whom Gefner had to contend.
Our poet, however, purfued a different courfe. In-
ftead of placing, like Roll, his fcenes in modern times,
he goes back with Theocritus to the golden age, that
happy age which we are fond of reviewing when our
paflions are calm, and when freed from thofe anxious
cares which hurry us beyond ourfelves, we contem¬
plate amidit tranquillity the beauties and fertility of
the country. The characters of Gefner’s Idylls, there¬
fore, are taken from thofe focieties which exift no
longer but in the remembrance, or rather the imagina¬
tion. His fhepherds are fathers, children, and huf-
bands, who blufh not at thefe titles fo dear to nature,
and to whom generofity, beneficence, and refpeCt for
the Deity are fentiments no lefs familiar than love.
Thefe Idylls were the principal and favourite objeCt of
his purfuit, and that part of his works which acquired
him the greateft reputation, efpecially among his coun¬
trymen. His death of Abel, which is w’ell known, was
publifhed for the firft time in 1758. It is written,
like the reft of his pieces, in poetical profe ; and wras
fo much fought after, that it went through no lefs
than three editions in the fpace of a year, without
fpeaking of the fpurious ones which appeared in Hol¬
land, at Berlin, and in France. The French edition
was followed by feveral others. One came out in Ita¬
lian ’, another in the Dutch language •, a fourth in the
Danifh : and laftly, two in Englifh, one of them in
profe and the other in verfe. Among the pieces which
Mr Gefner publifhed after the death of Abel was his
Firft Navigator, a poem in three cantos, which many
people in Germany confider as his mafterpiece. He
made an attempt alfo in the paftoral drama, but not
with the fame fuccefs as in other kinds of rural poetry.
He produced likewife, in the fame ftyle, Evander and
Alcimne, in three afts; and Eraftus, a fmall piece of
one a£t, which was reprefented with fome applaufe in
feveral focieties, both at Leipfic and Vienna.
But though poetry was Gefner’s darling purfuit,
and though he enriched the literature of his country
with works which will render his name immortal, he
did not confine himfelf to one manner of imitating na¬
ture ; he in turns took up the pencil and the pen, and
his a&ive genius equally dire£led them both. In his
infancy he had received a few leffons in drawing, and
he had afterwards purfued his ftudy, but without any
intention of becoming an artift. At the age of thirty
he felt that violent defire, which may be confidered as
the voice of genius 5 and this w as in fome meafure ex¬
cited by the fight of a beautiful colleftion formed by
Mr Heidegger, whofe daughter he had married. To
pleafe his father-in-law, he ftudied this treafure, com-
pofed principally of the beft pieces of the Flemifh
fchool; and to this new lafte he had almoft facrificed
every other, Mr Gefner at firft ventured only to de¬
lineate fome decorations for the frontifpieces of curious
books printed in his office 5 but by little and little
he had the courage to make other attempts. In 1765,
he publifhed 10 landfcapes etched and engraved by hiia-
felf, and dedicated them to his friend Mr Wallet. Mr Gefaer.
Gefner owed him this mark of refpeft for the care 1 ^ "
which he took to ornament with beautiful vignettes
Mr Huber’s tranflation of his Idylls. Tw'elve other
pieces appeared in 1769 ; and after thefe attempts, Mr
Gefner executed ornaments for many works which
came from his preffes, among which were his own
works, a German tranflation of Swift, and feveral
others.
Were we to judge from Mr Gefner’s enthufiafm for
his favourite purfuits, and from the time and atten¬
tion which he bellowed upon them, we ffiould be apt
to conclude, that he found little leifure for difeharging
his duty as a citizen. The contrary however, was
the cafe, for he puffed almoft the half of his life in the
firft employments of the ftate. In 1765 he was called
to the grand council, in 1767 to the leffer. In 1768
he was appointed bailiff of Elibach, that of the four
guards in 1776, and in 1781 fuperintendant of waters,
which office in 1787 was continued to him for fix
years. In all thefe Rations Mr Gefner difeharged his
duty w ith the moft fcrupulous fidelity •, and died of a
paralytical diforder, lamented by his countrymen and
by thofe who had the pleafure of his acquaintance, on
the 2d of March 1788, at the age of 56.
As a paftoral poet, Gefner undoubtedly is entitled
to a very diftinguifhed rank : and we may juftly fay,
that if he has been equalled by any, he has been excel¬
led by none. It is commonly believed, that paftoral
poetry is very limited and confined j but thofe who
read the works of Gefner will be convinced, that it is
fufceptible of much variety when treated of by the
hand of a mafter. His paftoral romance of Daphnis is
not inferior in natural fimplicity to the celebrated work
of Longus *, but it furpaffes it far in variety of images-
and incident. Eraftus and Evander are inrtru&ive and
interefting poems, on account of the contrail between
the world and nature which reigns throughout them j
and his Firft Navigator unites the mildeft philofo-
phy to all the fplendour and imagery of Fairy Land.
If we analyze his dramatic poems, we ffiall find in
them inter-elling fictions, chara£ters well delineated,
and fituations replete with novelty. His language is
that of the Graces, and the chafteft ears might liften
to the love which he has created. If he has iometimes
the humour of Sterne and Fontaine, it is without their
licentioufnefs. The fevereft tafte can find in his writ¬
ings, no lacuna to fupply, no phrafe deferving repre-
henfion, nor could a more ingenious choice of expref-
fions be fubftituted in the room of thofe which he has
adopted.—Gefner’s character as a man, appears to be
no lefs amiable. In whatever point of view we confi¬
der him, whether as a hulband, a father, a friend, a
magiftrate, or a citizen, his virtues are equally con-
fpicuous. He was naturally of a melancholy turn, but
he was no enemy to rational and well-timed mirth y
while the mildnefs and affability of his temper rendered
his company alvvays engaging, and endeared him to
thofe who had the pleafure of his acquaintance. Pof-
feffed of that noblenefs of fentiment, united with great
modefty, which is the ufual attendant of true genius,,
he w-as fimple in his external appearance, as well as in,
his converfation. His language was lively and animat¬
ed ; but hisreferve before ftrangers refembled timidity.
GET [ 696 ] G H E
and it was only in the prefence of thofe with whom he
was acquainted, that his real character appeared in its
full iultre.
Mr Gefner’s reputation and virtues were known even
to the remoteft parts of Europe. The emprefs of Ruflia
Catharine 11, prefented him with a gold medal as a mark
of her efteem. Strangers of all nations gave him no lefs
flattering teftimonies of their admiration ■, and travellers
thought they had feen only the half of Switzerland, if
they had not been in the company of Gefner, or pro¬
cured feme of his landfcapes or drawings. In this laft
way he had acquired fo much reputation, that he was
ranked among the bell artifts of Germany j and Mr
Fufeli, his countryman, who was himfelf a painter, in
the preface to the third volume of the new edition which
he publilhed of his ‘ Hiftorical efiay on the painters,
engravers, architedls, and fculptors, who have done ho¬
nour to Switzerland,’ gives a dillinguilhed place to Mr
Gefner, though then living.
GESNERI A, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs., and in the natural method ranking
under the 40th order, Pcrfonatce. See Botany Index.
GESSORIACUM, in Ancient Geography, a port and
Ration for flxips of the Morini in Belgica. In Caefar’s
time, according to Dio, there was no town but Fionas
fpeaks of it as one : and the Gefforiacenfes Muri are
mentioned by Eumenius in his panegyric. The au¬
thor of Tabula Theodofiana, commonly called Peutin-
ger's map, fays exprefsly, that Gefforiacum was in his
time called Bononia. Now Boulogne in Picardy. E.
Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 50. 40.
GESTATION, among phyficians. See Preg¬
nancy.
GESTRICIA, a province of Sweden, bounded by
Helfingia on the north, by the Bothnic gulf on the
call, by Upland on the fouth, and by Dalecarlia on
the weft.
GESTURE, a motion of the body, intended to
lignify feme idea or paflion of the mind. It confifts
principally in the action of the hands and face*, and
may be defined, a fuitable conformity of the motions of
the countenance, and of feveral parts of the body, in
fpeaking, to the fubjefl matter of the diicourfe. See
Declamation and Oratory.
GET A, Septimus, a fon of the emperor Severus,
brother to Caracalla. In the eighth year of his age,
he was moved with compaflion at the fate of fome of
the partizans of Niger and Albinus who were to be
executed, and his father ftruck with his humanity re¬
traced the fentence. After Severus’s death he reign¬
ed at Rome conjointly with his brother 5 but Caracalla,
who envied his virtues and was jealous of his popula¬
rity, ordered him to be poifoned } and when this
could not be effefted, he murdered him in the arms of
his mother Julia, who in the attempt of defending the
fatal blows from his body received a wound in her arm,
from the hand of her fon, A. D. 212. Geta had not
yet reached the 23d year of Ills age, and the Romans
had reafon to lament the death oi fo virtuous a piince,
while they groaned under the cruelties and oppreflion
- of Caracalla.
GETH1N, Lady Grace, an EnglRh lady of un¬
common parts, was the daughter of Sir George Nor¬
ton of Abbots-Leigh in Somerfi tlhire, and born in
the year 1676. She had all the advantages of a libe¬
ral education ; and became the w ife of Sir Richard Gethia
Gethin, of Gethin Grott in Ireland. She was mi-
ftrefs of great accomplithments, natural and acquired, __ "’‘C
but did not live long enough to dilplay them to the
world ; for the died in the 21ft: year of her age. She
was buried in Weftminfter abbey, where a beautiful
monument with an infeription is erected over her j and,
for perpetuating her memory, provifion was made for
a fermon to be preached in Weftminfter abbey yearly,
on Ath Wed net day for ever. She wrote, and left be¬
hind her, in loofe papers, a work which, foon after
her death, was methodized, and publiihed under the
title of “ Reliquiae Gethinionae ; or, Some remains of
the moft ingenious and excellent lady, Grace, lady
Gethin, lately deceafed. Being a collection of choice
difeourfes, pleafant apophthegms, and witty fenterices.
Written by her, for the moft part, by way of effay, and
at fpare hours.” Lond. 1700, qtoj with her pifture
before it.
GETHSEMANE, in Ancient Geography, a village
in the mount of Olives, whither Jefus Chrift fometimes
retreated in the night time. It was in a garden be¬
longing to this village that he fuffered the agony in
which he fweated drops of blood *, and here he was ar-
refted by Judas and the reft who were conduced by
this traitor. The place is by Maundrel deferibed as
an even plot of ground, not above 57 yards fquare, ly¬
ing between the foot of Mount Olivet and the brook
Cedron.
GETHYLLIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
dodecandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the ninth order Spathacece. See Botany Index.
GEUM, AVENS, or Herb Bennet, a genus of plants
belonging to the icofandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 35th order, Senticofee. See
Botany Index.
GHENT, a city of the Aufirian Netherlands, ca¬
pital of the province of Flanders. It is feated on four
navigable rivers, the Scheldt, the Lys, the Lieve, and
the Moere, which run through it, and divide it into
canals. Thefe form 26 little ifles, over which there
are 300 bridges: among which there is one remark¬
able for a ftatue of brafs of a young man, who was ob¬
liged to cut off his father’s head j but as he was going
to ftrike, the blade flew into the air, and the hilt re¬
mained in his hand, upon which they were both par¬
doned. There is a picture of the whole tranfailion in
the townhoufe. Ghent is furrounded with walls and
other fortifications, and is tolerably ftrong for a place
of its circumference. But all the ground within the
walls is not built upon. The ftreets are large and Avell
paved, the market places fpacious, and the houfes built
with brick. But the Friday’s market place is the lar-
geft, and is remarkable for the ftatue of Charles V.
which ftands upon a pedeftal in the imperial habit.
That of Cortere is remarkable for a fine walk under
feveral rows of trees. In 1737 a fine opera houfe
was built here, and a guard houfe for the garrifon.
Near the town is a very high tower, with a handfome
clock and chimes. The great bell weighs 11,000
pounds.
This town is famous for the pacification figned here,
in *526, for fettling the tranquillity of the Seventeen
Provinces, which was afterwards confirmed by the
king of Spain. It was taken by Louis XIV. in 1678,
who
G H O [ 697 ] G H O
Client, who afterwards redored it. The French took poflcf-
Glioft. flon Gf Jt again after the death of Charles II. of Spain.
In 1736, it was taken by the duke of Marlborough j
and by the French in 1738-, but it was retaken the
fame year. Lad of all, the French took it by fur-
prife after the battle of Fontenoy ; but at the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, it was rendered back. It was alfo
taken by the French in 1794. This is the birth-place
of John of Gaunt. It is very well feated for trade, on
account of its rivers and canals. It carries on a great
commerce in corn ; and has linen, woollen, and filk
raanufa&ures. The number of inhabitants is about
73,000. E. Long. 3. 50. N. Lat. 51. 14.
GHOST, an apparition, or fpirit of a perfon de¬
ceas’d.
The ancients fuppofed every man to be polfeffed of
three different ghofts, which after the diffolution of
the human body were differently difpofed of. Thefe
three ghoffs were diffinguilhed by the names of Manes,
Spivilus, Umbra, The manes, they fancied, went down
into the infernal region ; the fpintus afeended to the
(kies ; and the umbra hovered about the tomb, as being
unwilling to quit its old connexions. Thus Dido
(Virg. ^n. iv. 384.) threatens iEneas after death that
fhe will haunt Him with her umbra, whilft her manes
rejoices in his torments below. This idea of a threefold
foul is very clearly expr'effed in thefe lines, which have
keen attributed to Gvid.
Bis duo funt In mini: Manes, Caro, Spiritus, Umbra :
Qua in or i/ia loci bis duo Jufcipiunt.
Terra legit Carnem, tumulum circumvolat Umbra,
Orcus habet Makes, SPIRITUS af>ra petit.
Thu moft linking outlines of the popular fuperfti-
ttons refpefting gholls among us, are thus humoroufly
colle&ed by Captain Grofe in his Provincial Gloffary :
“ A ghoft is fuppofed to be the fpirit of a perfon de-
ceafed, who is either commiffioned to return for feme
fpecial errand, fuch as the difeovery of a murder, to
procure reffitution of lands or money unjuftly withheld
from an orphan or widow—or, having committed fome
injultiee whilft living, cannot reft till that is redreffed.
Sometimes the occafion of fpirits revifiting this world,
is to inform their heir in what fecret place, or private
drawer in an old trunk, they had hidden the title deeds
of the eftate; or where, in troublefome times, they
buried their money or plate. Some ghofts of mur¬
dered perfons, whofe bodied have been fecretly buried,
cannot be at eafe till their bones have been taken up,
and depofited in confecrated ground with all the rites
of Chriftiati burial.
“ Sometimes ghofts appear in confequence of an
agreement made, whilft living, with fome particular
friend, that he who firft died Ihould appear to the fur-
vivor.
“ Glanvil tells us of the ghoft of a perfon who had
lived but a diforderly kind of life, for which it was
condemned to wander up and down the earth, in the
company of evil fpirits, till the day of judgment.
“ In moft of the relations of ghofts, they are fup¬
pofed to be mere aerial beings, without fubftance, and
that they can pafs through tvalls and other folid bo¬
dies at pleafure. A particular inftance of this is given,
in relation the 27th, in Glanvil’s colle&ion, where one
David Hunter, neat-herd to the biftiop of Down and
VOL. IX. Part II.
Connor was for a long time haunted by the appari¬
tion of an old woman, whom he was by a fecret impulfe
obliged to follow' whenever {he appeared, which he
fays he did for a conftderable time, even if in bed with
his wife : and becaufe his wife could not hold him iri
his bed, fhe would go too, and walk after him till
day, though file faw nothing ; but his little dog was
fo well acquainted with the apparition, that he would
follow it as ■well as his mafter. If a tree flood in her
walk, he obferved her always to go through it. Not-
withftanding this feeming immateriality, this very
ghoft was not without fome fubftance ; for, having per¬
formed her errand, Ibe defired Hunter to lift her from,
the ground ; in the doing of which, he fays, fhe felt
juft like a bag of feathers. We fometimes alfo read of
ghofts ftriking violent blows j and that, if not made
way for, they overturn all impediments, like a furious
whirlwind. Glanvil mentions an inftance of this, in
relation 17th, of a Dutch lieutenant who had the fa¬
culty of feeing ghofts ; and who being prevented mak¬
ing way for one which he mentioned to fome friends
as coming towards them, was, with his companions,
violently thrown down, andforely bruifed. We further
learn, by relation 16th, that the hand of a ghoft is ‘ as
cold as a clod.’
“ The ufual time at which gh^fts make their appear¬
ance is midnight, and feldom before it is dark : though
fome audacious fpirits have been faid to appear even by
day light : but of this there are few inftances, and
thofe moftly ghofts who have been laid, perhaps in the
Red fea (of which more hereafter), and whofe times of
confinement were expired ; thefe, like felons confined
to the lighters, are faid to return more troublefome and
daring than before. No ghofts can appear on Chrift-
mas eve; this Shakefpeare has put into the mouth of
one of his characters in Hamlet.
“ Ghofts commonly appear in the fame drefs they
ufually wore whilft living, though they are fometimes
clothed all in white ; but that is chiefly the church¬
yard ghofts, who have no particular bufintfs, but feem
to appear pro bono publico, or to fcare drunken ruftics
from tumbling over their graves.
“ 1 cannot learn that ghofts carry tapers in their
hands, as they are fometimes depicted, though the
room in which they appear, if without fire or candle,
is frequently faid to be as light as day. Dragging
chains is not the falhion of Englilh ghofts j chains and
black veftments being chiefly the accoutrements of
foreign fpeftres feen in arbitrary governments : dead or
alive, Englifh fpirits are free. One inftance, however,
of an Englifh ghoft dreffed in black is found in the ce¬
lebrated ballad of William and Margaret, in the fol¬
lowing lines :
And clay cold was her lily hand
That held her fable Jhroud.
This, however, may be confidered as a poetical licenfe,
ufed, in all likelihood, for the fake of the oppofition of
lily to fable.
“ If, during the time of an apparition, there is a
lighted candle in the room, it will burn extremely blue:
this is fo univerfally acknowledged that many eminent
philofophers have bufied themfelves in accounting for it,
without once doubting the truth of the fa6t. Dogs,
too, have the faculty ef feeing fpirits, as is inftanced in
4 X David
Ohoff.
G H O [ 698 ] G H O
G'.oft. David Hunter’s relation above quoted j but in that cafe
they ufually (how ligns of terror, by whining and creep-:
ing to their mafter for proteftion } and it is generally
fuppofed that they often fee things of this nature when
their owner cannot j there being fome perfons, particu¬
larly thofe born on a Chriftmas eve, who cannot fee
fpirits.
“ The coming of a fpirit is announced fome time
before its appearance, by a variety of loud and dread¬
ful noifes; fometimes rattling in the old hall like a
coach and fix, and rumbling up and down the itair-
cafe like the trundling of bowls or cannon balls. At
length the door flies open, and the fpeftre ftalks flowly
up to the bed’s foot, and opening the curtains, looks
itedfaflly at the perfon in bed by whom it is feen 5
a ghoft being very rarely vifible to more than one per-
fon, although there are feveral in company. It is here
neceflary to obferve, that it has been univerfally found
by experience, as well as affirmed by diverfe appari¬
tions themfelves, that a ghofl has not the power to
ipeak till it has been firft ipoken to 5 fo that, notwith-
ftanding the urgency of the bufinefs on which it may
come, every thing muft Hand if ill till the perfon vifited
tan find fufficient courage to fpeak to it: an event that
fometimes does not U ke place for many years. It.has
not been found that female ghofts are more loquacious
than thofe of the male fex, both being equally reftrain-
ed by this law.
“ The mode of addrefling a ghoft is by command¬
ing it, in the name of the Three Perfons of the Trinity,
to tell you who it is, and what is its bufinefs ; this it
may be neceffary to repeat three times j after which
it will, in a low and hollow' voice, declare its fatisfac-
tion at being fpoken to, and defire the party addref-
fing it not to be afraid, for it will do him no harm.
This being premifed, it commonly enters into its nar¬
rative j which being completed, and its requeft or
commands given, with injunctions that they be imme¬
diately executed, it vanilhes away, frequently in a flaffi
of light 5 in which cafe, fome ghofts have been fo con-
fiderate as to defire the party to whom they appeared
to (hut their eyes : fometimes its departure is attended
with delightful mufic. During the narration of its
bufinefs, a ghoft muft by no means be interrupted by
queftions of any kind j fo doing is extremely danger¬
ous : if any doubts arife, they muft be ftated after
the fpirit has done its tale. Queftions refpeCling its
ftate, or the ftate of any of their former acquaintance,
are offenfive, and not often anfwered 5 fpirits perhaps
being reft rained from divulging the fecrets of their
prifon houfe. Occafionally fpirits will even condefcend
to talk on common occurrences, as is inftanced by
Glanvil in the apparition of Major George Sydenham
to Captain William Dyke, relation 10th, wherein the
major reproved the captain for fuffering a fword he had
given him to grow rufty : faying, ‘ Captain, captain,
this fword did not ufe to be kept after this manner
when it was mine.’ This attention to the ftate of
arms, was a remnant of the major’s profeflional duty
when living.
“ It is fomewhat remarkable that ghofts do not
go about their bufinefs like the perfons of this world.
In cafes of murder, a ghoft, inrtead of going to the
next juftice of the peace, and laying its information, or
to the neareft relation of the perfon murdered, appears
to fome poor labourer who know's none of the parties, Gfioft.
draws the curtains of feme decrepit nurfe or alms
.woman, or hovers about the place where his body is
depofited. The fame circuitous mode is purfutd with
refptCi to redrefling injured orphans or wfidows j when
it feems as if the fhorteft and moft certain way would
be, to go to the perfon guilty of the injuftice, and
haunt him continually till he be terrified into a reftitu-
tion. Nor is the pointing out loft writings generally
managed in a more fummary w ay j the ghoft common¬
ly applying to a third perfon ignorant of the whole
affair, and a ftranger to all concerned. But it is pre-
fumptuous to ferutinize too far into thefe matters :
ghofts have undoubtedly forms and cuiloms peculiar to
themfelves.
“ If, after the firft appearance, the perfons employ¬
ed negleft, or are prevented from, performing the mef-
fage or bufinefs committed to their management, the
ghoft appears continually to them, at firft with a dif-
contented, next an angry, and at length with a furious,
countenance, threatening to tear them in pieces if the
matter is not forthwith executed fometimes terrifying
them, as in Glanvil’s relation 26th, by appearing in
many formidable ftiapes, and fometimes even ftriking
them a violent blow'. Of blows given by ghofts there
are many inftances, and fome wherein they have been
followed with an incurable lamenefs.
“ It (hould have been obferved, that ghofts, in deli¬
vering their commiffions, in order to enfure belief,
communicate to the perfons employed fome fecret,
known only to the parties concerned and themfelves,
the relation of which always produces the effeft in¬
tended. The bufinefs being completed, ghofts appear
with a cheerful countenance, faying they ihall now be
at reft, and will never more difturb any one j and,
thanking their agents, by way of reward communicate
to them fomething relative to themfelves, which they
will never reveal.
“ Sometimes ghofts appear, and difturb a houfe,
without deigning to give any reafon for fo doing: with
thefe, the Ihorteft and only way is to exorcife, and
ejeft them •, or, as the vulgar term is, lay them. Tor
this purpofe there muft be two or three clergymen, and
the ceremony muft be performed in Latin j a language
that ftrikes the moft audacious ghoft with terror.
A ghoft may be laid for any term lets than IOO
years, and in any place or body, full or empty } as, a
folid oak—the pommel of a fword—a barrel of beer,
if a yeoman or fimple gentleman—or a pipe of wine,
if an efquire or a juftice. But of all peaces the moft
common, and what a ghoft leaf! likes, is the Red
fea 5 it being related, in many inftances, that ghofts
have moft oarneltiy befought the exoreifts not to con¬
fine them in that place. It is nevertheltis confidered as
an indifputable facl, that there are an infinite number
laid there, perhaps from its being a later prifon than
any other nearer at hand } though neither hiftory nor
tradition gives us any inftance of ghofts efcaping or re¬
turning from this kind of tranfpoi tation before their
time.
“ Another fpecies of human apparition may be here
noticed, though it does not come under the itridt de-
feription of a ghoft. Thefe are the exaft figures and
refemblances of perfons then living, often ieen not only
by their friends at a diftance, but many times by them¬
felves 5
G I A
[ 699 ]
G I A
Ghoft
Giant.
fclves ; of which there are feveral inftatices in Aubery’s
Mifcellanies; one of Sir Richard Napier, a phyfician
of London, who being on the road from Bedfordihire
to vifit a friend in Berkfhire, faw at an inn his own ap¬
parition lying on his bed as a dead corpfe 5 he never-
thelefs went forward, and died in a fliort time : ano¬
ther of Lady Diana Rich, daughter of the earl of
Holland, who met her own apparition walking in a
garden at Kenfington, and died a month after of the
fmallpox. Thefe apparitions are called fetches; in
Cumberland,Tuw/Zm'; and in Scotland, wraiths: they
moft commonly appear to diftant friends and relations,
at the -very inftant preceding the death of the perfon
whofe figure they put on. Sometimes, as in the in-
ftances above mentioned, there is a greater interval be¬
tween the appearance and death.’’ For a philofophical
inquiry into the fubjeft of apparitions in general, fee
the article Spectre.
GIAGH, in Chronologij, a cycle of 12 years; in
ufe among the Turks and Cathayans.
Each year of a giagh bears the name of fome ani¬
mal : the firft that of a moufe ; the fecond that of a
bullock ; the third of a lynx or leopard ; the fourth
of a hare ; the fifth of a crocodile ; the fixth of a fer-
pent ; the feventh of a horfe ; the eighth of a (beep ;
the ninth of a monkey ; the tenth of a hen ; the
eleventh of a dog ; and the twelfth of a hog.
They alfo divide the day into 1 2 parts, which they
call giaghs, and diftinguilh them by the name of fome
animals. Each giagh contains two of our hours, and
is divided into eight kehs, as many as there are quar¬
ters in our hours.
GIALLOLINO, in Natural Hiflonj, a fine yellow
pigment, much ufed under the name of Naples Yel¬
low.
GIANT, a perfon of extraordinary bulk and fla-
ture.
The romances of all ages have furnilhed us with fo
many extravagant accounts of giants of incredible bulk
and ftrength, that the exiftence of fuch people is now
generally difbelieved. It is commonly thought, that
the ftature of men hath been the fame in all ages ; and
fome have even pretended to demonfrate the impoflibi-
lity of the exiftence of giants mathematically. Of
thefe our countryman M‘Laurin hath been the moft:
explicit. “ In general (fays he) it will eafily appear,
that the efforts tending to deftroy the cohefion of
beams arifing from their own gravity only, increafe in
the quadruplicate ratio of their lengths : but that the
oppofite efforts tending to preferve their cohefion, in¬
creafe only in the triplicate proportion of the fame
lengths. From which it follows, that the greater beams
muft be in greater danger of breaking than the leffer
fimilar ones ; and that though a leffer beam may be
firm and fecure, yet a greater fimilar one may be made
fo long, that it will neceffarily break by its own weight.
Hence Galileo joftly concludes, that what appears very
firm, and fucceeds very well in models, may be very
weak and infirm, or even fall to pieces by its own
weight, when it comes ?< be executed in large ditnen-
fions according to the m del. From the fame princi¬
ple he argues, that there are neceffary limits in the ope¬
rations of nature and ait, which they cannot furpafr in
magnitude. Were trees of a very enormous fize, their
branches would fall by their own weight. Large ani¬
Giant.
mals have not ftrength in proportion to their fize ; and
if there were any land animals much larger than thofe
we know, they could hardly move, and would be per¬
petually fubjeft to the moft dangerous accidents. As
to the animals of the fea, indeed the cafe is different ;
for the gravity of the water in a great manner fuftainj
thofe animals ; and in fail thefe are known fometimes
to be vaftly larger than the greateft land animals. Nor
does it avail againft this doftrine to tell us, that bones
have fometimes been found which were fuppofed to have
belonged to giants of rmmenfe fize ; fuch as the fl-iele-
tons mentioned by Strabo and Pliny, the former of
which was 60 cubits high, and the latter 46 : for nn-
turalifts have concluded on juft grounds, that in fome
cafes thefe bones had belonged to elephants ; and that
the larger ones were bones of whales, which had been
brought to the places where they were found by the
revolutions of nature that have happened in paft times.
Though it muft be owned, that there appears no rea-
fon why there may not have been men who have ex¬
ceeded by fome feet in height the talleft we have
fecn.”
It will eafily be feen, that arguments of this kind
can never be conclufive ; becaufe, along with an in¬
creafe of ftature in any animal, we muft always fuppofe
a proportional increafe in the cohefion of the parts of
its body. Large works fometimes fail when conftruft-
ed on the plan of models, becaufe the cohefion of the
materials whereof the model is made, and of the large
work, are the fame ; but a difference in this refpeft
will produce a very remarkable difference in the ulti¬
mate refillt. Thus, fuppofe a model is made of fir-
wood, the model may be ftrong and firm enough ; but
a large work made alfo of fir, when executed according
to the plan of the model, may be fo weak that it will
fall to pieces by Its own weight. If, however, we
make ufe of iron for the large work inflead of fir, the
whole will be fufficicntly ftrong, even though made ex¬
actly according to the plan of the model. J he like
may be faid with regard to large and final! animals.
If we could find an animal whofe bones exceeded in
hardnefs and ftrength the bones of other animals as
much as iron exceeds fir, fuch an animal might be of a
monftrous fize, and yet be exceedingly ftrong. In
like manner, if we fuppofe the fleih and bones of a
giant to be greatly fuperior in hardnefs and ftrength
to the bones of other men, the great fize of his body
will be no objection at all to bis ftrength. Ihe whole
of the matter therefore concerning the exiftence of
giants muft reft on the credibility of the accounts we
have from thofe who pretend to have fetn them, and
not on any arguments drawn a prion.
In the Scripture we are told of giants, who were
produced from the marriages of the fans of God with
the daughters of men\. This paffage indeed has been t See Ante*
differently interpreted, fo as to render it doubtful
tber the word tranflated giants does there imply any
extraordinary ftature. In other parts of Scripture,
however, giants, with their dimenfions, are mentioned
in fuch a manner that we cannot poflibly doubt; as in
the cafe of Og king of Balkan, and Goliath. In a
memoir read before the Academy of Sciences at Rouen,
M. Le Cat gives the following account of giants that
are faid to have exifted in different ages.
“ Profane hiftorians have given feven feet of height
4 T 2 to
Giant.
G I A E 7°o ] G I A
to Hercules tlieir firfl hero 5 and in our days we have
feen men eight feet high. The giant who was fnown
in Rouen in 1735, meafured eight feet fome inches.
The emperor Maximian was of that fize j Shenkiushrd
Platerus, phyficians of the laft century, faw feveral of
that ftature and Goropius fav' a girl who was ten
feet high.—The body of Oreftes, according to the
Greeks, was eleven feet and a half; the giant Galba-
ra, brought from Arabia to Rome under Claudius
Caefar, was near ten feet ; and the bones of Secondil-
la and Pufio, keepers of the gardens of Sallyft, were
but fix inches fhorter. Funnam, a Scotfman, who lived
in the time of Eugene II. king of Scotland, mea-
fured eleven feet and a half-, and Jacob le Maire, in
his voyage to the Straits of Magellan, reports, that on
the 17th of December 1615, they found at Port De¬
fire feveral graves covered with ftones; and having the
curiofity to remove the ftones, they difcovered human
skeletons of ten and eleven feet long. The chevalier
Scory, in his voyage to the peak of Teneriffe, fays,
that they found in one of the fepulchral caverns of that
mountain the head of a Guanche which had 80 teeth,
and that the body was not lefs than 15 feet long. The
giant Ferragus, {lain by Orlando nephew of Charle¬
magne, was 18 feet high. Rioland, a celebrated ana-
tomift, who wrote in 1614, fays, that fome years be¬
fore there was to be feen in the fuburbs of St Germain
the tomb of the giant Iforet, who was 20 feet high.
In Rouen, in 1509,' in digging in the ditches near
the Dominicans, they found a Hone tomb containing a
fkeleton whofe Ikull held a bufhel of corn, and whofe
Ihin bone reached up to the girdle of the tailed man
there, being about four feet long, and confequently
the body muft have been 17 or 18 feet high. Upon
the tomb was a plate of copper, whereon was engra¬
ved, u In this tomb lies the noble and puiffant lord,
the chevalier Ricon de Vallemont, and his bones.”
Platerus, a famous phyfician, declares, that he faw at
Lucerne the true human bones of a fubjedl wdiich muff:
have been at lead 19 feet high. Valence in Dauphine
boalts of poffeffing the bones of the giant Bucart, ty¬
rant of the Vivarais, who wras Oain with an arrow- by
the count de Cabillon his vaflal. The Dominicans
had a part of the Ihin bone, with the articulation of
the knee, and his figure painted in frefco, with an in-
fcription, diowing that this giant was 22 feet and a
half high, and that his bones were found in 1705, near
the banks of the Morderi, a little river at the foot of
the mountain of Crude], upon which (tradition fays)
the giant dwelt.
“ January 11, 1613, fome mafons digging near the
ruins of a cadle in Dauphine, in a field which (by tra¬
dition) had long been called the giant'’s Jie/d, at the
depth of i 8 feet difcovered a brick tomb 30 feet lorig,
12 feet wide, and 8 feet high ; on which was a gray
done, with the words Theutobochus Rex cut thereon.
When the tomb was opened, they found a human fke-
leton entire, 25 feet and a half long, 10 feet wide
acrofs the (boulders, and five feet deep from the bread
bone to the back. His teeth were ab( ut the fize each
of an ox’s foot, and his (bin bone meafured four feet.—
Near Mazarino, in Sicily, in 1316, was found a giant
30 feet high -, his head was the fize of an hogdiead,
and each of his teeth weighed five ounces. Near Pa¬
lermo, in the valley of Mazara, in Sicily, a Ikeleton of
3
a giant 30 feet long was found, in the year 1548 j
and another of 33 feet high, in 1550 ; and many cu-
rious perfons have preferved feveral of thefe gigantic
bones.
“ The Athenians found near their city two famous
Ikeletons, one of 34 and the other of 36 feet high.
“ At Totu, in Bohemia, in 738, was found a Ikele¬
ton, the head of which could fcarce be encompaffed by
the arms of two men together, and whofe legs, which
they dill keep in the cadle of that city, were 26 feet
long. The Ikull of the giant found in Macedonia, Sep¬
tember 1691, held 210 pounds of corn.
“ The celebrated Sir Hans Sloane, who treated this
matter very learnedly, does not doubt thefe fads ; but
thinks the bones were thofe of elephants, whales, or
other enormous animals.
“ Elephants bones may be fibown for thofe of giants j
but they can never impofe on connoifleurs. Whales,
which, by their immenfe bulk, are more proper to be
fubdituted for the larged giants, have neither arms
nor legs ; and the head of that animal hath not the lead
refemblance to that of a man. If it be true, therefore,
that a great number of the gigantic bones which we
have mentioned have been feen by anatomids, and by
them have been reputed real human bones, the exid-
ence of giants is proved.”
With regard to the credibility of all or any of
thefe accounts, it is didicult to determine any thing.
If, in any cadle of Bohemia, the bones of a man’s
leg 26 feet in length are preferved, we have indeed a
decifive proof of the exidence of a giant, in comparifon
of whom mod others would be but pigmies. Nor in¬
deed could thefe bones be fuppofed to belong to an
elephant : for an elephant itfelf would but be a dwarf
in comparifon of fuch an enormous monder. But if
thefe bones were really kept in any part of Bohemia,
it feems drange that they have not been frequently vi-
fited, and particular deferiptions of them given by the
learned who have travelled into that eountry. It is
certain, however, that there have been nations of men
confiderably exceeding the common dature. Thus, all
the Roman hidorians inform us, that the Gauls and
Germans exceeded the Italians in fize j and it appears
that the Italians in thofe days were of much the fame
dature with the people of the prefent age. Among
theie northern nations, it is alfo probable, that there
would be as great differences in dature as there are
among the prelent race of men. If that can be al¬
lowed, we may eafily believe that fome of the bar¬
barians might be called giants, without any great im¬
propriety. Of this fuperiority of fize, indeed, the
hidorian Florus gives a notable indance in Teutobo-
chus, above mentioned, king of the Teutones : who
Giant.
being defeated and taken prifoner by Marius, w as car¬
ried in triumph before him at Rome, when his head
reached above the trophies that were carried in the
fame proceffion.
But whether thefe accounts are credited or not, we
are very certain, that the dature of the human body
is by no means abfolutely fixed. We ourfelves are
a kind of giants in comparifon of the Laplanders ; nor
are thefe the mod diminutive people to be found upon
the earth. The Abbe la Chappe, in his journey into
Siberia in order to obferve the lad tranfit of Venus,
paffed through a village inhabited by people called
Wotiacis%
G I A ' [ 7
Giants Wot inch, neither men nor women of whom were above
(jaufeway. fom- feet high. The accounts of the Patagonians alfo,
' —v1 \vhich cannot be entirely difcredited, render it very
probable, that fomewhere in South America there is
a race of people very conliderably exceeding the com¬
mon fize of mankind, and confequently that we can¬
not altogether difcredit the relations of giants handed
down to us by ancient authors •, though what degree
of credit we ought to give them is not eafy to be de¬
termined. See Patagonia.
REBEL Giants, in ancient mythology, were the fons
of Ccelus and Terra. According to Hefiod, they
fprang from the blood of the wound which Ccelus re¬
ceived from his fon Saturn, and Hyginus calls them
fons of Tartarus and Terra. They are reprefented as
men of uncommon ftature, with ftrength proportioned
to their gigantic fize. Some of them, as Cottus, Bri-
areus, and Gyges, had each §Q heads and 100 arms,
and ferpents inftead of legs. They were of a terrible
afpedl, their hair hung loofe about their fhoulders, and
their beard was fullered to grow unmolefted. Pallene
ajid its neighbourhood was the place of their refidence.
The defeat of the Titans, to whom they were nearly
related, incenfed them againft Jupiter, and they all
confpired to dethrone him. Accordingly they reared
Mount Offa upon Pelion, and Olympus upon Oha j
and from thence attacked the gods with huge rocks,
fome of which fell into the fea and became iflands,
and others fell on the earth and formed mountains.
Jupiter fummoned a council of the gods j when being
informed that it wras necefiary to obtain the alfiftance
of fome mortal, he by the advice of Pallas called up his
fon Plercules } and with the aid of this hero he ex¬
terminated the giants Enceladus, Polybotes, Alcyon,
Porphyrion, the two fons of Aloeus, Ephialles, Othus,
Eurytus, Clytius, Tithyus, Pallas, Hippolitus, Agnus,
Thoon, and Typhon •, the laft of whom it eyas more
difficult to vanquilh than all the others. Jupiter hav¬
ing thus gained a complete viftory, call the rebels
down to Tartarus, where they were to receive the full
punilhment of their enormous crimes : according to
the accounts of fome of the poets, he buried them alive
under Mount /Etna and different iflands.
GIANTS Caufeway, a vaft colleftion of bafaltic pil¬
lars in the county of Antrim, on the north coail of Ire¬
land. See Basaltes.
The principal or grand caufeway confifts of a moll
regular arrangement of many hundred thoufands ol co¬
lumns of a black kind of rock, very hard : almolt all of
them are of a pentagonal figure, but fo clofely and
compa£tly fituated on their fides, though perfectly
diftin£t from top to bottom, that fcarce any thing can
be introduced between them. The columns are of an
unequal height and breadth } fome of the higheit, vi-
fible above the furface of the 11 rand, and at the foot
of the impending angular precipice, may be about 20
feet; they do not exceed this height, at leall none of
the principal arrangement. How deep they are fixed
in the ftrand, was never yet difeovered. i his grand
arrangement extends nearly 200 yards, vifible at low
water j how far beyond is uncertain : from its declin¬
ing appearance, however, at low water, it is probable
it does not extend under water to a diltance any thing
equal to what is feen above. The breadth of the
principal caufeway, which runs out in one continued
oi ] G I A
range of columns, is, in general, from 20 to 30 feet j c,iaritE
at one place or two it may be nearly 40 for a few ^ u ^,
yards. In this account are excluded the broken and
fcattered pieces of the fame kind of conftrudlion, that
are detached from the fides of the grand caufeway, as
they do not appear to have ever been contiguous to the
principal arrangement, though they have frequently
been taken into the width : which has been the caufe
of fuch wild and diffimilar reprefentations of this caufe¬
way, which different accounts have exhibited. Ihe
highell part of this caufeway is the narrowed, at the
very foot of the impending cliff from whence the
whole projefts, where, for lour or five yards, it is not
above ten or fifteen feet wide. JThe columns of this
narnnv part incline from a perpendicular a little to the
weltward, and form a Hope on their tops, by the very
unequal height of the columns on the two fides, by
which an alcent is made at the foot of the clifi, from
the head of one column to the next above, gradatim,
to the top of the great caufeway, which, at the di-
liance of half a dozen yards from the cliff, obtains a
perpendicular pofition, and lowering in its general
height, widens to about 20 or between 20 and 30 feet,,
and for 100 yards nearly is always; above water, ihe
tops of the columns for this length being nearly of an
equal height, they form a grand and fingular parade,
that may be ealily walked on, rather inclining to the
water’s edge. But from high water mark, as it is
perpetually walked by the beating furges on every
return of the tide, the platform lowers confiderably,
and becomes more and more uneven, fo as not to be
walked on but with the greatell care. At the diltance.
of 150 yards from the cliff, it turns a little to the call
for 20 or 30 yards, and then finks into the fea. The
figure of thefe columns is almolt unexceptionably pen¬
tagonal, or compofed of five fides j there are but very
few of any other figure introduced : iome few there
are of three, four, and fix fides, but the generality of
them are five-fided, and the fpeftator mult look very
nicely to find any of a different conltrudtion : yet
what is very extraordinary, and particularly curious,
there are not two columns in ten thoufand to be found,
that either have their fides equal among themfelves,
or whofe figures are alike. Nor is the compofition of
thefe columns or pillars lefs deferving the attention of
the curious fpeftator. They are not of one folid Hone
in an upright pofition *, but eompofed of feveral Ihort
lengths, curioufly joined, not with flat furfaces, but
articulated into each other like ball and focket, or
like the joints in the vertebrae of fome of the larger
kind of fifli, the one end at the joint having a cavity,
into which the convex end of the oppofite is exactly
fitted. This is not vifible, but by disjoining the two
Hones. The depth of the concavity or convexity is
generally about three or four inches. And what is
Hill farther remarkable of the joint, the convexity, and
the correfpondent concavity, is not conformed to the
external angular figure of the column, but exactly
round, and as large as the fize or diameter of the co¬
lumn will admit •, and confequently as the angles of
theie columns are in general extremely unequal, the
circular edges of the joint are feldom coincident with
more than two or three fides of the pentagon, and
from the edge of the circular part of the joint to the ,
exterior fides and angles they are quite plain. It is
Hill
G I A [ 702 ] GIB
Giants {till farther very remarkable, likewife, that the arti-
C.mk a as. cuiat|ons Gf t]ir)fe joints are frequently inverted *, in
fome the concavity is upwards, in others the reverfe.
This occafions that variety and mixture of concavities
and convexities on the tops of the columns, which is
obfervable throughout the platform of this caufeway,
yet without any difcoverable defign or regularity with
refpeft to the number of either. The length alfo
of thefe particular ftones, from joint to joint, is va¬
rious : in general, they are from 18 to 24 inches long;
and, for the moft part, longer toward the bottom of
the columns than nearer the top, and the articulation
of the joints fomething deeper. The fize or diameter
likewife of the columns is as different as their length
and figure ; in general, they are from 15 to 20 inches
in diameter. There are really no traces of uniformity
or defign difcovered throughout the whole combina¬
tion, except in the form of the joint, which is inva¬
riably by an articulation of the convex into the con¬
cave of the piece next above or below7 it •, nor are there
any traces of a finifiiing in any part, either in height,
length, or breadth, of this curious caufeway. If there
is here and there a fmooth top to any of the columns
above water, there are others juft by, of equal height,
that are more or lefs convex or concave, which {how
them to have been joined to pieces that have been
vaftied, or by other means taken off. And undoubt¬
edly thole parts that are always above water have,
from time to time, been made as even as might be j
and the remaining furfaces of the joints muft naturally
have been worn fmoother by the conftant friction of
weather and walking, than where the fea, at every
tide, is beating upon it and continually removing
fome of the upper ftones and expofing frefh joints.
And farther, as thefe columns preferve their diameters
from top to bottom, in all the exterior ones, which
have two or three fides expofed to view, the fame may
w'ith reafon be inferred of the interior columns whofe
tops only are vifible. Yet w hat is very extraordinary,
and equally curious, in this phenomenon, is, that not-
withftanding the univerfal diflimilitude of the columns,
both as to their figure and diameter, and though per¬
fectly diftinct from top to bottom, yet is the whole
arrangement fo clofely combined at all points, that
hardly a knife can be introduced between them either
on the fides or angles.
The cliffs at a great diftance from the caufeway, ef-
pecially in the bay to the eaftward, exhibit at many
places the fame kind of columns, figured and jointed in
all refpeCls like thofe of the grand caufeway : fome of
them are feen near to the top of the cliff, which in
general, in thefe bays to the eaft and weft of the caufe¬
way, is near 300 feet in height : others again are feen
about midway, and at different elevations from the
ftrand. A very confiderable expofure of them is feen
in the very bottom of the bay to the eaftward, near a
hundred roods from the caufeway, where the earth has
evidently fallen away from them upon the ftrand, and
exhibits a moft curious arrangement of many of thefe
pentagonal columns, in a perpendicular pofition, fup-
porting, in appearance, a cliff of different ftrata of earth,
clay, rock, &c. to the height of 150 feet or more, above.
Some of thefe columns are between 30 and 40 feet high,
from the top of the Hoping bank below them 5 and,
being longeit in the middle of the arrangement, ftiort-
4
ening on either hand in view, they have obtained the Giants
appellation of organs, from a rude likenefs in this par- Caufeway
tieular to the exterior or frontal tubes of that inftru- c;|||)on
ment 5 and as there are few7 broken pieces on the 1 1‘.
ftrand near it, it is probable that the outfide range of
columns that now' appears is really the original exte¬
rior line, to the feaward, of this colleftion. But how
far they extend internally into the bowels of the in¬
cumbent cliff, is unknown. The very fubftance, in¬
deed, of that part of the cliff which projects to a point,
between the two bays on the eaft and weft of the
caufeway, feems compofed of this kind of materials j
for befides the many pieces that are feen on the fides
of the cliff that circulate to the bottom of the bays,
particularly the eaftern fide, there is, at the very point
of the cliff, and juft above the narrow' and higheft part
of the caufew'ay, a long colledtion of them feen, whofe
heads or tops juft appearing without the Hoping bank,
plainly ftiow them to be in an oblique pofition, and
about half way between the perpendicular and hori¬
zontal. The heads of thefe, likewife, are of mixed
furfaces, convex and concave, and the columns evident¬
ly appear to have been removed from their original up¬
right, to their prefent inclining or oblique pofition, by
the finking or falling of the cliff.
GIBBET, or Gibet, a machine in manner of a gal¬
lows, whereon notorious criminals, after execution, are
hung in irons or chains, as fpedftacles in terroreni. See
Gallows.—The word in French, gibet, properly de¬
notes what we call gallows : it is fuppofed to come
originally from the Arabic gibe/, “ mount or elevation
of ground by reafon are ufually placed on hills
or eminences.
GIBBON, Edward, a hiftorian of diftinguilhed
eminence, was born at Putney in the year 1737. He
w7as the fon of a gentleman of fortune and family dif-
tinftion, who fat as a member in two feparate parlia¬
ments. Edward when a boy, was of fuch an extreme¬
ly delicate conftitution that his life was frequently
defpaired of. When at the fehool of Weftminfter, his
progrefs was often retarded by repeated fhocks of bad
health. After being for a long time under the ma¬
nagement of the belt medical pra&itioners, his confti¬
tution was radically changed for the better, which in¬
duced his father to place him in Magdalen college as
a gentleman commoner, that he might be puflied into
manly acquifitions. This was prior to the completing
of his fifteenth year. Before this time his reading had
been of fuch a nature as to ftore his mind with much
valuable hiftorical knowledge, although his grammati¬
cal and philofophical know ledge at this time was not fo
extenfive as that of fome others at the fame period of
life. He fays of himfelf; I arrived at Oxford with a
flock of erudition that might have puzzled a doctor,
and a degree of ignorance of which a fchool-boy would
have been afhamed. Under fuch circumftances he was
but ill prepared to receive the benefits of an univerfity
education, and this was no doubt the reafon why he
exclaimed fo bitterly againft the public and private in-
itruftions at Oxford.
He was fond of polemical divinity from his infancy,
and during his leifure moments he turned his attention,
when farther advanced, to the celebrated controverfy
between Papifts and Proteftants ; and as he had not
then acquired talents fufticient to enable him to combat
error
Gibbon.
GIB [ 703 ] GIB
p.rror and defend the truth, he fell a victim to the fo-
phtitry of the church of Home. His father, with a
view to reclaim him from the love of what he coniider-
ed as the molt deftru£tive of all errors, fent him to
Haufanne in Switzerland, and put him under the care
of Mr Pavilliard, a clergyman of the Calviniltic per-
liialion. This gentleman called his pupil Edward,
“ A little thin figure, with a large head, difputing,
and urging with the greateil ability, all the belt ar¬
guments that had ever been ufed in favour of Popery.”
The m ilteily exertions of Mr Pavilliard, who had to
deal with a young man of folid reafon and matured re-
dedtion, accomplithed the recantation of Mr Gibbon,
and he received the facrament in the Proteilant church
on the 2yth of December !754. At Laufanne, too,
he made reat progrefi> in many branches of knowledge
W'hich he nad hitherto negledted, and acquired a regu¬
lar habit of Itudy. He became maiter of the French
and Latin languages, and was a profound logician.
He g ave full fcope to the exercife of reading excellent
authors, which was his ruling paflion. Flo did not
appear fond of mathematics, and therefore foon rclin-
quilhed the iludy of them. At Laufanne he fell in
love with a young lady, the daughter of a village cler¬
gyman } but he was fruilrated in his hopes, and tire
lady became afterwards the wife of the celebrated
Necker.
On his return home in April 1758, his father re¬
ceived him with every mark of tendernefs and afTeflion,
and his mother-in-law found means to conciliate his
good opinion and his confidence. It is a fingular cir-
cumfiance that he ihould have taken a captain’s com-
miflion in the army, a profeflion, one wrould have ima¬
gined, for which he was very ill calculated. Indeed
he foon evinced the truth of this, for his tent and quar¬
ters were frequently encumbered with the odd furni¬
ture of Greek and Latin authors. On the event of
peace he refigned his commiffion, and paid a vifit to
Paris in the year 1763, wFiere he refided a fewr months,
and afterwards went to Laufanne, where he remained
about a year, in order to prepare for a journey into
Italy, which he accomplifhed in 1765. He thus fpeaks
on the occafion of his entering Rome : “ After a fleep-
lefs night, I trod, with a lofty ftep, the ruins of the
forum ; each memorable fpot, where Romulus flood, or
Tully fpoke, or Csefar fell, was at once prefent to my
eye • and feveral days of intoxication were loft or en¬
joyed before I could defeend to a cool and minute in-
veftigation.” On the 1 cth of O&ober, he informs us,
the idea of writing the decline and fall of Rome firft
came into his mind, when the bare-footed friars were
finging vefpers in the temple of Jupiter.
In the year 1770 Mr Gibbon loft his father, and
fucceeded to an eft ate which was very much involved ;
yet he confidered his circumftances as very well adapted
to the great and extenfive work he had undertaken to
accomplifh, which in his ow n opinion he had probably
never finiihed, if he had been either poorer or richer
than he was. He had an extenfive circle of acquaint¬
ance in London, but the time neceffarily devoted to
their company, he made up by early riling and intenfe
application. In the year 1774 he was chofen member
of parliament for the borough of Lilkeard, by the in¬
fluence of Lord Elliot, which threatened to give his
itudies a very ferious interruption. He fat eight years
in the houfe of commons without having the courage fo
much as once to open his mouth, notwithftanding he
was fuch an elegant writer. When the firft volume of
his “ Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,” made its
appearance in 1776, it met with a greater degree of
applaufe than he expe&ed 5 but by no praife w as he fo
highly gratified as by that which the two great hifto-
rians of Scotland, Hume and Robertfon, bellowed upon
him. For his twm chapters which relate to the fpread
of Chriftianity he met with many antagonifts, to whom
he made no reply but to a Mr Davis, which was con¬
fidered as a mafterpiece. There can be no doubt that
Gibbon was a real enemy to revelation in the difguife
of a believer, a condubl not fo abominable as at firft
fight may appear, fo long as penal laws exift again!! an
open declaration of opinion.
Soon after the publication of the firft volume of his
hiftory, he paid another vifit to Paris, and did not ap¬
pear to be in much hafte to complete his extenfive
work. In 1781, however, the lecond and third vo¬
lumes of his hiftory were given to the world ; and al¬
though in the eftimation of many competent judges
they were inferior to the firft, they ftill were allowed
to poffefs fufficient merit to fupport his reputation.
Having loft his feat for Lilkeard, the influence of
miniftry brought him in as reprefentative for Lyming-
ton, and on the diffolution of Lord North’s miniftry,
he loft his office as one of the lords of trade, w hich was
a ferious diminution of his income. He again deter¬
mined to vilit his favourite Laufanne, w'here he com¬
pleted the remaining volumes of his hiftory j but w hen
the revolutionary mania began to rage on the conti¬
nent, he quitted Laufanne, and fought for an afylum
in England. He mortally hated innovations of every
kind, whether neceffary or not, as appears from the
following exclamation : “ I beg leave to fubferibe my-
affent to Mr Burke’s creed on the revolution of France.
I admire his eloquence, I approve his politics, I adore
his chivalry, and can almoit excufe his reverence for
church eftablilhments.”
During his confoling vifit to Lord Sheffield, who
had met with a trying domeftic lofs, his attention was
called to the rapid progrefs of a diftemper which had.
fubfifted for about 30 years. A mortification at laft
enlued, which terminated his exiftence on the 16th of
January 1794, in the 67th year of his age. Mr Gib¬
bon gives himfelf a character which is perhaps pretty
near the truth. “ I am endowed with a cheerful tem¬
per, a moderate fenfibility, and a natural difpofition to
repofe rather than to activity : fome mifchievous appe¬
tites and habits have perhaps been corrected by philo-
fophy or time. The love of ftudy fupplies each day,
each hour, with a perpetual fource of independent and
rational pleafure.” Mr Gibbon pofleffed the manners
and fentiments of a gentleman in an eminent degree j
he was eafy in fociety, of which he was extremely fund,
and beloved by all who had the pleafure of intimately
knowing him.
GIBBOUS, a term in Medicine, denoting any pro¬
tuberance or convexity of the body, as a penon hunch¬
ed or hump-backed.
Infants are much more fubje£t to gibbofity than adults,
and it oftener proceeds from externa] than internal
caufes. A fall, blow, or the like, frequently the dif-
torts the tender bones of infants. When it proceeds
from
Gibbon,
Gibbous.
GIB [ 704. ] GIB
Gibboui from an internal caufe, it is generally from a relaxa-
N tion of the ligaments that fuftain the fpine, or a caries
Gl1>eori’ , of its vertebne*, though the fpine may be intlefted for-
~ ward, and the vertebrce thrown out by a too itxong
and repeated a£tion of the abdominal mufcles. This,
if not timely redrefled, grows up and iixes as the bones
harden, till in adults it is totally irretrievable : but
when the diforder is recent, and the perfon young,
there are hopes of a cure. The common method is
by a machine of patleboard, wood, or Heel, which is
made to prefs principally on the gibbous part j and
this by long wearing may fet all right. The furgeons,
however, have a different inftrument, which they call
a crofs, much more efficacious, though not quite fo
convenient in the wearing. By the ufe of this, the
parts are always prevented from growing any worfe,
and are often cured. During the application of thefe
affiftances, the parts ffiould be at times rubbed with
Hungary water, fpirit of lavender, or the like, and de¬
fended with a ftrengthening plafter.
GIBBOUS, in AJlronomy, a term ufed in reference to
the enlightened parts of the moon, whilft ihe is moving
from the firft quarter to the full, and from the full to
the laft quarter ; for all that time the dark part ap¬
pears horned or falcated } and the light one hunched
out, convex, or gibbous.
GIBEAH, a city in the tribe of Benjamin, lying
north of Jerufalem about 20 or 30 furlongs, and built
upon a bill, as its name imports.— i bis city gave birth
-to Saul, the firft king of Ifrael, for which reafon it is
frequently called Gibeah of Saul, or Gibeah the native
■country of Saul.
GIBELINS, or GlBELLINS, a famous faftion in
Italy, oppofite to another called the Guelphs.
Thofe two •a&ions ravaged and laid wafte Italy for
a long feries of years ; fo that the hiftory of that coun¬
try, for the fpace of two centuries, is no more than a
detail of their mutual violences and flaughters. The Gi-
belins flood for the emperor againft the pope : but con¬
cerning their origin and the reafon of their names we
have but a very obfcure account. According to the
-generality of authors, they rofe about tne year 1240,
upon the emperor Frederick II.’s being excommuni¬
cated by Pope Gregory IX. Other writers main¬
tain, that the two faftions arofe ten years before,
though ftill under the fame pope and emperor. But
the moil probable opinion is that of Maimbourg, who
fays, that the two fattions of Guelphs and Gibelins
arofe from a quarrel between two ancient and illuftri-
•ous houfes on the confines of Germany, that of the
Henries of Gibeling, and that of the Guelphs of
Adorf.
GIBEON, a city feated on an eminence about 40
iurlongs from Jerufaletn northward, and not far from
the city of Gibeah. See GeBa.
This was the capital city of the Gibecmites, who
took the advantage of Joffiua’s oath, and of that which
the elders of Ifrael likewife fwore to them, upon an
artificial repreferttation which they made of their be¬
longing to a very remote country, and their defire of
making an alliance with the Hebrews. Jolhua (ix. 3.
4, el f?q.) and the elders inconfiderately entered into
a league with thefe people \ but foon difcovered their
tniftake. Upon this fending for the Gibeonites, they
reproached them with their fraud j and without revok¬
ing the promife which they had made to them, of Gibeoij
giving them their lives, they condemned them to carry 11
wood and water to the tabernacle of the Lord, as flaves 01 n tar
and captives taken in war *, in which ftate of lervitude
they remained till the ruin and entire difperfion of the
jewifti nation.
The Gibeonites were defeended from the Hivites,
the old inhabitants of that country, and poffeffed four
cities, whereof Gibeon was the capital. The cities were
Chephirath, Beeroth, Kirjathjearim, and Gibeon, Joffi.
ix. 17. Thefe cities were afterwards given to the tribe
of Benjamin, except Kirjathjearim, which fell to the
tribe of Judah. The Gibeonites continued ever after
fubjett to thofe burdens which Jofhua had impofed on
them, and were very faithful to the Ifraelites.
GIBLETS, the offals or entrails of a goofej includ¬
ing the heart and liver, with the feet, gizzard, &c. The
word is fuppofed to be formed oigoblets, from the French
gobeau, “ mouthful.”—Giblets make a confiderable ar¬
ticle in cookery : they boil giblets, ftew giblets, make
ragouts of giblets, giblet pies, &c.
GIBRALTAR, a famous promontory, or rather
peninfula, of Spain, lying in N. Lat 36. 6. W.
Long. 5. 17. To the ancients it was known by the
name of Ca/pe, and was alfo called one of the Pillars of
Hercti/es ; by the Arabians it is called Gebel Tarek, that
is, “ the mount of Tarek,” from Tarek, the name.of the
Saracen general who conquered Spain in the beginning
of the eighth century. The whole is an immenie rock,
rifing perpendicularly about 44° yar^s* meafuring
from north to fouth about two Engliih miles, but
not above one in breadth Irom call to weft, ihe town
lies along the bay on the weft fide of the mountain on
a declivity •, by which, generally fpeaking, the rains
pafs through it, and keep it clean. Ihe old town was
confiderably larger than the new, which at prefent con-
lifts of between 400 and 5C0 houfes. Many of the ftreets
are. narrow and irregular: the buildings are of difter-
ent materials } fome of natural ftone out of the quar¬
ries, fome of a faftitious or artificial ftone, and a few
of brick. The people are fupplied with frelh provi-
fions chiefly from the coaft of Barbary, with fruit,
roots, and vegetables of all forts from thence, or from
their own gardens. Befidis what is properly tailed the
town, there are feveral fpacious and commodious pub¬
lic edifices erected } fuch as barracks for the foldieis,
with apartments for their officers, magazines^ of dif¬
ferent kinds, ftorehoufes for provifions, &c. The in¬
habitants, exelufive of the Britilh fubjefts dependent
on the garrifon, or who refide there from other motives,
confift of fome Spaniards, a few PortugUefe, a confider¬
able number of Genoele, and about as many Jews j
making in the whole, according to Dr Campbell, be¬
tween two and three thoufand, without reckoning the
garrifon *, though fome make them much fewer. . This
town may be faid to have twro ports; the firft lying to
the north, and is proper only for fmall veffels •, the
other is very commodious for large veffels, and has .a
fine ftone quay. The bay is vety beautiful and capaci¬
ous, being in breadth about five miles, and in length
eight or nine, with feveral fttiall rivers running into it.
It is very advantageous to the place. R here is no ground
to be found in the middle of it at 106 fathoms dipih,
fo that a fquadron may lie there in great fafeiy j thfc
breezes from it are very refrefliing ^ and it contributes
likeym&
GIB, [ 705 ]
Gibraltar- like wife to the fubfiftence of the inhabitants, by fupply- tar was refolved upon ;
ing them tvith plenty of fifh.
The ftrait of Gibraltar, through which the ocean
paffes into the Mediterranean, thereby dividing Europe
from Africa, runs from weft to eaft about 13 leagues.
In this ftrait there are. three remarkable promontories
or capes on the Spanifh fide, and as many oppoiite to
them on the Barbary fide. The lirft of thefe, on the
fide of Spain, is Cape Trafalgar, oppoftte to which is
Cape Spartal; and in the neighbourhood of this flood
the fortrefs of Tangier, once in the pofleflion of the
Britifh. The next on the Spanifti fide is Tariffa 5 and
oppoftte it lies Malabata, near the town of Alcaffar,
where the ftraits are about five leagues broad. Laft-
ly, Gibraltar facing the mountain of Abyla, near the
fortrefs and town of Ceuta, which make the eaftern en-
j try of the ftraits.
Fortrefs This important fortrefs feems to have been firft parti-
tirft erected cularly noticed as a place of confequence in the year
712. At that time the general of the caliph A1 Wa-
lid landed with an army of 12,000 men on the iflhmus
between Mount Calpe and the continent; and that he
might fecure an intercourfe with Africa, ordered a
eaftle to be built on the face of that hill. Part of the
building ftill remains j and, from an infeription difeo-
vered above the principal gate, appears to have been
finifhed in 725. It continued in the pofTeflion of the
Saracens till the beginning of the 14th century, when it
by the Sa-
neons.
yarious re- tv as recovered by Ferdinand king of Caftile. In 1333,
volutions, however, it was obliged to furrender to the fon of the
emperor of Fez, who came to the afliftance of the Moor-
ifh king of Granada. An attempt was made upon in it
1349 by Alonfo king of Caftile 5 but when the fortrefs
had been reduced to the laft extremity, a peftilential fe¬
ver broke out in the Spanilh camp, which carried off the
king himfelf, with great part of his army ; after which
the enterprife was abandoned.
The fortrefs continued in the poffeffion of the Sa¬
racen defeendants of the prince of Fez until the year
1410, when it was taken poffeffion of by Jofeph III.
king of Granada. A defign of attacking it was form¬
ed by Henry de Gufman in 1435 j but the enterprife
having mifearried through his imprudence, he was de¬
feated and {lain. However, it was at length taken
after a gallant defence by his fon John de Gufman in
14625 fince which time it has remained in the hands
of the Chriftians. In 1540, it was furprifed and pil¬
laged by Piali Hamet, one of Barbaroffa’s corfairs ;
but the pirates having fallen in with fome Sicilian gal¬
leys, were by them defeated, and all either killed or
3 taken.
hs fbrtifica- In the reign of Charles V. the fortifications of Gib-
tions im- raltar were modernized, and fuch additions made as to
ren^er them almoft impregnable. It was taken by the
td. 1Un Englifh, however, in the reign of Queen Anne, and
fince that time has remained in their poffeflion 5 and
probably will always do fo, unlefs ceded by treaty, as
it appears altogether impoflible to reduce it by any
force of artillery, let it be ever fo great. In the year
1704, in confequence of the refolution adopted by the
court of Britain to affift the archduke Charles in his
pretenfions to the Spanifh crown, Sir George Rooke
was fent with a powerful fleet into the Mediterranean.
His orders being limited, nothing of confequence was
done for fome time, until at laft at attempt on Gibral-
Vol. IX, Part II.
■taken by
George
Hooke in
1704.
G I B
not fo much on account of the Gibraltar,
importance of the conqueft, as to prevent any reriec- v
tions againft the admiral for inactivity. On the 21ft
of July that year, 1800 troops were landed upon the
ifthmus, under the command of the prince of Heffe
Darmftadt 5 and on the refufal of the governor to fur-
render, preparations were made for attacking the place.
Early in the morning of the 23d, a cannonade was
begun from the fleet, and kept up fo brifkly, that in
five or fix hours the Spaniards were driven from many
of their guns, efpecially at the new mole head. The
admiral perceiving, that, by gaining this part of the
fortification, the reduction of the reft would be faci¬
litated, ordered out fome armed boats to take poffef¬
fion of it. On their approach the Spaniards fprung a
mine, which demoliftied part of the works, killed two
lieutenants and 40 private foldiers, wounding about
60 more. Notwithftanding this difafter, the affailants
kept poffeflion of the work, and took a fmall baftion,
now the eight- gun battery, half way between the mole
and the town. On this the governor thought proper
to capitulate, and the prince of Heffe took poffeflion
of the gates on the 24th. The garrifon, coniifting at
moft of 130 men, marched out with the honours of
war 5 and the Spaniards who chofe to remain Avere al-
loAved the fame privileges they had enjoyed under the
reign of Charles II. The Avorks Avere found very ftrong,
and the place Avell provided with ammunition and mili¬
tary ft ores.
This conqueft Avas atchieved with the lofs of about
60 killed and 216 Avounded on the part of the Eng¬
lifh. The prince of Heffe remained governor 5 and 18
men of war Avere left at Lifbon under the command
of Sir John Leake, to fuccour the garrifon if there
ftiould be occafion. The lofs of fuch an important
fortrefs, however, having alarmed both the courts of ^
Madrid and Paris, orders Avere fent to the Marquis de Eefieged
Villadarias, a Spanifti grandee, to lay liege to it, intlie lame
which he Avas to be aflifted by a naval force from Tou-^j^ ufs '"de
Ion. The prince immediately applied to Sir John .sairadalliV
Leake for afliftance 5 but before the latter had time
to comply Avith his requeft, a French fleet arrived,
and debarked fix battalions to the afliftance of the
Spaniards 5 after which they proceeded to the Aveft-
Avard, leavung only fix frigates in the bay. The
trenches Avere opened on the j ith of October, about
Avhich time Sir John arrived Avith 20 fail of Englifh
and Dutch ftiips 5 but hearing that the French Avere
about to attack him Avith a fuperior force, he judged
it proper to return and refit. Having very prudently
left orders at Lifbon to make preparations for this
purpofe in his abfence, he Avas enabled to accomplilh
this Avork with fuch expedition, that on the 29th of
the fame month, he returned and furprifed in the bay
three frigates, a fire ftnp, tAvo Englifli prizes, a tar- <;
tan, and a ftore {hip. After this exploit lie landed The garri-
fome reinforcements, fupplied the garrifon Avith fix ^UP*
months provifion and ammunition ; at the fame time
detaching on ftiore a body of 500 failors to affift in re - and
pairing the breaches which had been made by the ene- provifions
my’s fire. t>y Sir Joint
Thus the Spaniards were difappointed in their hopes ^ea^c*
of fuccefs from an attack Avhich had been projected
that very night, and for Avhich purpofe 200 boats had
been collected. Still, hoAvever, they did not defpair 5
4 U and
Defperatc
attempt of
fomc Spa
G I B
Gibraltar and fuppofmg that die ga rifon ivould be
L “v guard and i'ecure on account of the vicinity of their
fleet, they formed the rafh defign of attempting to
furprife the place, though the Britiih admiral was ftill
before it. In this mad attempt 500 volunteers affo
iome ^ >a ciated, taking the facrament never to return unlefs
moTvolun- they accompliibed their purpofe. They were eondud-
ed by a goat-herd to the fouth lide of the rock near
the cave guard, at that time called the pafs of Iscujl
trees. This they mounted, and lodged themfelves the
iirit night in the cave of St Michael : the next the^y
fcaled Charles V.’s Wall j furprifed and maffacred tlie
guard at Middle hill ; where afterwards, by ropes and
ladders, feveral hundreds of the party defigned to fup-
pprt tliem were hauled up : but being difcovered, they
were attacked by a ftrong party of grenadiers, and all of
them at laft either killed or taken. Thefe brave ad-
Glfcraltar.
They are
all killed or
taken.
9
The liege
itill conti¬
nued.
T©
The gani-
fon rein¬
forced.
11
"Vigorous
attack by
the Spa¬
niards
venturers were to have been fupported by a body of
French troops, and fome feints were propofed to draw
off the attention of the garrifon ; but, through the dif-
agreement of the commanding officers, thefe propofals
were not put in execution, and thus the volunteers were
left to their fate. .
Notwithftanding thefe misfortunes, the Spaniards Itill
continued the fiege, and fitted out a ftrong fquadron
from Cadiz, with a defign to intercept the convoys of
provifions which might be fent to the garrifon; flat¬
tering themfelves at the fame time, that, on the ar¬
rival of their fleet, Sir John would be obliged to re¬
tire, and the garrifon of confequence to furrender to
their united attacks. They continued their fire there¬
fore with additional fury, difmounted many of the can-
non, and did eflfential injury to the works in feveral
different places. rl he prince of Hcffe, however, was
by no means deficient in his endeavours to difappoint
their expedftations. As it was probable that an at¬
tempt might be made to florin the curtain, a.cuvette
was dug in the ditch, wbich "was filled by the tide, and
a double rowr of palifades placed parallel to the works.
The chambers of the mine under the glacis were load¬
ed, and all means taken to defeat fuch an attempt } but
on a fudden the Spaniards feemed to have altered
their defign, and threatened an attack on the lines
which the garrifon had on the declivity of the hill
to flank the glacis, and overlook their advanced
works. While affairs remained in this fituation, part
of the fuccours they had long expefled arrived in the
bay, December 7. I7°4? an^ in twTo days after, the re¬
mainder came in with near 2000^ men, along with a
proportionable quantity of ammunition and provifions.
’Thefe had failed from Cape Spartel under convoy of
four frigates •, but were in imminent danger of falling
into the hands of the enemy, whofe fleet they miftook
for their own 5 however they efcaped by the fortunate
circumftance of being becalmed, fo that they could not
get up to them. .
Sir John Leake having thus powerfully reinforced
the garrifon, thought his prefence in the bay no longer
neceffarv, and therefore fet fail for Lifbon, where he
arrived about the end of the year. Ip the beginning of
January 1705 the Spaniards were reinforced by a con-
fiderable body of infantry, and on the 11th of the
month made 'an attack on the extremity of the King s
Lines, but were repulfed. . The attack was renewed
next day with 600 grenadiers, French and Walloons,
[ 706 ] GIB
off their fupported by IOOO Spaniards, under Lieutenant General
Fuy. They difpoled themfelves in fuch a manner as
{bowed an intention to ftorm a breach which had been
made in the Round Tower at the extremity of the
King’s Lines, and another in the intrenchment on the
hill. The retrenchment which covered the latter
breach, with part of the intrenchment joining the pre¬
cipice of the rock, was defended at night by a captain,
three fubalterns, and 90 men } but it was cuftomary
for the captain to withdraw, with two fubalterns and
60 men at daybreak. The Round Tower was de¬
fended by 180 men, commanded by a lieutenant-colo¬
nel. The marquis, by deferters from the garrifon, had
obtained intelligence of the ftrength of theie pofts, and
planned his attack accordingly. The detachment for
the upper breach mounted the rock at midnight, and
concealed themfelves in the clifts until the captain had
withdrawn ^ after which, advancing to the point of the
intrenehment, they threw grenades on the fubaltern
and his party, fo that they were obliged to leave the
place. At the fame time 300 men ft or pied the Round
Tower, where lieutenant Colonel Bar made a vigo¬
rous defence, though the enemy, having paffed the
breach above, annoyed them on the flanks with great
ftones and grenades. Obferving, however, the Spa¬
niards marching down to cut off his retreat from the
town, he retired j and, by getting over the parapet of
the King’s Lines, defeended into the covered way,
where the Englfth guards were polled. J hus the g^r-
rifon were alarmed •, all the regiments were affembled
at their proper pofts ; and Captain Fiffier endeavoured
to ftop the progrefs of the enemy with 17 men, but I2
they were repulfed, and himfelf taken prifoner. AtT hey are
laft, however, the Tower was retaken by Lieutenant rcpulfed.
Colonel Moncal at the head of 400 or 500 men, after
it had been in the poffeffion of the enemy upwards of
an hour.
The o-arrifon was now' farther reinforced by fix com¬
panies of Dutch troops and 200 Englifti foldiers, toge-
13
tlier Avith fome provifions and ftores. The afiailants, The fug©
however, were Rill determined go on. /ihe mar-^ ™
quis de Villadarias was fuperfeded by Manfchal 1 eiie, ardour>
a Frenchman, with whom Admiral Pointis ivas defired
to co-operate in blocking up the place. Jho marifchal
therefore joined the armv Avith four frefti battalions, be-
fides eijiht companies which had been fent before ; tne
ordnance, ivhich had been greatly injured by conftant
ufe, Avas exchanged for others, and tne Avorks as they
then flood, put into the beft repair. On the part of
the Engliffi, a reinforcement Avas ordered under the
command of Sir Thomas Dilkes and Sir John Hardy,
to join Admiral Leake at Lilbon : which Junction be-
ino effeaed, the whole fleet, confifting of 28 Englifti,
4°Dutch, and 8 Portuguefe men of war, having on
board two battalions of land forces, fet fail from Lif- I4
bon. Happily for the befteged, however, the inceffant Thc FrCnck
rains and ftorms about this time had retarded the ppe-fleet difper-
rations of the land forces, and greatly diftreffed the fleet by a
of the enemy. Eight ffiips of the latter were iorced
from their anchors by the ftrong wefterly Avind, and
obliged to drive aloft. At this critical period Sir John
Leake, Avith the allied fleet, entered the ftraits. On
his approach the feAv remaining French ffiips put out to
fca • and the Britifti admiral difeovering five fail mak-
inf/out of the bay, and a gun fired at them from the
® garnfon,
GIB r 7<
Gihialiar. garriron, immediately gave chafe. Three French men
— ot war were taken, and the admiral’s ftiip and another
diiven on ihore, where they were burnt. The reit, on
hearing the report of the guns, had made the bell; of
jg their way to Toulon.
The fiegc The garrifon was now fo well fupplied, that Marif-
tumefl i' t<> c}rai Tefle withdrew his troops from the trenches, and
a ockade, £orme(j a blockade, drawing an intrenchment acrofs the
railed ^ to prevent the garrifon from ravaging the
country. The prince of Hefle remained for fome time
in the place, where he repaired the batteries, and made
fome additions to the fortifications; after which he
joined the archduke Charles at Lilbon. As the latter,
however, was refolved to try his fortune with the earl
of Peterborough in Valencia and Catalonia, the prince
was fent back to Gibraltar to prepare part of the gar¬
rifon for embarkation, and fuon after was followed by
the whole fleet. Major General Ramos was now ap¬
pointed governor of Gibraltar, in wrhich only two new
battalions were left, as nothing was to be feared from
the enemy. The new governor, however, brought with
him 400 men for the greater fccurity of the place ; but
foon refigned his government to Colonel Roger Elliot,
during whofe time Gibraltar was made a free port by a
fpeeial order from the queen.
Colonel Elliot was fucceeded by Colonel Congreve
before the year 1714, and he by Colonel Cotton a
,6 Ihort time after. In 1720 the Spaniards feem to have
A new at- threatened another attack. Ceuta, a Spaniih fortrefs
tack threat-in Barbary, had been for many years befieged by the
ened by jyj-oors . a p0Werful armament, commanded by the
inT'zo*5 mar(lu^s Lada, was now afiembled in Gibraltar bay,
n172^" under pretence of relieving the African fortrefs, hut
with a fecret defign of firll furprifing Gibraltar j tor
which purpofe they had provided fealing ladders, &c.
The armament, however, had not been fitted out with
fuch fecreey, but that the Britifh miniftry had intelli¬
gence of it. On this they fent orders to Colonel Kane,
governor of Minorca, to embark with part of his gar¬
rifon for Gibraltar under convoy of the fleet in the Me-
diteranean. On his arrival he found the place in a
critical fituation. The garrifon confifted only of three
weak battalions under Major Hetherington, befides
whofn there was only one other field officer, Major
Batteroux, in the place, and no more than 14 days
provifions remaining. The pofture of affairs, however,
wTas altered by the arrival of Colonel Kane with 500
men, with provifions and ammunition ; which rein-
17 forcement, together with the fpirited behaviour of the
The defign Britiffi commodore, induced the Spanifh commander to
given up. abandon his defign, though he remained of opinion that
the fortrefs might then have been carried by a general
18 aflault. ... .,
Another at- Notwithftanding this difappointment, the Spaniards
tempt in continued to keep a watchful eye over Gibraltar j and,
I72lS* in the latter end of the year 1726, affetnbled an army
in the neighbourhood of Algefiras, encamping, on the
20th of January following, on the plain below St
7 ] GIB
Roch, and creeling a battery on the beach to protect Gibraltar^
their camp. Though Admiral Hopfon was then at an- ,“’“r~v-rr" ’
chor in the bay of Gibraltar, yet, as he had received
no intelligence of the actual commencement of hoiiili-
ties between Britain and Spain, he was obliged to al¬
low the boats of the laiter to pafs with proviiions, arms,
and ammunition, between Algefieas and the camp, at
the fame time that Colonel (afterwards Brigadier) Kane,
who had been a fecond time fent from Minorca, lay un¬
der fimilar embarrafl'ments. The operations of the Spa¬
niards, however, teemed fo evidently to tend towards
an attack, that the governor thought proper to or¬
der fuch of that nation as were in the town to leave
it, and to forbid their galleys to anchor under his
guns (a).
The count de las Torres commanded the Spanifh.
forces, amounting to near 20,000 men j and foon af¬
ter forming his camp, he advanced within reach of the
garrifon. The biigadier then defired him to keep out
of his reach, otherwife lie fhould do his utmoil to force
him ; but to this the Spanifh commander replied, that,
as the ganifon could command no more than they had
power to maintain, he fhould obey his Catholic maje-
fly’s orders, and encroach as far as pofhble. Hoftili-
ties, however, were not commenced until the 10th of
February 1727, when the Spaniards, having brought
materials for batteries to the old windmill on the neu¬
tral ground, it was determined in a council of war,
that the Spaniih general had commenced hofiili'ties by-
encroaching fo far on the liberties of the garriion*
Still, however, the governor fent to the count to know
the reafon of breaking ground before the garrifon ; but
received for anfwer, that he was in his mailer’s terri¬
tories, and was not anfwerable to any other perfon for
his condufl.” On this the governor opened the batte¬
ries of the Old Mole and thofe of Willis upon the Spa¬
nifh workmen : however, they perfifled on carrying on
their operations, and at night marched a party down to
the Devil’s Tower, where they immediately broke
ground, and began a communication with their other
W'orks. The governor was now informed by fome de-
ferters, that the enemy were forming a mine in a cave
under Willis’s Battery, with a defign to blow it up :
but the plot being thus happily difeovered, a party was
immediately flationed to cut off the communication.
On the 22d of February the Spaniards opened on the
garrifon with 17 pieces of cannon befides mortars; and
the day following Brigadier Kane left Gibraltar to fend
a reinforcement from Minorca. On the 3d of March
the enemy opened a new battery of 22 guns, on the Old
Mole, and on the 8th another of x 5 guns, bearing alfo
upon the fame mole, the guns of which had annoyed the
weflern flank of their approaches.
All this time the garrifon had kept up a conflant
and well direfled fire from the batteries which bore
upon the works of the enemy; but the ordnance in
general being old, were frequently burfling; by which
they fuffered more than from the fire of the befiegers.
’ 4 U 2 The
(a) At this time the fortifications of Gibraltar were confiderably different from what they had been in 1705.
Several works were eredled on the heights above the lines called Willis's Batteries ; the Prince s Lines were
extended to the extremity of the rock, and an inundation was formed out of the morafs in front of the gran*
battery.
GIB [ 708
^Gibraltar The latter were alfo greatly diftreffed by the fleet un-
v _ 11 ' der Admiral Hopfon and Sir Charles Wager, who, lince
the beginning of the liege, had intercepted their home-
bound ftiips, and at the lame time greatly benefited the
garrifon, by bringing the prizes into the bay. Finding
the Spaniards, however, obftinately bent on their en-
terprife, they formed a delign, on the 2d of April, to
bombard Algebras, from whence the befiegers were
(applied with various articles of ammunition ; but the
fleet happening to be becalmed, the defign Avas after-
Avards unaccountably abandoned 5 and on the arrival of
a reinforcement from Minorca, they failed to the Aveft-
Avard, leaving the garrifon to defend themfelves the bell
Avay they could.
The enemy continued to augment their batteries,
and ereft muv ones, until they amounted at lall to 60
cannon befides mortars •, and. On the 3d of May, the
]
G I B
their at¬
tempts.
21
Gibraltar
governor received intelligence that a general affault Avas
intended •, to repel AAdiieh he took every proper precau¬
tion. The enemy, hoAvever, Hill added to their ap-
ip proaches, and conliderable reinforcements AA'ere receiv-
©cffation of ed by both parties. Hoftilities, hoAATevtr, ceafed on
bo ft 1I1 ties. t}ie 1 2th, when neAATs arrived that the preliminaries of
a general peace were figned 5 from which time to the
20 year 1779, no farther attempts Avere made on Gibral-
Great lofs tar. In the courfe of thefe two lieges the lofs of the
nlards f ^ ^Pan*ar^s was very confiderable •, that of 1 705 colling
them not lefs than 10,000 men, including thofe who
died of fickncfs; and in that of 1727 their lofs Avas
computed at near 3000, befides cafualties, which could
not be afeertained. That of the garrifon amounted in
1705 to 400 ; and in 1727 to 300 j a very (mail num¬
ber, confidering that during the liege 70 cannon and
30 mortars burit on the batteries.
The hoftile manifefto prefented by the Spanilh am-
blocked up baflador to the court of London at the commencement
1775‘ of the American Avar, Avas foon followed by an interrup¬
tion of communication betAvixt Spain and the fortrefs of
Gibraltar. No direct intention of attacking or dillrefs-
ing it, hoAvever, Avas manifelled till the 16th of July,
when the port Aras completely blocked up by a fqua-
dron of two 74 gun Ihips, feveral frigates, galleys, &c.
Ten days after they began to form a camp on the plain
below St Roch, three miles from the fortrefs. The
garrifon at this time confilled of 5382 men, including
officers, Avith a company of engineers and artificers }
but the greatelf expectations Avere formed from the abi¬
lities and valour of General Elliot the governor. As
foon as the breaking off the communication with Spain
indicated approaching hollilities, the governor took
every precaution that could be fuggefted by military
wifdom; but thpugh informed of the rupture betAvixt
the two courts having actually taken place, and though
he beheld the holtile operations of the enemy, no means
2a were ufed to interrupt them till the 12th of September,
Hoftiiities when the batteries of Green’s Lodge, Willis, and
commenced Queen Charlotte, were opened for a feAV hours, with a
view to difturb the workmen.
by the gar
rifon.
From this time to the beginning of the year 1780
the enemy continued the blockade both by fea and
land, but Avithout doing any damage to the works or
garrifon, and it Avas not until the 12th of January
firft wound-that a fingle perfon was wounded, This happened to
cd in the be a tvoman, who? palling near one of the houfes, Avas
fortrefs. ffightly hurt by a fliot from the enemy. In the mean
5
A woman
time, hoAvever, the ufual fupplies of provifiens being Gibraltar.
cut off, the garrifon began to feel all the horrors of ’ v—j
famine. All the neceffaries of life Avere very fcarce,
and to be procured only at exorbitant prices. Veal,FxCL24r
mutton, and beef, fold from half a croAvn to four fliil-dearnefs of
lings per pound ; frefh pork from tAvo to three fhillings • provdions.
faked beef and pork fifteenpence ; fowls eighteen {hil¬
lings per couple 5 ducks a guinea ; fire wood, five {hil¬
lings per hundred Aveight ; a pint of milk and Avater
fifteenpence ; a fmall cabbage coft five {hillings, and a
fmall bunch of outer leaves fivepence; Irrlh butter
half a croAv n per pound •, candles as much ; and eggs
fixpence each. As tire rock, however, is almoft iur-
rounded by the fea, it Avas natural to fuppofe, that in
fuch a fcarcity of other provifions great benefit Avould
have been derived from the ocean ; but the filhermen,
being all foreigners, and under no regulation, took ad¬
vantage of the prefent fcarcity of provifions in the gar¬
rifon to exaft a moft exorbitant price for the fifti they
fupplied.
Had matters remained long in this fiate, it is plain The Spa-
that the fortrefs, however ftrong, muff have fallen into r.iflr fleet
the hands of the enemy. They Avere, however, efiec-f’e‘,eate<i
tually relieved in confequence of the victory gained by admiraT*
Admiral Rodney over the Spaniftr fleet commanded by taken by
Don Juan de Langara. The former had been furniffi- Todncy.
ed with a ftrong fquadron, in order to relieve this im¬
portant fortrefs ; Avith which having fet fail, he in a
feAV days fell in Avith a Spaniffi fleet of 16 tranfports
bound from Bilboa to Cadiz, and laden with provifions
and naval ftores, convoyed by a man of Avar of 64 guns,
four frigates, and tAvo armed veffels. Of thefe only a
fingle tranfport efcaped, the reft being all captured on
the 8th of January 1780 ; and the lofs of them, at the
fame time that it promifed to be very forviceable to the
garrifon, was equally detrimental to the enemy, who
Avere now in great want both ot previfions and materials
for their {hipping.
This advantage was foon after followed by a muck
greater. On the 16th of the fame month a Spanifti
fquadron of 11 fail of the line Avas difeovered off Cape
St Vincent ; and the Britilh admiral having taken the
proper methods to come up with them as quickly as
poffible, an engagement took place about four In the
afternoon. At this time the headmoft {hips of the
Britiffi line clofed in Avith the neareft of the enemy,
and in half an hour one of the Spaniards, mounting 70
guns, and having on board 6co men, blevv up, and all
on board periffied. In tAvo hours more another Spa¬
niffi ffiip of the line was taken ; notAvithftanding which
the fight continued Avith great vigour till two in the
morning, Avhen the headmoft fhip of ihe enemy flruck
to the SandAvieh ; after which the firing ceafed. 1 he
weather throughout the night was Jo tempeftuous that
it was with the utmoft difficulty the Britifti could take
poffeffion of thofe flaps which furrendered. Thefe
Avere fix in number, but tAvo of them drove affiore and
were loft, only four being brought fafe into Gibraltar. .
Thefe Avere the admiral’s ffiip of 80 guns and 700 men,
with three others of 70 guns and 600 men. The en¬
gagement, hoAvever, happened fo near the ffiore, and
the Britifh Avere fo eager in fecuring the lee gage to.
prevent the enemy’s efcape, that Admiral Rodney’s
ffiip, together with feme of the largeft in the fleet, were
in great danger of running on the ffioals of St Lucar 4
G I B
[
id
The gai ri-
/
Gibraltar, nor could they be got into deep water again without
much labour and the exertion of great naval Ikill. It
was the opinion of all who were prefent in the a&ion,
that had this engagement happened in the day time,
or had the weather been lefs boifterous, not one of the
Spanilh Ihips could have efcaped j and even as it was,
thofe which got off were fo effentially damaged as to be
unfit for fervice.
The news of this important victory arrived at Gibraltar
fon relieved on the evening of the day after it was fought} and in
■ two days more the garrifon was completely relieved by
the arrival of the fleet and convoy, at the fame time that
they were farther reinforced by a regiment of High-
. landers, confifting of 1051 men, officers included. An
opportunity was alfo taken of fending away with the
fleet all the invalids and wmmen in the garrifon •, with
whom they fet fail on the 10th of February, leaving in
the bay only the Edgar and Panther fhips of the line,
with two frigates.
On the departure of the Britiffi fleet, the blockade
was immediately refumed; and notwithftanding the
ample fupplies lately received, the garrifon foon began
again to experience the inconveniency of wanting freffi
provifions. It had hitherto received thefe in abundance
from the coaff of Barbary; but an unaccountable
alteration had now taken place, fo that the friendlhip of
the emperor of Morocco was transferred from Great
Britain to Spain in a manner totally unprecedented.
His partiality towards the latter was the more furprifing,
as Britain had given no provocation, and the enmity
between Spain and Morocco feemed to be in a manner
conftitutional, and founded upon fuch caufes as could
never ceafe to operate. Thus, however, the garrifon
became daily more and more diftreffed, from being-
obliged to make conftant ufe of their fait provifions,
and even this with the ftrifteft economy. The induftry
and refolution of the Britiffi feamen and officers, indeed,
fometimes overcame all obftacles, fo that they found
means to procure the neceffary refreffiments; though in
lo doing they were certainly expofed to the utmofl:
danger from the enemy. At the fame time the defence
of the garrifon was fo vigorous, that while it continued
to be fupplied even in this fcanty manner, the Spaniards
began to lofe all hope of reducing it 5 for which reafon
they formed a projeiff of burning all the Britiffi (hipping
Jnfuccefs- in the bay. The night appointed for putting this fcheme
■1 attempts in execution was the 6th of June 1780, when 10 fire-
inYftnvC (hips, favoured by an uncommon darknefs, flood over
ing. ^ from the Spaniffi to the Britifh fide of the bay. Their
defign was to fet fire to the ftorehoufes neareft to the
water fide, as well as to the (lapping there ; but having
been too precipitate in firing their (hips, and being
received alfo by a very heavy cannonade, the attempt
was fruftrated. On this occafion the (kill and intrepi¬
dity of the Britiffi feamen were eminently difplayed.
Having manned their boats, thev grappled the fire- fhips
already in flames; and, notwithflanding their dreadful
appearance and the danger of their exploding, towed
them clear of the veffels under the walls and extinguiflied
them.
The failure of this project was a grievous difap-
pointment to .Don Barcelo the Spaniffi admiral, who
lay ready with his fquadron to intercept the Britiffi
veffels that might attempt to efcape ; at the fame time
27
the garri-
on again
educed to
traits.
28
09 ] GIB
that the batteries on their lines were in readinefs to Gibraltar,
bombard the town, if the fire-ffiips had fucceeded in
caufing any conflagration on fliore. The failure of the
prefent attempt, however, was foon folknved by other
difafters. As foon as they had, with great labour, Spanifli
pulhed forward their new works, and conffrudled new works de*
batteries, they were certainly deffroyed by the befieged j ftro>cd'
and their mortification on thefe occafions was the greater,
as it was ufiual for the governor to allow them to com¬
plete their works before he commenced his deflruffive
operations. Thus the labour of many days was often
loft in a few hours, and afterwards was to be refumed 30
with as little profpeef of (uccefs as before. The garrifon The gani-
was now conliderably annoyed by the Spanifli gun boats,ion ann°y-
to which indeed the (hipping were equally expofed with ^
themfelves. Thefe were veffels from 30 to 40 tons 0u^boats.
burden, conftrudfed fo that they lay low in the water, °
which rendered them difficult to be aimed at. They
had 15 oars on a fide, carried 40 or 50 men, with a 26
pounder on the prow ; and, from the facility of manag¬
ing them, two were deemed, in calm weather to be" a
match for a frigate of moderate (ize. All their efforts,
however, could (till do no more than to reduce the
garrifon to great drafts for want of provifions 5 and to
this dreadful inconvenience the Britilh fubmitted with
the greateft cheerfulnefs. From the time of Admiral
Rodney’s departure in the month of February 1780 to
the month of Odfober, almoft the only provifions in the
garrifon were fuch as tended to produce the feurvy ;
which accordingly raged in fuch a manner, as to threaten
the mod fatal confequences. An antidote, however, ,T
was happily procured by the capture of a Danifh dogger The feurvy
from Malaga laden with lemons and oranges, which the rages in th»-
governor immediately purchafed for the ufe of the gar-2arrifon*
rifon and diftributed among them. “ At this time
(fays Captain Drinkwater) the feurvy had made dread¬
ful ravages in our hofpitals, and more were daily
confined : many however, unwilling to yield to its
firft attacks, perfevered in their duty to the more ad¬
vanced ft ages. It was therefore not uncommon, at
this period, to fee men, who, fome months before,
were hale, and capable of enduring any fatigue, fup-
porting themfelves to their polls upon crutches, and
even with that affiftance fcarcely able to move along.
The moft fatal confequences in (hort were to be appre¬
hended to the garrifon from this terrible diforder,
when this Dane was happily directed to our relief.” 32
According to Mr Cairncrofs, an eminent furgeen, Cairncrofs’s
who was prefent during this fiege, “ the feurvy which .accouut of
now raged in Gibraltar, differed in no refpecl from11*
that difeafe ufually contracted by failors in long (ea
voyages ; and of which the immediate caufe feemed to
be the fubfifting for a length of time upon falted pro¬
vifions only, without a fufficient quantity of vegetables
or other acefcent foods. The circumftances related in
the voyage of that celebrated circumnavigator Lord
Anfon of confolidated fractures difunlting, and the
cailofity of the bone being perfectly diffolved, occur-
ed frequently in our hofpitals, and old fores and
wounds opened anew from the nature of the diforder.
Various antifcorbutics were ufed without fuccefs, fuch
as acid of vitriol, four crout, extradf of malt, effence of
fpruce, &c.; but the only fpecifics were freffi lemons
and oranges given liberally 3 or, when they could not
be
GIB [71
Gibraltar, be procured, tlie preferved juice in fucli quantities,
I B
from one. to four ounces per day, as the patient could
bear. Whilit tlie lemons were found, trom one to
three were adminiftered each dav as circumitances di-
redled. The juice given to thole in the moft malig¬
nant Hate was fometimes diluted with fugar, wine, or
fpirits *, but the convalefcents took, it without dilu¬
tion. Women and children were equally affefted ; nor
were the officers exempted from this dreadful diforder.
It became almoft general at the commencement of the
winter feafon, owing to the cold and moillure, and in
■^3 the beginning of fpring when vegetables were fcarce.
Method of The juice was preferved by adding to 60 gallons of
preferying expreifed liquor about five or ten gallons of brandy,
lemon juice, ^^h kept it in fo wholefome a Hate, that feveral
calks were opened in good condition at the clofe of
the liege. The old juice, however, was not fo Ipeedily
efficacious as the fruit, though by perlevering longer in
its ufe it feldom failed
34  
The garri- Till this month the allowance of fait provifions had
fon diftref- continued undiminiffied 5 but now it was judged necef-
<d r'^r lU fary to reduce the allowance of bread and meat, and
lions. to make fome other regulations in order to enforce the
Itribteit economy with regard to food. Every thing
of this kind that could be praflifed, however, feemed
infufficient to preferve the garrifon from abtolute
want. In the beginning of the year 1781, provifions
became exceedingly fcarce, by reafon of the almolt total
expenditure of what was contained in the public Itores,
and the vigilance of the enemy’s cruifers. About the
middle of February the town bakers left off work for
want of flour •, and many of the poorer fort wanted
bread. The price of frelh provifions again rofe to a
moll enormous height. Small pigs fold at two guineas*,
turkeys at three j geefe at 30 drillings ; fowls and ducks
at 10 drillings ; damaged bifeuit a drilling the pound ;
peafe is. 6d. *, and all other neceffaries in proportion *,
at the fame time the fcarcity of fuel was fuch, that it
was fometimes fcarcely procurable in quantity fufficient
35 to drefs the viftuals.
The garri- The garrifon had hitherto derived affidance occa-
lorj .enti',rclf> fionally from the gardens on the neutral ground, though
the ufe of vafl quantities of vegetables had been removed thence
the neutral by the enemy. Towards the end of the month of
ground. October 1780, however, the Spaniards determined to
expel the Britidr from the gardens entirely : and this
they accomplidred in fpite of all that could be done to
prevent them. From this time the refources with re¬
gard to vegetables depended entirely upon the atten¬
tion paid to cultivation *, which, happily for the garri¬
fon, was attended with fuch fuccefs, efpecially during
36 the winter months, that the produce came at lad to be
Supplied by nearly equal to the demand. At lad, on the 1 2th of
the Br.tifh April 1781, fupplies were brought bv the Britifh fleet
licct" under Admirals Darby, Digby, and Rofs, though they
could not be got in without great difficulty. The
gun boats already mentioned were now much increafed
in number and drength of condru£lion j infeding the
bav in fuch a manner as greatly to interrupt the de¬
barkation of the dores. As no veffels of the fame
kind had been prepared to oppofe them, they could
fcarce be prevented from effefling them purpofe of burn¬
ing the dore (hips. With this view they had approach¬
ed them every morning in hazy weather to the num-
o ] G
ber of between 20 and 30, feveral of them carrying Gibralta
mortar-pieces 5 and as they ufed both tails and oars, ’ l"
they eluded all purfuit, by withdrawing on the rite of
any breeze. To keep off thefe troublefome gueds, fe¬
veral Itout frigates were obliged to itation thendelves
along the bay for the proteaion of the dripping *, but
even this did not prevent them from continuing their
moledation} and notwithdanding the vigilance and
abtivity of the Britilh failors, it was feldom that they
could come near enough to do them any damage. In
fpite of all their endeavours, however, the garrifon was ^
effeftually relieved : an exploit which fo exceedingly xhc Spa.
irritated the court of Spain, that they determined to niards re-
exert the utmod force of the kingdom rather than fail
in the execution of their favourite projett. The works
before the town were therefore carried on with more utmolt_
vigour than ever, and the mod tremendous prepara¬
tions made to caufe the obdinate garrifon feel the re-
fentment of an exafperated enemy. 1 heir batteries
were now mounted with guns of the heavied metal,
and with mortar-pieces of the larged fize *, the number
of the former augmented to near 200, and of the latter
to upwards of 80. For three weeks this prodigious
artillery continued to pour forth an almod inceflant
{bower of ihot and diells, infomuch that, in the time
jud mentioned, they had confumed ioo,ooolb. of
gunpowder, and thrown into the town four or five
thoufand ffiot or {hells every 24 hours. ^
By fuch an immenfe bombardment the town wasThetov™
almoft totally laid in ruins. The inhabitants, computed ent.n-ly
at more than 3000 in number, experienced every dif-cleltro)ti<i*
Acuity that could arife from the deftruftion of their
habitations : feveral of them were killed, and all forced
to leave the town, and take {belter under tents with
what accommodation could be provided for them in
fuch feenes of horror and confufion. Numbers took
the opportunity of retiring with the deet; while many
that remained were now reduced from a date of opu¬
lence to the greated dillrefs. The conduft of Gover¬
nor Elliot was very humane and compaflionate to iuch
as were inclined to depart *, allowing them a free paffage
to England, and fupplying them with provifions for the
Voyage.
During this bombardment, not only the greated
part of the effedls belonging to the inhabitants were
dedroyed, but the fortifications were in many places ^
greatly injured } and the word was, that the remaindtr jjjforderiy
were dedroyed by the foldiers, who had arrived at fuch behaviour
were uewiujrcu uy me    , 1 ■ fnl.
a pitch of licentloufnefs, that they neither regarded 10'
11 1  !„ . r \'ox’ iT'(■ 1In
nor would obey their officers. T hey w:ere incited to
this deftruflive fcheme by the avarice of lome of the
inhabitants who had hoarded up and concealed a quan¬
tity of neeeffary articles, in order to procure an advan¬
ced price. They now, therefore, kept no bounds in
diffipation, wade, and extravagance ; a remarkable in¬
dance of which is given by Captain Drinkwater, in
their reading a pig by a fire made of cinnamon. J o
put a dop to thefe atrocious proceedings, rigorous mea-
fures were of neceffity adopted j and it was intimated,
that any foldier convidled of being drunk or afleep upon
his pod, or found marauding, Ihould be immediately
executed. The lofs of human lives during this dread¬
ful bombardment was lefis than could have been expect¬
ed j but many remarkable circumdances are taken
GI B [ 7I
Gibraltar, notice of by Captain Drinkwater, fome of which are
"Y—related in the note (b).
By the beginning of June 1781, the enemy had re¬
laxed conliderably in their firing, feldom exceeding
600 Ihot in a day ; and continued gradually to dimi-
niih this number fo remarkably, that towards the end
of Augulf, they feldom fired in the day, and only dif-
charged fix or feven, and fometimes not above three,
Ihot in the night. The batteries at land, however,
were fucceeded by the gun-boats ; which renewed their
attacks every day, keeping the garrifon in continual
alarm, and never failing to do more or lefs execution.
To reitrain them, therefore, a battery of guns capable
of throwing their {hot to a great diftance was erefted
as near as pofiible to the enemy 5 and as it reached
their very camp, it was determined to open it upon
them as often as the gun boats made their attacks j
which being foon perceived, they thought it prudent
A0 to defift in fome meafure from that mode of hoftility.
he works They continued {fill, however, to improve their works,
f the ena- and for this purpofe employed the bell engineers both
iy brought
0 the ut -
i ] G I B
of France and Spain ; fo that by the latter part of No- Gibraltar,
vember 1781, they had brought them to fuch a {fate 1 v~““/
of perfection as filled both kingdoms with the moft
fanguine expectations of fuccels. Governor Elliot,
however, far from being difmayed at thefe formidable
bulwarks, fuffered them to proceed without moleilation
to the end of their fcheme, that he might as in a mo¬
ment deilroy the labour of fo many months, and thus
render the difappointment the greater. In the night Thev are
of the 27th of November, a chofen party of 2000 men entirely dc-
wras detached, in order to deflroy the enemy’s works ^;roye('‘
and batteries; and their fuccefs was equal to their
moft fanguine expectations. They marched out in
great order and filence about twro o’clock in the morn¬
ing, under the command of Brigadier General Rofs j
after which they proceeded with the fame circumfpec-
tion, but with the utmoft celerity, to the enemy’s
works, which they ftormed and overthrew with a-
ftoniihing rapidity. The Spaniards wTere inftantly
thrown into confufion, and fled on every fide 5 the
guns and mortars on the batteries were all fpiked up ;
and
10ft per-       
i ;cUon.
(b) Two boys belonging to the artificer company were endowed with fuch wonderful ftrength of vifion, that
they could fee the ihot cf the enemy in the air almoft as foon as it came from the mouth of the gun j and
were therefore conflantly placed upon fome part of the works to give notice to the foldiers of the approaching
danger. During the time of the hotted fire, however, the men were fo habituated to the fall of (hells and (hot
around them, that they contraCled an inlenfibility of danger, and almoft required to be cautioned by their offi¬
cers to avoid the explofion of a (hell when lying with the fufee burning at their feet. In confequence of this
inattention, they frequently negleCled the advice of the boys above mentioned, and their negleCl could not but
be productive of fatal cffeCts. An inftance of this happened on the Princefs Amelia’s battery, where a (hot
thus difregarded came through one of the capped embrafures, carried off one leg from each of three foldiers,
and wounded a fourth in both. In other cafes, in w hich the perfons themfelves have obferved the (hot or (hells
coming towards them, they have been fafeinated by its appearance, and unable to move from the fpot, as
fmall birds are faid to be by the rattlefnake. “ This fudden arreit of the faculties (fays our author) was
nothing uncommon : feveral inftances occurred to my own obfervation, w here men, totally free, have had their •
fenfes fo engaged by a (hell in its defeent, that though fenfible of their danger, even fo far as to cry for affift-
ance, they have been immoveably fixed to the place. But what is more remarkable, thefe men have fo inftan-
taneoufly recovered themfelves on its fall to tire ground, as to remove to a place of fafety before the (hell burll.”
In this manner Lieutenant Lowe of the 12tb regiment was fafeinated by a (hot which he faw coming, but had *
not power to remove from the place before it fell upon him and took off his leg.
Where thefe (hells burft they produced inftant and certain deftruCtion, mangling in the mod dreadful man¬
ner. The following are fome inftances : A matrofs had the misfortune of breaking his thigh by fome acci¬
dent 'y and being a man of great fpirit, could fcarce bear the confinement neceffary for its reunion. In
confequence of this he went abroad too foon, and thus unfortunately broke the bone a fecond time. Being now
confined to bed, a (hell happened to fall into the room where he was, and, rebounding, lodged itfelf direftly
upon him. The convalefcents and fick inftantly fummoned all their flrength, and crawled out of the room,
while the poor matrofs lay below the (hell, kept down by its weight, and utterly unable to ftir. In a few fe-
conds it burft, and took off both his legs, and fcorched him in a dreadful manner. Fie furvived the explofion,
was fenfible to the laft moment, and died regretting that he had not been killed on the batteries. The cafe
of a foldier of the 73d regiment (hows, that even in the moft dangerous cafes we (hould never defpair of reco¬
very while life remains. /This unfortunate man had been knocked down by the wind of a (hell, which, inftanlly
burfting, killed his companion, and mangled himfelf in a (hocking manner. . Flis (kull was dreadfully fraftured,
his left arm broken in two places, one of his legs (battered, the (kin and mufcles torn off from part of his right
hand, the middle finger broken to pieces, and his whole body moft feverely bruifed and marked with gun-
pow'der. He prefented fo horrid an object to the furgeons, that they had not the leaft hopes of faving Iris
life, and wTere at a lofs what part to attend to firft. He was that evening trepanned ; a few days afterrvards
his leg was amputated, and other wounds and fractures w'ere dreffed. Being poffefled of a moft excellent confti-
tution, nature performed wonders in his favour, and in 11 weeks his cure was completely effected. On the
J8th of September a (hell from the lines fell into a houfe where the town major, Captain Burke,with Majors
Mercier and Vignoles of the 39th regiment were ..fitting. It took eff Major Burke’s thigh j afterwards fell
through the floor into the cellar: there it burft, and forced the flooring with the unfortunate major up to the
ceiling. When afliftance came, they found him almoft buried in the ruins of the room. He was inftantly con- -
veyed to the hofpital, where he died foon after the-wounded part had been amputated. Majors Mercier and;
Vignoles ..
GIB [71
Gibraltar, and the artillerymen, artificers, and failors, exerted
v themfelves fo vigoroufly, that in the fpace of’ an hour
the magazines were blown up, the ftorehoufes of arms,
ammunition, and military implements of every kind, and
all the works that had been conftrufted, were fet on fire,
and totally confirmed; the whole damage done on this oc-
cafion being eftimated at upwards of two millions llerling.
For feveral days after this difafter the Spaniards
continued inaftive, without even making any attempt
to extinguilh their batteries, which ftill continued in
flames ; but in the beginning of December, as if fud-
denly aroufed from their reverie, upwards of 1000
men were fet to work in order to prepare a great
number of fafcines, from whence it was concluded that
they defigned to repair their works. In this they
proceeded with their ufual perfeverance and diligence ;
but as the former methods of attack had conltantly
failed, it was evident, that if the place could be reduced
at all, it muft be by fome means hitherto unattempted ;
and for the redudlion of this Angle fortrefs, the Spa-
nilh monarch, after the conqueft of Minorca, deter¬
mined to employ the whole ftrength of his empire.
Among the various projedts formed at this time, that
of the chevalier D’Arcon, a French engineer of di-
ftindlion, proved the moft acceptable to the court of
thc^cheva'*’ Spain ; and though the expence attending it was im-
lier D’Ar- menfe, this feemed in the prefent circumllances to be
con. but a matter of fmall confideration. His plan was to
conftrud! fuch floating batteries as might neither be
liable to be funk nor fet on fire. With this view their
bottoms were made of the thickeft timber, and their
fides of wood and cork long foaked in water, with a
layer of wet fand betwixt them. Their thicknefs was
fuch, that they were impenetrable to cannon fliot; and
to prevent the effedts of red-hot balls, a num¬
ber of pipes were contrived to carry water through
every part of the veflel, and pumps fiiflicient to fur-
nilh a conftant fupply for the purpofe. The people
at the batteries were flickered from the bombs by a
rope-netting, made floping that they might roll oft',
and fpread with wet fldns to prevent fire. Ten of
thefe batteries were conftrudted out of the hulls of large
4*
Floating
batteries
2 ] GIB
veflels, fome of 50 or 60 guns, cut down for that pur- Gibraltar,
pofe, and carrying from 10 to 28 guns each, with '
about half as many in referve in cafe of accidents.
Each gun was ferved by 36 artillery men ; and thefe
floating batteries were to be feeonded by 80 large
boats carrying guns and mortars of heavy metal ; a
great number of Ihips of force and frigates, with fome
hundreds of fmall craft, were to accompany them with
troops, for the inflant execution of what might be
judged neceffary. On this occafion upwards of loco
pieces of artillery, and 80,000 barrels of gunpowder
were provided. A body of 12,oco of the heft troops
of France were now added to the Spanilh army before
the place ; the body of engineers was the belt that both
kingdoms could produce ; and numbers of volunteers,
of the beft families in both, attended the fiege. Num¬
bers of military gentlemen alfo came from every part
of Europe to be witneffes of what pafled at this cele¬
brated fiege, which was now compared to the moft fa¬
mous recorded in hiftory. The conducting of it way
committed to the duke de Crillon, who had diftin-
guiftied himfelf by the conqueft of Minorca. Two
princes of the blood royal of France, the count of Ar¬
tois brother to the king, and the duke of Bourbon his
coufin, came to be witnefies of this extraordinary en-
terprife. Thefe behaved with the greateft politenefs
both to the governor and garrifon. The count of Ar¬
tois tranfmitted a packet of letters for various indivi¬
duals in the garrifon, which had been intercepted and
carried to Madrid, and which he requefted that he
might be the means of conveying to thofe for whom
they were defigned. Both he and the duke of Bour¬
bon fignified to General Elliot the high regard they
had for his perfon and charaOer ; and the duke de
Crillon himfelf took this opportunity of exprefling the
fame fentiments, and to entreat him to accept of fome
refrefliments. General Elliot returned a polite anfwer,
but accepted of the prefent with reluctance, and requeft¬
ed him for the future not to confer any favours of that
kind upon him. 43
Such a prodigious armament rarfed the confidence Prodigious
of the befiepers°fo high, that they looked upon the armament
6 conqueft tbl0U8ht(be-
* fore the icr-
 trels.
Vignoles had time to efeape before the ftiell burft ; neverthelefs they were {lightly wounded by the fplmters, as
were a ferjeant and his daughter, who happened to be in the cellar when the flrell entered.
The following are related as inftances of very extraordinary efcapes from the deftruCtive potver of the e en¬
gines, and which indeed it feems difficult to account for.—A corporal had the muzzle of his firelock Ci0,e >
and the barrel twifted like a French horn, by a ftiell, without any injury to his perfon. A ihell happened to
fall into a tent where two foldiers were afleep, without awakening them by its fall. A ferjeant m an adjacent
tent heard it, and ran near 40 yards to a place of fafety, when he recollected the fituation of his comrades.
Thinking the {hell had fallen blind, he returned and awakened them ; both immediately rofe, but continued
by the place, debating on the narrow efcape they had had, when the {hell exploded, and mice t icm wit
great violence againft a garden wall, but “ miraculoufly” did no further mifehief than deftroyxng every t nog
in the tent. On the new year’s day of 1782, an officer of artillery obferved a fliell falling towar s t ie p ace
where he flood, and got behind a traverfe for protection. Ihis he had fcarcely done, when t e l e c into
the traverfe, and inftantly entangled him in the rubbifti: one of the guards, named Martin, o • cmng is . re s,
generoufly rifleed his own life in defence of his officer, and ran to extricate him : but finding 7 °'v n. ortS. in"
effectual, called for afliftance ; when another of the guard joining him, they relieved the o beer rom us ituation ;
and almoft at the fame inftant the ftiell burft, and levelled the traverfe with the ground. /.artin was a ter''ar *
promoted, and rewarded by the governor; who at the fame time told him, that “ he ftiould equa ly pave no ict
him for attending to his comrade.” A ftiell happening to fall into the room where En ign 1 at cnz.c o t e 73
regiment was fitting, carried away part of his chair, and fell into the room below, where it urn, 1 ting 11m an
the chair from the floor without further injury.
GIB [ 713 ] ' GIB
Gibraltar, cotiqueft of the place as an abfolute certainty. They
began to be impatient at the delays -which arofe in
bringing matters to the utmoft point of perfection;
and the commander in chief was thought by far too
model!;, when he faid that the garrifon might hold
out for a fortnight. “ It appeared (fays Captain
Drinkwater) that they meant, previous to their final
efforts, to ftrike if pmTibie a terror through their op¬
ponents, by difplaying an armament more powerful
than had probably ever been brought before any for-
trefs. Forty-feven fail of the line, including three in¬
ferior two-deckers; ten battering fhips, deemed per¬
fect in delign, and efteemed invincible, carrying 212
guns ; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb ketches,
cutters, gun and mortar boats, and fmaller craft for
difembarking men, were affembled in the bay. On
the land fide were mod ftupendous and itrong batteries
and works, mounting 200 pieces of heavy ordnance,
and protected by an army of near 40,000 men, com¬
manded by a victorious and a6tive general, and anima¬
ted by the immediate prefence of two princes of the
blood royal of France, with other dignified perfonages,
and many of their own nobility. In their certainty
of fuccefs, however, the enemy feemed entirely to have
overlooked the nature of that force which was oppo-
fed to them; for though the garrifon fcarcely con-
lifted of more than 7000 effective men, including the
marine brigade, they forgot that they were now ve¬
terans in this fervice, had long been habituated to the
effects of artillery, and were by degrees prepared for
the arduous conllifl that awaited them. We ivere at
tire fame time commanded by officers of approved cou¬
rage, prudence, and a6livity ; eminent for all the ac-
complithments of their profeffion, and in whom we had
unbounded , confidence. Our fpirits too were not a
little elevated by the fuccefs attending the firing of
red-hot (hot (c), which in this attack we hoped would
enable us to bring our labours to a conclufion, and
relieve us from the tedious cruelty of a vexatious
blockade.”
As a prelude to the dreadful ftorm which was about
to be poured forth on this devoted garrifon, the ene¬
my, on the 9th of September 1782, opened a battery
of 64 of their largel! cannon, which was fliortly ac¬
companied with a terrible fire from other batteries,
and a great number of mortars. On this and the fol¬
lowing day an attack was made upon the batteries
erefted on Europa Point (fo called from being the
moft foutherly point of the continent of Europe),
which at that time were entirely under the manage¬
ment of Captain Curtis of the Brilliant frigate, who
had diftinguitfied himfelf during the fiege, and now
commanded a brigade of feamen by wjiom the batteries
were ferved. By thefe the fire of the Spaniards was
to warmly returned, that they not only could make no
impreffion, but were forced to retire, after having re¬
ceived fo much damage, that two of their principal
ihips were obliged > > withdraw to the bay of Algebras
oppofite to Gibraltar, in order to refit. On the 12th
Vol. IX. Part II.
the enemy made preparations for the enfuing day, Gibraltar,
which was allotted for their grand and deeifive attack. ■v " ‘ J
# O
Accordingly, on the morning of the 13th, the ten Dc.-tfivc at-
floating batteries came forward, under the command of tack on the
Don Buenventura de Moreno, a Spanifn officer of great i3thofScp-
gallantry, and who had fignalized himfelf at the taking te™ber
of Minorca. Before ten o’clock they had all got into Dj2*
their proper ftations, anchoring in a line about a thou-
fand yards diilant from the Ihore. As foon as they
were properly arranged, they began a heavy cannonade,
and were feconded by all the cannon and mortars in
the enemy’s lines and approaches, at the fame time
that the garrifon opened all its batteries both with
hot and cold (hot from the guns, and fficlls from the
howitzers and mortars. This terrible fire continued
on both tides without intermiflion until noon ; when
that of the Spaniards began to flacken, and the fire
of the garrifon to obtain a fuperiority. About two
o’clock the principal battering fliip commanded by
Don Moreno was obferved to emit fmoke as if on fire,
and fome men were feen bufy upon the roof fearching
from whence it proceeded. The fire from the garrifon
was now kept up without the leaf! difeontinuance or
diminution, while that from the floating batteries was
perceived fenfibly to decreafe; fo that about feven in
the evening they fired but few guns, and that only at
intervals. At midnight the admiral’s ffiip w-as plainly
feen to burn, and in an hour after was completely in
flames. Eight more of thefe batteries took fire fuc-Terrible
cefiively ; and on the fignals of diftrefs made by them, deftrudhon
tire multitude of feluccas, launches, and boats, with °f rt16 Spa-
which they were furrounded, all came to their affiilance,niiUC^*
and began to take the men out of tire burning veffels.
Captain Curtis, who lay ready with the gunboats to
take advantage of any favourable circumftance, came
upon them at two in the morning, and forming a line
on tire, enemy’s flank, advanced upon them with fuch
order and expedition as to throw them into immediate
confufion. At this hidden and unexpefled attack
they were fo aftonifhed and difconcerted, that they fled
precipitately with all their boats, totally abandoning
the floating batteries to be burnt, and all who were
in them to periffi in the flames. This would undoubt¬
edly have been their fate, had not Captain Curtis ex¬
tricated them from the fire at the imminent danger of
his own life and that of his men. In this work he was
fo eager, that while his boat -was alongfide of one of
the largcft batteries, it blew up, and the fragments of
the wreck fpreading all around to a vaft diftance, fome
heavy pieces of timber fell into his boat and pierced
through its bottom, killing one man and wounding
feveral others. He efcaped with difficulty out of this
boat, which was funk, as well as another, by the fame
accident. The floating batteries were every one con-
fumed ; and the violence with which they exploded was
fuch that doors and windows at a great diffance on
fliore were burl! open. About 400 people were faved
from them ; many of whom were picked up floating on
rafts and pieces of timber. Indeed the blowing up of
4 X the
(c) This was fuggefted by Lieutenant Governor Boyd, and had been attended with remarkable fuccefs,
^September 8th, when the enemy’s advanced works were almoft deftroyed by it.
GIB
Gibraltar, the batteries as the flames reached their potvder room';,
v anfl the difeharge of the guns in fucceflion as the metal
became heated by the fire, rendered any attempt to fave
^ them very dangerous.
Inactivity This terrible cataftrophe took place in fight of the
of the com-combined fleets of France and Spain. It had been pro-
fiined fleet. p0fe(l that they fhould co-cperate upon this important
occafion, by attacking the garrifon at Europa Point,
and fuch places as appeared moft expofed to an attempt
by fca. This, it was afterwards laid, muft have occa-
fioned a material diverfion of the garrifon’s force, and,
by dividing it, have -weakened confiderably the vigor¬
ous means of defence ufed in thofe parts which were
actually attacked. The reafon afiigned for this inac¬
tivity was the want of wind.
The bloc- Though this terrible repulfe effectually convinced the
kadc con- Spaniards that Gibraltar could not be taken by force,
tinned. lomc hope ftill remained, that, without any further
exertions on their part, the garrifon would be obliged
to furrendcr from want of ammunition and provifions.
With this view they continued to blockade it clofely,
and to cut off all communication, flattering themfelves
that Britain would not be able to colled a naval force
fufficient to drive their fleet from the bay before the
fortrefs was reduced to extremity ; and this they ima¬
gined muft be the cafe in a few days. Such diligence,
however, had been ufed on the part of the Britiih, that
a fleet was already affcmbled at Portfmouth, confifting
of 35 fail of the line, in excellent condition, and filled
with the bed; officers and failors in Europe. The
command was gived to Eord Kowe, who was accompa¬
nied in the expedition by Admirals Barrington, Milbank,
Hood, Sir Richard Hughes, and Commodore Hotham,
all of them men eminent in their profeffion. At the
fame time alio it fortunately happened, that a large
Britifli fleet of merchantmen had juft arrived in fafety
from the Baltic •, and that a Dutch fquadron which had
been cruifing on their own coaixs, not being able to
penetrate fouthwards in order to join the French, had
retired into port, and given up the intention of effecting
any junction for that fcafim.
At this time the Britifli nation w as in the utmoft
anxiety about the fate of Gibraltar. J he progrefs of
the ffiips was delayed by contrary winds, and it was not
until they had gained the fouthern coaft of Portugal
that they received information of the defeat of the
enemy’s attempt on the 13th of September. On the
nth cf October, Lord Howe entered the Straits, and
feveral of the ftore ffiips deftined for Gibraltar came
fafe to anchor under the cannon of the fort without any
moleftation from the enemy. The combined fleet in
the mean time had been much damaged by a ftorm ,
two ftiips of the line ivere driven alhore near Algefiras j
two more w-ere driven out of the bay into the Mediter¬
ranean others loft their marts, and moft of them fuf-
fered confiderably. One in particular, a ftnp of jo
guns, was carried by the ftorm acrofs the bay, and ran
aground under the works of Gibraltar, where Hie was
taken by the garrifon, with her whole complement of
men, confifting of 700. Notwiftanding the endea¬
vours of the enemy to deftroy her, ftie was fafeiy got
off, and properly repaired. The combined fleet, howr-
ever, put to fea on the 13th, with a view to prevent
the remaining ftoreffiips that had overfhot the bay to
the Gaft from making good their entrance into it; and
G I B
at the fame time to rejoin the two Hups that had been Gibraltar,
feparated from the main body by the ftorm. Having
the advantage of the wind, they bore down upon the
Britifli fleet, which drew up in order of battle to re¬
ceive them j but notwithltanding their fuperiority,
they declined coming to an engagement. On the wind
becoming more favourable next day, Lord Howe took
the opportunity to bring in the ftordhips that were in
company •, and the day following the remainder were
conveyed to Gibraltar, the troops for the reinforcement
of the garrifon were landed, with a large fupply of
powder, and ample provifion in every other refpeft.
As they returned through the ftraits they were threa¬
tened with an engagement by the combined fleets but
though the latte r had a fuperiority of 12 fliips of the
line, they kept a wary diftance. Some firing indeed
togk place, but it was attended with little effed on
either fide. 48
This laft relief proved entirely decifive ; for though The garri-
the blockade continued till news arrived of the prelimi-
naries of peace being figned, in the beginning of Fe-rc 1C e'1*
bruary 1783, no other attack was made. The news of
the pacification was received with the utmoft joy by
the Spaniards. Mutual civilities palled between the
commanders in chief, and the Duke de Crillon paid
many handfome compliments to the governor and gar¬
rifon for their noble defence ; declaring that he had ex¬
erted himfelf to the utmoft of his abilities, and though
he had not proved fuccefsful, yet he was happy in hav¬
ing his fovereign’s approbation ol his conduct. 49
The poffeffion of Gibraltar is efteeme d of very great Importance
confequence to Britain. It not only gives us the com-®^GlbriU'
mand of the Straits, and their navigation but affords
refrelhment and accommodation to our fleets in time of
w7ar, and to our merchantmen at all times j w hich, to
a maritime power, is of very great advantage. Irom
its fituation, it divides both the kingdoms of France
and Spain; that is, it hinders a ready communica¬
tion by fea between the different parts of thefe king¬
doms. This, of courfe, hinders the conjundlion of
their fleets and fquadrons with each other, or at leaft
renders it fo difficult as to be a perpetual check upon
thefe ambitious powers. It awes alfo the piratical
ftates of Barbary, and in like manner the emperor of
Morocco j infomuch, that our commerce is more fafe
than that of any other European power, which gives us
great advantages in point of freight. It is otherwife
highly favourable to our trade in the Mediterranean and
Levant. It procures us the refpeft of the Italian and
other powders ; who, though far diftant from Britain,
muft confider this as an inlfance of her power to hurt
or affift them. It alfo faves us the expence of fquadrons
or convoys, upon any difputes or difturbanees that
may happen among thefe powers, and which would
otherwife be neceffary for the protection of our navi¬
gation.
“ The form of this mountain is (fays Majof Imne)
oblong •, its fummit a {harp craggy ridge ; its direction
is nearly from north to fouth j and its greateft length,
in that direction, falls very little fhort of three miles-
Its breadth varies with the indentations of the (bore, but
it nowhere exceeds three quarters of a mile. The line
of its ridge is undulated, and the two extremes are fome-
what higher than its centre. _ .5°
“ The fummit of the Sugar Loaf, which is the point Natural
ofhiftorv-
[ 7H 1
GIB [7
Gibraltar, of its great eft elevation towards the fouth, is 1439 feet •,
 1 the Rock Mortar, which is the higheft point to the
north, is 13 50 j and the Signal Houfe, which is nearly
the central point between thr^e two, is 1276 feet above
the level of the fea. The weftern iide of the mountain
is a feries of rugged Hopes, interfperfed with abrupt pre¬
cipices. Its northern extremity is perfectly perpendi¬
cular, except towards the north-well, where what are
called the Lines intervene, and a narrow paliage of Hat
ground that leads to the ifthmus, and is entirely cover¬
ed with fortification. The eaftern fide of the moun¬
tain moftly confifts of a range of precipices 5 but a bank
of land, riling from the Mediterranean in a rapid accli¬
vity, covers a third of its perpendicular height. Its
fouthern extremity falls, in a rapid Hope from the fum-
mit of the Sugar Loaf, into a rocky Hat of confiderabie
extent, called Windmill hill.
“ The principal mafs of the mountain rock confifts of
a gray, denfe (what is generally called primary) mar¬
ble ; the different beds c-f which are to be examined in
a face of 1350 feet of perpendicular height, which it
prefents to Spain in a conical form. Thele beds, or
ftrata, are of various tliicknefs, from 20 to upwards of
40 feet, dipping in a direftion from call to weft, nearly
at an angle of 35 degrees. In fome parts of the folid
mafs of this rock are found teftaceous bodies entirely
tranfmuted into the conftituent matter of the rock, and
their interior hollows filled up with calcareous fpar j but
thefe do not occur often in its compofition, and its beds
are not feparated by any intermediate ftrata.
“ The caves of Gibraltar are many, and fome of them
of great extent. That which moil deferves attention and
examination is called St Michael’s Cave, which is fitu-
ated upon the fouthern part of the mountain, almoft
equally diftant from the Signal Tower, and the Sugar
Loaf. Its entrance is 1000 feet above the level of the
lea : This entrance is formed by a rapid Hope of earth,
which has fallen into it at various periods, and which
leads to a fpacious hall, incrufted with fpar, and appa¬
rently fupported in the centre by a large mafiy ftalatfti-
tical pillar. To this fucceeds a long feries of caves of
difficult accefs. In thefe cavernous receffes, the forma¬
tion and procefs of ftalaclites is to be traced, from the
flimfy quilt-like cone, fufpended from the roof, to the
robuft trunk of a pillar, three feet in diameter, which
rifes from the floor, and Lems intended by Nature to
fupport the roof from which it originated.
“ The only inhabitants of thefe caves are bats, fome
of which are of a large fize. The foil, in general, upon
the mountain of Gibraltar is but thinly fown ; and in
many parts that thin covering has been wafhed off by
the heavy autumnal rains, winch have left the fuperfi-
cies of the rock, for a confiderabie extent, bare and
open to infpedlion. In thofe fituations, an obferving
eye may trace the effedls of the flow, but conftant, de-
compofition of the rock, caufed by its expofure to the
air, and the corrofion of fea-ialts, which, in the heavy
gales of eafterly winds, are depofited with the fpray on
every part of the mountain. Thofe uncovered parts of
the mountain,rock alfb expofe to the eye a phenomenon
worthy of fome attention, as it tends clearly to demon-
ftrate, that, however high the furface of this rock may
-now be elevated above the level of the fea, it has once
Leen the bed of agitated waters. This phenomenon is
■to be obferved in many parts of the rock, and is con-
Gibrutui,
15 ] GIB
ftantly found in the beds of torrents. It confifts of pol-
like holes, of various iizes, hollowed out of the folid
rock, and formed apparently by the attrition of gravel
or pebbles, let in motion by the rapidity of rivers or
currents in the fea.
“ Upon the weft fide of the mountain, towards its
bafe, fome ftrata occur, which are heterogeneal to the
mountain rock : the firft, or higheft, forms the fegment
of a circle •, its convex fide is towards the mountain,
and it Hopes alfo in that djreiftion. This ftratum cun*-
fills of a number of thin beds 5 the outward one, being
the t hinneft, is in a ftate of decompofition, and is moulder¬
ing down into a blaekifti brown or ferruginous coloured
earth. The beds, inferior to this, progretfively increafe
in breadth to 17 inches, where the ftratification refts
upon a rock of an argillaceous nature.
“ This laft bed^ which is 17 inches thick, confifts of
quartz of a blackiih blue colour, in the fepta or cracks
of which are found fine quartz cry Hals, colourlefs, and
perfedlly tranfparent. Thefe cryftals are eompofed of 18
planes, difpofed in hexangular columns, terminated at
both extremities by hexangular pyramids. The largeft
of thofe that Major Imrie faw did not exceed one-
fourth of an inch in length : They, in general, adhere
to the rock by the fides of the column, but are de¬
tached without difficulty. Their great degree of tranf-
parency has obtained them the name of Gibraltar dia¬
monds.
“ In the perpendicular fiffures of the rock, and in fome Bones found
of the caverns of the mountain (all of which afford evi-i’-1 fhTures of,
dent proofs of their former communication with the ’^c 1:0t‘v'
furface), a calcareous concretion is found, of a reddifh
brown ferruginous colour, with an earthy fraflure, and
confiderabie induration, inclofing the bones of various
animals, fome of which have the appearance of being
human. Thefe bones are of various fizes, and lie in all
diredlions, intermixed with (hells of fnails, fragments of
the calcareous rock, and particles of fpar ; all of which
materials are ftill to be feen in their natural uncombined
ftates, partially fcattered over the furface of the moun¬
tain. Thefe have been, fwept, by heavy rains at dif¬
ferent periods, from the furface into the fituations above
deferibed, and having remained for a long feries of years
in thofe places of reft, expofed to the permeating action
of water, have become enveloped in, and cemented by,
the calcareous matter which it depofits.
“ The bones, in this compofition, have not the fmalleft
appearance of being petrified ; and if they have under¬
gone any change, it is more like that of calcination than
that of petrifaction, as the moft folid parts of them ge¬
nerally admit of being cut and feraped down with tire
fame eafe as chalk.
“ Bones combined in fuch concretions are not pecu¬
liar to Gibraltar : they are found in fuch large quanti¬
ties in the country of Dalmatia and upon its coafts, in
the ifiands of Cherfo and Ofero, that fome naturaliits
have been induced to go fo far as to affert, that there has
been a regular ftratum of fuch matter in that country,
and that its prefent broken and interrupted appearance
has been caufed by earthquakes, or other convulfions,
experienced in that part of the globe. But, of late
years, a traveller (Abbe Alberto Fortis) has given a
minute defeription of the concretion in which the bones
are found in that country : And by his account it ap¬
pears, that with regard to fituation, compofition, and
4X2 colour,
GIB [7
Gibraltar, colour, it is perfectly fimilar to that found at Gibraltar.
v By his defcription, it alfo appears that the two moun¬
tain rocks of Gibraltar and Dalmatia confift of the fame
fpecies of calcareous itone ; from which it is to be pre¬
fumed, that the concretions in both have been formed
in the fame manner and about the fame periods.
“ Perhaps if the fiffures and caves of the rocks of Dal¬
matia were Hill more minutely examined, their former
communications with the furface might yet be traced,
as in thofe deferibed above ; and, in that cafe, there
would be at lead a flrong probability, that the materials
of the concretions of that country have been brought
together by the fame accidental caufe which has pro¬
bably colle&ed thofe found in the caverns of Gibraltar.
Major Imrie traced, in Gibraltar, this concretion, from
the lowed part of a deep perpendicular fiffure, up to
the furface of the mountain. As it approached to the
lurface, the concretion became lefs firmly combined,
and, when it had no covering of the calcareous rock, a
fmall degree of adhefion only remained, which was evi¬
dently produced by the argillaceous earth, in its com-
pofition, having been moidened by rain and baked by
the fun.
“ The depth at which thefe materials had been pene¬
trated by that proportion of dalabtitical matter, capable
of giving to the concretion its greated adhefion and fo-
iidity, he found to vary according to its fituation, and
to the quantity of matter to be combined. In filTures,
narrow and contrafted, he found the concretion poffef-
fing a great degree of hardnefs at fix feet from the fur-
face j but in other fituations, more extended, and where
a larger quantity of the materials had been accumula¬
ted, he found it had not gained its greated degree of
adhefion at double that depth. In one of the caves,
wrhere the mafs of concretion is of confiderable fize, he
perceived it to be divided into different beds, each bed
being covered with a crud of the daladlitical fpar, from
one inch to an inch and a half in thicknefs, which feems
to indicate, that the materials have been carried in at
various periods, and that thofe periods have been very
remote from each other.
“ At Rofia bay, upon the wred fide of Gibraltar, this
concretion is found in what has evidently been a cavern,
originally formed by huge unfliapely maffes of the rock
which have tumbled in together. The fiffure, or ca¬
vern, formed by the difruption and fubfidence of thofe
maffes, has been entirely filled up with the concretion,
and is now expofed to full view by the outward mafs
having dropped down in confequence of the encroach¬
ments of the fea. It is to this fpot that drangers are
generally led to examine the phenomenon} and the
compofition, having here attained to its greated degree
of hardnefs and folidity, the hady obferver, feeing the
bones inclofed in what has fo little the appearance of
having been a vacuity, examines no further, but imme¬
diately adopts the idea of their being incafed in the fo-
lid rock. The communication from this former chafm,
to the furface from which it has received the materials
of the concretion, is dill to be traced in the face of the
rock, but its opening is at prefent covered by the bafe
of the line wall of the garrifon. Here bones are found
that are apparently human 5 and thofe of them that ap¬
pear to be off the legs, arms, and vertebrae of the back,
are fcattered among others of various kinds and fizes,
even down to the fmalied bones of fmall birds. Major
6 ] GIB
Imrie found here the complete jaw-bone of a (hcep ; it Gibraltar,
contained its full complement of teeth, the enamel of-J
which was perfect, and its whitenefs and Judre in no
degree impaired. In tlie hollow parts of fome of the
large bones was contained a minute crydallization of
pure and colourlefs calcareous fpar ; but, in mod, the
interior part confided of a fparry erud of a reddith co¬
lour, fcarcely in any degree tranfparent.
“ At the northern extremity of the mountain, the con¬
cretion is generally found in perpendicular fiffures. The
miners there employed upon the fortifications, in exca¬
vating one of thofe fiffures, found, at a great depth from
the furface, two Ikulls, which were fuppofed to be hu¬
man 5 but, to the Major, one of them, if not both, ap¬
peared to be too fmall for the human fpecics. The bone
of each was perfeidly firm and folid ; from which it is
to be prefumed, that they were in a date of maturity
before they were inclofed in the concretion. Had they
appertained to very young children, perhaps the bone
would have been more porous, and of a lefs firm texture.
The probability is, that they belonged to a fpecies of
monkey, which dill continues to inhabit, in confider¬
able numbers, thofe parts of the rock which are to us in-
acceflible.
“ This concretion varies, in its compofition, accord¬
ing to the fituation in which it is found. At the extre¬
mity of Prince’s Lines, high in the rock which looks
towards Spain, it is found to confid only of a reddifn
calcareous earth, and the bones of fmall birds cemented
thereby. The rock around this fpot is inhabited by a
number of hawks, that, in the breeding feafon, nedle
here and rear their young; the bones in this concretion
are probably the remains of the food of thofe birds.
At the bafe of the rock, below King’s Lines, the con¬
cretion confids of pebbles of the prevailing calcareous
rock. In this concretion, at a very confiderable depth
under the furface, was found the under parts of a glafs* Phil.
bottle, uncommonly fhaped, and of great thicknefs ; the Trartf.Edin*
colour of the glafs was of a dark green VJ ' ^
“ The fubterranean galleries are very extenfive, Subierrm-
pierce the rock in feveral places and in various direc- ous galle-
tions, and at various degrees of elevation ; all of them nos.
have a communication with each other, either by flights
of deps cut in the rock, or by wooden Hairs where the
paffages are required to be very perpendicular.
“ The centinels may now be relieved during a fiege
from one pod to another in perfeft fafety; whereas, pre-
vioufly to the condrufling of thefe galleries a vad num¬
ber of men wrerc killed by the Spaniards while march¬
ing to their feveral dations. The width of thefe gal¬
leries is about twelve feet, their height about fourteen.
The rock is broken through in various places, both for
the purpofe of giving light and for placing the guns to
bear on the enemy. In different parts there are fpa-
cious receffes, capable of accommodating a confiderable
number of men. To thefe receffes they give names,
fuch as St Patrick’s Chamber, St George’s Hall, &c.
The whole of thefe fingular dru61ures have been form¬
ed out of the folid rock by blading with gunpowder.
Through the politenefs of an officer on duty, a place
called Smart’s Refervoir was opened for our infpeftion,
which is a great curiofity, ' and not generally permitted
to be diewn. It is a fpring at a conliderable depth in
the body of the rock, and is above 700 feet above the
level of the fea; we defeended into the cavern that con¬
tains-
GIB [ >
Gibraltar, tains it by a rope ladder, and with the aid of lighted
Gibfon. cant]les proceeded through a narrow paffage over cryftal-
Ll ~v lized protuberances of the rock till we came to a hollow,
which appears to have been opened by fome convullion
of nature. Here, from a bed of gems, arifes the falu-
tary fount, clear as the brilliant of the eaft, and cold as
the icicle. We hailed the nymph of the grot, and, pro-
ftrating ourfelves, quaffed hygean neftar from her fparry
urn. When reltorcd to the liglrt of day, we obtained,
through the medium of the fame gentleman, the key of
St George’s Hall, at which we arrived by a very intri¬
cate and gloomy path to the fpacious excavation, which
is upwards of a hundred feet in length, its height near¬
ly the fame. It is formed in a femicircular part of
the rock 5 fpacious apertures are broken through, where
cannons of a very large calibre command the ifthmus,
the Spanifh lines, and a great part of the bay. The
top of the rock is pierced through, fo as to introduce
fufficient light to enable you to view every part of it.
It appears almoft incredible that fo large an excavation
could be formed by gunpowder, without blowing up the
whole of that part of the rock, and lull more fo, that
they fliould be able to direct the operations of fuch an
inftrument, fo as to render it fubfervient to the purpofe
of elegance. We found in the hall a table, placed, I
fuppofe, for the conveniency of thofe who are traverling
the rock. The cloth wras fpread, the wine went round,
and we made the vaulted roof refound with the accents
* Month, of mirth and the fongs of conviviality
Mbs- 179s* GIBSON, Richard, an Englifh painter, com¬
monly called the Dwarf was originally page to a la¬
dy at Mortlake ; who, obferving that his genius led
him to painting, had the generofity to get him in-
ftrufted in the rudiments of that part. He devoted him-
felf to Sir Peter Lely’s manner, and copied his pictures
to admiration, efpecially his portraits: his paintings in
water colours "were alfo efteemed. He was in great
favour with Charles I. who made him his page of the
back flairs; and he had the honour to inftruft in draw¬
ing Queen Mary and Queen Anne when they were
princeffes. He married one Mrs Anne Shepherd, who
was alfo a dwarf 5 on which occafion King Charles I.
honoured their marriage with his prefence, and gave
away the bride. Mr Waller wrote a poem on this oc¬
cafion, entitled “ The Marriage of the Dwarfs $n in
which are thefe lines :
Defign or chance makes others wive,
But nature did this match contrive j
Eve might as well have Adam fled,
As flie deny’d her little bed
To him for whom heav’n feem’d to frame
And meafure out this only dame.”
Mr Fenton, in his notes on this poem, obferves that
he had feen this couple painted by Sir Peter Lely; and
that they w'ere of an equal ftature, each being three
feet ten inches high. They had nine children, five of
whom arrived at maturity ; thefe were well proportion¬
ed, and of the ufual ftandard of mankind. But what
nature denied this couple in ftature, ftie gave them in
length of days : for Mr Gibfon died in the 75th year of
his age ; and his wife, having furvived him almolt 20
years, died in 1709, aged 89.
Gibson, Dr Edmund, bilhop of London, was born
17 ] G I B
in Weilmoreland, in 1669. He applied himfelf early
and vigoroufly to learning, and difplayed his know¬
ledge in feveral writings and tranflations, which re¬
commended him to the patronage of Archbilhop Ten-
nifon. He was appointed domeftic chaplain to his
Grace; and we foon after find him rector of Lam¬
beth, and archdeacon of Surry. Becoming thus a
member of the convocation, he engaged in a contro-
verfy, which was carried on with great warmth by
the members of both houfes, and defended his pa¬
tron’s rights, as prefident, in eleven pamphlets j he
then formed and completed his more comprehenfive
fcheme of the legal duties and rights of the Englifti
clergy, which was at length publilhed under the title
of Codex Juris EcclefiaJUci Anglicani, in folio. Arch-
biihop Tennifon dying in 1715, and Dr Wakebifhop of
Lincoln being made archbilhop of Canterbury, Dr Gib¬
fon fucceeded the latter in the fee of Lincoln, and in
1720 wTas promoted to the bilhoprick of London. He
now' not only governed his diocefe with the moft exact
regularity, but by his great care promoted the fpiritual
affairs of the church of England colonies in the Weft
Indies. He was extremely jealous of the leaft of the
privileges belonging to the church 3 and therefore,
though he approved of the toleration of the Proteftant
Difienters, he continually guarded againft all the at¬
tempts made to procure a repeal of the corporation
and teft acts; in particular, his oppofition to thofe li¬
centious affemblies called mafquerades, gave great um¬
brage at court, and effectually excluded him from all
further favours. He {pent the latter part of his life
in waiting and printing paftoral letters, vifitation-
charges, occafional fermons, and tracts againft the
prevailing immoralities of the age. His paftoral let¬
ters are juftly efteemed as the moft mafterly productions
againft infidelity and enthufiafm. His moft celebrated
work, the Codex, has been already mentioned. His
other publications are, 1. An edition of Drummond’s
Po/emo Middinia, and James V. of Scotland’s Can¬
tilena Ruflica, with notes. 2. The Chronicon Saxoni-
cum, with a'Latin tranflation, and notes. 3. Reli-
(jiiice Spelmanniance, the pofthumous works of Sir
Henry Spelman, relating to the law's and antiquities
of England. 4. An edition of Quintilian de Arte
Oratoria, with notes. 5. An Englifh tranflation of
Camden’s Britannia, with additions, two volumes fo¬
lio : and, 6. A number of fmall pieces, that have been
collefted together and printed in three volumes folio.—
His intenfe application to ftudy impaired his health j
notwithftanding which, he attained the age of 79. He
expired in September 1748, after an epifeopate of near
33 years.—With regard to Biihop Gibfon’s private life
and character, he was in every refpeCt. a perfeCt econo-
mift. His abilities were fo well adapted to difeharge
the duties of his facred funCtion, that during the in¬
capacity of Archbifhop Wake, the tranfaCtion of ec-
clefiaftical affairs wras committed to the bifhop of Lon¬
don. He wras a true friend to the eftabliftied church
and government, and as great an enemy to perfecu-
tion. He was ufually confulted by the moft learned
and exalted perfonages in church and ftate, and the
greateft deference was paid to his judgment. He
poffeffed the focial virtues in an eminent degree ; his
beneficence was very extenfive } and he had fuch gene¬
rofity,..
GIG [71
G i’.)fon
Giggle-
wick.
rofity, that he freely gave two thoufand five hundred
pounds, left him by Dr Crow, who was once his chap¬
lain, to Crow’s own relations, who wrere very poor.
GIDEON, the fon of Joaih, of the tribe of Manaf-
feh. He dwelt in the city of Ophrah j and had a very
extraordinary call to deliver the Ifraelites from the op-
preflion of the Midianites, to which they had be¬
come fubjedl after the death of Barak and Deborah.
Having efiefted their deliverance by fupernatural aid,
lie was chofen judge of lirael in the year of the world
27 59, and died in 2768. (See Judges, chap. vi. vii.
and viii.).
GIFT, Donum, in Law, is a conveyance which
paffeth either lands or goods ; and is of a larger ex¬
tent than a grant, being applied to things moveable
and immoveable •, yet as to things immoveable, when
taken ftridllv, it is applicable only to lands and tene¬
ments given in tail j but gift and grant are too often
confounded.
AViu Year's GIFTS, prefents made on new year’s
day, as a token of the giver’s good will, as well as by
way of prefage of a happy year.
This practice is very ancient, the origin of it among
the Romans being referred to i atius king of the Sa¬
bines, who reigned at Rome conjointly with Romu¬
lus, and who having confidered as a good omen a pre-
font of fome fprigs of vervain gathered in a wood con-
fecrated to Strenia the goddefs of ftrength, which he
received on the firit day of the new year, authorized
this cuftom afterwards, and gave to thefe prefents the
name of Strenai. However this may be, the Romans
on that day celebrated a feftival in honour of Janus,
and paid their refpefts at the fame time to Juno } but
they did not pafs it in idlenefs, left they ftiould become
indolent during the reft of the year. They fent pre-
j’ents to one another of figs, dates, honey, &c. to thow
their friends that they wifhed them a happy and agree¬
able life. Clients, that is to fay, thofe who were un¬
der the protedftion of the great, carried prefents of
this kind to their patrons, adding to them a fmall
piece of filver. Under Auguftus, the fenate, the knights,
and the people, prefented fuch gifts to him, and in his ab-
fence depofited them in the Capitol. Of the fucceeding
princes fome adopted this cuftom, and others abolilhed it,,
but it always continued among the people. The early
Chriftians condemned it, becaufe it appeared to be a
relick of Paganifm, and a fpecics of fuperftition ; but
when it began to have no other objeft than that of be¬
ing a mark of veneration and efteem, the church ccafcd
to difapprove of it.
GIGG, Giga, or Jig, in Mu/ic and Dancing, a
gay, brilk, fprightly compofition, and yet in lull mea-
fure, as well as the allemand, which is more ferious.
Menage takes the word to arife from the Italian gieg,
a mufical inftrument mentioned by Dante. Others
fuppofe it to be derived from the Teutonic giga, or
ghiighe, “ a fiddle.” This is a favourite air in moft
nations of Europe : its charadfteriftic is duple time,
marked f, or : it confifts of two ftrains, without any
determinate number of bars.
GIGGLEWICK, a town in the weft riding of
York (hire, half a mile from Settle, Hands on the river
Kibble •, where, at the foot of a mountain, is a fpring,
the moft noted in England for ebbing and flowing
fometimes thrice in an hour, and the water fubfides
8 ] G I L
three quarters of a yard at the reflux, though the fea is <
30 miles oft". At this town is an eminent tree grammar
fchool j and in the neighbourhood arc dug up flags, (
Hate, and ftone.
GIHON, in Ancient Geography, one of the rivers
of Paradife according to Wells, the eaftern branch of
the Euphrates, into which it divides after its conjunc¬
tion with the Tigris.
GILAN, or Ginr.AN, a confiderable province of
Periia, on the fide of the Cafpian fea, to the louth-
weft. It is fuppofed to be the Hyrcania of the an¬
cients. It is very agreeably fituated, having the feu
on one fide and high mountains on. the other 5 and
there is no entering in but through narrow pafies,
which may eaiily be defended. The fides of the
mountains are covered with many forts of fruit trees,
and in the higheft parts of them .there are deer,
bears, wolves, leopards, and tygers; which laft the
Perlians have a method ot taming, and hunt with
them as we do with dogs. Gilan is one of the moft
fruitful provinces of Perfia, and produces abundance
of filk, oil, wine, rice, and tobacco, befides excellent
fruits. The inhabitants are brave, and of a better
complexion than the other Indians, and the women
are accounted extremely handiome. Retht is the capi¬
tal town.
GILBERT, or Gilserd, William, a phyfician,
was born at Colchefter in the year 1340, the eldeft
fon of the recorder of that borough. Having fpent
fome time in both univerfities, he went abroad ; and
at his return fettled in London, where he pradlifed
with confiderable reputation. He became a mem¬
ber of the College of Phyficians, and phyfician in or¬
dinary to Queen Elizabeth, who, we are told, gave
him a penfion to encourage him in his ftudies. From
his epitaph it appears that he was alfo phyfician to
King James I. He died in the year 1603, aged 63 \
and was buried in Trinity church in Colchefter, where
a handfome monument was erected to his memory. Flis
books, globes, inftruments, and foflils, he bequeath¬
ed to the College of Phyficians, and his piclure to the
fchool gallery at Oxford. He wrote, 1. De Magnete,
magneticifque corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure,
physiologia nova; London 1600, foiio. 2. De mun~
do nojlroJubkunari ptulofophia nova: Amfterdam 1651?
4to. He Avas alfo the inventor of twm mathematical in¬
ftruments for finding the latitude at fea Avithout the
help of fun, moon, or ftars. A defeription of thefe in¬
ftruments Avas afterAvards publiflied by Thomas Blonde-
ville in his Tlieoriques of the Planets.
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, a brave officer and Ikil-
ful navigator, Avas born about the year 1539, in
Devonfhire, of an ancient and honourable family.
Though a fecond fon, he inherited a confiderabie for¬
tune from his father. He Avas educated at Eton, and
afterivards at Oxford ; where probably he did not con¬
tinue long. It feems he Avas intended to finifn his ftu¬
dies in the Temple •, but being introduced at court
by his aunt Mrs Catharine Aftdey, then in the queen’s
fervice, he Avas diverted from the ftudy of law, aiH
commenced foldier. Plaving diftinguifticd himfelf
in feveral military expeditions, particularly that to
Newhaven in 1563, he Avas fent over to Ireland to
affift in fuppreffing a rebellion j where, for his fignal
fervices, he Avas made commander in chief and gover¬
nor
wick
G X L [ 7
Ciibert nor of Munfter, and knighted by the lord deputy, Sir
II Henry Sidney, on the firft day of the year 1570.
, He returned foon after to England, where he married
a rich heirefs. Neverthelefs, in 1572, he failed with
a fquadron of nine (hips to reinforce Colonel Morgan,
who at that time meditated the recovery of Flufhing.
Probably on his return to England he refumed his
cofmographieal ftudies, to which he w7as naturally in¬
clined : for, in the year 1576, he publifhed his book
on the north-weft paffage to the Eaft Indies; and as
Martin Frobifher failed in the fame year, probably it wTas
in confequencc of this treatife. In 1578, he obtained
from the queen a very ample patent, empowering him
to difeover and poffefs in North America any lands then
unfettled. He failed to Newfoundland, but foon re¬
turned to England without faccefs; neverthclefs, in
1583, he embarked a fecond time with five (hips, the
largelt of which put back on account of a contagious
diftemper on board. Our general landed on New¬
foundland on the third of Auguft, and on the fifth
took poffeffion of the harbour of St John’s. By vir¬
tue of his patent, he granted leafes to feveral people 5
but though none of them remained there at that time,
they fettled afterwards in confequence of thefe Icafes •,
fo that Sir Humphrey deferves to be remembered as
the real founder of the vaft American empire. On the
20th of Auguft he put to fea again, on board a fmall
floop •, which on the 29th foundered in a hard gale of
wind. Thus perilhed Sir Humphrey Gilbert; a man
of quick parts, a brave foldier, a good mathemati¬
cian, a Ikilful navigator, and of a very enterprifing
genius. We learn alfo, that he wras remarkable for
his eloquence, being much admired for his patriotic
fpeeches both in the Englilh and Irifti parliaments. He
wrote “ A difeourfe to prove a paffage by the north-
weft to Cathaia and the Eaft Indies, printed London
1576.” This treatife, which is a mafterly performance,
is preferved in Hakluyt’s Collection of Voyages, vol.
iii. p. 11. The ftyle is fuperior to molt, if not to all,
the -writers of that age j and fhows the author to have
been a man of confiderable reading. He mentions,
at the clofe of this work, another treatife on naviga¬
tion, which he intended to publilh: it is probably
loft.
GILBERTINES, an order of religious, thus call¬
ed irom St Gilbert of Sempringham, in the county of
Lincoln, who founded the fame about the year 1148 :
the monks of which obferved the rule of St Auguftine;
and were accounted canons: and the nuns that of St
Benedict.
The founder of this order ereCted a double monafte-
ry, or rather two different ones, contiguous to each o-
ther, the one for men, the other for women, but parted
by a very high walk
St Gilbert himfelf founded 13 monafteries of this
order, viz. four for men alone, and nine for men and
women together, which had in them 700 brethren and
1500 filters. At the diffolution there were about 25
houfes of this order in England and Wales.
GILBOA, in Ancient Geography, mountains of Sa¬
maria, ftretching out from weft to eaft, on the confines
of the half tribe of Manaffeh, and of the tribe of Iffa-
char, and to the fouth part of the valley of Jezreel •, be¬
ginning weftward at the city of Jezreel, fituated at the
foot of thefe mountains, reaching almoft quite to the Jor-
9 ] GIL
dan, lying at the diftance of fix miles from Scythopo- Gilboa
lis. Famous for the death of Saul and his fon Jona- H
than, and the defeat of the Ifraelites by the Philif-1 ‘ ^ ‘‘a‘
tines.
GILCHRIST, Dr Ebenezer, an eminent Scots
phyfician, was born at Dumfries in 1707. He began
the ftudy of medicine at Edinburgh, which he after¬
wards profecuted at London and Paris. He obtained
the degree of doCtor of medicine from the univerlity of
Rheims 3 and in the year 1732 he returned to the place
of his nativity, where he afterwards conftantly refided,
and continued the praCtice of medicine till his death.
It may with juftice be faid, tlxat few phyfieians of the
prefent century have exercifed their profeflion in a man¬
ner more refpcCtable or fuccefsful than Dr Gilchrift j and
few have contributed more to the improvement of the
healing art. Having engaged in bulinefs at an early
period of life, his attention was wholly devoted to ob-
lervation. Endowed by nature with a judgment acute
and folid, and a genius aftive and inventive, he foon
diftinguilhed himfelf by departing, in various important
particulars, from eftabliftied but unfucccfsful modes of
praCficc. Several of the improvements which he in¬
troduced have procured him great and deferved reputa¬
tion both at home and abroad. His praCticc, in or¬
dinary cafes, wras allowed to be judicious, and placed
him high in the confidence and efteem of the inhabi¬
tants of that part of the country where he lived. But
his ufefulnefs was not confined to his own neighbour-
Cj
hood. On many oceafions he w7as confulted by letter
from the moft diftant parts of the country. In differ¬
ent collections are to be found feveral of his perform¬
ances, which prove that he had fomething new and
ufeful to offer upon every fubjeCt to which he applied
himfelf. But thofe writings which do him the greateft
honour are two long differtations on Nervous Fevers,
in the Medical Eflays and Obfervations publifhed by a
Society in Edinburgh ; and a treatife on the ufe of Sea
Voyages in Medicine, wrhich firft: made its appearance
in the year 1757, and was afterwards reprinted in 1771.
By means of the former, the attention of phyficians was
firft turned to a fpecies of fever which is now found to
prevail univerfally in this country j and the liberal ufe
of wine, which he was the firft among the moderns to-
recommend, has fince been adopted in thefe fevers bv
the moft judicious phyficians of the prefent age, and
has probably contributed not a little to the fuccefs of
their praCticc. His treatife on Sea Voyages points out
their utility in various diftemper?, and particularly in
confumptions, but experience by no means confirms the
obfervation, that there is now a profpeCt of our being
able to employ a remedy in this untraCtable difeafe much
more efficacious than any hitherto in ufe. Dr Gilchrift
died in 1774.
GILD, or Guild. See Guild.
GILD AS, furnamed the Wife, -was born in Wales
in the year 511. Where he was educated is uncer¬
tain ; but it appears from his own writings that he
was a monk. Some writers fay that he went over to
Ireland ■, others, that he vifited France and Italy.
They agree however in afferting, that after his return to
England he became a celebrated and moft affiduous
preacher of the gofpel. Du Pin fays he founded a
monaftery at Venetia in Britain. Gildas is the only
Britilh author of the fixth century whofe works are
printed y
\
G I L
Gilding
when firfl
introduced
at Rome.
Gd.das, printed} they are therefore valuable on account
Gilding. antiquity, and as containing the only informa-
tion we have concerning the times of which he wrote.
His Hiftory of Britain is, however, a very fiimfy per¬
formance, and his ftyle obfcure and inelegant,
GILDING, the art of fpreading or covering a
thing over with gold, either in leaf or liquid. The
art of gilding was not unknown among the ancients,
though it never arrived among them at the perfection
to which the moderns have carried it. Pliny allures
us, that the firlt gilding feen at Rome was after the
deftruftion of Carthage, under the cenforfhip of Lucius
Mummius, when they began to gild the ceilings of
their temples and palaces •, the Capitol being the firit
place on which this enrichment Avas bellowed. But
he adds, that luxury advanced on them fo haltily, that
in a little time you might fee all, even private and
poor perfons, gild the very Avails, vaults, &c. of their
houfes.
We need not doubt but they had the fame method
with us, of beating gold, and reducing it into leaves ;
though it Ihould feem they did not carry it to the
fame height, if it be true Avhich Pliny relates, that
they only made 750 leaves of four lingers fquare out of
a whole ounce. Indeed he adds, that they could make
more; that the thickeft Avere called brattece PrceneJHnce,
by reafon of a llatue of the goddefs Fortune at Prte-
nelte gilt Avith fuch leaves; and that the thinner fort
Avas called braBece quejlonce.
The modern gilders do alfo make ufe of gold leaves
of divers thickneffes; but there are fome fo line, that
a thoufand do not weigh above four or five drachms.
The thickeft are ufed for gilding on iron and other
metals ; and the. thinneil on wood. But Ave have ano¬
ther advantage over the ancients in the manner of uling
or applying the gold : the fecret of painting in oil,
difeovered of late ages,- furniflies us Avith means of gild¬
ing Avorks that lhall endure all the injuries of time and
Aveather, which to the ancients Avas impracticable.—
They had no way to lay the gold on bodies that
Avould not endure the fire but with Avhites of eggs or
fizc, neither of Avhich Avill endure the Avater ; fo that
they could only gild fuch places as were Iheltered from
the moilture of the weather.
The Greeks called the compofition on -which they ap¬
plied their gilding on Avood leucoplueum or leucophorwn;
which is deferibed as a fort of glutinous compound
earth, ferving in all probability to make the gold flick
and bear polifhing. But the particulars of this earth,
its colour, ingredients, &c. the antiquaries and natural-
ids are not agreed upon.
The ludre and beauty of gold have occafioned feve-
ral inquiries and difeoveries concerning the different
methods of applying it to different fubdances. Hence
the art of gilding is very extenfive, and contains many
particular operations and various management.
A colour of gold is given by painting and by var-
Valfe gild- nidles, without employing gold ; but this is a falfe kind
ing with la- 0f gilding. Thus a very fine golden colour is given
ducror to brafs and to filver, by applying upon thefe metals a
a utc 1 ea . gol(j coloure(j varnifh, Avbich, being tranfparent, fhoAVS
all the brilliancy of the metals beneath. Many orna¬
ments of brafs ivere vamifhed in this manner, Avhich is
Called gold laquering, to didinguifh them from thofe
which arc really gilt. Silver leaves thus varniflied are
Ancient
.gilding in¬
ferior to
the mo¬
dern.
[ 720 ] GIL
of put upon leather, which is then called gilt leather. See Gilding.
Laquer. v-~—v—^
Amongd the falfe gilding may alfo be reckoned
thofe which are made Avith thin leaves of copper or
brafs, called Dutch leaf. In this manner are made all
the kinds of Avhat is called gilt paper.
In the true gilding, gold is applied to the furface of
bodies. The gold intended for this purpofe ought in
general to be beat into thin leaves, or othenvife divided
into very fine parts. 4
As metals cannot adhere Avell merely by contadl to Gilding
any but to other metallic fubftances, Avhen gold is toWlt'1 !‘/e*
be applied to the furface of fome unmetallie body, that
furface mull be previoully covered Avith fome gluey and
tenacious fubftance by Avhieh the gold fiiall be made
to adhere. Thefe fubftances are in general called Ji%es.
Some of thefe are made of vegetable and animal glues,
and others of oily, gluey, and drying matters. Up¬
on them the leaves of gold are applied, and preffed
doAvn with a little cotton or a hare’s foot; and when
the Avhole is dry, the Avork is to be finithed and polifti-
ed Avith a bard inftrument, called a dog's tooth, to give
luftre. 5
When the Avork is required to be capable of refill- With oil
ing rain or moifture, it ought to be previoufly cov'ered
Avith a compofition of drying oil and yelloAV ochre
ground together \ othenvife a Avater fize may be ufed,
which is prepared by boiling cuttings of parchment or
Avhite leather in Avaler, and by mixing Avitb this fome
chalk or Avhiting : feveral layers of this lize muft be
laid upon the wood, and over thefe a layer of the fame
fize mixed Avith yelloAV ochre. Laftly, Another mix¬
ture, called goldfi%e, is to be applied above thefe \ up¬
on Avhich the gold leaves are to be fixed. This gold
fize, the ufe of Avhich is to make the gold leaf capable
of being burnifhed, is compofed of tobacco-pipe clay,
ground Avith fome ruddle' or black lead, and tempered
Avith a little talloAV or oil of olives. The edges of glaffes
may be gilt by applying firft a very thin coat of var¬
nifh, upon Avhich the gold leaf is to be fixed ; and Avhen
the varnifh is hardened, may be burniflied. This var-
nifti is prepared by boiling powdered amber with linfeed
oil in a brafs veffel to Avhich a valve is fitted, and by
diluting the above folution Avith four or five times its
quantity of oil of turpentine; and that it may dry fooner,
it may be ground Avith fome Avhite lead. 6
The method of applying gold upon metals is entirely Of gilding
different. The furface of the metal to be gilt is firftmetaIs-
to be cleaned ; and then leaves are to be applied to it,
Avhich, by means of rubbing Avith a poliflied blood-
ftone, and a certain degree of heat, are made to ad¬
here perfectly well. In this manner filver leaf is fixed
and burnifhed upon brafs in the making of what is call¬
ed French plate, and fometimes all’o gold leaf is burnifh¬
ed upon copper and upon iron.
Gold is applied to metals in feveral other ways.
One of thefe is by previoufty forming the gold into a
pafte or amalgam Avith mercury. In order to obtain
a fmall amalgam of gold and mercury, the gold is firft;
to be reduced into thin plates or grains, Avhich are
heated red hot, and thrown into mercury previoufty
heated, till it begins to fmoke. Upon ftirring the
mercury Avith an .iron rod, the gold totally difappears.
The proportion of mercury to gold is generally as fix
or eight to one.
Witli
GIL [ 7
Gilding. With this amalgam the flirface of the metal to be
gilded is to be covered ; then a fufficient heat is to be
applied to evaporate the mercury : and the gold is laft-
ly to be burniihed with a blood-ftone.
This method of gilding by amalgamation is chiefly
ufed for gilding copper, or an alloy of copper, with a
finall portion of zinc, which more readily receives the
amalgam ; and is alfo preferable for its colour, which
more refembles that of gold than the colour of cop¬
per. When the metal to be gilt is wrought or chafed, it
ought to be previoufly covered with quickfilver before
the amalgam is applied, that this may be eafier fpread :
but when the furface of the metal is plain, the amalgam
may be applied diretUy to it. The quickfilver or amal¬
gam is made to adhere to the metal by means of a little
aquafortis, which is rubbed on the metallic furface at the
fame time, by which this furface is cleanfed from any
ruft or taraifh which might prevent the uniort or adhe-
Con of the metals. But the ufe of the nitrous acid in
this operation is not, as is generally fuppofed, conhned
merely to cleanfe the furface of the metal to be gilt
from any ruft or Tkrnifli it may have acquired ; but it
alfo greatly facilitates the application of the amalgam
to the furface of that metal, probably in the following
life of the manner : ^ firfl diflblves part of the mercury of the
nitrous acid amalgam 5 and when this folution is applied to the
in gilding, copper, tins latter metal having a ftronger affinity
for nitrous acid than the mercury has, precipitates
the mercury upon its furface, in the fame manner as
a polifhed piece of iron precipitates copper upon
its lurface from a folution of blue vitriol. When
the metal to be- gilt is thus covered over with a thin
precipitated coat of mercury, it readilv receives the
amalgam. In this folution and precipitation of mer¬
cury, the principal ufe of the nitrous acid in the pro-
cefs of gilding appears to con fill. The amalgam be¬
ing equally fpread over the furface of the metal to be
gilt by means of a brufli, the mercury is then to be
evaporated by a heat juft fufficient for that purpofe;
for if it be too great, part of the gold may alfo be ex¬
pelled, and part of it will run together, and leave fome
of the furface of the metal bare ; while the mercury is
evaporating, the piece is to be from time to time
taken from the fire, that it may be examined, that the
amalgam may be fpread more equally by means of a
brufti, that any defective parts of it may be again co¬
vered, and that the heat may not be too fuddenly ap¬
plied to it : when the mercury is evaporated, which is
known by the furfaee being entirely become of a dull
yellow colour, the metal muft then undergo other ope¬
rations, by which the fine gold colour is given to
it. Firft, The gilded piece of metal is rubbed with a
icratch brufti (which is a brufti compofed of brafs wire)
till its furface is made fmooth *, then it is covered over
with a compofition called gilding wax, and is again ex-
pofed to the fire till the wax be burnt off. This wax
is compofed of bees wax, fometimes mixed with feme
of the following fubftancesred ochre, verdigrife, cop¬
per feales, alum, vitriol, borax : but according to Dr
Lewis, the faline jubilances alone are fufficient, with¬
out any wax. By this operation the colour of the gild¬
ing is heightened •, and this effedl feems to be produ¬
ced by a perfedl diffipation of fome mercury remaining
after the former operation. This diffipation is well ef-
■t‘fled by this equable application of heat. The gilt
Vol. IX. Part IL
i ] GIL
furface is then covered over with a faline co’rnpofition, Gilding,
confifting of nitre, alum, or other vitriolic fait, ground v “
together, and mixed up into a pafte with Water or urine.
I he piece of metal thus covered is expofed to a certain
degree of heat, and then quenched in water. By this
method its colour is further improved, and brought
nearer to that of gold. This efix:d feems to be produ¬
ced by the acid of nitre (which is difengaged by the
vitriolic acid of the alum, or other vitriolic fait, during
the expofure to heat) afting upon any particles of cop¬
per which may happen to lie on the gilded furfaee.
Laftly, Some artifts think that they give an additional
lultre to their gilt work by dipping it in a liquor
prepared by boiling fome yellow materials, as fulphur,
orpiment, or turmeric. 1 he only advantage of this
operation is, that a part of the yellow matter, as the
fulphur or turmeric, remains in fome of the hollows of
the carved work, in which the gilding is apt to be
more imperfect, and to which it gives a rich and folid
appearance.
Iron cannot be gilt by amalgamation, unlefs, as it is
fold, it be previcufly coated with copper by dipping in
a folution of blue vitriol. Iron may alfo receive a
golden coat from a foturated lolution of gold in aqua-
regia, mixed with fpirit of wine, the iron having a great¬
er affinity with the acid, from which it therefore pre¬
cipitates the gold. Whether any of thefe two methods
be applicable to ufe, is uncertain : but the method com¬
monly employed of fixing gold upon iron is that
above mentioned, of burnilhing gold leaf upon this me¬
tal when heated fo as to become blue ; and the opera¬
tion will be more per ft ft if the furface has been pre¬
vioufly fcratched or graved.
Another method is mentioned by authors of gilding
upon metals, and alfo upon earthen ware, and upon
glafsy which is, to fufe gold with regulus of antimo¬
ny, to pulverize the mafs which is fufficiently brittle
to admit that operation, to fpread this powder upon
the piece to be gilt, and expofe it to fueh a fire that
the regulus may be evaporated, while the gold re¬
mains fixed. I he inconveniences of this method, ac-
cuiding to Lr Lewis, are, that the powder does not
adhere to the piece, and cannot be equally fpread;
that- part of the gold is diffipated along with the rega¬
ins j that glafs is fufible with the heat neceffary for the
evaporation of regulus of antimony ; and that copper
is liable to be corroded by the regulus, and to have its
furfoce rendered uneven. g
On this fubjeft of gilding by amalgamation Dr Lewis improve-
has the following remarks. “ .[here are two principalment by
inconveniences in this bufinefs : One, that the work-I)r.Lewis*
men are expofed to the fumes of the mercury, and gene- Com'
rally, fooner or later, have their health greatly impaired^ ‘ TtS‘
by them: the other, the lofs of the mercury; for though
part of it is fold to be detained in cavities made in the
chimney for that purpofe, yet the greateft part of it is
loft. From fome trials I have made, it appeared that
both thefe inconveniences, particularly the firft and
molt confiderahle one, might in good meafure be a-
voided, by means of a furnace of a due conftruftion. If
the communication of a furnace with its chimney, in-
ftead of being over the fire, is made under the grate,
the alh-pit door, or other apertures beneath the grate,
clofed, and the mouth of the furnace left open ; the
current of air, which otherwife would have entered be-
4 Y neath,
GIL [72
G-iling. neath, enters now at the top, and paffing down through
v~ the grate to the chimney, carries rvith it completely
both the \rapour of the fuel and the fumes of fuch mat¬
ters as are placed upon it: the back, part of the fur¬
nace fliould be raffed a little higher above the fire than
the fore part, and an iron plate laid over it, that the air
may enter only at the front, Avhere the workman Hands,
who Avill be thus effectually fecured from the fumes and
from being incommoded with the heat, and at the fame
time have full liberty of introducing, infpeCting, and
removing the work. If fuch a furnace is made of
itrong forged (not milled) iron plate, it will be fuffi-
ciently durable : the upper end of the chimney may
reach above a foot and a half higher than the level of
the fire : over this is to be placed a larger tube, leaving
an interval of an inch or more all round between it and
the chimney, and reaching to the height of 10 or 12
feet, the higher the better. The external air, palling
up betAveen the chimney and the outer pipe, prevents
the latter from being much heated, fo that the mercurial
fumes Avill condenfe againft its lides into running quifck-
lilver, Avhich, falling doAvn to the bottom, is there
eatched in a holloAV rim, formed by turning inwards a
portion of the loAver part, and conveyed, by a pipe at
9 one fide, into a proper receiver.
M. du Fay’s “ Mr Hellot communicates, in the Memoirs of the
method ot p*rencl-i Academy for the year 1745, a method of mak-
thnires big raifed figures of gold on Avorks of gold or filver,
h ‘ found among the papers of M. du Fay, and of which
M. du Fay himfelf had feen feveral trials. Fine gold in
poAvder, fuch as refults from the parting of gold and
filver by aquafortis, is direCted to be laid in a heap on
a levigating Hone, a cavity made in the middle of the
heap, and half its weight of pure mercury put into
the cavity ; fome of the fetid fpirit obtained from
garlic root by diftillation in a retort, is then to be ad¬
ded, and the Avliole immediately mingled and ground
with a muller till the mixture is reduced into an uni¬
form gray powder. The poAvder is to be ground Avith
lemon juice to the confidence of paint, and applied on
the piece previoufly Avell cleaned and rubbed over with
the fame acid juice j the figures drawn Avith it may be
raifed to any degree by repeating the application. The
piece is expofed to a gentle fire till the mercury is eva¬
porated fo as to leave the gold yelloAV, which is then to
be preffed down, and rubbed with the finger and a
little fand, Avhich makes it appear folid and brilliant j
after this it may be cut and embellished. The author
©bferves, that being of a fpongy texture, it is more ad-
vifable to cut it Avith a chiffel than to raife it Avith a
graver } that it has an imperfection of being always
pale ; and that it Avould be a defirable thing to find
means of giving it colour, as by this method ornaments
might be made of exquifite beauty and Avith great fa¬
cility. As the palenefs appears to proceed from a part
«f the mercury retained by the gold, I apprehend it
might be remedied by the prudent application of a
little warm aquafortis, Avhich diffolving the mercury
from the exterior part, Avould give at leaft a fuperficial
high colour : if the piece is fih'er, it mutt be defend¬
ed from the aquafortis by covering it with Avax. In-
ftruments and ornaments of gold, ftained by mercury
where the gold is connected Avith fab (lances incapable
of bearing fire, may be reilored to their colour by the
fiime means. •
]
GIL
“ The foregoing procefs is given entirely on the Gilding;
authority of the French Avriter. I have had no expe- ^■“y—
rience of it myfelf, but have feen very elegant figures
of gold raifed upon filver, on the fame principle, by a method,
difterent procedure. Some cinnabar was ground, not
with the diifilled fpirit, but Avith the exprelTed juice of
garlic, a fiuid remarkably tenacious. This mixture
was fpread all over the polifhed filver j and Avhen the
fird layer is dry, a fecond, and after this a third, Avas
applied. Over thefe were fpread as many layers of
another mixture, compofed chiedy of afphaltum and
linfeed oil boiled doAvn to a due confidence. The whole
being dried Avith a gentle heat on a kind of Avire
grate, the figures Avere traced and cut down to the fil¬
ver fo as to make its furface rough : the incifions were
filled Avith an amalgam of gold, raifed to different
heights in different parts according to the nature of the
defign j after Avhich a gentle fire, at the fame time that
it evaporated the mercury, dedroyed the tenacity of
the gummy juice, fo that the coating, Avhich ferved to
confine the amalgam, and as a guide in the application
of it, Avas now eafily got off. The gold was then
preffed down and embelldhed as in the former method ;
and had this advantage, that the furface of the filver
under it having been made rough, it adhered more
firmly, fo as not to be in danger of coming off, as M.
du Fav fays the gold applied in his Avay fometimes did.
The artid, boAvever, found the procefs fo trcublefome,
that though he purchafed the receipt for a condderable .
fum, he has laid the practice afide.”
Finally, Some metals, particularly filver, may be gilt
in the folloAving manner : ri
Let gold be diffelved in aqua-regia. In this folu-Eafy mo¬
tion pieces of linen are to be dipt, and burnt to black thoti ofgM-
adies. Thefe athes being rubbed on the furface of the’rS lllvcr-
filver by means of a wet linen rag, apply the particles
of gold Avhieh they contain, and Avhich by this method
adhere very Avell. The remaining part of the adies is
to be Avadied off 5 and the furface of the filver, Avhieh
in this date does not feem to be gilt, is to be biuni fil¬
ed AA’ith a blood-done, till it acquire a fine colour of
gold. This method of gilding is \-ery eafy, and con-
fumes a very fmall quantity of gold. Mod gilt orna¬
ments upon fans, fnuff boxes, and other toys of much
Oioav and little value, are nothing but filver gilt in this
manner. I2-.
Gold may alfo be applied to glafs, porcelain, and Methods
other vitrified matters. As the furface of thefe matters of gilding
is very fmooth, and confequently is capable of a very§ials-
perfect contact Aviih gold leaves, thefe leaves adliere to
them Avith fome force, although they are not of me¬
tallic nature. This gilding is fo much more perfect,
as the gold is more exadlly applied to the furface of
the glafs. The pieces are then to be expoied to a cer¬
tain degree of heat, and burnirhed dightly to give them
ludre.
A more fubdantial gilding is fixed upon glafs, ena¬
mel, and porcelain, by applying to thefe fubdances
powder of gold mixed Avith a folution of gum arabic,
or Avith fome effential oil, and a fmall quantity of bo¬
rax } after which a fudicient heat is to be applied to fof-
ten the glafs and the gold, Avhich is then to be fcurnidi-
ed. With this mixture any figures may be drawn.
The powders for tins purpofe may be made, 1. By
grinding gold leaf with honey, which is afterAvards
to
GIL [7
Gil.'mg to be Waftied away with water. 2. By difliiling to
^1. dryneis a folution of gold in aqua-regia. 3. By eva-
. porating the mercury from an amalgam of gold, taking
care to dir well the mafs near the end of the procefs,
4. By precipitating gold from its folution in aqua-re¬
gia, by applying to it a folution of green vitriol in wa¬
ter, or feme copper, and perhaps fome other metallic
fubdances.
GILEAD, the fon of Machir, and grandfon of
Maualfeh, had his inheritance allotted him in the moun¬
tains of Gilead, from whence he took his name. The
mountains of Gilead were part of that ridge which
runs from Mount Lebanon fouthward, on the ead of
the Holy Land ; gave their name to the whole country
which lies on the ead of the fea of Galilee, and inclu¬
ded the mountainous region called in the New Tefta-
ment Truchonitis. Jeremiah (xxii. 6.) feems to fay,
that Gilead begins from Mount Libanus. ‘ Thou art
Gilead unto me, and the head of Lebanon.’ Jacob,
at his return from Mefopotamia, came in lix days to
the mountains of Gilead (Gen. xxxi. 21. &c.) where
this patriarch, with Laban his father-in-law, raifed a
heap of dones, in memory of their agreement and co¬
venant, and called it Gn/eed, i. e. “ an heap of wit-
neffes,” and which Laban called Jegar-fahadutha. Thefe
mountains were covered with a fort of trees abounding
with gum, called the Balm of G^ead, which the Scrip¬
ture commends much (Jer. viii. 21. xlvi. 11. li. 8.). The
merchants who bought Jofeph came from Gilead, and
were carrying balm into Egypt, (Gen. xxxvii. 25.).
The Gileadites being invaded by the Ammonites,
&e. chofe Jephthah for their general, who vanquidied
all their enemies.
Balm of Gilead. See Amyris, Botany Index.
GILGAL, in Ancient Geography, a place between
Jericho and Jordan, noted for the (ird encampment of
the Ifraelites on this fide Jordan, about a mile from
Jericho. It fometimes alfo denotes Galilee, (Jofhua
xii. 23.).
GILL, John, D. D. a Protedant dilfenting minider
of the Baptid denomination, and the fon of Edward and
Elizabeth Gill, was born at Kettering in Northampton-
diire, November 23. 1697. At a very early period of
life, his father, who wras a deacon of the Baptid church
at a uttering, difcovered in him an uncommon capacity
for learning; and his ability for literary purfuits after¬
wards appeared by the rapid progrefs in whatever became
the objeft of his dudy. He wras fent to a grammar
fchool in the neighbourhood ; where he foon furpafled
thofe boys wdio were much his feniors in age and as
pupils. At this fchool he continued till he arrived at
his nth ^ear j where he read mod of the Latin
clafFics, and made confiderable proficiency in the Greek
language.
Mr Gill’s celebrity as a fcholar, and his drong at¬
tachment to books, were foon obferved by the neigh¬
bouring clergy, wrho frequently met and converfed w’ith
him at a bookfeller’s (hop, to which he reforted for the
purpofe of reading ; and indeed fuch was his application
to books, that it became a proverbial faying among the
common people, “ Such a thing is as certain, as that
John Gill is in the bookfeller’s drop.”
He left the grammar fchool, however, early in life.
This was occafioned bv the imperious conduft of his
mader, who infided that the children of diffenting pa-
23 1 g 1 h
rents tliould, with other ichola: - tii it belonged to the Grill,
edablilhment, attend him to church on week days du- '
ring the performance of divine fervice. The didenters
coniidered this requiiition as a ftretch of power to
which his engagements with them gave no claim 5 and
as it wras virtually making conformity a icd by which
his pupils were to expect the benefits of tuition, they
refenied his conduct j and the children of thofe parents
that were in affluent eircumflances wrere removed to fe-
minaries where the fame advantages might be obtained
without being fubjecd to the impofitions of clerical bi¬
gotry. But as the parents of Mr Gill had it not in
their power to confer on him the tame privilege, the
fame deps could not be taken to facilitate his advance¬
ment in learning. To pave the way, however, for .he
completion of his Audios, efforts were made by fevtial
minillers, of different denominations, to get him upon
one or other of the funds in London. For this purpofe
fpecimens of his progrefs in the different branches of
literature were tranfmitted to the metropolis: in anfwer
to which it was objected, “ that he was too young, and
that thould he continue, as it might be expebted he
would, to make fuch rapid advances in his dudies, he
would go through the common circle before he would
be capable of taking care of himftlf, or of being em¬
ployed in any public fervice.” But thefe formidable
objections were of no weight with our young fcholar :
his love of learning was unconquerable. Inluperable
difficulties, it is true, obdructed the way in which lite¬
rary eminence is ufually acquired ; but thefe difficulties
could neither reprefs his ardent defire of knowledge,
nor damp the zeal and application that had marked his
former dudies. For though his time was daily devoted
to the bufinefs of his father j yet he had fo far improved
the hours of leifure, as to be able, before he arrived at
his 19th year, to read all the Greek and Latin authors
that fell in his way. He fludied logic, rhetoric, moral
and natural philofcphy 5 and learnt the Hebrew lan¬
guage fo as to read it with eafe, without any other af-
lidance than Buxtorf’s grammar and lexicon.
Neither the purfu.it of learning, however, nor the
other neceffary avocations incumbent on Mr Gill, could
eradicate thofe religious impreflions received in early
life. On November 1. 1716, he made a public pro-
feflion of his faith before the Baptid church at Ketter¬
ing, and was baptized the fame day by Mr Thomas
Wallis. Of this church Mr Gill had not been long a
member before he was called to the work of the mini¬
dry : foon after which, he removed to Higham-Ferrers,
wffth a view? to purfue his dudies under the direftion of
Mr Davis; but his day at this place was foon inter¬
rupted by an invitation from London in 1719, to preach,
to the Baptid church in Horflydown, over which he
was the fame year, being the 2 2d of his age, ordain¬
ed pador; which office he fuffained upwards of 51
years.
Mr Gill had not been long in London, before rabbi¬
nical learning, of which he had before confiderable
knowledge, became an objeft of purfuit. To facilitate
his progrefs through the intricacies of this labyrinth,
he con track’d an acquaintance with one of the mod
learned Jewifli rabbies. He read the Targums, the
Talmud:, the Rabbot, their ancient commentaries,
the book Zohar, and whatever elfe of this kind he was
able to procure. Of the oriental languages he made
4 Y 2 himfelf
Gill.
GIL [ 724 ] GIL
himfelf a complete mailer: in fhort, there Avas no
branch of knowledge that could either enlarge or enrich
Biblical learning, which, however difficult, was not
attempted and attained : and it may be truly aflerted,
that in this line he had but few equals, and that the
annals of literature do not exhibit a character by whom
he was excelled^
In 1748, Mr Gill publifhed a commentary on the
New Teftament, in three volumes folio. The imtnenfe
reading and learning difcoverable in this arduous work,
attracted the attention of the Marifchal College and
{Jniverfity of Aberdeen*, and procured for him, with¬
out either his felicitation or his knowledge, a diploma,
creating him doctor in divinity. This intelligence
was communicated to the doftor in the moil hand-
fome terms by the profcfTors Oiborn and Pollock 'y who
declared, “ that on account of his knowledge of the
Scriptures, of the Oriental languages, and of Jewifh
antiquities, of his learned defence of the Scriptures
againil Deills and Infidels, and the reputation gained
by h is other works; the univerfity had, without his
privitv, unanimoufly agreed to confer on him the degree
of doftor in divinity.”
Dr Gill’s fentiments, as a divine, were throng! out
Calvinillic : “ And perhaps no man (lays the Rev.
Mr Toplady, a minifter in the church of England)
fmee the days of Auftin, has written fo largely in de¬
fence of the fyllem of grace ; and certainly no man
has treated that momentous fubjecl in all its branches,
more clofely, judicioufly, and fuccefsfully. What wns
faid of Edward the Black Prince, that he never fought
a battle which lie did not v'in; what has been remark¬
ed of the great duke of Marlborough, that he never
undertook a liege v/hich he did not carry ; may be
juftly accommodated to our great phildfopher and di¬
vine ; who, fo far as the diftinguilhing doftrines of the
gofpel are concerned, never belieged an error which
he did not force from its ftrong holds, nor ever en¬
countered an adverfary whom he did not baffle and
fubdue. His learning and labours, if exceedable,
were exceeded only by the invariable fanftity of his
life and converfation. From his childhood to his en¬
trance on the miniftry, and from his entrance on the
miniftry to the moment of his diffblution, not one of
his moft inveterate oppofers was ever able to charge him
with the lead; lhadow of immorality. Himfelf, no lefs
than his writings, demonftrated that the do£lrine of
grace does not lead to licentioufnefs. Thole who had
the honour and happinefs of being admitted into the
number of his friends, can go Hill farther in their teffi-
mony. They know that his moral demeanor was more
than blamelefs : it was from firft to lall conliftently ex¬
emplary, And indeed an undeviating confiffency, both
in his views of evangelical truths, and in his obedience
as a fervant of God, was one of thofe qualities by which
his caff of character was eminently marked. He was in
every refpeft a burning and a ffiining light : Burning
with love to God, to truth, and to fouls; fhining
as an example to believers, in word, in faith, in
purity ; a pattern of good works, and a model of all
holy converfation and godlinefs *, and while true religion
and found learning have a fingle friend remaining in
the Britiih empire, the works and name of Gill will be
precious and revered.”
IT' died at Camberwell, 06lober 14. 1771, aged 73
years 1 o months and 10 days. 1111718, the Docior
married Mrs Elizabeth Negus; by whom he had many
children, two of whom only furvived him. Mrs Gill,
died in 1764.
His works are, A Commentary on the Old and New
Teftament in 9 vols folio. A Body of Divinity in 3
vols quarto. The Caufe of God and Truth, 4 vols 8vo.
A Treatife concerning the Prophecies of the Old Tef¬
tament refnecting the Meffiah. A Di Artation on the
antiquity of the Hebrew Language, Letters, Vowel
Points, and Accents, Sermons on the Canticles, folio;
befides a great number of fermons and controverfud
pieces on different fubjtcls.
Gill, a meafure of capacity, containing a quarter of
an Engliffi pint.
GILLS or Branchiae of fifties. See Anatomy
Index.
GILLINGHAM, a parifli in Dorfetfliire, on the.
river Stour, near the foreft of its own name; where,
anno 1016, King Edmund Ironfide vanquiffied the
Danes. It is one of the largeft parities in the county,
being 41 miles in circuit, containing 64,000 acres. It
lies on the borders of Wilts and Somerfet, four miles
north-weft of Shaftfbury. It has a roanufatlure of
linen, but the chief produce is grazing and the dairies.
Near it are the traces of an ancient refidence of Norman
or Saxon kings, 320 feet long and 240 broad, fur-
rounded by a rampart of earth. Henry I. refided here,
and King John repaired it at the expence of the coun¬
ty. Edward I. fpent his Ghriftmas here in 1270 ; but
the whole of the materials are removed, and the foun¬
dation of the houfe only can be traced, which was in
the form of the letter L, In length 180 feet by8o
broad, and the foot of the letter 48 by 40 ; the area
of the hotife containing 168,000 fquare feet. It flood
half a mile from the church, on the road to Shaflon,
encoropaffed by a moat, now dry, in fome places nine
feet deep and 20‘ broad. The rampart appears to have
been 30 feet thick. Here is a free fchool, a large old
building, and a workhoufe, as well as two ftone
bridges. In 1694, it received damage of near 4000L
by a fire. Near it is Gillingham foreft, four miles
long and one mile broad. The church is a large ancient
fabric.
Gillingham, a parlfh of Kent, three miles be!owr
Chatham, and on the fame fide of the Medway. Part
of Chatham dock is in this parith ; and here is a caftle
well furniftied with guns that commands the river, there
being no lefs than 170 embrafures for cannon ; which
would flop the progrefs of any enemy that fliould hap¬
pen to make way by Sheernefs fort, before they could
reach Chatham. Here are alfo copperas works. At
this place 600 Norman gentlemen, who came over in
the rethuie of the two pfinces Alfred and Edward,.,
were all barbaroufly murdered by Earl Godwin. It
•was in remote times the property of the archbffhop of
Canterbury, who had here an elegant palace, the old
hall of uhich is now converted into a barn ; it is built
principally of flint, but the windows are filled up with
brick. Near it are the remains of the chapel, &c. and
a great part of the whole of its original outer Avails may
be traced.
GILOLO, a large ifland of the Pacific ocean, ly¬
ing betAveen i° S. Lat. and 2° N. Lat. and between
1230 and I 28° E. Long. It belongs to the Dutch ;
but
Gilolo,
Gilpin.
GIL [7;
but does not produce any of the fine fpiecs, though it
lies in the neighbourhood of the fpice iilands. The na¬
tives are fierce and cruel favages.
GILPIN, Bernard, reft or of Houghton, diftin-
guiihed by his extraordinary piety and hofpitality, was
defcended from an ancient and honourable family in
Weftmoreland, and born in 1517. As he was bred in
the Catholic religion, fo he for fome time defended it
againft the reformers, and at Oxford held a difputation
with Hooper, afterward bifhop of Worcefter and a mar¬
tyr for the Proteftant faith; but was daggered in ano¬
ther difputation with Peter Martyr, and began ferioully
to examine the conteded points by the bed authorities.
Thus, being prefented to the vicarage of Norton in the
diocefe of Durham, he foon religned it, and went a-
broad to confult eminent profedbrs on both fides ; and
after three years abfence returned a little before the
death of Queen Mary, fatisfied in the general doftrines
of the reformation. He was kindly received by his
uncle Dr Tondall, bilhop of Durham 5 who foon after
gave him the archdeaconry of Durham, to which the
reftory of Ellington was annexed. When repairing to
his parilh, though the perfecution was then at its height,
he boldly preached againd the vices, errors, and cor¬
ruptions of the times, efpecially in the clergy, on which
a charge confiding of 13 articles was drawn up againd
him, and prefented in form to the bilhop. But Dr
Tondall found a method of difmiflmg the caufe in fuch
a manner as to proteft Ills nephew, without endanger¬
ing himfelf, and foon after prefented him to the rich
living of Houghton le Spring. He was a fecond time
accufcd to the bifhop, and again protefted 5 when his
enemies, enraged at this fecond defeat, laid their com¬
plaint before Dr Bonner, bilhop of London ; who im¬
mediately gave orders to apprehend him. Upon which
Mr Gilpin bravely prepared for martyrdom ; and or¬
dering his houfe deward to provide him a long garment
that he might make a decent appearance at the dake,
fet out for London. Luckily, however, he broke his
leg on the journey 5 which protrafted his arrival until
the news of the queen’s death freed him from all fur¬
ther apprehenfions. Being immediatetly fet at liberty,
he returned to Houghton, where he was received by
his pari Qiioners with the fincered joy.
Upon the deprivation of the Popiih bilhops, he was
offered the fee of Carlifie, which he declined : and con¬
fining his attention to his reftory, difeharged all the
duties of his funftion in the mod exemplary manner.
To the greated humanity and couilefy, he added an
unwearied application to the indruftion of tbefe under
his care. He was not fatisfied with the advice he gave
in public, but ufed to indruft in private •, and brought
his parifiiioners to come to him with their doubts and
difficulties. He had a mod engaging manner towards
thofe whom he thought well difpofed : nay, his very
reproof was fo condufted, that it feldom gave offence ;
the becoming gentlenefs with which it was urged made
it always appear the effeft of friendlhip. Thus, with
unceafing affiduity, did lie employ himfelf in admonifin-
ing the vicious, and engaging the ■well-intentioned , by
■which means, in a few years, he made a greater change
in his neighbourhood than could well have been
imagined. A remarkable indance, what reformation
a iingle man may effeft, when he hath it earnedly at
heart !
5
5 ] GIL
But bis hopes were not fo much in the prefent gene¬
ration, as in the fucceeding. It was an eader talk, he
found, to prevent vice, than to correft it; to form the
young to virtue, than to amend the bad habits of the
old. He employed much of his time, therefore, in
endeavouring to improve the minds of the younger part
of his parilh } differing none to grow up in an igno¬
rance of their duty ; but preffmg it as the wifed part
to mix religion with their labour, and amidd the cares
of this lite to have a condant eye upon the next. He
attended to every thing which might be of ferviee to
his parilhioners. He was very affiduous in preventing
all law fails among them. His hall is faid to have
been often thronged with people, who came to him
about their differences. He was not indeed much ac¬
quainted with law ; but he could decide equitably, and
that fatisfied: nor could his fovereign’s commiffion.
have given him more weight than his own eharafter
gave him.
His hofpitable manner of living was the admiration
of the whole country. He fpent in his family every
fortnight 40 bulhels of corn, 20 bulhels of malt, and
a whole ox ; bolides a proportionable quantity of other
kinds of provition. Strangers and travellers found a
cheerful reception. All were welcome that came •,
and even their beads ’had fo much care taken of them,
that it was humoroudy find, “ If a horfe was turned
loofe in any part of the country, it would immediately
make its way to the reftor of Houghton’s.”
Every Sunday, from Michaelmas till Eader, was a
fort of public day with him. During this feafon he
expefted to fee all his paridiioners and their families.
For their reception, he had three tables well covered ;
the firll was for gentlemen, the fecond for hufibandmt n
and farmers, and the third for day labourers. This
piece of hofpitality he never omitted, even when Ioffes,
or a fcarcity of provifion, made its continuance rather
difficult to him. He thought it his duty, and that
was a deciding motive. Even when he was abfent from
home, no alteration was made in his family expences •,
the poor were fed as ufual, and his neighbours enter¬
tained.
But notwithdanding all his painful indudry, and the
large fcope it had in fo extended a parifh, Mr Gilpin
thought the fphere of his benevolence yet too confined.
It grieved him extremely to fee everywhere, in the pa¬
rishes around him, fo great a degree of ignorance and'
fuperdition, occafioned by the Shameful negleft of the
padoral care in the clergy of thofe parts. Thcfe bad.
confequences induced him to fupply, as far as lie could,
what was wanting in others. For this purpofe, every
year he ufed regularly to vifit the mod negiefted pa¬
rishes in Northumberland, Yorkdiire, CheShire, Weft-
moreland, and Cumberland 5 and that his own parifii in
the mean time might not fuffer, he was at the expence
of a condant affidant. In each place he daid two or
three days *, and his method was, to call the people
about him, and lay before them, in as plain a way as
poffible, the danger of leading wicked or even carelefs
lives 5 explaining to them the nature of true religion ;
indrufting them in the duties they owed to God, their
neighbour, and themfelves 5 and Showing them how
greatly a moral and religious conduft would contribute
to their prefent as well as future happinefs.
As Mr Gilpin had all the warmth of an enthufiad,
thought.
Gilpin.
GIL [ 72(5 ] GIL
tliougli under the direclion or a very calm and fober
judgment, he never wanted an audience, even in the
wildeit parts; where he roui'ed many to a feni’e of reli¬
gion, who liad contrafted the moil inveterate habits of
inattention to every thing of a ferious nature. And
•wherever lie came, he ufed to viiit all the gaols and
places of confinement 5 few in the kingdom having at
that time any appointed miniiler. And by his labours,
and affectionate manner of behaving, he is faid to
have reformed many very abandoned perfons in thole
places. He would employ his intereft likewiie tor
fitch criminals whofe cafes he thought attended with
any hard circumftances, and often procured pardons for
them.
There is a tract of country upon the border of Nor¬
thumberland, called Reads-dale and Tine-dale, of all
barbarous places in the north at that time the molt
barbarous. Before the Union, this place was called
the debateable land, as fubjedt by turns to England and
Scotland, and the common theatre where the two na¬
tions were continually adting iheir bloody fcenes. It
was inhabited by a kind of defperate banditti, rendered
fierce and adlive by conftant alarms : they lived by
theft, ufed to plunder on both fides of the barrier •, and
•what they plundered on one, they expofed to fale on
the other ; by that means efcaping iuftiee. And in
this dreadful country, where no man would even travel
that could help it, Mr Gilpin never failed to fpend
fome part of every year.
He generally chofe the Chriftmas holidays for his
journey, becaufe he found the people at that fcafon
’mod difengaged, and moft eafily affcmbled. He had
fet places for preaching, which were as regularly at¬
tended as the alfize towns of a circuit. If he came
where there was a church, he made ufe of it : if not,
of barns, or any other large building; where great
crowds of people were fure to attend him, fome for his
inflru&ions, and others for his charity. This was a
very difficult and laborious employment. The country
Was fo poor, that what provifion he could get, extreme
hunger only could make palatable. 1 he inclemency
of the weather, and the badnefs of the roads through a
mountainous country, and at that feafon covered with
fnow, expofed him like wife often to great hardfhips.
Sometimes he was overtaken by the night, the country
being in many places defolate for feveral miles together,
and obliged to lodge out in the cold. At fuch times,
we are told, he would make bis fervant ride about with
his horfes, whilft himfelf on foot ufed as much exercife
as his age and the fatigues of the preceding day would
permit. All this he cheerfully underwent; efteeming
fueh fervices well compenfated by the advantages which
he hoped might accrue from them to his uninftru&ed
fellow creatures.
The difinterefted pains he took among thefe barba¬
rous people, and the good offices he was always ready
to do them, drew from them the warmeft and fincerelt
expreflions of gratitude. Indeed he was little lefs than
adored among them, and might have brought the whole
country almolt to what he pleafed. One inftance that
is related, (hows how greatly he was revered. By the
careleffnefs of his fervants, his horfes were one day
flolen. The news was quickly propagated, and every
one expreffed the higheft indignation at the fa6t. The
thief was rejoicing over his prize, when, by the report
of the country, he found whofe horfes he had taken.
Terrified at what he had done, he inftantly came trem¬
bling back, confeited the fa£t, returned the horfes, and
declared he believed the devil would have feized him
directly, had he carried them off knowing them to
have been Mr Gilpin’s.
We have already taken notice of Mr Gilpin’s un¬
commonly generous and hofpitable manner of living.
1 he value of his redory was about 400I. a year : an
income, indeed, at that time very coniiderable, but yet
in appearance veryv dilproportionate to the generous
things be did : indeed, he could not have done themr
unlefs his frugality had been equal to Ins generoiity.
His friends, therefore, could not but wonaer to find
him, amidft his many great and continual expences, en¬
tertain the defign of building and endowing a giam-
mar fehool : a defign, however, which his exact eco¬
nomy foon enabled him to accomplifh, though the ex¬
pence of it amounted to upwards of 500I. His fchool
was no fooner opened, than it began to fiourifii ; and
there w'as fo great a refort of young people to it, that
in a little time the town was not able to accommodate
them. He put himfelf, therefore, to the inconvenience
of fitting up a part of his own houfe for that purpofe,
where he feldom had fewer than 20 or 30 children.
Some of thefe were the Ions of perfons of diftindion,
whom he boarded at eafy rates : but the greater part
were poor children, whom he not only educated, but
clothed and maintained : he was at the expence like-
wife of boarding in the town many other poor children.
He ufed to bring feveral every year from the different
parts where he preached, particularly Reads-dale and
Tine-dale ; which places he was at great pains in ci¬
vilizing, and contributed not a little towards rooting
out that barbarifm which every year prevailed lefe
among them.
As to his fchool, he not only placed able mailers in
it, whom he procured from Oxford, but himielf like-
wife conltandy infpecled it. And, that encouragement
might quicken the application of his boys, he always
took particular notice of the molt forward : he would
call them Ins oven Jcholars, and would lend for them
often into his ftudy, and there inlimft them himltlfe
One method ufed by him to fill bis fchool was a little
lingular. Whenever he met a poor boy upon the road,
he would make trial ol his capacity by a few quell ions,
and if he found it fuch as pleafed him, he would pro¬
vide for his education. And belidcs thofe whom he
fent from his own fchcol to the univerfities, and there
wholly maintained, he would likewife give to others,
who were in cireumltances to do fomething for them-
felves, what farther alhltance they needed. By which
means he induced may parents to allow their children
a liberal education, who would otherwife not have done
it. And Mr Gilpin did not think it enough to afford
the means only of an academical education to thefe
young people, but endeavoured to make it as benefi¬
cial to them as he could. He Hill confidered himfelf
as their proper guardian ; and feemed to think himfelf
bound to the public for their being made ufeful mem¬
bers of it, as far as it lay in bis power to make them
fo. With this view he held a punctual correfpond-
ence with their tutors; and made the youths them-
felves frequently write to him, and give him an ac¬
count of their lludies. So felicitous indeed was he
about
GIL [ 727 ] GIN
Gilpin, about thorn, knowing the many temptations to which
their age and lituation expofed them, that once every
other year he generally made a journey to the univer-
lities to infpeft their behaviour. And this uncommon
care wras not unrewarded ; for many of his fcholars be¬
came ornaments to the church, and exemplary inftances
of piety.
To the account that hath been already given of Mr
Gilpin’s hofpitality and benevolence, the following par¬
ticulars may be added. Every Thurfday throughout
the year, a very large quantity of meat was dreifed
•wholly for the poor } and every day they had what
quantity of broth they wanted. Twenty-four of the
pooreft were his conftant penlioners. Four times in the
year a dinner was provided for them ; when they re¬
ceived from his ftewrard a certain quantity of corn, and
a fum of money : and at Chriltmas they had always an
ox divided among them.
Whenever he heard of any in diftrefs, whether of
his own parifh or any other, he was fure to relieve
them. In his walks abroad, he would frequently bring
home with him poor people, and fend them away
clothed as well as fed. He took great pains to inform
himfelf of the circumftances of his neighbours, that the
modefty of the fufferer might not prevent his relief.
Eut the money belt laid out was, in his opinion, that
which encouraged induftry. It was one of his greateft
pleafures to make up the lofies of his laborious neigh¬
bours, and prevent their linking under them. If a poor
man had loft a beaft, he would fend him another in its
Toom : or if any farmer had had a bad year, he would
make him an abatement in his tythes. Thus, as far
as he was able, he took the misfortunes of his parilh
upon himfelf; and, like a true ftiepherd, expofed him¬
felf for his flock. But of all kinds of induftrious poor,
lie was moft forward to aflift tbofe who had large fami¬
lies •, fuch never failed to meet with his bounty, when
they wanted to fettle their children in the world.
In the diftant pariihes where he preached, as well as
in his own neighbourhood, his generolity and benevo¬
lence were continually (bowing themfelves 5 particular¬
ly in the defolate pat's of Northumberland. “ When
he began his journey,” fays an old manufcript life of
him, “ he would have 10 pounds in his purfe ; and,
at his coming home, he would be 20 nobles in debt,
which he would always pay within a fortnight af¬
ter.” In the gaols he viflted, he was not only care¬
ful to give the prifoners proper inftru<ftions, but ufed
to purchafe for them likewife what neceffaries they
wanted.
Even upon the public road, be never let (lip an op¬
portunity of doing good. He has often been known
to take off his cloak, and give it to a half-naked tra-
vellerj and when he lias had fcarce money enough in
his pocket to provide himfelf a dinner, yet would he
give away part of that little, or the whole, if he found
any who feemed to (land in need of it. Of this bene¬
volent temper, the following inftance is preserved. One
day returning home he law in a field feveral people
crowding together 5 and judging fomething more than
ordinary had happened, he rode up, and found that
one of the horfes in a team had fuddenly dropped
down, which they were endeavouring to raife ; but in
vain, for the horfe was dead. The owner of it feemed
fiiuch dejefted with his misfortune 5 and declaring how
grievous a lofs it would be to him, Mr Gilpin bade him Gilpl»
not be diiheartened : “ I’ll let you have (fays he), H.
honeft man, that horfe of mine,” and pointed to his 1 ^ |± j
fervant’s.—“ Ah ! mafter (replied the countryman),
my pocket will not reach fuch a beaft as that.”
“ Come, come (faid Mr Gilpin), take him, take him j
and when I demand my money, then thou (halt pay
me.”
This -worthy and excellent divine, who merited and
obtained the glorious titles of the Father of the Poor,
and the Apojile of the North, died in 1583, in the 66th
year of his age.
GILTHEAD. See Sparus, Ichthyology/We*.
GIN. See Geneva.
Gin, in mechanics, a machine for driving piles,
fitted with a windlafs and winches at each end, where
eight or nine men heave, and round which a rope is
reeved that goes over the wheel at the top : one end
of this rope is feized to an iron monkey, that hooks
to a beetle, of difterent weights, according to the piles
they are to drive, being from eight to thirteen hundred
weight; and when hove up to a crofs piece, near the
wheel, it unhooks the monkey, and lets the beetle fall
on the upper end of the pile, and forces the fame into
the ground : then the monkey’s own weight overhauls
the windlafs, in order for its being hooked again to the
beetle.
GINGER, the root of a fpecies of amomum. See
Amomum, Botany Index.
GINGIDIUM, a genus of plants, belonging to the
pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
GINGIRO, or Zindero, a fmall territory of Africa,
to the fouth of Ahyffinia 5 being feparated from it by
the river Zebee, by which it is alfo almoft entirely fur-
rounded. This river is extremely large, having more
water than the Nile, and being much more rapid \ fo
that, during the rainy fealon, it would be altogether im-
paffabie, were it not for the large rocks •which are in its
channel. The extreme difficulty which occurs in paf-
fing this river, however, is the means of preferving the
kingdom of G ingiro, which would otherwife be con¬
quered in a fingle feafon by the Galla.
The moft remarkable particular with regard to this
kingdom is, that the fovereign is a profefftd votary of
the devil. “ This fuperftition (fays Mr Bruce) reaches
down all the weftern fide of the continent on the At¬
lantic ocean, in the countries of Congo, Angola, and
Benin. In fpite of the firmed foundation in true phi-
lofophy, a traveller, who decides from the information
and inveftigation of facts, will find it very difficult to
treat thefe appearances as abfolute fictions, or as owing
to the fuperiorlty of cunning of one man in overreaching
another. For my own part, I confefs, I am equally at
a lofs to affign reafons for dilbelieving the fiction on
which their preienfions to Come preternatural informa¬
tion are founded, as to account for them by the opera¬
tion of ordinary caufes.”
In this kingdom every thing is conducted, or pre¬
tended to be conducted, by magic;, and all thole
(laves, which in other African countries are fold to
Europeans, are here faerificed to the devil, human
blood being a neceffary part in all their accurfed fo-
lemnities. “ How far (fays Mr Bruce) this reaches to
the fouthward, I do not know •, but I look upon this.-,
to be the geographical bounds of the reign of the
G I 0 [ 728 ] G I R
Cinigiro devil on the north fide of the equator In the peninfula of
Africa.”
■ With regard to this country, very little farther is
known, than foine of the cuftoras of the people
tranfiently picked up by the Jefuit mi/honaries in
Abylhnia. From them we learn, that the kingdom is
hereditary in one family, though it does not regularly
defcend to the eldeft fon, the king being chofen by
the nobles ; in which they referable their neighbours
the Abyffinians. When the king dies, his body is
wrapped in a fine cloth, and a cow is killed. The
body fo wrapped up is next enclofed in the cow’s fkin 5
and all the princes of the royal family fly and hide
themfelves in the bulhes, while thofe who are intrufted
with the election enter the thickets, beating about
everywhere as if for game. At laft a bird of prey,
called in their language liber, appears, and hovers over
the perfon dellined to be king ; crying and' making a
great noife without quitting his ftation. By this
means the perfon deftined to be elefted is found out,
furrounded, as is reported, by lions, tigers, panthers,
and other wild beafls 5 all which are fuppofed to be
brought bv the power of magic or of the devil.—
After the king is found, he flies upon thofe who came
in quell: of him with great fury, killing and wound¬
ing as many as he can reach, until at laft he is dragged
to the throne whether he will or not. One particular
family have the privilege of condudfling him to the
throne *, and if they (hould not happen to find him at
firft, they have a right to take him out of the hands of
thofe who did fo; and thus another battle enfues be¬
fore the vacant throne can be filled. Laftly, Before
he enters his palace, two men muft be killed \ one at
the foot of a tree by which the houfe is fupported ;
and the other at the threftiold of the door, which is
befmeared with the blood of the victim. It is the
particular privilege of one family to afford thefe vic¬
tims ; and fo far are they from feeking to avoid this
fate, that they glory in the occafion, and willingly offer
themfelves to meet it. This laft particular, Mr Bruce
fays, he had in Abyflinia from people coming from
G ingiro.
GINGIVJE, the gums. See Gums.
GINGLYMUS, in Anatomy, one of the fpecies of
articulation. It is that jointure of the bones where
each bone mutually receives the other •, fo that each
bone both receives and is received. See Anatomy
Index.
GINKGO, the Maiden-hair Tree. SccMauri-
tia, Botany Index.
GINORA, a genus of plants belonging to the do-
decandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
GINSENG. See Panax, Botany and Materia
Medic a Index.
GIOIA, Flavio, of Amalfi, in the kingdom of
Naples, the celebrated mathematician *, who, from his
knowledge of the magnetic powers, invented the ma¬
riner’s compafs, by which the navigation of the Eu¬
ropeans was extended to, the moft diftant regions of
the globe : before this invention, navigation rvas con¬
fined to coafting. The king of Naples being a younger
branch of the royal family of France, he marked the
north point with a fleur- de-lis, in compliment to that
country. It is faid the Chinefe knew the compafs khg Gioia
before be this as it may, the Europeans are indebted II
to Gioia for this invaluable difeovery. He flourifl.ed 11 ‘s‘
✓ mmm*
A. D. 1300.
GIORDANA, Luca. See Jordano.
GIORGIONE, fo called from his comely afpecA,
was an illuftrious Venetian .painter, born in 1478. Fie
received his firft inftrudtions from Giovanni Bellino ;
but ftudying afterwards the works of Leonardo da
Vinci, he foon furpaffed them both, being the firft
among the Lombards who found out the admiral 1-
effects of ftrong lights and ihadows. Titian became-
his rival in this art ; and was fo careful in copying the
life, that he excelled Giorgione in difeovering the de¬
licacies of nature, by tempering the boldnefs of his
colouring. The moft valuable piece of Giorgione in
oil is that of Chrift carrying his crofs, now in the
church of San Rovo in Venice *, where it is held in
great veneration. He died of the plague young, in
liii-
GIRAFFE. See Cervus, Mammalia Index.
GIRALD, Barry, or Gira/dus Cambrenfts. See
Barry.
GIRALDI, Lilio Gregorio, an ingenious critic,
and one of the moft learned men that modern Italy
has produced, was born at Ferrara in 1479. He was
at Rome when it was plundered by the emperor
Charles V. ; and having thus loft all he had, and being
tormented by the gout, he ftruggled through life with
ill fortune and ill health. He wrote, neverthelefs, 17
performances, which were collected and publilhed at
Bafil in 2 vols. folio in 1580, and at Leyden in 1696.
Authors of the firft rank have beftowed the higheft
eulogies on Giraldus ; particularly Cafaubon and
Thuanus.
GiraldI, John Baptijl Cintio, an Italian poet of
the fame family with the foregoing Lilio, was bern
in 1504. He was fecretary to the # duke of Ferrara,
and afterwards became profeffor of rhetoric at Pavia.
He died in 1573. His works, which confift chiefly of
tragedies, were colledied and publilhed at Venice by his
fon Celfo Giraldi, in 1583 ; and fome fcruple not to
rank him among the belt tragic writers Italy has pro¬
duced.
GIRARDON, Francis, a celebrated French ar-
chiteft and fculptor, born at Troyes in 1627. Louis
XIV. being informed of his great talents, lent him to
Rome with a penfion of 1000 crowns. At his return
into France, he laboured for the royal palaces and
the gardens of Verfailles and Trianon j where there
are many of his works executed in bronze and in mar¬
ble, from the defigns of Charles le Brun. The mau-
foleum of Cardinal de Richelieu, in the Sorbonne, and
the equeftrian ftatue of Louis XIV. at the Place de
Vendome, where the ftatue and horfe are call in one
piece, pals for Ins moft excellent performances. Gi-
rardon was profeffor, reftor, and chancellor, of the
Academy of Painting and Sculpture 5 and had the poit
of infpeftor general of all the works done in fculpture.
He died in 1715.
GIRDERS, in ArchiteBure, the largeft pieces of'
timber in a floor. Their ends are ufually fattened into
the fummers, or breft fummers \ and the joifts are fram¬
ed at one. end to the girders.
By the ftatute for rebuilding London, no girder i?
' to
G I 11
[ 729 1
G I S
to be lefs than ten inches into the wall, and their ends
to be always laid in loam, &c.
GIRDLE (Cinguius or Zona'), a belt or band of
leather or other matter, tied about the reins, to keep
that part more firm and tight.
It was anciently the cultom for bankrupt^ and other
infolvent debtors to put off and furrender their girdle
in open court. The reafon of this was, that our an-
ceffors ufed to carry all their neceffary utenfils, as
purfe, keys, &c. tied to the girdle ; whence the girdle
became a fymbol of the ffate. Hiftory relates that
the widow of Philip I. duke of Burgundy, renounced
her right of fucceliion by putting off her girdle upon the
duke’s tomb.
'I'lie Romans always wore a girdle to tuck up the
tunica when they had occasion to do any thing : this
cuftom was fo general, that fueh as went without
girdles, and let their gowns hang loofe, were reputed
idle diffolute perfons.
Maiden's or Virgin's GIRDLE. It was a cuftom
among the Greeks and Romans for the hufband to untie
his bride’s girdle. Homer, lib. xi. of his Odyfley, calls
the girdle Trot^divinv maid's girdle. Feftus relates,
that it was made of Iheep’s wool, and that the hulhand
untied it in bed ; he adds, that it was tied in the Her-
culanean knot} and that the hufband unloofed it, as a
happy prefage of his having as many children as Her¬
cules, who at his death left feventy behind him.
The poets attribute to Venus a particular kind of
girdle called cejhts, to which they annexed a faculty of
infpiring the paftion of love.
GIRGASHlTES, or Gergesenes, an ancient
people of the land of Canaan, whofe habitation was
beyond the fea of Tiberias, where we find fome foot-
fteps of their name in the city of Gergefa, upon the
lake of Tiberias. The Jcwifh doctors inform us, that
when Joftiua firft came into the land of Canaan, the
Girgafhites took a refolution rather to forfake their
country than fubmit to the Hebrews, and accordingly
retired into Africa. Neverthelefs, it is certain that a
good number of them ftaid behind, fince Jofhua
(xxiv. ii.) informs us that he fubdued the Girgaftiites,
and they whom he overcame were certainly on this
fide Jordan.
GIRGENTI, a town of Sicily, which occupies part
of the fite of the ancient Agrigentum. It has only one
ftreet fit for carriages. It is inhabited by 15,000 per¬
fons ; but has no remarkable buildings or wmrks of art
that deferve mention : the only antiquities to be feen
were a Latin infeription of the time of the Antonines,
as is pretended, relative to fome affociation between
Agrigentum and Lilybseum} and a piece of ancient
mafonry in the foundations of a church pretended
to be the remains of a temple of Jupiter. At fome
diftance, on the old ground in the vale, (lands the
cathedral, a clumfy building patched up by barba¬
rous architects with various difeordant parts. This
church is enriched writh no works of modern paint¬
ers or fculptors that claim any title to praife, but
the baptifmal font is made out of an ancient farcopha-
gus faced with very beautiful baffo relievos. 1 his
fee is the richeft in Sicily, but has the character of be¬
ing lefs enlightened and polilhed than the reft of the
iiland. Among the curiofities belonging to the cathe¬
dral is an Etrufcan vafe of rare lize and prefervation.
Vol. IX. Part II.
There are alfo fome golden pateras of extreme rarity. Girgenti
Hie monaftery of San Nicolo Hands on a little emi- . ,
nence In the centre of the old city, admirably ft- /' /
tuated. The range of hills towards the fouth-eaft
finks gradually, lo as to admit a noble reach of fea
and of plain, terminated on each fide by thick groves
of fruit trees. Above appear the remains of ancient
grandeur, wonderfully contrafted with the humble
ftraw cottages built at their feet. In the orchard of
this convent is a fquare building with pilafters, which
is fuppofed to have been part of the palace of the Roman
praetor.
Girgenti has the convenience of a port ; for which,
however, it is lefs indebted to its natural fituation
than to the recent affiftance of art. The harbour is
formed by means of a pier carried out in three fides
of an oClagon, with a battery at the head 3 the light-
houfe is to be erefted on the cliffs on fhore, as there is
no poffibility of railing it high enough on the mole
without danger of finking. '1 he work is admirable as
to ftrength and neatnefs, but the intention of creating
a fafe and complete haven has not been fully anlweredj
the Sirocco commands it entirely, and drives in great
quantities of land, which it is feared will in time choke
up the port ; even now’ Ihips of burden find it difficult
to get in, but the Caricatore is confiderable, and
the magazines in the rocks along the ffiore are very
fpacious.
GIRONNE, or GlRONKY, in Heraldry, a coat of
arms divided into girons, or triangular figures, meeting
in the centre of the ftiield, and alternately colour and
metal.
GIRT, the fituation of a flap which is mcored fo
ftrait by her cables, extending from the haxvfe to two
diftant anchors, as to be prevented from fwinging or
turning about according to any change of the wind or
tide, to the current of which her head would olherwife
be diredltd. The cables are extended in this manner,
by a ftrong application of mechanical powers within
the fhip 3 fo that when Ihe veers, or endeavours to fvving
about, her fide bears upon one of the cables, w hieh
catches on her heel, and interrupts her in the adl of
traverfing. In this pofition Hie muff ride with her
broadfide to the wind or current, till one or both of the
cables are flackened.
GISCO, fon of Himilco the Carthaginian general,
was banilhed from Carthage by the influence of his ene¬
mies. Being afterw ards recalled, he was made general
in Sicily againft the Corinthians, about 309 years be¬
fore the Chrillian era, and by his fuccefs and intrepi¬
dity he obliged the enemies of his country to fue for
peace. See Carthage.
GISBOROUGH, a town of England, in the W'eft
riding of Yorklhire, on the road Irom Whitby t»
Durham, 224 miles from London, and four miles from
thei mouth of the Tees, where is a bay and harbour for
(hips. It had formerly an abbey, which was once tire
common burial place of the nobility of thefe parts, and
its church by the ruins feems to have been equal to the
beft cathedrals in England. The foil, befides its fer¬
tility in pafture and a conftant verdure adorned with
plenty of field flowers almoft all the year, has earths
of fundry colours, fome iron, and mines of alum, which
were firft difeovered in the reign of King James I. and
have been fince very much improved. Sir Paul
4 Z Pindar.
G L A [ 730 j G L A
Sjijborough Pindar, wlio fir ft farmed them, paid rents to the king
Glaciers I2>500^ to t'ie -^ar^ Mufgrave 1640L and to Sir
t '.' ■ William Penniman 600I. and had moreover 800 men
by fea and land in conftant pay j yet he was a confi-
derable gainer, becaufe there was then fcarce any other
to be had, and the price was 26I. a ton; but now
there are feveral other alum works in this county,
which have taken a great part of the trade from hence j
fo that the works here have for fome years lain ne-
glefted.
GITTITH, a Hebrew word occurring frequently
in the Pfalms, and generally tranflated wine prejfes.
The conjectures of interpreters are various concerning
this wrord. Some think it fignifies a fort of mufical
inftrument *, others, that the pfalms with this title were
fung after the vintage ; laftly, others, that the hymns .
of this kind -were invented in the city of Gath. Calmet
is rather of opinion, that it was given fo the clafs of
young women or fongftreffes of Gath to be fung by
them, Pfal. viii. 1. Ixxxi. 1. Ixxxiv. 1. Dr Hammond
thinks that the pfalms with this title were all fet to the
fame tune, and made on Goliath the Gittite.
GIULA, a ftrong town of Upper Hungary, on
the frontiers of Tranfylvania. It was taken by the
Turks in 1566, and retaken by the Imperialifts in
1695. It is feated on the river Kerelhlan, in E. Long.
21. J. N. Lat. 46. 25.
GIUSTANDEL, a large and ftrong town of Tur¬
key in Europe, and in Macedonia, w?ith a Greek arch-
biftiop’s fee. It is feated near the lake Ochrida, in E.
Long. 20. 50. N. Lat. 41. 10.
„ GL ACIERS, a name given to fome very extenlive
fields of ice among the Alps. Mr Coxe obferves of
thefe mountains in general, that they are compofed of
many parallel chains, the higheft of which occupy the
centre, and the others gradually diminith in proportion
as we recede from thence. The central chain appears
covered with pointed rocks 5 all parts of which, that
are not abfolutely perpendicular, lie hid under perpetual
fnow and ice even in fummer. On each fide of this
ridge are fertile and cultivated valleys, interfperfed with
numerous villages, and wratered by numerous ftreams.
The elevated peaks of the central chain are covered
with fnow : but their declivities, excepting thofe that
are extremely fteep, have all a covering of ice as well
as fnow j the intermediate parts being filled with vaft
fields of ice, terminating in the cultivated valleys above
mentioned. The fame phenomena, though on a fmaller
fcale, occur in thofe chains that are at a diftance from
the principal one : In thofe which are moft remote,
no ice, and fcarcely any fnow, is obferved, unlefs upon
fome of the moft elevated fummits j and the mountains
diminifiiing in height and ruggednefs, appear covered
with verdure, until at laft they terminate in fmall hills
and plains.
Thus the glaciers may be divided into two forts ;
one occupying the deep valleys fituated in the bofom
of the Alps, and diftinguiflied by the name of Ice val¬
leys *, the others are thofe Avhich clothe the declivities
and fides of the mountains. Thefe two kinds of gla¬
ciers are diftinguiflied by Mr Coxe into the upper and
lower glaciers.
The lower glaciers are by far the moft confidcrable j
fome of them extending feveral leagues in length.
They do not communicate with each other, as lias been
5
generally fuppofed, few of them being parallel to the Glaciers,
central chain ; but, ftretehing moftly in a tranfverfe u—y—
direction, are bordered at the higher extremity by
inacceflible rocks, and at the lower extending into the
cultivated valleys. The thicknefs of the ice varies in
different parts. In the glacier des Bois, which extends
more than 15 miles in length, and upwards of three in
breadth, M. Sauffure found it generally from 80 to
100 feet j but he was credibly informed, that in fome
places it was not lefs than 600 feet, and even more.
Thefe vaft maffes of ice ufually reft on an inclined plane*,
where, being puflied forward by their own -weight, and
but weakly fupported by the rugged rocks beneath
them, they are interfered by large crevices, and have
an appearance of Avails, pyramids, &c. according to the
pofition of the eye in viewing them. In thofe parts,
however, Avhere they lie upon even ground, or fnch as
has only a gentle inclination, the furface of the ice is
nearly uniform, the crevices being ferv and narrorv, and
the glacier being croffed by travellers on foot without
any difficulty. The furface of the ice is rough and
granulated, fo that people may Avalk upon it, excepting
fuch places as have a fteep defeent. It is opaque, full
of fmall bubbles about the fize of a pea, very porous,
and greatly refembles a mixture of fnow and Avater
congealed. A vaft quantity of ftones and earth falls
doAvn from the mountains upon the glaciers, and are by
them thrown off on each fide according to the defeent
of the ice, as Avill be aftenvards explained. The place
on Avhich thefe reft is more hard and elevated than the
reft of the ice, and is very difficult to Avalk upon ; the
earth is likeAvife laid upon them in fuch regular heaps,
that it appears to have been done by art. This collec¬
tion of earth and ftones is termed by the natives the
Moraine.
Mr Coxe, Avho vifited the glacier des Bois, informs
us, that the appearance of it at a diftance was fo tremen¬
dous, that it feemed impradticable to crofs it. Nume¬
rous and broad chafms interfedled it in every direefion j
but entering upon it, the company found that courage
and a&ivity Avere only required to accomplifh the talk.
They had large nails in their Ihoes, and fpiked flicks j
Avhich on this occafion Avere found to be particularly
fcrviceable. Having palled the moraine, and defeend-
ed upon the glacier itfelf, they found the ice foftened
by a Avarm Avind which rendered it lefs flippery than
ufual. Having Avalked acrofs it for about a quarter of
an hour, they came again to the moraine, along Avhich
they continued their journey for half an hour, and then
entered upon the great body of the glacier. “ Here
(fays Mr Coxe) it Avas curious to obferve the numerous
little rills produced by the colleftion of drops occa-^
fioned by the thawing of the ice on the upper part of
the glacier : thefe little rills holloAV out fmall channels,
and, torrent-like, precipitate themfelves into the chafms
Avith a violent noife, increafing the body of waters form¬
ed by the melting of the interior furface, and finding
an outlet under the immenfe arch of ice in the valley
of Chamouni, from which the Arveron ruffles.” As
our traveller proceeded on his journey, he was fur-
prifed by the noife of a large fragment of rock Avhich
had detached itfelf from one of the higheft needles, and
bounded from one precipice to another with great ra¬
pidity j but before it reached the plain, it was almoft
reduced to dull. “ Ha\ffng proceeded about an hour
G L A [ 731 ] G L A
'Glaciers, (fays he) we were aftoniilied with a view more magni-
ficcnt than imagination can conceive : hitherto the gla¬
ciers had fcarcely anfwered my expectations, but now
they far furpatTed them. Nature had clad herfelf in all
her terrors. Before us was a valley of ice 20 miles in
extent, bounded by a circular glacier of pure unbroken
fnow, named Takul, which leads direftly to the foot
of Mount Blanc, and is furrounded by large conical
rocks, terminating in fharp points like the towers on an
ancient fortification ; to the right rofe a range of mag¬
nificent peaks, the intervals filled with glaciers; and
far above the reft, the magnificent fummit of Mount
Blanc, his higheft point obfeured with clouds. He ap¬
peared of fuch immenfe magnitude, that, at his pre¬
fence, the circumjacent mountains, however gigantic,
feemed to (brink before him, and hide their dimini/fjed
heads. In half an hour wre arrived at the moraine,
which forms a boundary of the valley, crofted it, and
proceeded upon a body of ice about three quarters of a
mile broad. Here the ice was more even and free from
chafms than in the great valley. We then pafted a fe-
cond moraine, and beyond that another mafs of ice to
a third moraine : defeending from thence we came upon
the laft ridge of ice, broader confiderably than the two
former, and full of large chafms : it is feparated from
the rock only by a very narrow moraine. Thefe mo¬
raines contain great quantities of eryftal.”
They continued to afeend the valley of ice, the feene
conftantly increafing in magnificence and horror ; and
having walked about five miles on the ice, they arrived
at laft at the foot of the eminence named Couvercle,
where they were obliged to quit the ice. The doing
this was extremely dangerous, and at one place very tre¬
mendous. It was a bulging fmooth rock, with a pre¬
cipice of confiderable depth terminated by a vaft crevice
in the ice, which feemed to ftop all further progrefs :
a fmall hollow in the middle, however, afforded room
for one foot 5 and having fixed this, they fprung over to
the other fide, being helped and directed by the guides
who went over firit. Having gained the top of the
Couvercle, they had a view of three of the glaciers, viz.
that of Ta/efre to the left, /’ Echaut in front, and Ta¬
bu/ on the right *, all uniting in that great one called
the Glacier de Bois. ft'he Couvercle itfelf is a moft ex¬
traordinary rock, having the appearance of a large ir¬
regular building with many fides •, the fubftance of
which is granite. Having reached the top, they were
furprifed with a thunder itorm, from which they took
ftielter under an impending rock. The vievr was ex¬
ceedingly magnificent; the glaciers appearing like a
rugged expanfe of frozen fea bounded by gigantic rocks,
and terminated by Mount Blanc. A Angle rock ap¬
peared of a triangular figure covered with Alpine plants ;
and which by reafon of its contrail with the rugged and
fnowy mountains in the neighbourhood, has obtained
the name of the Garden. During this, as rvell as other
excurfions among the Alps, Mr Coxe had oceafion to
obferve that the colour of the Iky was of a much deeper
blue than in the lower regions.
The upper glaciers may be fubdivided into thofe
■which cover the fummits, and thofe which extend along
the fides of the Alps. Thofe on the very fummit, how¬
ever, though they have the appearance of ice, are not
fo in reality, but confift entirely of fnow hardened by
ihe extreme cold. M. SauflUre found that which co¬
vered the top of Mount Blanc to be penetrable, though
with difficulty, by a ftick ; but below this hard cruft
was a foft fnow without coherence. The fides are co¬
vered with a mixture of ice and fnow } by reafon of the
fuperior power of the fummer fun to dilfolve the fnow
which afterwards congeals into hard ice.
Several conjeffures have been made concerning the
formation of thefe extraordinary bodies of ice. Mr
Coxe agrees with M. Gruner in opinion, that they are-
produced by the continual diftolution of the fnow in
fummer, and its congelation by the fuecceding frofts.
Hence, on the fummits of the mountains where the fun
has very little power, the glacier is foft, and contains
no ice : as we defeend the mountains the confiftence
becomes firmer, becaufe there is a confiderable mixture
of fnow water, the congelation of which augments the
hardnefs ; and in the valleys, the glacier is hardeft of
all, becaufe the portion of water is there much fuperior
to that of the fnow. Hence it feems plain that the
glaciers derive their origin from the melting of the fnow
on the upper parts of the mountains, and the congela¬
tion of the Avater as it advances: and to this caufe
M. Sauflure adds the quantity of fnoAV Avhieh often rolls
down into the valleys, and congeals along Avith the Ava-
ter juft mentioned.
Another queftion concerning the glaciers naturally
occurs, namely, Whether they are to be confidered as
in a ftate of increafe or diminution ? Mr Coxe is of opi¬
nion, that they occafionally increafe and decreafe 5 in
proof of Avhich he adduces the folloAving obfervation :
“ The borders of the glacier of Montanvert are moftly
Ikirted Arith trees : towards its bale a vaft arch of ice
rifes to near 100 feet in height; under Avhich the river
Arveron nifties with confiderable force, and in a large
body of Avater. As Ave approached the ice, Ave palled
through a wood of firs : thole trees Avhich Hand at a
little diftance from the arch are about 80 feet hiirh
and are undoubtedly or a very great age. Between
thefe and the glacier the trees are of a later growth; as
is evident from their texture and inferior fize. Others,
ftill fmaller, have been overturned and enveloped in the
ice : there feems to be a kind of regular gradation in
the age of thefe feveral trees, from the largeft Avhich
are Handing to the fmalleft that lie proftrate.”—Hence.,
our author concludes, that the glacier once extended
as far as the row of fmall firs 5 but that upon its gra¬
dual diflblution, a number of trees Ihot up on the fpot
it had occupied j fince which time the ice has again ad-
vanced, and overturned the laft groivn trees before they
had attained to any confiderable height.—This he
thinks alfo confirmed by the folloAving faft.—“ Large
ftones of granite are ufually found at a fmall diftance
from the extremities of the glacier. Thefe ftones have
certainly fallen from the mountains upon the ice 5 have
been carried on in its progrefs 5 and ha\re tumbled into
the plain upon the difiolution or finking of the ice which
fupported them. Thefe ftones, which the natives call
Moraine, form a kind of boi-der toAvards the foot of the
Amlley of ice, and have been pufticd forward by the gla¬
cier in its advances : they extend even to the place oc¬
cupied by the larger pines.”
In oppofition to thofe Avho maintain that there is a
conftant accumulation of ice and fnow in the Alpine
regions, our author makes the folloAving remarks:
I. BetAveen the years 1776 and 1785 the glacier of
4 Z 2 Grindelevald
Glaciers.
G L A r 732 ] G L A
Glaciers. Grlndelevald had diminilhed to fuch a degree, tliat the
—■'J fpot which its extremity occupied in the former year,
was at leaft 400 paces from that occupied by it in the
latter. 2. In the year 1785 the Murailles de Glace,
which in 1776 he had defcribed as forming the border
of the glacier of Boffon no longer exifted ; and young
trees had Ihot up in the parts which were then covered
by the glacier of Montanvert. Still, however, it may
be urged, that thefe changes only take place in the
valleys where the power of the fun is confidcrable j
and that from thence we cannot form any adequate
idea of what paffes in the more elevated regions, where
in all probability more fnow falls than can be diffolved.
In fupport of this opinion, it is alleged, that the cold
produced by the mafs of ice already formed ought to
augment it Hill more j and that within the memory of
the prefent generation, many places have been covered
with ice which were not fo before. I o thefe argu¬
ments, however, Mr Coxe replies, that the caufes,
which diminilh the ice in the upper regions, are no
lefs powerful than the cold which tends to augment
it. Thefe are, 1. Rain or fleet 5 which falling upon
the lower glaciers, thaw the ice, increafe the rills on
its furface, excavate channels, and in many ways tend
to diminilh its quantity. 2. Evaporation, which takes
place even from the lurface of the ice itfelf, afts ftill
more powerfully 5. and its action is not confined to any
particular feafon. 3* R he falling of the fnow and
ice 5 both that which comes gradually from the
clouds •, and that which defcends from the mountains in
great malfes, called by the natives avalanches. When
thefe la It fail down into milder regions, though fome-
times they may ‘refill the influence of the fun and
form ice valleys, yet they generally diffolve. They
are moll common in the upper glaciers, though feme-
times they defeend upon the lower, while the gradual
defeent of fnow from the clouds, which chiefly takes
place in the lower, contributes very much to leflen the
mafs. 4. All the lower glaciers or valleys of ice reft
on an inclined plane, are hollow, and uncxermined by
torrents which are conftantly flowing from the upper
o-laciers, as well as from their own lowermoft furface.
Their foundation being thus conftantly diminilhing,
the lower glaciers are carried imperceptibly forward
into the cultivated fields, rvhere an end is necefiarily put
to their progrefs by the heat of the fun. Hence we
may fee the reafon of that ftrange phenomenon taken
notice of by Mr Coxe, that with one hand he could
touch ripe corn, and with the other folid ice. I his
defeent of the glacier is demonftrable from the trees
overturned by it, and the moraine always obferved at
the bottom of the lower glaciers. 5. The heat of the
fun is an evident caufe of the diminution of the gla¬
ciers. To this Mr Coxe adds another caufe lefs gene¬
rally known, viz. the warm winds which blow by night
as wrell as by day both in the upper and lower glaciers.
*•* Thefe warm Avinds (fays he) are during fummer fo
common in thofe parts, that I never crofied a glacier
without feeling in fome particular pofitions a AA’aimth
fimilar to the air of a hot bath.” 6. Another caufe
is the mean temperature of the earth itfelf; which,
where it is not expofed to the piercing cold of the at-
mofphere, is found to have a temperature always above
the freezing point. As the vaft thicknels of the fu-
perincumbent ice, therefore, is in the prefent cam abun¬
dantly fufficient to prevent the accefs of the atmo- Glaciers
fphere, it is plain that the lorver furface of it muft, by
being in contact Avith the earth, continually decay.— 1,1 ors‘
With regard to the other argument draAvn from the
knoAvn increafe of the ice in fome places, Mr Coxe
does not deny it; but infills, that there is no continual
increafe of the whole, but that if it increafes in fome
places, it dhninifties in others ; and his opinion in this
refpeft Avas confirmed by thofe who frequent the
mountains.
GLACIS, m building, an eafy infenfible Hope or
declivity.
The defeent of the glacis is lefs fteep than that of the
talus. In gardening, a defeent fometimes begins in ta¬
lus, and ends in glacis.
The glacis of the corniche, is an eafy imperceptible
flope in the cymatium, to promote the defeent. and drain¬
ing off the rain Avatcr.
Glacis, in Fortification, that mafs of earth Avhich
ferves as a parapet to the covered way, doping eafily to-
Avards the champaign or field.
GLADE, in Gardening and Agriculture, an opening
and light paffage made through a wood, by lopping off
the branches or trees along that Avay.
GLADIATORS, in antiquity, perfons Avho fought,
generally in the arena at Rome, for the entertainment
of the people.
The gladiators Avere ufually Haves, and fought out of
neceflity ; though fometimes freemen made profeflion
thereof, like our prize-fighters, for a livelihood.
The Romans borrowed this cruel diverfion from the
Afiatics : fome fuppofe that there Avas policy in the
practice, the frequent combats of gladiators tending to
accuftom the people to defpife dangers and death.
The origin of fuch combats feems to be as folloAvs :
From the earlieft times with which avc have any ac¬
quaintance in profane hiftory, it had been the cuftom t®
facrifice captives, or prifoners of Avar, to the manes of
the great men Avho had died in the engagement; thus
Achilles, in the Iliad, lib. xxiii. facrifices twelve young
Trojans to the manes of Patroclus ; and in Virgil, lib.
xi. ver. 81. AEneas fends captives to Evander, to be fa-
crificed at the funeral of his fon Pallas.
In courfe of time they came alfo to facrifice flaves at
the funerals of all perfons of condition : this Avas even
efteemed a neceffary part of the ceremony ; but as it
Avould have appeared barbarous to have maffacred them
like beafts, they Avere appointed to fight Avith eacl*
other, and endcaAmur to fave their oAvn lives by killing
their adverfary. This feemed fomcAvhat lefs inhuman^
becaufe there was a poffibility of avoiding death, by an
exertion of fkill and courage.
This occafioned the profeflion of gladiator to become
an art: hence arofe mailers of the art, and men learned
to fight and exercife. Thefe matters, whom the Latins
called laniftce, bought them flaves to be trained up to
this cruel trade, Avhom they afterAvards fold to fuch as
had occafion to prefent the people with fo horribce a
fllOAV.
Thefe exhibitions Avere at firft performed near the fe-
pulchre of the deceafed, or about the funeral pile ; butr
Avere afterAvards removed to the circus and amphitheatres,
and became ordinary amufements.
The firft IhoAV of gladiators, called munus gladiatorium^
was exhibited at Rome, according to Valerius Maximus,
G L A [ 733 1 G L A
Gladiators, by M. and D. Brutus, upon the death of their father, in
the year of the city 490. On this occalion there were
probably only three pair of gladiators. In 537 the three
fons of M. Atmilius Lepidus the augur, who had been
three times conful, entertained the people with the cruel
pleafure of feeing 22 gladiators fight in the forum. In
547, the firft Africanus diverted his army at New Car¬
thage with a fliow of gladiators, which he exhibited in
honour of his father and uncle, who had begun the re¬
duction of Spain. In procefs of time, the Romans
became fo fond of thefe bloody entertainments, that
not only the heir of any great and rich citizen lately
deceafed, but all the principal magiilrates, prefented
the people with (hows of this nature, to procure their
affeClion. The aediles, praetors, confuls, and, above
all, the candidates for offices, made their court to the
people, by entertaining them frequently with thefe
fights : and the priefts were fometimes the exhibitors
of the barbarous (bows ; for we meet with the ludi port-
tificales in Suetonius, Auguft. cap. 44. and with the
ludifacerdotales, in Pliny, Epiit. lib. vii. As for the
emperors, it was fo much their intereft to ingratiate
themfelves with the populace, that they obliged them
with combats of gladiators almoft upon all occafions \
and as thefe increafed, the number of combatants in-
creafed like wife. Accordingly, Julius Ctefar, in his
aedilefhip, diverted the people with 320 couple. Titus
exhibited a (how of gladiators, wild beads, and repre-
fentations of fea fights, which lafted 100 days; and
Trajan continued a folemnity of this nature for 123
days ; during which time he brought out 1000 pair of
gladiators. Before this time, under the republic, the
number of gladiators was fo great, that w'hen the con-
fpiracy of Catiline broke out, the fenate ordered them
to be difperfed into the garrifons and fecured, left they
ffiould have joined the difaffefted party. See GLADIA¬
TORS War.
Thefe fports were become fo common, and their
eonfequences in a variety of refpeCts fo dangerous,
that Cicero preferred a lawr that no perfon ffiould ex¬
hibit a ffiow' of gladiators within two years before he
appeared candidate for any office. Julias Capfar order¬
ed, that only a certain number of men of this profef-
fion ffiould be in Rome at a time ; Auguftus decreed,
that only two (hows of gladiators ffiould be prefented
in a year, and never above fixty couple of combatants
in a (how ; and Tiberius provided by an order of fe¬
nate, that no perfon ffiould have the privilege of gra¬
tifying the people with fuch a folemnity unlefs he was
worth 400,000 fefterces. They were alfo confiderably
regulated by Nerva.
The emperor Claudius reftrained them to certain
occafions ; but lie foon afterwards annulled what he
decreed, and private perfims began to exhibit them
at pleafure as ufual; and fome carried the brutal fatis-
faiftion fo far as to have them at their ordinary fcafts.
And not (laves only, but other perfons, would hire
themfelves to this infamous office.
The mafter of the gladiators made them all firft fw'ear
that they would fight to death ; and, if they failed, they
were put to death either by fire, or fwords, clubs, whips,
or the like.
It was a crime for the wretches to complain when
they were wounded, or to a(k for death or feek to
avoid it when overcome ; but it was ufual for the em¬
peror or the people to grant them life when they gave Gladiators.’
no figns of fear, but waited the fatal ftroke with cou- v ”
rage and intrepidity : Auguflus even decreed that it
fliould always be granted them.
From Haves and freemen the inhuman fport at
length fpread to people of rank and condition fo that
Auguftus wras obliged to iflue a public edift that none
of the fenatorian order (liould become gladiators ; and
foon after he laid the fame conftraint on the knights :
neverthelefs Nero is related to have brought upwards
of 400 fenators and 600 Roman knights upon the
arena ; though Lipfius takes both thefe numbers to be
falfified, and not without reafon reduces them to 40
fenators and 60 knights: yet Domitian, that other
monfter of cruelty, refined upon Nero, exhibiting com¬
bats of women in the night time.
Conftantine the Great is faid to have firft prohibited
the combats of gladiators in the Eaft. At lead he for¬
bade thofe who wrere condemned to death for their
crimes to be employed ; there being an order ftill ex¬
tant to the preefecius preetoru rather to fend them to work
in the mines in lieu thereof: it is dated at Berytus in
Phoenicia, the firft of October 325.
The emperor Honorius forbade them at Rome on oc-
cafion of the death of Telemachus, who coming out
of the Eaft into Rome at the time of one of thefe fpec-
tacles, went down into the arena, and ufed all his en¬
deavours to prevent the gladiators from continuing the •"
fport ; upon which the fpeftators of that carnage, fired
with anger, (toned him to death. It muft be obferved, .
however, that the praftice was not entirely abolifhed,
in the Weft before Theodoric king of the Oftrogoths.
Honorius, on the occafion firft mentioned, had prohibited
them ; but the prohibition does not feem to have been
executed. Theodoric, in the year joo, aboliftied them
finally.
Some time before the day of combat, the perfon who
prefented the people with the (howrs gave them notice
thereof by program mas or bills, containing the names
of the gladiators, and the marks w hereby they were
to be diltinguilhed : for each had his feveral badge;
which w-as mod commonly a peacock’s feather, as
appears from the fcholiaft of Juvenal on the 158th
verfe of the third fatire, and Turnebus Adverf. lib. ii.
cap. 8. They alfo gave notice how long the (hows
would laft, and how many couples of gladiators there
ware ; and it even appears, from the 5 2d verfe of the
feventh fatire of the focond book of Horace, that they
fometimes made reprefentations of thefo things in paint¬
ing, as is praclifod among us by thofe who have any
tiling to (how at fairs.
The day being come, they began the entertainment
by bringing two kinds of weapons; the firft were
(laves or wooden foils, called rudes; and the fecond
ivcre effeclive weapons, as fwords, poniards, &c.
The nrft were called arma luforia, or exercitoria ; the
fecund decretory^ as being given by decree or fentence
of the praetor, or of him at whofe expence the fpec-
tacle was exhibited. They began to fence or (kir-
miffi with the firft, which was to be the prelude,
to the battle ; and from thefe, when well warmed,
they advanced to the fccond at the found of the'
trumpets, with which they fought naked. Then
they were faid vertere arma. The terms of ftriking
were peter e et repet ere, of- avoiding a blow, ex ire 1
andl
G L A [ 734 1 G L A
‘Gladiators, and Avlien one of tlie combatants received a remark-
s— '' ' able "wound, his adverfary or the people cried out,
Habet, or Hoc habet. The firll part of the engagement
■was called ventilure,prccludere; and the fecond, dimicare
ad cerium, or verjis armis pugnare : and fome authors
think, with much probability, that it is to thefe two
kinds of combat that St Paul alludes in the paffage
l Cor. ix. 26, 27. “ I fight not as one that beateth
the air ; but I keep my body, and bring it into fub-
jeftion.”
If the vanquidied furrendered his arms, it was not
in the vidlor’s power to grant him life ; it was the
people during the time of the republic, and the prince
or people during the time of the empire, that were
alone empowered to grant the boon. The reward
of the conqueror Avas a branch of palm tree, and
a fum of money, probably collefted among the fpec-
tators : fometimes they gave hhn his conge, or dif-
miffed him by putting one of the Avooden foils or
rudes in his hand ; and fometimes they even gave
him his freedom, putting the pilseus on his head.
The fign or indication, Avhereby the fpeftators (hoAV-
ed that they granted the favour, Avas premere pollicem,
Avhich M. Dacier takes to be a clenching of the fingers
of both hands betAveen one another, and fo holding
the tAVO thumbs upright clofe together •, and, Avhen
they Avould have the combat finilhed and the A^anquilh-
ed {lain, verterunt pollicem, they bent back the thumb;
Avhich AAre learn from Juvenal, Sat. iii. ver. 36. 1 he
gladiators challenged or defied each other, by {bow¬
ing the little finger ; and, by extending this, or fome
other, during the combat, they oAvned themfelves
vanquifhed, and begged mercy from the people : Vidli
tjlenfam digiti vemam d populo pojlulabant, fays the old
fcholiaft on Perfius.
There Avere various kinds of gladiators, diftinguilhed
by their Aveapons, manner, and time of fighting, &c.
as, The andabatce, mentioned under AndabaTjE. The
catervarii, Avho ahA'ays fought in troops or companies,
number againlt number 5 or, according to others, Avho
fought promifeuoufiy, without any certain order. I he
dimachce, Avho fought armed Avith tAvo poniards or fAvords,
or Avith fAvord and dagger. The ejjedarii, Avho fought in
cars. The fifeales, or Cgfartani, Avho belonged to the
emperor’s company 5 and Avho, being more robuft and
dexterous than the reft, Avere frequently called for,
and therefore named alfo pojlulatitu. Several other kinds
are mentioned in the ancient authors.
Gladiators War (helium Gladiatorium or Sparta-
cum), called alfo the fervile war, Avas a Avar Avhich the
Romans fuftained about the year of their city 680.
Spartacus, Crinus, and Oenomaus, having efcaped, with
other gladiators to the number of feventy-four, out
of the place where they had been kept at Capua, ga¬
thered together a body of Haves, put themfelves at
their head, rendered themfelves mafters of all Campa-
■nia, and gained feveral victories over the Roman prae¬
tors. At length they Avere defeated in the year 682,
at the extremity of Italy; having, in vain, attempted
to pafs over into Sicily.
This AATar proved very formidable to the Romans.
Craffus Avas not able to finifti it : the great Pompey
Avas forced to be fent as general.
The Dijing GLADIATOR, a moft valuable monument
-ff ancient fculpture, Avhich is noAV preferved in the pa¬
lace of Chighi. This man, when he had received the Glatliatotj
mortal ftroke, is particularly careful utprocumbat honejle, II
“ that he mmht fall honourably.” He is feated in a re- Ci,‘™or'
o ^ # p-anlhirp
dining pofture on the ground, and has juft ftrength i
fufticient to lupport himfelf on his right arm : and in
his expiring moments it is plainly feen, that he does
not abandon himfelf to grief and dejeftion 5 but is fe¬
licitous to maintain that firmnefs of afpeft which the
gladiators valued themfelves on preferving in this fea-
fon of diftrefs, and that attitude Avhich they had learnt
of the mafters of defence. He fears not death, nor
feems to betray any tokens of fear by his countenance,
nor to Ihcd one tear : quis mediocris gladiator ingemuit,
quis vultum mutavit unquam, quis non modo Jletit, verum
etiam decubit turpitcr, fays Cicero, in that part of his
Tufculan Avhere he is deferibing the aftonithing firm¬
nefs of thofe perfons. We fee, in this inftance, not-
withftanding his remaining ftrength, that he has but
a moment to live ; and we vierv him Avith attention,
that avc may fee him expire and fall: thus the ancients
kneAV Iioav to animate marble, and give it almoft every
expreflion of life.
GLADIOLUS, Corn Flag, a genus of plants
belonging to the triandria clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the fixth order Enfutce. See Bo¬
tany Index.
GLAIR of eggs, is the fame as the Avhite of eggs,
and is ufed as a varnifti for preferving paintings. For
this purpofe it is beat to an unctuous confiftence, and
commonly mixed Avith a little brandy or fpirit of Avine,
to make it Avork more freely, and Avith a lump of fu-
gar to give it body and prevent its cracking : and then
fpread over the picture or painting with a Srufii.
GLAMORGANSHIRE, a county of South
Wales, faid to have derived its name from a contrac¬
tion of the Wellh Avords Gwald Morgan, or “ the
county of Morgan,” and fuppofed to have been thus
called from a prince of this part of the country, faid
to ha\'e been killed 8co years before the birth of
our Saviour : but fome other writers derive the name
from the word Mor, Avhich in the Britilh tongue
fignifies the fea ; this being a maritime county. It is
bounded on the feuth and part of the Aveft, by Brif-
tol channel} on the north-weft, by Caermarthenfhire }
on the north by Brecknockihire; and on the eaft, by
Monmouthihire. It extends 48 miles in length from
eaft to weft, 27 in breadth from north to feuth, and
is 1x6 in circumference. It is divided into 10 hun¬
dreds, in which are one city, 7 market toAvns, 118 pa-
riihes, about 10,000 houfes, and 58,000 inhabitants.
It is in the diocefe of Llandaff. This county, in the
time of the Romans, Avas part of the diftriH inhabited
by the Silures, and had feveral Roman Rations. Thus
Boverton, a ferv miles to the fouth of Cowbridge, is
fuppofed to be the Bovium of Antoninus : Neath to be
his Nidum; and Loghor, to the Aveft of SAvanfey, to
be his Leucarum. The principal rivers of this county
are the Rhymny, the Taff, the Ogmore, the Avon,
the Cledaugh, and the Tave. The air, in the fouth
part, toAvards the fea, is temperate and healthful; but
the northern part, which is mountainous, is cold and
piercing, full of thick Avoods, extremely barren, and
thin of inhabitants. The mountains, however, ferve
to feed herds of cattle, and fend forth ftreams Avhich
add greatly to the fertility of the other parts of the
county:
Claris.
G L A
Glamorgan- county : tliey have like wife coal and lead ore.
flare fouth part is fo remarkably fertile, pleafant, and po-
11 pulous, that it is generally ftyled the garden of Wales 5
, but it has no manufacture. This county was former¬
ly full of caftles, moil of which are now fallen to de¬
cay. It has many fmall harbours on the coail for
exporting coals and provifions. Of the former it
fends large quantities both to England and Ireland 5
but of the latter, to England aim oil folely, efpecially
butter. It fends two members to parliament, one
for tke fibre, and one for the borough of Cardiff the
Capital.
GLAMOUR, or Glamer, an old term of popu¬
lar fuperftition in Scotland, denoting a kind of ma¬
gical mift believed to be raifed by forcerers, and which
deluded their fpeclators with viiions of things which
had no real exiftence, altered the appearance of thofe
which really did exift, &c.—The eaflern nations have
a fimilar fuperftition, as wTe may learn from the Ara¬
bian Nights Entertainments and other works of oriental
fi£fion.
GLAND, in Anatomij. See Anatomy Index.
GLANDERS. See Farriery Index.
GLANDORE, a town of Ireland, fituated in the
county of Cork and province of Munfter, near the har¬
bour of that name.
GLANDORE Harbour, fituated two leagues weft of the
Galley-head in the county of Cork, province of Mun¬
fter, N. Lat. 51. 22. W. Long. 8. 56. Betwreen this
harbour and Ilofs the coaft continues high and bold,
with only two fmall coves 5 that to the eaft called
MUIcove, and that to the weft Cowcove. This harbour
lies three miles weft of Rofs •, and though fmall, is an
exceeding good one ; near it is a caftle of the fame
name, and on the upper end is a deep and dangerous
glin, called the Leap. Glandore gives title of earl to
the family of Crofhie.
GL ANDUL/E Renales. See Anatomy Index.
GLANS, in Anatomy, the tip or button of the penis,
or that part covered with the prepuce, called alfo bala-
jius. See Anatomy Index.
Glans is alfo ufed to denote the tip or extremity of
the clitoris, from its refemblance, both in form and ufe,
to that of the penis. See Anatomy Index.
GL ANVIL, Joseph, a learned and ingenious, but
fanciful and credulous, writer in the 17th century, w7as
born at Plymouth in 1636, and bred at Oxford. He
became a great admirer of Mr Baxter, and a zealous
perfon for a commonwealth. After the Reftoration, he
publiftied The Vanity of Dogmatizing} was chofen a
fellow of the Royal Society 5 and, taking orders in
1662, vras prefented to the vicarage of Frome-Selwood
in Somerfetfibre. The fame year he publiftied his
Lux Orientalis: in 1665, his Scepjts Scientifica ; and in
the year following, Some Philofophical Confiderations
touching the being of Witches and Witchcraft, and other
pieces on the fame fubjeft. In 1660, lie publiftied
Plus ultra; or, The Progrefs and Advancement of Know¬
ledge fince the Days of Ariftotle. He likewife publiftied
A feafonable Recommendation and Defence of Reafon*,
and Philofophia Pia, or A Difcourfe of the Religious
Temper and Tendencies of the Experimental Philofo-
phy. In 1678 he was made a prebendary of Worcef-
fcer, and died in 1680.
GLARIS, one of the cantons of Swbfferland, is
Claris,
Glafgow.
1 735 1 G L A
The bounded on the eaft, partly by the Grifons, and partly
by the territory of Sargans 5 on the north, by the baili¬
wick of Gafter, and by the lake Wahleftatt j on the
eaft, by the canton of Schwits 5 and on the fouth, by
part of the canton of Uri, and part of the league of the
Grifons. It is a mountainous country, being entirely
within the Alps.
Claris, a town of Swifferland, capital of the canton
of the fame name, is feated in a plain, at the foot of
high craggy mountains. The ftreets are large, and the
houfes kept in good repair. It has fome public build¬
ings ; among which are two churches, one in the mid¬
dle of the town, and the other without upon an emi¬
nence. In this eminence there is a cavern, with gro-
tefque figures formed by the water that drops therein.
The general affemblies of the country were formerly
held on the firft Sundays in May, where all the males
above the age of fixteen were obliged to appear. Both
the Calyinifts and the Roman Catholics are tolerated in
this town, and they have divine fervice by turns in the
fame church. It is feated on the river Lint, E. Long.
9. 13. N. Lat. 47. 6.
GLASGOW, a large city of Lanerkftbre or Clydef-
dale in Scotland, fituated in W. Long. 4. 30. N. Lat.
55- 5°’
Concerning the foundation of this city we have no
authentic records. The word in the Gaelic language
fignifies a gray fmith ; from whence it has been infer¬
red, that fome fpot in the moft ancient part of the city
was originally the refidence of fome blackfmith who had
become eminent in his profeflion, fo that the place went
by his name.
In the year 560, a bifhopric is. faid to have been Bifliopric of
founded here by Saint Mungo, or Kentigern, fuppof- Glafgow,
cd to be the fon of Thamates, daughter of Loth king '' *161}
of the Pifts ; but in what*ftate the town at that time °unue
was, is altogether uncertain. Moft probably the priefts
and difeiples ivlxo attended St Kentigern would con¬
tribute confidcrably towards its advancement; the aged
and infirm, who ivere unfit for the purpofes of war, or
fuch as were religioufly inclined, would come and fettle
round the habitation of the holy man, in order to have
the benefit of his prayers j and as a number of mira¬
cles Avere faid to have been Avrought at his tomb, the.
fame caufes Avould ftill contribute to the increafe of the
toAvn.
Hiftory has not informed us of the name of the-
prince Avho founded and endowed the bifhopric of Glaf-
gOAV in favour of St Kentigern. But from an abilract
of the life of Kentigern (contained in Mr Innes’s Criti¬
cal Effay on the Ancient Inhabitants of Scotland),
Avhich Avas Avritten in the 12th century, Ave learn, that
the faint being ill ufed by Marken or Marcus, one of
the kings of the Britons, retired into Wales. On the
invitation of Roderic, hoAvever, one of Marken’s fuccef-
fors, he returned to GlafgoAV, and enjoyed the fee till
601, Avhen he died. He. Avas buried in the church of
GlafgoAv, where his monument is ftill to be feen ; and
Ave find him marked among the faints in the Roman ka-
lendar, January 13. 577.
The immediate fuceeflbrs of Kentigern Avere Bal-
drede and Comval. The firft eftablilhed a religious
houfe at Inchinnan 5 the fecond Avent into Lothian to
preach to the Saxons 5 and both of them are ranked as
faints in the Roman kalendar, Baldrede on the 6th of
March.
ir
Barbarity
of the peo¬
ple in the
time of
David I.
OLA [ 73
Glafgow. March 608, and Conwal on the 18th of May 612.
    From this time, however, till the 1115, we have no
didindl accounts concerning the city or bifhopric of
Glafgow. We find then, that David 1. king of Scot¬
land made an attempt to retrieve the people from a
itate of grofs barbarity into which they were fallen,
and reilured to the church thofe lands of which the had
been robbed. The 6nly account we have of the trani-
atlions with regard to Glafgow, during that period, is
in the inquifition made by David concerning the
church lands of Glafgow, and is as follows.—“ This
church, by the divine appointment, admitted St Ren-
tigern into the bifhopric, who furnifhed large draughts
of knowledge to thofe thirlling after heavenly things,
&c. JBut*a fraudulent deftroyer, employing his common
wiles, brought in, after a long feries of time, unac¬
countable fcandals into the Cumbrian church. For af¬
ter St Kentigern and many of his fuccefiprs were re¬
moved to heaven, various difturbances everywhere arif-
ing, not only deftroyed the church and her poffedions,
but, wafting the whole country, drove the inhabitants
into exile. Thefe good men being deftroyed, various
tribes of different nations flocking in from feveral
quarters, pofleffed the forefaid deferted country ; but
being of different origins, and varying from each
other in their language and cuftoms, and not eafily
agreeing among themfelves, they followed the manners
of the Gentiles, rather than thofe of the true faith.
The inhabitants of which unhappy and abandoned
country, though living like brutes, the Lord, who
choofes that none fhould perith, vouehfafed to vifit in
mercy,” &c.
From the year 1116 to the Reformation, the records
of the bifhopric are tolerably complete. The moft: re¬
markable particulars furnifhed by them are the follow¬
ing.
In 1136, John Achaius, chofen bifhop of Glafgow
by David I. built and adorned a part of the cathedral,
which he folemnly confecrated on the 9th of July. I he
king was prefent at the ceremony, and beftowed on the
church the lands of Perdeyk, now Patrick. This pre¬
late alfo divided the diocefe into the two archdeanries
of Glafgow and Teviotdale 5 and eftablifhed the offices
of dean, fubdean, chancellor, treafurer, facrift, chan-
tor, and fuccCffor 5 and fettled a prebendary upon
. each of them, out of the donatives he received from the
king.
In 1174, Joceline, abbot of Melrofe, was defied
bifhop, and confecrated by Efkilus, bifhop of Lunden
in Denmark, the pope’s legate for that kingdom, oft
the 1 ft of June 1175. He rebuilt the cathedral, or ra¬
ther made an addition to the church already built by
John Achaius. He alfo procured a charter from Wil¬
liam king of Scotland, ere fling Glafgow into a royal
borough, and likewife a charter for a fair to be held
into a royal there annually for eight days.
In 1335, John Lindfay, bifltop of Glafgow, was
killed in an engagement at fea with the Englilh, as he
was returning home from Flanders. His fucceffor,
William Rae, built the Hone bridge over the Clyde.
In the time of Matthew Glendoning, who was defied
bifhop in 1387, the great fpire of the church, which
had been built only of wood, was confumed by light¬
ning. The bifhop intended to have built another of
ilone ; but was prevented by death, in 1408, from ac-
6
01?
forr.
3
Glafgow
feredled
borough.
6 ] G L A
complifhing his purpofe. His fuccefior, William Lau¬
der, laid the foundation of the veftry ot the cathedral, * '
and built the great tower of ftone as far as the hrlt
battlement, 'i he great tower of the epifcopal palace
was founded about the year 1437? on which LiflLop
Cameron expended a great deal ot money. 4
In 1447, William Turnbull, a fbn of the family ofGlafgow
Bedrule in Roxburghfhire, was chofen biftiop. He^^ae‘-mt*
obtained from King James II. in 1450, a charter crefl-^^y’
ing ihe town and the patrimony of the biftiops into uni\Triity
a regality. He alfo procured a bull from Pope Ni-iounded. ,
cholas V. for erefting an univerfity within the city,
which he endowed, and on which he alfo beftow'ed
many privileges. He died in 1454, leaving behind
him a moft: excellent eharafter. I he eftablifliment
of the college contributed more than any thing that
had been formerly done towards the enlargement of
the town. Before this time the town feems to have
been inconfiderable. Mr Gibfon * is of opinion, that * h/I. of
the number of its inhabitants did not exceed 1500.
But though the eftablifliment of the univerfity greatly P‘74*
increafed the number of inhabitants, it in fadt deitroyed ^
the freedom of the town. Biftiop Turnbull feems to wnkh de-
have made a point of it with King James II. that the (hoys the
city of Glafgow, with the biftiop’s foreft, ftiould be ^ ^ of
eredled into a regality in his favour j which was accord¬
ingly done at the time above mentioned 5 and this at
once took away all power from the citizens, and tranf-
ferred it to the biftiop. As the powers of the bifliop,
however, were reckoned by Turnbull in'ufhcient to con¬
vey to the members of the univerfity all that freedom
which he wiftied to beftow upon them, he therefore ob¬
tained from the king a great many privileges for them j
and afterwards he himfelf, with the confent of his
chapter, granted them many more.
The good effedls of the eftabliftiment of the college Population
wrere very foon obvious in Glafgow. Lhe number ofpt G afgow
inhabitants increafed exceedingly ^ the high ftreet,
from the convent of the Black briars, to where .thev^rplty,
crofs is now placed, was very foon filled up j the ancient
road which led to the common being too far dlftant
for the conveniency of the new inhabitants, the Gal¬
lows-gate began to be built. Soon after, the collegiate
church of the bleffed Mary (now the Tron church) be¬
ing founded by the citizens, occafioned the I inngate
fireet to be carried to the weftw'ard as far as the church.
The reft of the city increafed gradually towards th&
bridcre, by the building of the Saltmarket ftreet. The
borough roads, and the cattle that grazed on the com¬
mons, were now found infufficient to maintain the in-
creafed number of inhabitants ^ for which reafon a
greater degree of attention than formerly wras paid to
the fifiling in the river. Many poor people fubfifted
themfelves by this occupation *, they were incorporated
into a fociety; and in order that they might be at hand
to profecute their bufinefs, they built a confiderable
part of the fireet now called the Bruige-gate, but at
that time Fi/hers-gate. .
Notwithftanding all this, however, the city of Glaf¬
gow did not fi r a long time attain the rank among the
other towns of Scotland which it holds at prefent. In
1556, it held only the nth place among them, as ap¬
pears’ by Queen Mary’s taxation. The introduaion
of the reformed religion proved for feme time preju¬
dicial to the opulence of the city. The money which
had
G L A
r 737 1
G L A
by a fire.
Glsfgow. Jiad formerly been expended among the citizens by the
bifhop and his clergy, was now diverted into other
channels : the advantages refulting from the univerfity
were alfo for a time loft ; for as the reformers generally
defpifed human learning, the college was in a manner
^ deferted.
Great part In the time of the civil wars, Glafgow fuffered fe-
of the town yerely. To the mifchief attending inteftine difcord,
de ro>x were added a peftilence and famine •, and to complete
their misfortunes, a violent fire broke out in June 1652,
which deftroyed the greateft part of the Saltmarket,
Trongate, and High ftreet. The fronts of the houfes
at that time were moftly of wood, fo that they became
an eafy prey to the flames. The fire continued with
great violence for the fpace of 18 hours $ by which a
great many of the inhabitants were ruined, the habi¬
tations of almoft 1000 families being totally deftroyed.
On this account colledlions were made through differ¬
ent parts of the country ; and to prevent fuch accidents
for the future, the fronts were built with freeftone,
which abounds in the neighbourhood.
By the charter given to Biftiop Turnbull in 1450,
the citizens had been deprived of the power of elefting
their own magiftrates, which was thenceforth exercifed
by the bifliop ; which, however, was not done with¬
out fome refiftance on the part of the inhabitants. Af¬
ter the Reformation was introduced into Scotland, we
find this power exercifed by the citizens, the biftiop,
the earl of Lennox, and others. The idea that the town
was a bilhop’-s borough, and not a royal free borough,
gave occafion to this unfettled manner of appointing
the magiftracy ; and though, in 1633, they were de¬
clared to be a royal free borough by the parliament, yet
their freedom of eledHon was afterwards difturbed by
the privy council, by Cromwell, and the duke of York.
But on the 4th of June 1690, the town was declared
free by a charter of William and Mary 5 and in confir¬
mation of this charter it was inferted in the a£t of par¬
liament, dated June 14th the fame year, that they
ftiould have power to eleft their own magiftrates as fully
and freely, in all refpedts, as the city of Edinburgh or
any other royal borough within the kingdom ; which
freedom of eleftion ftill continues.
By the affeffment of the boroughs in 1695, we find
the city of Glafgow reckoned the fecond in Scotland
in point of wealth, which place it ftill continues to hold.
To account for this great increafe of wealth, we muft
reafe of its obferve, that for a long time, even before the reflora- on
S
Grlafgow
leclared
fee by
iVilliam
.nd Mary.
9
.treat in
wealth. tion of Charles II. the inhabitants of Glafgow had
been in poffeffion of the fale of both raw and refined
fugars for the greateft part of Scotland 5 they had a
privilege of diftilling fpirits from their molaffes, free of
all duty and excife ; the herring fiftiery was alfo carried
on to what was at that time thought a very confiderable
extent; they were the only people in Scotland who made
foap ; and they fent annually fome hides, linen, &c. to
Briftol, from whence they brought back in exchange,
a little tobacco, fugar, and goods, of the manufadlure
of England, with which they fupplied a confiderable
part of the kingdom. From the year 1 707, however,
in which the union betwixt Scotland and England
took place, we may date the profperity of Glafgow.
By the union, the American trade was laid open to the
inhabitants : and fo fenfible were they of their advan¬
tageous fituation, that they began almoft initantly to
Vol. IX. Part II.
profecute that commerce ; an afliduous application to Glafgow,
which, ever fince, hath greatly contributed to raife ike * J
city to the pitch of affluence and fplendour which it at
prefent enjoys. The city was now greatly enlarged j
and as the community were fenfible of the inconvenience
that attended the want of a fufticient quantity of water
in the river for carrying on their commerce, they re-
folved to have a port of their own nigher the mouth of
the river. At firft, they thought of making their har¬
bour at Dumbarton : but as this is a royal borough, the
magiftrates oppofed it *, becaufe they thought tha? the
influx of lailors and others, occafioned by the harbour,
would be fo great, that a fcarcity of provifions would be 10
occafioned. The magiftrates and town council of Glaf-Erection
gow, therefore, purchafed fome lands -on the fouth fide |J°rt Giaf-
of the river Clyde for this purpofe •, and fo expeditious ^ow"
were they in making their harbour, and rearing their
town, that in 1710 a bailie was appointed for the go¬
vernment of Port-Glafgow. It is now a very confider¬
able parilh, and lies 21 miles nigber the mouth of Clyde
than Glafgow.
In 1725, Mr Campbell, the member of parliament
for Glafgow, having given his vote for having the malt
tax extended over Scotland, a riot enfued among the
lower clafs of people. In this difturbance, Mr Camp¬
bell’s furniture was deftroyed, and fome excifemen were
maltreated for attempting to take an account of the tl
malt. General Wade, who commanded the forces inDifturb-
Scotland, had fent two companies of foldiers, under ance about
the command of Captain Buftiel, to prevent any dif-t^e ext^e
turbance of this kind. Captain Bufhel drew up his'3
men in the ftreet, where the multitude pelted them
with ftones. He firft endeavoured to difperfe the mob
by firing with powder only : but this expedient failing,
he ordered his men to load their pieces with ball 5 and,
without the fan&ion of the civil authority, command¬
ed them to fire four different ways at once. By this
difcharge about 20 perfons were killed and wounded ;
which enraged the multitude to fuch a degree, that ha-
virtg procured fome arms, they purfued Bufhel and
his men to the caftle of Dumbarton, about 14 miles di-
ftant. General Wade being informed of this tranfac-
tion, affembled a body of forces, and being accompa¬
nied by Duncan Forbes, lord advocate, took poffeffion
of the town : the magiftrates were apprehended and
carried prifoners to Edinburgh •, but on an examination
before the lords, their innocence clearly appeared, up¬
on which they were immediately difmiffed. Buftiel
was tried for murder, convifted, and condemned ; but,
inftead of fuffering the penalties of law, he was indul¬
ged with a pardon, and promoted in the fervice. IVjx
Campbell petitioned the houfe of commons for an in¬
demnification of his Ioffes : a bill was paffed in his fa¬
vour •, and this, together with fome other expences
incurred in the affair, coft the town 9000I. fter-
ling.
During the time of the rebellion 1745, the citi¬
zens of Glafgow gave proof of their attachment to re¬
volution principles, by raifing two battalions of 600
men each, for the fervice of government. This piece
of loyalty, however, had like to have coft them dear.
The rebels, in their journey fouth, took a refolution to
plunder and burn the city : which would probably have
been done, had not Mr Cameron of Lochiel threaten¬
ed, in that cafe, to withdraw his clan. A heavy con-
5 A tribution,
G L A [ 738 ] G L A
Glafgow. tributlon, however, was laid on. The city was com-
" pelled to pay 5000I. in money, and 500I. in goods j
and on the return of the rebels from England, they
■were obliged to furnilh them with i2,oco linen ftiirts,
6000 cloth coats, 6000 pairs of fhoes, 6000 pairs of
hole, and 6000 bonnets. Thefe goods, with the mo¬
ney formerly paid them, the expence of raifing and
fubliiling the two city battalions, and the charge of
maintaining the rebel army in free quarters for ten days,
colt the community about 14,000!. fterling j lo,oool.
of which they recovered in 1749, by an application to
u parliament.
Change of About the year 1750, a very confiderable change
manners took place in the manner of living among the inhabi-
of livin'^0 tants Glafgow. Till this time, an attentive in-
duftry, and a frugality bordering upon parfimony,
had been their general chara&eriftic j the feverity of
the ancient manners prevailed in its full vigour:
But now, when an extenfive commerce and increafed
manufactures had produced wealth, the ideas of the
people were enlarged, and fchemes of trade and im¬
provement were adopted which people would formerly
have been denominated madmen if they had under¬
taken ; a new ftyle was introduced in living, drefs,
building, and furniture j wheel carriages were fet up,
public places of entertainment were frequented, and
an affembly-room, ball-room, and playhoufe, were
built by fubfeription j and from this time we may
date all the improvements that have taken place, not
only in Glafgow, but all over the weft of Scotland.
The beft method, however, of eftimating the grow¬
ing improvement of any town, is by the frequency
of their applications for affiftance to parliament 5 we
ftiall therefore enumerate the aCts of parliament which
13 have been paiTtd in favour of the city of Glafgow fince
Attsof the year 1750. In 1753, an aft paffed for repairing
parliament peveraj roa(js leading into the city of Glafgow. In
1ST an a<a ^or ere^Ing anci Supporting a light-
houfe in the ifland of Little Cumray, at the mouth
of the Clyde, and for rendering the navigation of
the frith and river more fafe and commodious.—
In 1759, an aft. for improving the navigation of
the river Clyde to the city of Glafgow, and for
building a new bridge acrofs the river.—In 1767?
the people of Glafgow having propofed to make
a fmall cut or canal from the frith of Forth to that
of Clyde, for the conveniency of their trade to the
eaftern fide of the illand, feveral gentlemen at Edin¬
burgh, and throughout different parts of the king¬
dom, propofed that this canal ftiould be executed upon
a much larger fcale than what had been originally
projefted. An aft was accordingly obtained, and
the canal executed in the manner defcribed under
the article Canal.—In 1770, another aft w'as obtain¬
ed for improving the navigation of the river, building
the bridge, &c. being an amendment of the former aft
for thefe purpofes. In I771* an a& f°r making and
widening a palfage from the Saltmarket to St Andrew’s
church j for enlarging and completing the churchyard
of that church, and likewife for building a convenient
exchange or fquare in the city *, alfo for amending and
explaining the former aft relative to the navigation of
the Clyde. An aft for making and maintaining a na¬
vigable canal and waggon way from the collieries in
the parifttes of Old and New Monkland, to the city of
J
Glafgow. This laft canal, which was undertaken with Glafgow.
a view to reduce the price of coals, has not been at-
tended with the defired effeft $ but the other im¬
provements have been produftive of very great advan-
tagef- . . .14
The moft ancient part of the city Hands on a riling Defcription
ground. The foundation of the cathedral is 104 feet of the city,
higher than the bed of the river ; and the defcent from
the high ground reaches to about 100 yards below the
college. The reft of the city is built chiefly upon a
plain, bounded fouthward by the Clyde, and north¬
ward by a gentle ridge of hills lying in a parallel di-
reftion with that river. Thefe grounds, till lately,
confifted of gardens and fields j but are now covered
with buildings, in confequence of the increafing wealth
and population of the city. The ftreets are all clean
and well paved j and feveral of them interfefting one
another at right angles, produce a very agreeable ef¬
feft. The four principal ftreets, crofling one another
in that manner, divide the city nearly into four equal
parts-, and the different views of them from the crofs,
or centre of interfeftion, have an air of great magnifi¬
cence. The houfes, confifting of four or five floors in
height, are built of hewn ftone, generally in an exceed-
ing good tafte, and many of them elegant. The moft
remarkable public buildings are, _ I5
1. The Cathedral, or High Church, is a magnificent of the ca-
building, and its fituation greatly to its advantage, asthedral.
it Hands higher than any part of the city. It has been
intended to form a crofs, though the tranfverfe part has
never been finiftied. The great tow'er is founded upon
four large maffy pillars, each of them about 30 feet in
circumference. The tower itfelf is 354 feet fquare
within j and is furrounded by a balluftrade, w ithin
Avhich rifes an oftangular fpire terminated by a vane.
The tower upon the weft end is upon the fame level,
but appears not to have been finiftied, though it is co¬
vered over w ith lead. In this tower is a very large bell
11 feet four inches in diameter. The principal entry
wTas from the weft *, the gate 11 feet broad at the bafe,
and 17 feet in height. The weft end of the choir is
now appropriated for a place of divine worftiip j and is
divided from the remaining part by a ftone partition,
which is enclofed by another ftone wall parting it from
the nave. It is impofiible to form an adequate idea of
the awful folemnity of the place occafioned by the lof-
tinefs of the roof and the range of pillars by which the
whole is fupported.
The nave of the church rifes four fteps higher than
the choir; and on the weft fide flood the organ loft,
formerly ornamented with a variety of figures, but
now defaced. The pillars here are done in a better
tafte than thofe in the choir, and their capitals are or¬
namented with fruits. The arched roof of the altar
is fupported by five pillars, over which was a fine ter¬
race walk, and above it a large window of curious
workmanftiip, but now fhut up. On the north fide of
the altar is the veftry,. being a cube of 28 feet, the
roof arched and vaulted at top, and lupported by one
pillar in the centre of the houfe. Arched pillars from
every angle terminate in the grand pillar, which is 19
feet high. The lower part of the fouth crofs is made
ufe of as a burying place for the clergy of the city $
and is by much the fineft piece of workmanlhip in the
whole building. It is 53 feet long, 28 broad, and
G L A [ 739 ] G L A
Crlafg-ow. 15 high ; arched and vaulted at top, and fupported
by a middle range of pillars, with their capitals highly
ornamented ; correfponding to which are columns ad¬
joining to the walls, which, as they rife, fpring into
femi-arches, and are everywhere met at acute angles
by their oppofites, and are ornamented with carvings
at the doling and eroding of the lines. At the ea!t
end of the choir you defeend by flights of heps upon
each fide into paflages which, in former times, were the
principal entries to the burying vault which is imme¬
diately under the nave. It is now made ufe of as a
parilh church for the barony of Glafgow •, and is full of
pillars, fome of them very mafly, which fuppnrt the
arched roof: but it is a very uncomfortable place for
devotion. The fpace under the altar and veftry,
though now made ufe of as a burying place by the he¬
ritors of the barony, was formerly, according to tradi¬
tion, employed for keeping of the relicks ; and indeed,
from the beautiful manner in which this place is finifh-
ed, one would imagine that it had not been deftined
for common ufe. Here is fhown the monument of St
Mungo, or Kentigern, with his figure lying in a cum-
bent pofture.
The whole length of the cathedral within the walls
is 284 feet, its breadth 65 $ the height of the choir,
from the floor to the canopy, 90 feet j the height
of the nave, 85 feet; the height of the middle tower,
220 feet. This fabric was begun by John Achaius in
1123, and confecrated in 1136: and continued by fuc-
ceeding bilhops till fuch time as it was finiftied in the
manner in which it ftands at prefent. The wealth of
the fee of Glafgow, however, was not fufficient for fo
great an undertaking, fo that they were obliged to have
recourfe to all the churches of Scotland for afliftance
in it.
This venerable edifice was in danger of falling a
viftim to the frenzy of fanaticifm in 1579 » anc^ owe£i
its prefervation to the fpirit and good fenfe of the
tradefmen, who, upon hearing the beat of drum for
colle&ing the workmen appointed to demolifh it, flew
to arms, and declared that the firft man who pulled
down a Angle ftone Ihould that moment be buried un¬
der it.
Near the cathedral are the ruins of the bifhop’s pa¬
lace or caftle, enclofed with a wall of hewn ftone by
Archbilhop James Beaton ; the great tower built by
Arcbbithop Cameron in 1426.
^ 2. St Andrew's Church was begun by the commu-
<fcew.s nity in 1739, and finiftied in 1756. It is the fineft
duirch. piece of modern architecture in the city ; and is built
after the model of St Martin’s in the Fields, London,
whofe architeft was the famous Gibbs. The length of
the church is 104 feet, and its breadth 66. It has a
fine arched roof, well ornamented with figures in ftuc-
co, and fuftained by ftone columns of the Corinthian
order. Correfpondent to the model, it has a place for
the altar on the eaft, in which is a very ancient Vene¬
tian window j but the altar place being feated, makes
this end appear to no great advantage. The fronts of
the galleries and the pulpit are done in mahogany in a
very elegant manner. The fpire by no means corre-
fponds with the reft of the building j and, inftead of
being an ornament, difgraces this beautiful fabric. Its
height is 170 feet.
Befides the cathedral (which contains three congre¬
gations) and St Andrew’s church, there is a number Glafgpw.
of others, as the College church, Ram’s-horn, Tron,
St Enoch’s, and St George’s •, together with an Englifti
chapel, Highland church, feveral feceding meeting-
houfes, and others for feCtaries of various denominations. i
3. The College.—The front of this building extends-phe coU
along the eaft fide of the High ftreet, and is upwards of lege.
330 feet long. The gate at the entrance is decorated
with ruftics, and over it are the king’s arms. The
building confiils of two principal courts or fquares.
The firft is 88 feet long and 44 broad. The weft fide
is elevated upon ftone pillars, on which are placed pila-
fters fupporting the Doric entablature, and ornamented
wfith arches forming a piazza. Above thefe is the
public hall •, the afeent to which is by a double, flight of
fteps enclofed by a handfome ftone balluftrade, upon
the right of which is placed a lion, and on the left Sn
unicorn, cut in freeftone. The fpire ftands on the
eaft fide, is 135 feet high, and has a very good clock.
Under this is the gateway into the inner and largeft
court, which is 103 feet long and 79 broad. Over the
entry, in a niche, is a ftatue of Mr Zacharias Boyd,
who wras a benefactor to the univerfity. On the eaft:
fide of the court is a narrow pailage leading into a
handfome terrace walk, gravelled, 122 feet long by v
64 feet broad. This walk is enclofed to the eaft by an.
iron pallifade, in the centre of which is a gate leading
into the garden. This laft confifts of feven acres of
ground, laid out in walks for the recreation of the ftu-
dents j and there is alfo a botanic garden. On the
fouth fide of the walk ftands the library ; a very neat
edifice, well conftrufted for the purpofe intended, and
containing a very valuable collection of books. Under¬
neath are preferved in cafes all the Roman inferiptions
found on Graham’s Dike, together with altars and
other antiquities collected from different parts of Scot¬
land.—Adjoining there is an obfervatory, well furnifti-
ed with aftronomical inftruments. The college alfo pof-
feffes, by bequeft, the late Dr Hunter’s famous anato¬
mical preparations, library, and mufeum. A building
was erefred in 1806 for its reception.
4. The Tolbooth, or Town-Houfe, is a magnificent Town_
and extremely elegant building. The front is adornedboufe, &e*
with a range of Ionic pilafters ; and is elevated on
ftrong rufticated pillars with arches, forming a piazza
for merchants and others to ftielter themfelves from the
•weather when met upon bufinefs. One of the apart¬
ments was the aflembly hall 5 a neat room, 47 feet long,
and 24 in breadth and height, finiftied in a good taite,
though too fmall for the city. The town hall is a very
fpacious and lofty apartment, 52 feet long by 27 broad,
and 24 in height. It is finiftied in a very grand man¬
ner ; the ceiling is divided into different compartments
well ornamented. In it are full length portraits of
King James VI. and VII. Charles I. and II. William ,
and Mary, Queen Anne, King George I. II. and III.
and Archibald duke of Argyll in his judiciary robes.
The two laft are by Ramfay. Oppofite to the front of
this building is the exchange walk, which is well paved
with freeftone, and enclofed from the fireet by ftone
pillars. In the middle of this area is an equeftrian fta¬
tue of King William III, placed upon a lofty pedeftal,
and furrounded with an iron rail.—In 1781, the ex¬
change under the piazzas was greatly enlarged, by tak»
ing down the lower part of the town hall and affembly
5 A 2 rcom $
G L A
[ 740 1
G L A
19
Guild hall
20
Town’s
hofpital.
ai
Grammar
Tehool.
GJafgow. room and at the fame time, by a tontine fcheme en-
_JJ' v " tered into by the inhabitants, a molt elegant coffee
room was added, with a luite of buildings adjoining for
the purpofes of a tavern and hotel, affembly room, and
offices for notaries and underwriters. The affembly
room, however, being found to be ffill too fmall, a
fubfcription of above 5C00I. has been raifed by a fimi-
lar plan of a tontine for building a new one, which is
propofed to be erefted in the north corner of one of
the new ftreets which join Ingram ilreet to Argyll
ftreet.
5. J7ic Guild Hall or Merchants Houfe. This build¬
ing is fituated upon the fouth fide of Bridgegate ftreet •,
and is in length 82 feet, in breadth 31. The great
hall, which is the whole length and breadth of the
building, is fo capacious, that it is better adapted for
the reception of great and numerous affemblies than
any other in the city. This houfe is adorned with a
very elegant fpire 2co feet high.
6. The Town's Hofpital is a very neat building, con¬
fiding of two wings and a large front •, the length 156
feet, the breadth of the centre 30 feet, and the depth
of the Ajingi 68 feet. Behind the building is an infir¬
mary 1 27 feet long by 25 feet broad, the afcent to
which is by a flight of fteps. The low’er part of this
building is appointed for the reception of lunatics.
The area between the buildings is large, which, with
the agreeable open fituation of the hofpital on the river,
xnuft conduce to the health of the inhabitants.
7. The Grammar School is fituated in the new part
of the town, to the north-weft, and was built in 17^7*
It is a very handfome building, containing a large hall,
and fix airy commodious teaching rooms. In this
fchool there are four claffes, the courfe being four
years : each clafs is carried on the whole four years by
the fame mafter •, fo that, there being no redtor, each
mafter is head of the fchool one year in rotation. It is
under the dire£tion of a committee of the town coun¬
cil j who, affifted by the profeffors, clergy, and other
perfons of learning, frequently vifit it during the fef-
fion; and at an annual examination, prizes of books are
diftributed to the fcholars according to their refpeftive
merits. The number of fcholars is above 300. The
building is not yet entirely finiftied j and the rooms
which are not occupied by the Latin claffes are intend¬
ed for teaching writing, arithmetic, drawing, See.
8. The New Bridge is built in an elegant manner.
It is 32 feet wide, with a commodious footway for
paflengers, five feet broad on each fide, raifed above
the road made for carriages, and paved with freeftone.
This bridge is about 500 feet in length, and confifts
of feven arches, the faces of which are wrought in
ruftic, wfith a ftrong block cornice above. The arches
fpring but a little way above low water mark j which,
though it renders the bridge ftronger than if they
fprung from taller piers, diminifties its beauty. Be¬
tween every arch there is a fmall circular one : thefe
break the force of the water when the river rifes to a
flood, and add to the ftrength of the whole. The pa¬
rapet wall or breaftwork is cut out in the Chinefe
tafte, and the two ends are finiftied off with a fweep.
This bridge was begun in 1768, and finiflied in \h]h]2.
9. The Markets in King's Street are ju ily admired,
as being the completed of their kind in Britain. They
are placed on both fides of the ftreet. That on the
2
aa
New
Bridge.
*3
Markets,
eaft fide, appropriated entirely for butcher meat, is 112 Glafgfcw.
feet in length, and 67 in breadth. In the centre is a '—■“■’v—^
fpacious gateway, decorated on each fide with coupled
Ionic columns, fet upon their pedeftals, and fupport-
ing an angular pediment. At the north end is a very
neat hall belonging to the incorporation of butchers,
the front ornamented with ruftics and a pediment. The
markets upon the weft fide of the ftreet confift of three
courts, fet apart for fifti, mutton, and chcefe. The
whole of the front is 173 feet, the breadth 46 feet; in
the centre of which, as on the oppofite fide, is a very
fpacious gatew ay of the Doric order, fupporting a pedi¬
ment. This is the entry to the mutton market. Each
of the other two has a well proportioned arch faced
with ruftics for the entrance. All thefe markets are,
well paved with freeftone, have w'alks all round them,
and are covered over for fhelter by roofs Handing upon
ftone piers, under which the different commodities are
expofed to fale. They have likewife pump wells with¬
in, for cleanfing away all the filth •, which render the
markets ahvays fweet and agreeable. Thefe markets
were erefted in 1754.
10. The Market for Vegetables is neat and commo¬
dious 5 and the principal entry is decorated with co¬
lumns. It is fituated in the Candleriggs, and is laid out
in the fame manner with the markets in King’s Street.
11. The Guard Houfe is a very handfome building, Guard
with a piazza formed by arches, and columns of thehoufe.-
lonic order fet upon their pedeftals. It was originally
fituated on the High ftreet, at the corner of the Candle¬
riggs ftreet: but has lately been carried near half way
up the Candleriggs, where it occupies the ground on
which the weigh houfe formerly flood, and is made
larger and more commodious than it w-as before. An
excellent new' weiglf-houfe has been erefled at the head
of the Candleriggs : And at the foot of the Candle-
riggs, or corner next the High ftreet, where the guard-
houfe was formerly fituated, a fuperb newr hotel has
been built, containing 75 fire rooms.
The moft remarkable public charities in Glaigow
are, ^ ■25
1. Muirhead's or St Nicholas's Hofpital. 'I his was Public c!ic>
originally appointed to fubfift 12 old men and a chap-rities.
lain j but its revenues have, from fome unknown caules,
been loft j fo that no more of them now remains than
the paltry lum of 139I. 2s. 3d. Scots money, I28I.
of which is annually divided among four old men, at
the rate of 2I. 13s. 4d. fterling each.
2. Hutchefon's Hofpital, was founded and endowed
in 1639 by George Hutchefon of Lamb-hill, notary
public, and Mr Thomas Hutchefon his brother, who
was bred a preacher, for the maintenance of old men
and orphans. The funds of this hofpital were increafed
by James Blair, merchant in Glafgow in and by
fubfequent donations. From the (ale of iome of their
lands which lay convenient for building, and the rife of
the reft, the income is now above 1400I. which is di¬
ftributed in penfions to old people from 3^* to 20I. and
in educating about 50 children.
3. The Merck nts Houfe likewife diftributes in pen¬
fions and other charities about Bool, yearly.
4. The Town's Hofpital, above described, was open¬
ed for the reception of the .poor on the 15th of Novem¬
ber 1733- The funds whence this hofpital is iubfift-
ed are, the general feffion, the town council, the trades
houfe
G L A
Clafgow. lioufe and merchants houfe, the interefl; of money be-
longing to their funds, which are fums that have been
mortified for the ufe of the houfe. Thefe fupplies,
however, are found infufficient to defray the expences
of the houfe j for which reafon an affeffment is annual¬
ly made upon the inhabitants in the following manner.
The magiftrates nominate 12, 14, or fometimes more
gentlemen of known integrity and character, who have
a lift laid before them of all the inhabitants in town.
This lift they divide into 16 or 18 columns. Each of
thefe columns contains the names of fuch inhabitants as
carry an trade to a certain extent, or are fuppofed to
be well able to pay the fum affixed to the particular
column in which their names are inferted. If it is ne-
ceflary to raife 500I. for inftance, then each name, in
every feparate column, is valued at as much as the for¬
tunes of the perfons in each particular column ?*-e fup¬
pofed to be. If loool. or more is to be raifed, it is
only continuing a proportional increafe through the
whole of the columns. The higheft fum that ever was
thus raifed, was I2s. 6d. upon every thoufand pounds
that each perfon was fuppofed to be worth. The num¬
ber of people maintained in this hofpital are about
620.
5. Wilfori's Charity for the education of boys, was
founded by George Wilfon, who in 1778 left 3000I.
for that purpofe. This fund is now confiderably in-
creafed, and gives education and clothing to 48 boys,
whu each continues four years, fo that 12 are admitted
annually.
Befides thefe, there are many public fchools for the
education of children •, as well as many inftitutions of
private focieties for the purpofe of relieving the indi¬
gent and inftrudting youth, fuch as Graham's Society,
Buchanan's Society, the Highland Society, &c. Thefe
laft put annually 20 boys apprentices to trades, and
during the firft three years give them clothing and edu¬
cation.
The univerfity of Glafgow owes its origin, as we
have already obferved, to Bilhop Turnbull. The in-
ftitution confifted at firft of a reftor, a dean of faculty,
a principal who taught theology, and three profeffors
of philofophy 5 and, foon after this, the civil and ca¬
non laws were taught by fome clergymen. From the
time of its eftabliffiment in 14 50 to the Reformation in
1560, the college was chiefly frequented by thofe who
were intended for the church ; its members were all
ecclefiaftics, and its principal fupport was derived from
the church. The Reformation brought the univerfity
to the verge of deftruflion : mafters, ftudents, and fer-
vants, all forfook it. The magiftrates were fo fenfible
of the lofs which the community had fuftained by this
defertion, that they endeavoured to reftore it in I572>
by beftovving upon it confiderable funds, and prefcrib-
ing a fet of regulations for its management. Thefe,
however, proved infufficient ; for which reafon King
James VI. erefled it anew, by a charter called the Nova
EreSlio, 1 and beftowed upon it the teinds of the
pariffi of Govan. The perfons w ho were to compofe
the new univerfity were, a principal, three profelfors of
philofophy, four ftudents burfars, one ceconomus, a
principal’s fervant, a janitor, and cook.
Since the year x 577, the funds of the univerfity have
been confiderably increafed by the bounty of kings and
the donations of private perfons. The profeffors have
[ 741 1
G L A
increafed : fo that at prefent the Glafgmv.
26
Members
of the uni-
verfitv.
therefore alfo been
univerfity of Glafgow confifts of a chancellor, reflor,
dean of faculty, principal, and 14 profeffors (fix of
them in the gift of the crown), together with burfars,
&c. The archibifhop of Glafgow was formerly chan¬
cellor of the univerfity ex officio ; at prefent, the chan¬
cellor is chofen by the re<ftor, dean of faculty, princi¬
pal, and mafters.
The chancellor, as being the head of the univerfityr
is the fountain of honour, and in his name are all aca¬
demical degrees beftowed. The office of reftor is to
exercife that academical jurifdidtion in difputes among
the ftudents themfelves, or between the ftudents and
citizens, which is beftowed upon the greater part of the
univerfities in Europe. He is chofen annually in the
comitia ; that is, in a meeting in which all the ftudents,
as well as the other members of the univerfity, have a
voice. Immediately after hisadmiffion, he has been in
ufe to choofe certain perfons as his affeffors ; and coun-
fellors in his capacity of judge; and, in former periods,,
it was cuftomary to name the minifters of Glafgow, or
any other gentlemen who had no connexion with the
univerfity ; but, for a great while part, the reftor has
conftantly named the dean of faculty, the principal,
and mafters, for his affeffors ; and he has always been,
and ftill is, in the daily praftice of judging in the caufes
belonging to him, with the advice of his affeffors. Be-
fides thefe powers as judge, the reflor lummons and
prefides in the meetings of the univerfity for the elec¬
tion of his fucceffor ; and he is likew ife in ufe to call
meetings of the profeffors for drawing up addreffes to
the king, elefting a member to the general aflembly,
and other bufinefs of the like kind.
The dean of faculty has, for his province, the giv¬
ing diredtion with regard to the courfe of ftudies; the
judging, together with the reftor, principal, and pro-
fefibrs, of the qualifications of thole who dtfire to be
created mafters of arts, doftors of divinity, &c.; and
he prefides in meetings which are called by him for
thefe purpofes. He is chofen annually by the redlor,
principal, and mafters.
The principal and mafters, independent of the reflor
and dean, compofe a meeting in which the principal
prefides ; and as they are the perfons for whole behoof
chiefly the revenue of the college was eftablilhed, the
adminiftration of that revenue is therefore committed to
them. The revenue arifesfrom the teinds of the parilh
of Govan, granted by King James VI. in 15.57; frorn
the teinds of the parilhes of Renfrew and Kilbride,
granted by the fame monarch in l6i7» ^d confirmed
by King Charles I. on the 28th of June 1630 ; from
the teinds of the parilhes of Calder, Old and New
Monkland, conveyed to them by a charter from
Charles II. in 1670 ; from a tack of the archbilhop-
ric; and from leveral donations conferred by private
perfons.
The college of Glafgow, for a very confiderable
time after its ere&ion, followed the mode of public
teaching which is common even to this day in Oxford
and Cambridge, and in many other univerlities through¬
out Europe ; that is, each profefibr gave a few ledtures-
every year, gratis, upon the particular fcience which
he profeffed : but, in place of this, the profeffors have,
for a great while paft, adopted the mode of private
teaching: that is, they ledlure and examine two hours
every
G L A [ 742 ] G ^ L A
CJafgow. every day during the fcflion, viz. from the loth of Oc-
■' tober to the 10th of June •, a method which comes much
cheaper to the ftudent, as he has it in his power, if he
is attentive, to acquire his education without being un¬
der the neceflity of employing a tutor. They have alfo
private claiTes, in which they teach one hour per day.
The number of Itudents who have attended this college
for feveral years pall, has been upwards of 500 each
feafon,
Hiftory of The trade of Glafgow is faid to have been firlt pro-
the trade ofmoted by one Mr William Elphinftone in 1420. This
Glaigow. tra(Je was moft probably the curing and exporting of
falmon j but the firft authentic document concerning
Glafgow as a trading city is in 1 546. Complaints hav¬
ing been made by Henry VIII. king of England, that
feveral Englilh Ihips had been taken and robbed by vef-
fels belonging to Scotland, an order of council was if-
fued, difcharging fuch captures for the future ; and
among other places made mention of in this order is the
city of Glafgow. The trade which at that time they
carried on could not be great. It probably confilted of
a few fmall veflels to France loaded with pickled lal-
mon •, as this fiihery was, even then, carried on to a
confiderable extent, by Glafgow, Renfrew, and Dum¬
barton. Between the years 1630 and 1660, a very
great degree of attention feems to have been paid to in¬
land commerce by the inhabitants of Glafgow. Prin¬
cipal Baillie informs us, that the increafe of Glafgow
arifing from this commerce was exceedingly great.
The exportation of falmon and of herrings was alfo
continued and increafed. In the war between Britain
and Holland during the reign of Charles II. a privateer
was fitted out in Clyde to cruife againft the Dutch.
She was called the Lion of Glafgow, Robert M‘Allan
commander) and carried five pieces of cannon, and 60
hands.
A fpirit of commerce appears to have arifen among
the inhabitants of Glafgow between the years 1660 and
1707. The citizens who diftinguillied themfelves moll
during this period were Walter Gibfon and John An-
derfon. Gibfon cured and packed in one year 300
lafts of herrings, which he fent to St Martin’s in France
on board of a Dutch vefiel called the St dgate of 450
tons burden 5 his returns were brandy and fait. He
was the firlt who imported iron from Stockholm into
Clyde. Anderfon is faid to have been the firft who
imported white wines.
Whatever their trade was at this time, it could not
be confiderable : the ports to which they were obliged
to trade lay all to the eaftward : the circumnavigation
of the illand would therefore prove an almolt unfur-
mountable bar to the commerce of Glaigow 5 and of
confequence the people on the call coalf would be pof-
feffed of almoll all the commerce of Scotland. 1 he
union with England opened a field for commerce for
which the fituation of Glafgow, fo convenient in refpecf
to the Atlantic, was highly advantageous. Since that
time the commerce of the call coaft has declined, and
that of the well increafed to an amazing degree. No
fiooner was the treaty of union figned, than the inhabi¬
tants of Glafgow began to profecute the trade to Vir¬
ginia and Maryland j they chartered veflels from
Whitehaven, fent out cargoes of goods, and brought
back tobacco in return. The method in which they
at firll proceeded in this trade was certainly a very pru¬
dent one. A fupercargo went out with every veffel. Glafgow.
He bartered his goods for tobacco, until fuch time as “
he had either fold off his goods, or procured as much
tobacco as was fufficient to load his vefl'el. Fie then
immediately let out on his return j and if any of his
goods remained unfold, he brought them home ^ith
him. While they continued to trade in this way, they
were of great advantage to the country, by the quan¬
tity of manufadtures which they exported 5 their own
wealth began to increafe } they purchafed Ihips of their
own j and, in 1718, the firft veflel of the property of
Glafgow' crofled the Atlantic. Their imports of to¬
bacco were now confiderable, and Glafgow began to
be looked upon as a confiderable port: the tobacco
made at the ports of Briftol, Liverpool, and Whiteha¬
ven, was obferved to dwindle away; the people of
Glafgo*v began to fend tobacco to thefe places, and to
underfell the Engliffi even in their own ports. Thus
the jealouly of the latter was foon excited, and they
took every method in their power to deftroy the trade
of Glafgow. The people of Briftol prefented remon-
ftrances to the commiflioners of the cuftoms at London
againtt the trade of Glafgow, in 1717. To thefe re-
monftrances the merchants of Glafgow' fent fuch anfwers
to the commiflioners, as convinced them that the com¬
plaints of the Briftol merchants were without founda¬
tion. But in 1721, a moft formidable confederacy was
entered into by almoft all the tobacco merchants in
South Britain againft the trade of Giafgow. Thofe of
London, Liverpool, and Whitehaven, prefented feve-
rally to the lords of the treaiury, petitions, arraigning
the Glafgow merchants of frauds in the tobacco trade.
To thefe petitions the Glaigow people gave in replies $
and the lords of the treafury, after a full and impartial
hearing, were pleafed to difmifs the caufe with the fol¬
lowing fentence : “ That the complaints of the mer¬
chants of London, Liverpool, and Whitehaven, were
groundlefs j and that they proceeded from a fpirit of
envy, and not from a regard to the intereft of trade, or
of the king’s revenue.”
But the efforts of thefe gentlemen did not flop here.
They brought their complaints into the houfe of
commons. Commiflioners were fent to Glafgow in
1722, who gave in their reports to the houfe in 1723.
The merchants fent up diftimft and explicit anfwers to
thefe reports j but fuch was the intereii of their adver-
faries, that thefe anfwers were difregarded. New of¬
ficers were appointed at the ports of Greenock and
Port Glafgow, whofe private in ft ructions feem to have
been to ruin the trade if poflible, by putting all ima¬
ginable hardftiips upon it. Hence it languiihed till the
year 1735? but after that time it began to revive,
though even after its revival it was carried on but flow -
ly for a confiderable fpace of time.
At laft, however, the aftive and enterprifing fpirit
of the merchants, feconding the natural advantages of
their filuation, prevailed over all oppofition j and the
American trade continued to flourilh and increafe until
the year 1775, infomuch that the importation of to¬
bacco into Clyde that year from the provinces of Vir¬
ginia, Maryland, and Carolina, amounted to 57,143
hogtheads. But lince the breach with America, this
trade has now greatly fallen off, and very large fums
are faid to remain due to the merchants from that
quarter of the world.
With
G L A
23
Manufac¬
tures of
Glafgow.
Glafgow. With regard ta the manufa&ures of Glafgow, Mr
" Gibfon is of opinion that the commerce to America
fir ft fuggefted the idea of introducing them, in any
confiderable degree at leaft. The firft attempts in this
■way were about the year 1725, and their increafe for
fome time was very flow, nor did they begin to be
confiderable till great encouragement was given by the
Jegitlature to the linen manufafture in Scotland. The
firft caufes of the fuccefs of this manufadlure were the
aft of parliament in 1748, whereby the wearing of
French cambrics was prohibited under fevere penalties;
that of 1751, allowing weavers in flax or hemp to
fettle and exercife their trades anywhere in Scotland
free from all corporation dues; and the bounty of
three halfpence yer yard on all linens exported at and
under i8d. per yard. Since that time a fpirit of ma¬
nufacture has been excited among the inhabitants of
Glafgow ; and great variety of goods, and in very
great quantity, have been manufactured. Checks, li¬
nen, and linen and cotton, are manufactured to a great
extent. Printed linens and cottons were begun to be
manufactured in 1738 ; but they only made garments
till 1754, when handkerchiefs were firft printed.
Ineles w'ere firft made here about the year 1732.—-
The engine looms ufed at that time w7ere fo inconve¬
nient, and took up fo much time in making the goods,
that the Dutch, who were the only people pofleffed of
the large incle looms, were almoft folely in poflefiion
of this manufacture. Mr Hervey, who began this
branch in Glafgow, was fo fenfible of the difadvanta-
ges under which it laboured, that he went over to Hol¬
land ; and in fpite of the care and attention which the
Dutch took to conceal the methods of manufacturing,
he brought over with him from Haerlem two of their
looms, and one of their workmen. This Dutchman
remained fome years in Glafgow ; but on fome difguft
he w ent to Manchefter, and inftrufted the people there
in the method of carrying on the manufacture.
In 1757, carpets were begun to be made, and are
now’ carried on to a confiderable extent. Hunters
cloths, blankets, and other goods of the fame kind, are
alfo made.
Befides thefe, a great variety of articles are manu¬
factured at Glafgow’, of which our limits will not per¬
mit us to enter into a detail, fuch as foap, refining of
fugar, ironmongery, brafs, jewellery, glafs both com¬
mon and w'hite, pottery, &c. Types for printing are
made in this city by Dr Wilfon and Sons, equal,
if not fuperior, in beauty to any others in Britain.
Printing of books wras firft begun here by George An-
derfon about the year 1638. But there was no good
printing in Glafgow till the year 1735, when Robert
Urie printed feveral books in a very' elegant manner.
The higheft perfeftion, however, to which printing
hath yet been carried in this place, or perhaps in any
other, was by the late Robert and Andrew Foulis,
(who began in the year 1740) ; as the many correft
and fplendid editions of books printed by them in
different languages fufficiently teftify. Some of their
claflics, it is faid, are held in fuch high efteem abroad,
as to fell nearly at the price of ancient MSS. The
fame gentlemen alfo eftablilhed an academy of paint¬
ing ; but the w’ealth of Scotland being unequal to the
Undertaking, it has been fince given up.
Since theftagnation of the American trade, already
[ 743 1
G L A
noticed, the merchants of Glafgow have turned their Glafgow.
attention more to manufactures, which have of late,
efpecially that of cottons and muflins, increafed in a
very rapid degree, and bid fair for putting the city in
a more flourithing condition than ever it was before.
The manufacturing houfes, the influx of people for
carrying on the manufactures, the means and encou¬
ragement which thefe afford to population, and the
w’ealth thence derived by individuals as w’ell as accru¬
ing to the community, have all tended lately to in¬
creafe, and are daily increafing, the extent of the city,
and the elegance of the buildings. Befides various im¬
provements in the old ftreets, feveral handfome new
ones as well as new fquares have been added. The
fite of liiefe new buildings is the traft of rifing
ground already mentioned as the north boundary of
the town previous to its late extenfion. The weftern
part of it, which is perfeftly level, is occupied by a
fpacious fquare, denominated George's Square; tAVo
fides of which are built and inhabited, and a third be¬
gun. The grafs plot in the middle is enclofed with a
handfome iron railing. The fquare is deficient in re¬
gularity ; the houfes on the weft fide being a ftory
higher than thofe of the weft ; but in other refpefts it is
very neat. To the eaft of this fquare are feveral
new ftreets laid out and paved, and fome of them al¬
moft completely built on. The principal, though as
yet the moft incomplete of thofe ftreets, is Ingram
Street, which runs from eaft to weft. From this the
others begin ; fome of them being carried northAvard
up the hill, others going foutlrward and joining the
main ftreet of the town. One of the fineft of thefe
crofs ftreets is Hutchefon Street.
The fouth boundary of the city Avas mentioned to2r^ver
be the Clyde. Over this river there are two bridges.See.
One of them, the Old Bridge, built about 400 years
ago by Archbilhop Rae, but fince repaired and partly
rebuilt, confiits of eight arches; and connefts the fub-
urb of Gorbals, fituated on the oppofite fide of the
river, with the city. The other is the Ncav Bridge,
deferibed above.—On the banks of the river, eaftAvard,
is the Green, a fpot appropriated to the ufe of the
inhabitants, with conveniences for waftiing and drying
linens, and with agreeable and extenfive AA’alks for re¬
creation.
On the fame or fouth fide of the town, w’eftward,
is the Broomielaw, where the quay is fituated. Till
within thefe few years, the river here and for feveral
miles diftance, was fo lhallow and fo obftrufted by
ftioals, as to admit only of fmall craft from Greenock,-
Port Glafgow, and the Highlands ; but of late it has
been cleared and deepened fo as to admit veffels of con¬
fiderable burden ; and it is intended to make the depth
as nearly equal as poflible to that of the canal, in-
order that the veffels from Ireland and the w'eft coaft
may not be induced exclufively to afeend the \veft
end of the canal and deliver their goods at Canal bafon,,
but may come up Clyde and unload at the Broomie-
laW’ . . . 30
The government of the city of Glafgow is veiled inGovern-
a provoft and three bailies, a dean of guild, deacon ment, revc-
conveener, and a treafurer, wdth a common council ofnue>.&c’°£
13 merchants and 12 mechanics. The provoft and t^e
two of the bailies muft, by the fet of the borough, be
elefted from the merchant rank.
and the other bailie
from
G L A I 744 ] G L A
Cflafgow. from the trades rank, i. e. the mechanics. The pro-
' voft is, from courtefy and cuftom, ttyled lord provojl.
He is properly lord of the police of the city, prefident
of the community, and is ex officio a juftice of the peace
for both the borough and county.
Many of the inhabitants of Glafgow were convinced
of the neceflity of a new fyftem of police, a number of
■years before the fanftion of parliament was obtained for
that purpofe, which was granted in the year 1800.
The aft veiled the management of the police in the
lord provoft, bailies, dean of guild, deacon convener,
and 24 commiffioners, one being ehofen out of each
ward into which the city is divided. The objeft of
the bill was to procure an extenfion of the royalty, to
pave, light, and clean the ftreets, for regulating the
police, and nominating officers and watchmen, appoint¬
ing commiffioners, railing funds, and granting certain
.powers to the magiftrates and council, town and dean
•of guild courts, and for feveral other purpofes.
In framing this fyftem of police, it has been wifely
.provided that the commiffioners lhall not enjoy the of¬
fice for life •, nor even for a long period, but upon the
fuppolition of being re-elefted, and that every perfon
:properly qualified may have a chance for the office, and
by confequence be entitled to a voice in the manage¬
ment of the funds, and in the direftion of every thing
which refpefts the inftitution.
In order to raife funds for defraying the expence of
■the police eftablilhment, the lord provoft, magiftrates
and commiffioners, on the firft Monday of September,
annually aflefs all occupiers, renters, or polfelTors of
dwelling houles, cellars, {hops, warehoufes, and other
buildings within the royalty, in proportion to the rent
of the different fubjefts, of which the following talple
gives an accurate ftatement.
■Qn the yearly rent of fubjefts valued at
4I. and under 61. fterling annually, 4d. per pound.
At 61. and under 10I. 6d. do.
At 10I. and under 15I. 9^*
At 15I. and upwards, iod. do.
As foon as the aft paffed, thofe gentlemen who were
appointed to carry it into execution, began the dif-
char.ge of their duty according to the Ipirit of faid aft,
and the following office-bearers were nominated for that
purpofe \ a mailer of police, a clerk of ditto, colleftor,
treafurer, furveyor, together with other 15 officers of
police, and 74 watchmen. Thefe have power to bring
to juftice perfons guilty of ftreet robberies, houfe-break-
ings, affaults, thefts, ffiop-lifting, picking pockets, fre¬
quenters of diforderly houfes •, to fupprefs mobs and
riots ; to affift in extinguilhing fires, in guarding and
watching the ftreets, and in affifting the magiftrates in
every thing which relates to the police, peace, and good
order of the city. Thefe officers have hitherto given
general fatisfaftion in the difeharge of their duty, by
feeing that the ftreets are kept clean, well lighted and
guarded. In a word, property and perfonal lafety are
put beyond the reach of danger, and the inftitution
promifes to be of the moft unlpe&kable advantage to the
inhabitants at large.
Many whole and elegant ftreets have of late years
been added to it, fo that its rapid extenfion, increafing
population, and flouriihing commerce, jultly entitle it
to rank with feme of the firft cities in Scotland, or per- Glafgow.
haps in the Britilh empire. * lJ
The revenue of the town arifes from a duty upon all
grain and meal brought into the city (which tax is de¬
nominated the ladles') ; from the rents of lands and
houfes the property of the community 4 from an impoft
of two pennies Scots upon every Scots pint of ale or
beer brewed, inbrought, or fold within the city j from
certain duties payable out of the markets ; from the
rents of the feats in churches; from the duties of cra¬
nage at the quay, at the weigh-houfe, &c. As to the
tonnage on the river, the pontage of the bridge, and
ftatute work; thefe, making no part of the city reve¬
nue, are kept feparate and diftinft under the management
of commiffioners appointed by aft of parliament.
About the time of the Union, the number of inha-Number of
bitants in Glafgow was reckoned about 14,000. In iobabi-
1765, when a new divifion of the parilhes took place, t‘tnts‘
they were eftimated at 28,000. In 1785, when an
accurate furvey was made, the number was about
36,000 ; befides the fuburbs, containing the Calton,
Gorbals, and Anderfton, reckoned about 1000. Since
that time, new buildings, as above noticed, have been
erefted, and the city has become confiderably more
populous, but no exaft eftimate has been made $
though it is generally thought that the number of in¬
habitants cannot at prefent (1806) be computed at
much lefs than 86,630, and accordingly they are more
than doubled fince 1791, at which time they only a-
mounted to 41,777.
The climate of Glafgow, fimilar to that of moft other
parts of the iiland, is variable ; but there are fome cir-
cumftances peculiar to its local fituation which tend to
affeft it more than that of fome other places nearer the
middle of the country. That part of the country in
which Glafgow is fituated, is almoft in the narroweft
part of the ifthmus betwixt the Forth and Clyde, from
which pofition the air is frequently refreffied by tem¬
perate breezes from the fea. The wind is fouth-weft
and weft for nearly two-thirds of the year, and is fatu-
rated with vapour in its paffage acrofs the Atlantic ;
and the Iky being frequently clouded with it, the heats
of fummer are not fo intenfe as in fome other places.
Fogs are not fo common as in the neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, and fevere frofts are feldom of long con¬
tinuance, nor are fnows either very deep, nor do they lie
long. Thunder and lightning are rare about Glafgow,
and feldom deftruftive.
The foil in the vicinity is partly a rich clay and part¬
ly a light fand. The grain raifed about the city is not
fufficient for the confumpt of the inhabitants, but vaft
quantities are brought from Ireland, Ayrlhire, and the
eaft country. While digging the foundation for the
Tontine buildings in the midlt of the city, a piece of
a boat was found feveral feet below the furface of the
ground, imbedded in fand and gravel, from which it
would appear that the channel of the river had once
run in that direftion. In Auguft 1801, while repair¬
ing a divifion of the cathedral, below the pavement op-
pofite the pulpit, about two feet deep, part of a human
fkeleton was found, and a gold chain about 30 inches
long lying above ihe bones of the leg. The date on
the ft one was 1999, but the infeription in the Saxon
charafter was wholly eftaced.
G L A [ 745 J G L A
Glafgovv. The general character of the people is that of in-
Glals. duftry and attention to hufinefs, by which many of them
liave arifen to a hate of independence. They were for¬
merly faid to be remarkable for feverity and apparent
fan&ity of manners j but at prefent they are not more
diftinguhhed in this refpeft than any of their neigh¬
bours. The crimes of robbery and houfe-bi caking
were much more frequent at a former period than they
are now 5 but as thefe were for the moil part committed
by ftrangers, it would be uncandid on that account to
attach blame to the inhabitants : the recent regulation1-',
however, refpefting the internal police of the city,
have nearly put a Hop to fuch depredations.
GLASS, a tranfparent, brittle, factitious body, pro¬
duced from fand melted in a itrong tire with fixed
alkaline falls, lead, flags, &c. till the whole becomes
perfectly clear and fine. The word is formed of the
Latin glcjlum, a plant called by the Greeks ifatis, by
the Romans vitrnm ; by the ancient Britons guadum, and
by the Englifh vjoad. We find frequent mention of
this plant in ancient writers, particularly Caefar, Vi¬
truvius, Pliny, &c. who relate that the ancient Britons
painted or dyed their bodies with glaftum, guadum, vi-
trum, &c. i. e. with the blue colour procured from this
plant. And hence the faClitious matter we are {peak¬
ing of came to be called glafs^ as having always fome-
t what of this bluiihnefs in it.
Hiftory of At what time the art of glafs-making was firft in-
glafs-ma- vented, is altogether uncertain. Some imagine it to
knig. have been invented before the flood : but of this we
have no direCl proof, though there is no improbability
in the fuppofition j for we know, that it is almoft im-
poffible to excite a very violent fire, fuch as is neceffary
m metallurgic operations, without vitrifying part of the
bricks or Hones wherewith the furnace is built. This
indeed might furniih the firfl hints of glafs-making 5
though it is alfo very probable, that fuch imperfeCt vi¬
trifications wouW be obferved a long time before people
thought of making any ufe of them.
Neri traces the antiquity of glafs as far back as the
time of Job. That writer, fpeaking of the value of wif-
dom (chap, xxviii. verfe 17.), fays, that gold and cryjlal
cannot equal it. But this word, which Neri will have
to fignify faClitious glafs, is capable of a great many
different interpretations, and properly fignifies only
whatever is beautiful or tranfparent. Dr Merret will
have the art to be as ancient as that of pottery or the
making of bricks, for the reafons already given, viz.
that by all vehement heat fome imperfeCl vitrifications
are produced. Of this kind undoubtedly was the folTil
glafs mentioned by Ferant. Imperator. to have been
found under ground where great fires had been. But
it is evident, that fuch imperfeCl vitrifications might
have puffed unnoticed for ages ; and confequently we
have no reafon to conclude from thence, that the art of
glafs-making is of fuch high antiquity.
The Egyptians boafl, that this art was taught them
by their great Hermes. Ariflophanes, Ariilotle, A-
lexander Aphrodifeus, Lucretius, and St John the
divine, put it out of all doubt that glafs was ufed in
their days. Pliny relates, that it was firH difcovered
accidentally in Syria, at the mouth of the river Belus,
by certain merchants driven thither by a florm at fea j
who being obliged to continue there and drefs their
■viCluals by making a fire on the ground, where there
VOL. IX. Part II.
was great plenty of the herb kali; that plant, burning Glafs.
to afiies, its fails mixed and incorporated with the fand, *
or Hones fit for vitrification, and thus produced glafs j
and that, this accident being known, the people of Sidon
in that neighbourhood effayed the work, and brought
glafs into ule ; fince which time the art has been con¬
tinually improving. Be this as it will, however, the
firH glafs-houfes mentioned in hillcry were ereCled in
the city of Tyre, and here was the only flaple of the
manufacture for many ages. The fand which lay on
the fhore for about half a mile round the mouth of the
river Belus was peculiarly adapted to the making of
glafs, as being neat and glittering 5 and the wide range
of the Tyrian commerce, gave an ample vent for the
produClions of the furnace.
Mr Nixon, in his obfervations on a plate of glafs
found at Herculaneum, which was deHroyed A. D»
80, on which occafion Pliny loH his life, offers feveral
probable conjeCtures as to the ufes to which fuch
plates might be applied. Such plates, he fuppofes,
might ferve forfpecu/a or looking glaffes; for Pliny, in
fpeaking of Sidon, etiam fpccula excogita-
verat: the reflection of images from thefe ancient fpe-
cula being effeCled by befmearing them behind, ox
tinging them through with fome dark colour. An¬
other ufe in which they might be employed, was for-
adorning the walls of their apartments, by way of
wainfeot, to which Pliny is fuppofed to refer by his
vitrece camerce, lib. xxxvi. cap. 25. § 64. Mr Nixon
farther conjectures, that thefe glafs plates might be
ufed for windows, as well as the lamina of lapis fpecu-
laris and plungites, which were improvements in luxury
mentioned by Seneca and introduced in his time,
Ep, xc. However, there is no pefitive authority re¬
lating to the ufage of glafs windows earlier than the
clofeof the third century : Manifejlius efi (fays LaCtan-
tius*), meritem ejje, qiue per ocu/os ea qace funt oppojita, « Be opif.
tranfpiciat, quajiper fenejlras lucente vitro cut fpeculan Dei, cap. 5..
lapide obduftas.
The firfl: time we hear of glafs made among the
Romans was in the reign of Tiberius, when Pliny re¬
lates that an artill had his houfe demolilhed for mak¬
ing glafs malleable, or rather flexible •, though Pe~
tronius Arbiter, and fome others, affure us, that the
emperor ordered the artiff to be beheaded for his in¬
vention.
It appears, however, that before the conquefl of
Britain by the Romans, glafs-houfes had been ereCted
in this ifland, as well as in Gaul, Spain, and Italy.—
Hence, in many parts of the country are to be found
amulets of glafs, having a narrow perforation and thick
rim, denominated by the remaining Britons glexneu naid-
reedh os glafs adders, and which were probably in for¬
mer times ufed as amulets by the druids f It can f See
fcarcely be queftioned that the Britons were fufficientlyjwWtt
well verfed in the manufacture of glafs, to form out of Oiuvt.
it many more ufeful inftruments than the glafs beads.
Pliflory indeed affures us, that they did manufacture
a confiderable quantity of glafs veffels Thefe, like their
amulets, were mofl probably green, blue, yellow, 01-
black, and many of them curioufly ftreaked with other
colours. The procefs in the manufacture would be
nearly the fame with that of the Gauls or Spaniards.
The land of their fliores being reduced to a fufficient
degree of finenefs by art, was mixed with three-fourths
5 B of
Glafs.
G L A [ 746 ] G L A
of its weight of their nitre (much the fame with our
kelp), and both were melted together. The metal was
then poured into other veffels, where it was left to
harden into a mafs, and afterwards replaced in the fur¬
nace, where it became tranfparent in the boiling, and
was afterwards figured by blowing, or modelling in
the lath, into futh vefl'els as they wanted.
It is not probable that the arrival of the Romans
would improve the glafs manufacture among the Bri¬
tons. The talle of the Romans at that time was juft
the reverfe of that of the inhabitants of this illand. The
former preferred filver and gold to glafs for the com-
pofition of their drinking veffels. They made indeed
great improvements in their own at Rome, during the
government of Nero. The veffels then formed of this
metal r#vailed the bowls of porcelain in their dearneis,
and equalled the cups of cryftal in their tranfparency.
But thefe were by far too coftly for common ufe j and
therefore, in all probability, were never attempted in
Britain. The glafs commonly made ufe of by the Ro¬
mans was of a quality greatly inferior and, from the
fragments which have been difcovered at the ftations or
towns of either, appear to have confifted of a thick,
fometimes white, but moftly blue green, metal.
According to venerable Bede, artificers {killed in
making glafs for windows were brought over into Eng¬
land in the year 674, by Abbot BenediCh, who were em¬
ployed in glazing the church and monaftery of Were-
mouth. According to others, they were firft brought
over by Wilfrid, biihop of Worcefter, about the fame
time. Till this time the art of making fuch glafs was
unknown in Britain j though glafs windows did not
begin to be common before the year uSoj till this
period they were very fcarce in private houfes, and con-
fidered as a kind of luxury, and as marks of great mag¬
nificence. Italy had them firft, next France, from
whence they came into England.
Venice, for many years, excelled all Europe in the
finenefs of its glaffes ■, and in the thirteenth century, the
Venetians were the only people that had the fecret of
making cryftal looking glaffes. The great glafs works
were at Muran, or Murano, a village near the city,
which furnilhed all Europe with the fineft and largeft
glaffes.
The glafs manufacture was firft begun in England in
1557 ; the finer fort was made in the place called
Crutched Friars, in London 5 the fine flint glafs, little
inferior to that of Venice, was firft made in the Savoy
houfe, in the Strand, London. This manufacture ap¬
pears to have been much improved in 1635, when it
was carried on with fea coal or pit coal inftead of wood,
and a monopoly was granted to Sir Robert Manfell,
who was allowed to import the fine Venetian flint glaffes
for drinking, the art of making which was not brought
to perfection before the reign of William III. But the
firft glafs plates, for looking glaffes and coach windows,
were made, 1673, at Lambeth, by the encouragement
of the duke of Buckingham •, who, in 1670, introduced
the manufacture of fine glafs into England, by means
of Venetian arlilts, with amazing fuccefs. So that with¬
in a century paft, the French and Englilh have not on¬
ly come up to, but even furpaffed the Venetians, and
we are now no longer fupplied from abroad.
The French made a confiderable improvement in the
art of glafs, by the invention of a method to caft very
3
large plates, till then unknown, and fcarce practifed yet Glafs,
by any but themfelves and the Englifli. That court
applied itfelf with a laudable induftry to cultivate and
improve the glafs manufacture. A company of glafs-
men was eftabliftied by letters patent *, and it was pro¬
vided by an arret, not only that the working in glafs
ftiould not derogate any thing from nobility, but even
that none but nobles Ihould be allowed to work there¬
in.
An extenfive manufactory of this elegant and valu¬
able branch of commerce was firft eftablifhed in Lan-
calhire, about the year 1773, through the fpirited ex¬
ertions of a very refpeCtable body of proprietors, who
were incorporated by an aCt of parliament. From
thofe various difficulties conftantly attendant upon new
undertakings, when they have to contend with power¬
ful foreign eftabliihments, it "was for fome time con-
fiderably embarraffed ; but government, of late, having
taken off fome reftriCtions that bore hard upon it, and
made fome judicious regulations relative to the mode
of levying the excife duty, it now bids fair to rival, if
not furpafs, the moft celebrated continental manufac¬
tures, both with refpeCt to the quality, brilliancy, and
fize of its productions. 2
With regard to the theory of vitrification, we are Theory of
almoft totally in the dark. In general, it feems to be Vltr>fica.tm*
that ftate in which folid bodies are, by the vehementuncertam’
aClion of fire, fitted for being diflipated or carried oft*
in vapour. In all vitrifications there is a plentiful eva¬
poration : and if any folid fubftance is carried off in
vapour by the intenfe heat of a burning fpeeulum, a
vitrification is always obferved previoufly to take place.
The difference, then, between the ftate of fufion and
vitrification of a folid body we may conceive to be,
that in the former the element of fire ads upon the
parts of the folid in fuch a manner as only to disjoin
them, and render the fubftance fluid •, but in vitrifica¬
tion the fire not only disjoins the particles, but com¬
bines with them in a latent ftate into a third fubftance
which, having now as much fire as it can contain, can
receive no further change from that element except
being carried off in vapour.
But though we are unable to effe£t: this change up¬
on folid bodies without a very violent heat, it is other-
wife in the natural proceffes. By what w e call cryjlal-
li%ation, nature produces more perfect glaffes than we
can make with our furnaces. Thefe are called precious
Jiones i but in all trials they difcover the effential pro¬
perties of glafs, and not of ftones. The moft: diftin-
guiffiing property of glafs is its refilling the force of
fire, fo that this element cannot calcine or change it
as it does other bodies, but can only melt it, and
then carry it off in vapours. To this laft all the
precious ftones are fubjefl. The diamond (the hard-
eff of them all) may be diflipated in a lefs degree of
heat than what would diffipate common glals. Nor
can it be any objeflion to this idea, that fome kinds
of glafs are capable of being converted into a kind
of porcelain by a long-continued cementation with cer¬
tain materials. This change happens only to thofe
kinds of glafs which are made of alkaline fait and
fand ; and Dr Lewis hath ffiown that this change is
produced by the diflipation of the faline principle,
which is the leaft fixed of the two. Glafs, therefore,
we may ftill confider as a fubftance upon which the fire
■Glafs.
Remark¬
able pro¬
perties of
glafs.
4
Surprifing
fragility of
unannealfid
gials.
Attempts
to account
iur if,
c L A [ 747 ] G
has no other effedl than either to melt or diflipate it in 'his principles of percuffion.
vapour.
The other properties of glafs are very remarkable,
fome of which follow :
1. It is one of the moll elaflic bodies in nature. If
the force with which glafs balls ftrike each other be
reckoned 16, that wherewith they recede by virtue of
their elallicity will be nearly 15.
2. When glafs is fuddenly cooled, it becomes ex¬
ceedingly brittle ; and this brittlenefs. is fometimes
attended with very furprifing phenomena. Hollow balls
made of unannealed glafs, with a fmall hole in them,
will fly to pieces by the heat of the hand only, if the
hole by which the internal and external air communi¬
cate be Hopped with a finger. Some veffels, however,
made of fuch unannealed glafs have been difcover-
ed, which have the remarkable property of refilling
very hard ftrokes given from without, though they
fliiver to pieces by the fhocks received from the fall of
very light and minute bodies dropped into their cavi¬
ties. Thefe glaffes may be made of any fliape : all
that needs be obferved in making them is, that their
bottom be thicker than their fide-s. The thicker the
bottom is, the eafier do the glaffes break. One whofe
bottom is three fingers breadth in thicknefs flies with
as much eafe at leaf! as the thinneft glafs. Some of
thefe veffels have been tried with ftrokes of a mallet
fufficient to drive a nail into wood tolerably hard, and
have held good without breaking. They have alfo
refilled the fhoek of feveral heavy bodies, let fail into
their cavities, from the height of two or three feet ;
as mulket balls, pieces of iron or other metal, pyrites,
jafper, wood, bone, Ste. But this is not furprifing,
as other glaffes of the fame fliape and fize will do the
fame : but the wonder is, that taking a fliiver of flint
of the fize of a fmall pea, and letting it fall into the
glafs only from the height of three inches, in about
two feconds the glafs flies, and fometimes at the very
moment of the fhock ; nay, a bit of flint no larger
than a grain, dropped into leveral glafles lucceflively,
though it did not immediately break them, yet when
fet by, they all flew in lels than three quarters of an
hour. Some other bodies produce the fame efteft with
flint ; as fapphire, diamond, porcelain, hard tempered
fleel; alfo marbles inch as boys play with, and likewife
pearls.
Thefe experiments were made before the Royal So
ciety ; and fucceeded equally when the glaffes were
held in the hand, when they were relied on a pillow,
put in water, or filled with water. It is alfo remark¬
able, that the glaffes broke upon having their bottoms
ilightly rubbed with the finger, though fome of them
did not fly till half an hour after the rubbing. If the
glaffes, are everywhere extremely thin, they do not
break in thefe eircumflances.
Some have pretended to account for thefe pheno¬
mena, by faying, that the bodies dropped into the
veffels caufe a concuffion which is itronger than the
cohefive force of the glafs, and confequently that a
rupture mi. enfue. But why does not a ball of iron,
gold, filver, or copper, which are perhaps a thoufand
times heavier than the flint, produce the fame effeft ?
It is becaufe they arc not elaflic. But furely iron is
more elaftic than the end of one’s finger. Mr Euler
has endeavoured to account for thefe appearances from
Olafs.
L A
He thinks that this ex¬
periment entirely overthrows the opinion of thofe who v
meafure the force of percuffion by the vis viva, or ah-'
folute apparent flrength of the flroke. According
to his principles, the great hardnefs and angular fi¬
gure of the Hint, which makes the fpace of contact
with the glafs extremely fmall, ought to caufe an im-
preffion on the glafs vaftly greater than lead, or any
other metal j and this may account for the flint’s
breaking the veffel, though the bullet, even falling
from a confiderable height, does no damage. Hollow
cups made of green bottle glafs, fome of them three
inches thick at the bottom, were inftantly broken by a
fliiver of flint weighing about two grains, though they
had refilled the fhock of a mulket ball from the height
of three feet.
That Mr Euler’s theory cannot be conclufive more
than the other, muff appear evident from a very flight
confideiation. It is not by angular bodies alone that
the glaffes are broken. The marbles with which chil¬
dren play are round, and yet they have the fame effedl
with the angular flint. Befides, if it wras the mere
force of percuffion which broke the glaffes, undoubt¬
edly the fra&ure would always take place at the very
inftant of the ftroke ; but we have feen that this did
not happen fometimes till a very confiderable fpace of
time had elapfed. It is evident, therefore, that this
effe-dl is occafioned by the putting in motion fome
fubtle fluid with which the fubftance of the glafs is
filled ; and that the motions of this fluid, when once
excited in a particular part of the glafs, foon propagate
themfelves through the whole or greateft part of it, by
which means the cohefive power becomes at laft too
weak to refill them. There can be little doubt that
the fluid juft now mentioned is that of electricity. It
is known to exift in glafs in very great quantity ; and
it alfo is known to be capable of breaking glaffi s even
when annealed with the greateft care, if put into too
violent a motion. Probably the cooling of glafs haflily
may make it more eleCtric than is confiftent with its
cohefive power, fo that it is broken by the leaft in-
creafe of motion in the eleftric fluid by friflion or
otherwife. This is evidently the cafe when it is bro¬
ken by rubbing with the finger j but why it fliould
alfo break by the mere contaCl of flint and the other
bodies above mentioned, has not yet been fatisfaClorily
accounted for. $
A moll remarkable phenomenon alfo is produced in Rotation of
glafs tubes placed in certain circumftances. When thefe glafs t-ibes
are laid before a fire in a horizontal pofition, having j?e^c a
their extremities properly fupported, they acquire a ‘ '
rotatory motion round their axis, and alfo a progreffive
motion towards the fire, even when their fupports
are declining from the fire, fo that the tubes will move
a little way up hill towards the fire. When the pro-
greffive motion of the tubes towards the fire is flopped
by any obftacle, their rotation ftill continues. When
the tubes are placed in a nearly upright pofture, lean¬
ing to the right hand, the motion will be from eaft to
weft j but if they lean to the left hand, their motion
will be from weft to eaft ; and the nearer they are
placed to the perfeClly upright pofture, the lefs will the
motion be either way.
If the tube is placed horizontally on a glafs pane,
the fragment, for inftance, of coach window-glafs, in-
5 B 3 Head
G L A [ 748 ] G L A
* N° 475
§ 1.
Attempts
to account
for it.
Glafe. {lead of moving towards tlie fire, it will move from it,
and about its axis in a contrary dire6tion to what it
had done before 5 nay, it will recede from the fire, and
move a little up hill when the plane inclines towards
the fire. Thefe experiments are recorded in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions *. They fucceeded beft with
tubes about 20 or 22 inches long, which had in each
end a pretty Prong pin fixed in cork for an axis.
The reafon given for thefe phenomena,- is the fwell-
ing of the tubes towards the fire by the heat, which
is known to expand all bodies. For, fay the adopters
of this hypothefis, granting the exigence of fuch a
fwel ling, gravity mull pull the tube down when fup-
ported near its extremities; and a frefh part being ex-
pofed to the fire, it muft alfo fwell out and fall down,
and fo on.—But without going farther in the expla¬
nation of this hypothefis, it may be here remarked,
that the fundamental principle on which it proceeds is
falfe; for though fire indeed make bodies expand,
it dots not increafe them in weight; and therefore the
fides of the tube, though one of them is expanded by
the fire, mud Pill remain in equilibria; and hence we
muft conclude, that the caufes of thefe phenomena re¬
main yet to be difcovered.
4. Glafs is lefs dilatable by heat than metalline
fubftances, and folid glafs Picks are lefs dilatable than
Phil TVafl/tubes. This was firP difcovered by Col. Roy, in ma-
vo! Uvii. kjng experiments in order to reduce barometers to a
greater degree of exaftnefs than hath hitherto been
found pra&icable 5 and Pnce his experiments were
made, one of the tubes 18 inches long, being compa¬
red with a folid glafs rod of the fame length, the for¬
mer was found by a pyrometer to expand four times
as much as the other, in a heat approaching to that
of boiling oil.—On account of the general quality
which glafs has of expanding lefs than metal, M. de
Luc recommends it to be uled in pendulums: and he
fays it has alfo this good quality, that its expanfions
are always equable, and proportioned to the degrees
of heat} a quality which is not to be found in any other
fubPance yet known.
5. Glafs appears to be more fit for the conden-
fation of vapours than metallic fubPances. An open
glafs filled with water, in the fummer time, will ga¬
ther drops of water on the outfide, juP as far as the
water in the infide reaches •, and a perfon’s breath
blown on it manifeply moiPens it. Glafs alfo be¬
comes moiP with dew, when metals do not. See
p. 663.
Ibid.
vol. Ixviii
p. 474.
Dew.
6. A drinking glafs partly filled with water, and
rubbed on the brim with a wet finger, yields mufical
notes, higher or lower as the glafs is more or lefs full j
and will make the liquor frilk and leap. See Har¬
monica.
7. Glafs is poffefled of very great eleftrical virtues.
s See Electricity,
Materials Materialsfor Making of GLASS. The materials where-
for glals. 0f glafs L made, we have already mentioned to be fait
and fand or filiceous earth.
1. The fait here ufed is procured from a fort of aPies
brought from the Levant, called polverine, or rochelta ;
which aPtes are thofe of a fort of water plant called
■f See fo/- ka/ij-, cut down in the fummer, dried in the fun, and
^Index P rt;7'V burnt in heaps, either on the ground or on iron grates j
the alhes falling into a pit, grow into a hard mafs, or
Pone, fit for ufe. It may alfo be procured from com- Glafs.
mon kelp, or the afhes of the fucus vefculofus. See 'V'—
Kelp.
To extraft the fait, thefe aPies, or polverine, are
powdered and fifted, then put into boiling water, and
there kept till one-third of the water be eonfumed ;
the Avhole being Pirred up from time to time,' that
the aPies may incorporate with the fluid, and all its
falls be extrafled : then the veflel is Plied up with
new water, and boiled over again, till one half be
confumed 5 what remains is a fort of ley, Prongly im¬
pregnated with fait. This ley, boiled over again in
frePi coppers, thickens in about 24 hours, and Pioots
its fait; which is to be ladled out, as it drools, into
earthen pans, and thence into wooden vats to drain
and dry. This done, it is grofsly pounded, and thus
put in a fort of oven, called calcar, to dry. It may
be added, that there are other plants, befides kali and
fucus, which yield a fait fit for glafs : fuch are the
common way thifile, bramble, hops, wormwood, woad,
tobacco, fern, and the whole leguminous tribe, as peafe,
beans, &c.
Pearl allies form a leading flux in the manufafture
of glafs, and moflly fupply the place of the Levant
allies, the barillas of Spain, and many other kinds,
which were formerly brought here for making both
glafs and foap.
There are other fluxes ufed for different kinds of
glafs, and for various purpofes, as calcined lead, nitre,
fea fait, borax, arfenic, fmiths clinkers, and wood-
allies, containing the earth and lixiviate falls as pro¬
duced by incineration. With regard to thefe feveral
fluxes, we may obferve, in general, that the more
calx of lead, or other metallic earth, enters into the
compofition of any glafs, fo much the mere fufible,
foft, coloured, and denfe this glafs is, and reciprocally.
The colours given to glafs by calces of lead, are
ftiades of yellow : on the other hand, glaffes that con¬
tain only faline fluxes partake of the properties of falls j
they are lefs heavy, lefs denfe, harder, whiter, more
brilliant, and more brittle than the former j and glaf¬
fes containing both faline and metallic fluxes do alfo
partake of the properties of both thefe fubftances.
Glaffes too faline are eafily fufceptible of alteration by
the aftion of air and water: efpecially thofe in which
alkalies prevail j and thefe are alfo liable to be injured
by acids. Thofe that contain too much borax and
arfenic, though at firft they appear very beautiful,
quickly tarniPi and become opake when expofed to
air. By attending to thefe properties of different
fluxes, phlogiPic or faline, the artift may know how
to adjuft the proportions of thefe to fand, or powdered
flints, for the various kinds of glals. See the article
Vitrification.
2. The fand or pone, called by the artifts tarfo, is
the fecond ingredient in glafs, and that which gives it
the body and firmnefs. Thefe Pones, Agricola ob-
ferves, muft be fuch as will fufe ; and of thefe fuch as
are white and tranfparent are beft j fo that cryftal
challenges the precedency of all others.
At Venice they chiefly ufe a fort of pebble, found
in the river Teflno, refembling white marble, and cal¬
led cuogolo. Indeed Ant. Neri affures us, that all ftones
which will ftrike fire with Peel, are fit to vitrify 5 but
Dr Morret Plows, that there are fojne exceptions from
4 this
G L A
Glafs. this rule. Flints are admirable
'“'V"’—' powdered, and feareed, make a pure white cryftalline
metal j but the expence of preparing them makes the
mailers of our glafs-houfes fparing of their ufe. Where
proper Hones cannot be fo conveniently had, fand is
r The bell for this purpofe is that which is white,
ufed".
ftnall, and ftrining ; examined by the microfcope, it
appears to be fmall fragments of rock cryftal. For
green glafs, that which is of a foft texture, and more
gritty ; it is to be well walked, which is all the prepa¬
ration it needs. Our glafs-houfes are furnifhed with
white fand for their cryftal glafies from Lynn in Nor¬
folk, and Maidllone in Kent, and with the coarfer for
green glafs from Woolwich.
Some mention a third ingredient in glafs, viz. man-
ganefe, a kind of pfeudo loadltone, dug up in Ger¬
many, Italy, and even in Mendip hills in Somerfetlhire.
But the proportion hereof to the reft is very inconfi-
Herable j belide, that it is not ufed in all glafs. Its
office is to purge off the natural greenilh colour, and
give it fome other tinflure required.
For this purpofe it ffiould be chofen of a deep co¬
lour, and free from fpecks of metalline appearance,
or a lighter call; manganefe requires to be well calcined
in a hot furnace, and then to undergo a thorough levi-
gation. The effeft of manganefe in deftroying the co¬
lours of glafs, and hence called the foap of glafs, is ac¬
counted for by M. Montamy, in his Traite des Couleurs
pour la Peinture en Email, in the following manner :
the manganefe deltroys the green, olive, and blue colours
of glafs, by adding to them a purple tinge, and by the
mixture producing a blackifh brorvn colour *, and as
blacknefs is caufed merely by an abforption of the rays
of light, the blackifh tinge given to the glafs by the
mixture of colours, prevents the refleftion of fo many
rays, and thus renders the glafs lefs coloured than be¬
fore. But the black produced by this fubltance fug-
gefts an obvious reafon for uling it very fparingly in
thofe compofitions of glafs which are required to be
very tranfparent. Nitre or faltpetre is alfo ufed -with
the fame intention ; for by deflroying in a certain de¬
gree the inflammable or carbonaceous matter which
gives a ftrong tinge of yellovr to glafs prepared with
lead as a flux, it ferves to free it from this colour; and
in faline glaffes, nitre is requifite in a fmaller propor¬
tion to render them fufficiently tranfparent, as in the
cafe of looking glafs and other kinds of plates.
Kinds of GLASS. The manufactured glafs now in
ufe may be divided into three general kinds j white
tranfparent glafs, coloured glafs, and common green or
bottle glafs. Of the firft kind there is a great variety;
as the flint glafs, as it is called with us, and the Ger¬
man cryftal glafs, which are applied to the fame ufes;
the glafs for plates, for mirrors, or looking glaffes ; the
glafs for windows and other lights 5 and the glafs for
phials and fmall veffels. And thefe again differ in the
fubftances employed as fluxes in forming them, as w'ell
as in the coarfenefs or finenefs of fuch as are ufed for
their body. The flint and cryftal, mirror and beft
window' glafs, not only require fuch purity in the
fluxes, as may render it practicable to free the glafs
perfeftly from all colour ; but for the fame reafon
likewife, either the white Lynn fand, calcined flints,
or white pebbles, ftrould be ufed. The others do not
demand the fame nicety in the-choice of the materials)
[ 749 1 . G' L A
and when calcined, though the fecond kind of window glafs, and the beft;
kind of phial, will not be fo clear as they ought, if 1
either too brown fand or impure falls be fuffered to
enter into their compofition.
Of coloured glafs there is a great variety of forts,
differing in their colour or other properties according
to the occaftons for which they are wanted. The
differences in the latter kind depend on the accidental
preparation and management of the artifts by whom
they are manufactured, as will be afterwards ex¬
plained.
Furnaces for the Making of GLASS. In this manufac-
Clafs.
ture there are three forts of furnaces j one called cal¬
car is for the frit 5 the fecond is for working the
glafs) the third ferves to anneal the glafs, and is called
the leer. See Plate CCXLVIL
The calcar refembles an oven ten feet long, feven
feet broad, and two deep ) the fuel, which in Britain
is fea coal, is put into a trench on one fide of the fur¬
nace, and the flame reverberating from the roof upon
the frit calcines it. The glafs furnace, or working
furnace, is round, of three yards diameter, and two
high : or thus proportioned. It is divided into three •
parts, each of which is vaulted. The lower part is
properly called the crown, and is made in that form.
Its ufe is to keep a brilk fire, which is never put out.
The mouth is called the bocca. There are feveral holes
in the arch of this crown, through which the flame
paffes into the fecond vault or partition, and reverbe¬
rates into the pots filled with the ingredients above
mentioned. Round the infides 4re eight or more pots
placed, and piling pots on them. The number of pots
is always double that of the boccas or mouths, or of
the number of workmen, that each may have one pot
refined to work out of, and another for metal to refine
in while he works out of the other. Through the
working holes the metal is taken out of the pots, and
the pots are put into the furnace ; and thefe holes are
flopped with moveable covers made of lute and brick*
to fereen the workmen’s eyes from the fcorching flames.
On each fide of the bocca or mouth is a bocarella or
little hole, out of which coloured glafs or finer metal
is taken from the piling pot. Above this oven there
is the third oven or leer, above five or fix yards long,
where the veffels or glafs are annealed or cooled :
this part confifts of a tow'er, befides the leer, into
which the flame afcends from the furnace. The tower
has two mouths, through which the glaffes are put in
w ith a fork, and fet on the floor or bottom : but they
are drawn out on iron pans called fraches, through the
leer, to cool by degrees ) fo that they are quite cold
by the time they reach the mouth of the leer, which
enters the farofel or room where the glaffes are to be
flowed.
But the green-glafs furnace is fquare ) and at each
angle it has an arch for annealing or cooling glaffes.
The metal is wrought on two oppofite fides, and on
the other two they have their colours, into which are
made linnet holes for the fire to come from the fur¬
nace to bake the frit, and to difcharge the fmoke.
Fires are made in the arches to anneal the work, fo
that the whole procefs is done in ©ne furnace.
Thefe furnaces muft not be of brick, but of hard
fandy ftones. In France, they build the outfide of
brick ; and the inner part, to hear the fire, is made of a
fort
G L A [ 750 ] G L A
fort of fullers earth, or tobacco-pipe clay, of which
earth they alfo make their melting pots. In Britain
the pots are made of Stourbridge clay.
Mr Blancourt obferves that the worft and rougheft
work in this art is the changing the pots when they
are worn out or cracked. In this cafe the great
working hole mud be uncovered j the faulty pot muft
be taken out with iron hooks and forks, and a new
one muft be fpeedily put in its place, through the flames,
by the hands only. For this work, the man guards
himfelf with a garment made of fkins, in the fhape of
a pantaloon, that covers him all but his eyes, and is
made as wet as poflible j the eyes are defended with a
proper fort of glafs.
Injlruments for Making of GLASS. The inftruments
made ufe of in this work may be reduced to thefe
that follow. A blowing pipe, made of iron, about
two feet and a half long, with a wooden handle. An
iron rod to take up the glafs after it is blown, and to
cut off the former. Seiffars to cut the glafs when it
comes off from thefirft hollow iron. Shears to cut and
fhape great glaffes, &c. An iron ladle with the end
of the handle cafed with wood, to take the metal out
of the refining pot, to put it into the workman’s
pots. A fmall iron ladle cafed in the fame manner,
to fkim the alkalic fait that fwims at top. Shovels,
one like a peel, to take up the great glaffes ; another
like a fire-fhovel, to feed the furnace with coals. A
hooked iron fork, to ftir the matter in the pots. An
iron rake for the fame purpofe, and to ftir the frit. An
iron fork, to change or pull the pots out of the furnace,
Etc.
Compofitions for White and Cry da/ GLASS. 1. To
make cryfalg/afs, take of the vhiteft tarfo, pounded
fmall, and fearced as fine as tlour, 200 pounds; of the
fait of polverine 130 pounds j mix them together and
put them into the furnace called the calcar, firft heat¬
ing it. For an hour keep a moderate fire, and keep
ftirrmg the materials with a proper rake, that they may
incorporate and calcine together j then increafe the fire
for five hours •, after which take out the matter; which
being now fufficiently calcined, is called frit. From
the calcar put the frit in a dry place, and cover it up
from the duft for three or four months. Now to make
the glafs or cryftal : take of this cryftal frit, called alfo
bollito ; fet it in pots in the furnace, adding to it a due
quantity of magnefia or manganefe : w hen the two are
fufed, caft the fluor into fair water, to clear it of the
fait called fandiver • which would otherwife make the
cryftal ohfcure and cloudy. This lotion muft be re¬
peated again and again, as often as needful, till the
cryftal be fully purged ; or this fcum may be taken off
by means of proper ladles. Then fet it to boil four,
five or fix days ; which done, fee whether it have man¬
ganefe enough ; and if it be yet greenilh, add more
manganefe, at difcretion, by little and little at a time,
taking care not to overdofe it, becaufe the manganefe
inclines it to a blackifti hue. Then let the metal cla¬
rify, till it becomes of a clear and fhining colour j
which done, it is fit to be blowm or formed into veffels
at pleafure.
2. Flint glafs, as it is called by us, is of the fame
general kind with that which in other places is called
cryftal glafs. It has this name from being originally
made with calcined flints, before the ufe of the white
fand wras underftood j and retains the name, though no 01
flints are now’ ufed in the compofition of it. This flint
glafs differs from the other, in having lead for its flux,
and white fand for its body ; whereas the fluxes
ufed for the cryftal glafs are falts or arfenic, and the
body confifts of calcined flints or white river pebbles,
tarlo, or fuch ftones. To the white fand and lead a
proper proportion of nitre is added, to burn away the
phlogifton of the lead, and alfo a fmall quantity of
magnefia ; and in fome works they ufe a proportional
quantity of arfenic to aid the fluxing ingredients. The
moft perfedt kind of glafs may be made by fufing
with a very ftrong fire 120 pounds of the white fand,
50 pounds of red lead, 40 pounds of the belt pearl
allies, 20 pounds of nitre, and five ounces of magnefia.
Another compofition of flint glafs, which is laid to
come nearer to the kind now made, is the following ;
1 20 pounds of fand, 54 pounds of the beft pearl allies,
36 pounds of red lead, 12 pounds of nitre, and 6 ounces
of magnefia. To either of thefe a pound or two of ar¬
fenic may be added, to increafe the flux of the com¬
pofition. A cheaper compofition of flint glafs may be
made with 120 pounds of white fand, 35 pounds of
the beft pearl allies, 40 pounds of red lead, 13 pounds
of nitre, 6 pounds of arfenic, and four ounces of mag¬
nefia ; or inftead of the arfenic may be fubftituted 15
pounds of common fait} but this will be more brittle
than the other. The cheapeft compofition for the worft
kind of flint glafs confifts of 1 20 pounds of white fand,
30 pounds of red lead, 20 pounds of the beft pearl allies,
10 pounds of nitre, 15 pounds of common fait, and fix
pounds of arfenic. The beft German cryftal glafs
is made of 120 pounds of calcined flints or white land,
70 pounds of the beft pearl allies, 10 pounds of faltpetre,
half a pound of arfenic, and five ounces of magnefia.
And a cheaper compofition is formed of 1 20 pounds of
calcined flints or white fand, 46 pounds of pearl allies,
7 pounds of nitre, 6 pounds of arfenic, and 5 ounces of
magnefia.
A glafs much harder than any prepared in the com¬
mon way, may be made by means of borax in the fol¬
lowing method : Take four ounces of borax, and an
ounce of fine fand; reduce both to a fubtile powder,
and melt them together in a large clofe crucible fet in
a wind furnace, keeping up a ftrong fire for half an
hour ; then take out the crucible, and w hen cold break
it, and there will be found at the bottom a pure hard
glafs capable of cutting common glafs like a diamond.
This experiment, duly varied, fays Dr Shaw, may lead
to feveral ufeful improvements in the arts of glafs, en¬
amels, and factitious gems, and Ihows an expeditious
method of making glafs, without any fixed alkali, which
has been generally thought an effential ingredient in
glafs, and it is not yet known whether calcined cryftal
or other fubftances being added to this fait inftead of
fand, it might not make a glafs approaching to the na¬
ture of a diamond.
There are three principal kinds of glaffes, diftin-
guifhed by the form or manner of working them ; viz.
I. Round glafs, as thofe of our veffels, phials, drinking
glaffes, &c. II. Table or window glafs, of which there
are divers kinds ; viz. crown glafs, jealous glafs, &c,
III, Flate glafs, or mirror glafs.
I. Working or Blowing Round GLASS. The working
furnace, we have obferved, is round and has fix boccas
tt
G L A C 7
Glafs. or apertures : at one of thefe, called the great bacon, the
■"v ' furnace is heated, and the pots of frit are at this fet in
the furnace j two other fmall holes, called bocarellas,
ferve to lade or take out the melted metal, at the end
of an iron, to work the glafs. At the other holes they
put in pots of fufible ingredients, to be prepared, and
at lafl: emptied into the lading pot.
'Ihere are fix pots in each furnace, all made of to-
bacco-pipe clay, proper to fuftain not only the heat of
the fire, but alfo the effedl of the polverine, which pe¬
netrates every thing elfe. There are only two of thefe
pots that work : the reft ferve to prepare the matter
for them. The fire of the furnace is made and kept up
with dry hard wood, caft in without intermiflion at fix
apertures.
When the matter contained in the two pots is fuf-
ficiently vitrified, they proceed to blow or fafhion it.
For this purpofe the workman dips his blowing pipe
into the melting pot; and by turning it about, the
metal flicks to the iron more firmly than turpentine.
This he repeats four times, at each time rolling the
end of his inftrument, with the hot metal thereon, on
a piece of plate iron •, over which is a veflel of water
which helps to cool, and fo to confolidate and to dif-
pofe that matter to bind more firmly with what is to
be taken next out of the melting pot. But after he has
dipt a fourth time, and the workman perceives there
is metal enough on the pipe, he claps his mouth im¬
mediately to the other end of it, and blows gently
through the iron tube, till the metal lengthens like a
bladder about a foot. Then he rolls it on a marble
ftone a little while to polifh it j and blows a fecond
time, by which he brings it to the fliape of a globe of
about 18 or 20 inches diameter. Every time he blows
into the pipe, he removes it quickly to his cheek ;
otherwife he would be in danger, by often blowing, of
drawing the flame into his mouth : and this globe may
be flattened by returning it to the firej and brought
into any form by damp irons, which are always ready.
When the glafs is thus blown, it is cutoff at the collet
or neck ; which is the narrow part that ftuck to the
iron. The method of performing this is as follows :
the pipe is refted on an iron bar, clofe by the collet •,
then a drop of cold water being laid on the collet, it
will crack about a quarter of an inch, which, with a
flight blow or cut of the fhears will immediately fepa-
rate the collet.
After this is done, the operator dips the iron rod
into the melting pot, by which he extrafts as much
metal as ferves to attraft the glafs he has made, to
which he now fixes this rod at the bottom of his work,
oppofite to the opening made by the breaking of the
collet. In this pofition the glafs is carried to the great
bocca or mouth of the oven, to be heated and fcald-
ed j by which means it is again put into fuch a foft
Hate, that, by the help of an iron inftrument, it can
be pierced, opened, and widened, without breaking.
But the veffel is not finifhed till it is returned to the
great bocca ; where being again heated thoroughly,
and turned quickly about with a circular motion, it
will open to any fize, by the means of the heat and
motion.
If there remain any fuperfluities, they are cut off
with the fhears ; for till the glafs is cool, it remains in a
foft flexible ftate. It is therefore taken from the bocca,
51 ] G L A
and carried to an earthen bench, covered with brands, Glafs.
which are coals e.xtinguifhed, keeping it turning j be- v—“
caufe that motion prevents any fettling, and preferves
an evennefs in the face of the glafs, where, as it cools,
it comes to its confiflency j being firft cleared from
the iron rod by a flight ftroke by the hand of the work¬
man.
If the veffel conceived in the workman’s mind, and
whofe body is already made, requires a foot, or a han¬
dle, or any other member or decoration, he makes them
feparately; and now effays to join them with the help
of hot metal, which he takes out of the pots with his
iion rod . but the glafs is not brought to its true hard-
neis till it has palled the leer or annealing oven, deferib-
ed before.
II. Working or blowing of Window or Table GLASS.
The method of working round glafs, or vcffels of any
fort, is in every particular applicable to the working of
window or table glafs, till the blowing iron has been
dipt the fourth time. But then inftead of rounding it,
the workman blows, and fo manages the metal upon the
iron plate, that it extends two or three feet in the form
of a cylinder. This cylinder is put again to the fire,
and blown a fecond time, and is thus repeated till it is
extended to the dimenfions required, the fide to which
the pipe is fixed diminiihing gradually till it ends in a
pyramidal form 5 fo that, to bring both ends nearly to
the fame diameter, while the glafs is thus flexible, he
adds a little hot metal to the end oppoflte the pipe, and
draws it out w ith a pair of iron pincers, and immediate¬
ly cuts off the fame end with the help of a little, cold
water as before.
The cylinder being now open at one end, is carried
back to the bocca 5 and there, by the help of cold wra-
ter, it is cut about eight or ten inches from the iron
pipe or rod ; and the whole length at another place, by
which alfo it is cut off from the iron rod. Then it is
heated gradually on an earthen table, by which it opens
in length j while the workman, with an iron tool, al¬
ternately lowers and raifes the two halves of the cylin¬
der j which at lafl; will open like a fheet of paper, and
fall into the fame flat form in which it ferves for ufe $
in which it is preferved by heating it over again, cool¬
ing it on a table of copper, and hardening it 24 hours
in the annealing furnace, to which it is carried upon
forks. In this furnace an hundred tables of glafs may
lie at a time, without injury to each other, by feparat-
ing them into tents, with an iron Ihiver between, w hich
diminifhes the weight by dividing it, and keeps the-
tables flat and even..
Of window or table glafs there are various forts,
made in different places, for the ufe of building. Thofe
molt known among us are given us by the author of the
Builder’s Diftionary, as folknvs :
I . Crown, of which, fays Neri, there are two kinds,
diftinguiflied by the places where they are wrought j viz.
Ratcliff crown glafs, which is the belt and clearelt, and
w as firft made at the Bear garden, on the Bankfide,
Southwark, but fince at Ratcliff : of this there are 24
tables to the cafe, the tables being of a circular form
about three feet fix inches in diameter. The other kind,
or Lambeth crown glafs, is of a daiker colour than the
former, and more inclining to green.
The beft window or crown glafs is made of white
fand 60 pounds, of purified pearl alhes 30 pounds, of
fcfltpelre
G L A [ 75
faltpetre 15 pounds, of borax one pound, and of arfe-
nic half a pound. If the glafs fttould prove yellow,
magnefia muft be added. A cheaper conipofition for
window glafs confifts of 60 pounds of white fand, 25
pounds of unpurified pearl allies, 10 pounds of common
fait, 5 pounds of nitre, 2 pounds of arfenic, and one
ounce and a half of magnefia. The common or green
window glafs is eompoftd of 60 pounds of white fand,
30 pounds of unpurified pearl alhes, 10 pounds of com¬
mon fait, 2 pounds of arfenic, and 2 ounces of magne¬
fia. But a cheaper compofition for this purpofe con-
fifts of 120 pounds, of the cheapeft white fand, 30
pounds of unpurified pearl alhes, 60 pounds of wood
alhes, well burnt and fifted, 20 pounds of common fait,
and 5 pounds of arfenic.
2. French glafs, called alfo Normandy glafs, and for¬
merly Lorraine glafs, becaufe made in thofe provinces.
At prefent it is made wholly in the nine glafs works j
five whereof are in the forell of Lyons, four in the
county of Eu} the lalt at Beaumont near Rouen. It
is of a thinner kind than our crown glafs j and when
laid on a piece of white paper, appears of a dirtyilh
green colour. There are but 23 tables of this to the
cafe.
3. German glafs is of two kinds, the white and the
green: the firlt is of a whitilli colour, but is fubjedl to
thofe fmall curved ftreaks obferved in our Newcaftle
glafs, though free from the fpots and blemilhes thereof.
The green, befides its colour, is liable to the. fame
ftreaks as the white •, but both of them are ftraighter
and lefs warped than our Newcaftle glafs.
4. Dutch glafs is not mucli unlike our Newcaftle
glafs either in colour or price. It is frequently much
warped like that, and the tables are but fmall.
5. Newcafle glafs is that moft ufed in England. It
is of an afh colour, and muchiubjedt to fpecks, ftieaks,
and other blemifhes j and befides is frequently warp¬
ed. Leybourn fays, there are 45 tables to the cafe,
each containing five fuperficial feetfome fay there
are but 35 tables, and fix feet in each table.
6. Phial glafs is a kind betwixt the .flint glafs and
the common bottle or green glafs. I he beft kind
may be prepared with 120 pounds of white fand, 3®
pounds of unpurified pearl allies, 10 pounds of com¬
mon fait, 3 pounds of arfenic, and 3 ounces of .magne¬
fia. The compofition for green or common phial glafs
confifts of 120 pounds of the cheapeft white fand, 80
pounds of wood alhes well burnt and fitted, 20 pounds
of pearl allies, 13 pounds of common fait, and I pound
fcf arfenic.
The common bottle or green is formed of fand of
any kind fluxed by the allies of burnt wood, or of any
parts of vegetables} to which may be added \\\.^ fcorice
or clinkers of forges. W hen the fofteft land is ufed,
200 pounds of wood alhes will futfice for 100 pounds
of fand, which are to be ground and mixed together.
The compofition with the clinkers confifts of 170
pounds of wood alhes, 100 pounds of fand, and 3^
pounds of clinkers or fcorue* which are to be ground
and mixed together. If the clinkers cannot be ground,
thev muft be broke into fmall pieces, and mixed with
the other matter without any grinding.
HIt IVorbng of P ’ctie Mirror GLASS* !• The
materials of which this glafs is made are much the
2 ] G L A
fame as thofe of. other works of glafs, viz. an alkali, Glah.
fait and fand. * v—
The fait, however, Ihould not be that extraifted from
polverine or the allies of the Syrian kali, but that from
BARILLA, growing about Alicant in Spain. It is very
rare that we can have the barilla pure ; the Spaniards
in burning the herb make a practice of mixing another
herb along with it, which alters its quality ; or of
adding fand to it to increafe the weight, which ia
eafily difcovered if the addition be only made after
the boiling of the allies, but next to impoflible if made,
in the boiling. It is from this adulteration that thofe
threads and other defetts in plate glafs arife. To
prepare the fait, they clean it well of all foreign mat¬
ters ; pound or grind it with a kind of mill, and finally
fift it pretty fine.
Pearl afhes, properly purified, w ill furnilli the alkali
fait requifite for this purpofe j but it will be neceffary
to add borax or common fait, in order to facilitate the
fufion, and prevent the glafs from ftiffening in that
degree of heat in which it is to be wrought into plates..
For purifying the pearl afhes, diflolve them in four
times their weight of boiling water, in a pot of caft
iron, always kept clean from ruft. Let the folution
be removed into a clean tub, and remain there 24 hours
or longer. Having decanted the clear part of the
fluid from the dregs or fediment, put it again in the
iron pot, and evaporate the water till the falts are left
perfe&ly dry. Preferve them in ftone jars, well fecu-
red from air and moifture.
Pearl afhes may alfo be purified in the higheft de¬
gree, fo as to be proper for the manufaflure of the.
moft; tranfparent glafs, by pulverizing three pounds of
the beft pearl allies with fix ounces of faltpetre in a
glafs or marble mortar, till they are well mixed ; and
then putting part of the mixture into a large crucible,
and expofing it in a furnace to a ftrong heat. When
this is red hot, throw in the reft gradually ; and when
the whole is red hot, pour it out on a moiftened ftone
or marble, and put it into an earthen or clean iron pot,
with ten pints of water; heat it over the fire till
the falts be entirely melted ; let it then ftand to cool,
and filter it through paper in a pewter cullender. W:hen
it is filtered, put the fluid again into the pot, and eva¬
porate the fait to drynefs, which will then be as white
as fnow •, the nitre having burnt all the phlogiftic mat¬
ter that remained in the pearl allies after their former
calcination.
As to the fand, it is to be fifted and wafhed till
fuch time as the water come off very clear ; and when
it is well dried again, they mix it with the fait, puf¬
fing the mixture through another fieve. This done,
they lay them in the annealing furnace for about two
hours j in whifh time the matter becomes very light
and white: in this flate they are called/rr> oxfriita;
and are to be laid up in a dry clean place, to give
them time to incorporate : they lie here for at leaf! a
year.
When they would employ this frit, they lay it for
fome hours in the furnace, adding to fome the frag¬
ments or fhards of old and ill made glaffes; taking
care firft to calcine the fhards by heating them red
hot in the furnace, and thus cafting them into cold
water. To the mixture muft; likewife be adu-
ed
/
GUIs.
G L A
ed manganefe, to promote the fufion
tion.
The beft compofition for looking glafs plates confifts
of 60 pounds of white fand cleanfed, 25 pounds of
purified pearl aihes, 15 pounds of faltpetre, and 7
pounds of borax. If a yellow tinge ftiould aft'edt the
glafs, a fmall proportion of magnefia, mixed with an
equal quantity of arfenic, fliould be added. An ounce
of the magnefia may be firft tried 5 and if this proves
infufhcient, the quantity Ihould be increafed.
A cheaper compofition for looking glafs plate con¬
fifts of 60 pounds of the white fand, 20 pounds of
pearl afkes, 10 pounds of common fait, 7 pounds of
nitre, 2 pounds of arfenic, and 1 pound of borax. The
matter of which the glaffes are made at the famous
manufafture of St Gobin in France, is a compofition
of folder and of a very white fand, which are carefully
cleaned of all heterogeneous bodies ; afterwards wafh-
ed for feveral times, and dried fo as to be pulverized
in a mill, confifting of many peftles, which are moved
by horfes. When this is done, the fand is fifted through
filk fieves and dried.
The matter thus far prepared is equally fit for plate
glafs, to be formed either for blowing or by calling.
The largeft glaifes at St Gobin are run $ the middle
fized and fmall ones are blown.
2. Blowing the plates. The workhoufes, furnaces,
&c. ufed in the making of this kind of plate glafe, are
the fame, except that they are fmaller, and that the
’carquahTes are difpofed in a large covered gallery, over
againft the furnace, as thofe in the following article, to
'which the reader is referred.
After the materials are vitrified by the heat of the
fire, and the glafs is fufficiently refined, the workman
dips in his blowing iron, fix feet long, and two inches
in diameter, Iharpened at the end which is put in the
mouth, and widened at the other, that the matter may
adhere to it. By this means he takes up a fmall ball
«f matter, which fticks to the end of the tube by con-
-ftantly turning it. He then blows into the tube, that
the air may fwell the annexed ball $ and carrying it
over a bucket of wrater, which is placed on a fupport
at the height of about f< ur feet, he fprinkles the end
of the tube to which the matter adheres, with water,
ftill turning it, that by this cooling the matter may
coalefce with the tube, and be fit for fuftaining a
greater weight. He dips the tube again into the fame
pot, and proceeds as before j and dipping it into the pot
a third time, he takes it out, loaded with matter, in
the ftiape of a pear, about ten inches in diameter, and
a foot long, and cools it at the bucket 5 at the fame
time blowing into the tube, and with the afliftance of
a labourer, giving it a balancing motion, he caufes the
matter to lengthen *, which, by repeating this opera¬
tion feveral times, affumes the form of a cylinder, ter¬
minating like a ball at the bottom, and in a point at
the top. The affiftant is then placed on a ftool three
feet and a half high ; and on this ftool there are two
upright pieces of timber, with a crofs beam of the
fame, for fupporting the glafs and tube, which are
kept in an oblique pofition by the affiftant, that the
mafter workman may with a puncheon fet in a wooden
handle, and with a mallet, make a hole in the mafs :
this hole is drilled at the centre of the ball that termi¬
nates the cylinder, and is about an inch in diameter,
Vol. IX. Part II.
E 753 1 . . G L A
and purifica- When the glafs is pierced, the defe6ts of it are per-
ceived ; if it is tolerably perfeft, the workman lays '
the tube horizontally on a little iron treffel, placed on
the fupport of the aperture of the furnace. Having
expofed it to the heat for about half a quarter of an
hour, he takes it away, and with a pair of long and
broad (hears, extremely (harp at the end, widens the
glafs, by infinuating the (hears into the hole made
wdth the puncheon, whilft the affiftant, mounted on the
ftool, turns it round, till at laft the opening is fo large
as to make a perfecl cylinder at bottom. When this
is done, the workman lays his glafs upon the treflels
at the mouth of the furnace to heat it : he then gives
it to his affiftant on the ftool, and with large (hears
cuts the mafs of matter up to half its height. There
is at the mouth of the furnace an iron tool called pontiff
which is now heating, that it may unite and coalefce
with the glafs juft cut, and perform the office which
the tube did before it was fcparated from the glafs.
This pontil is a piece of iron fix feet long, and in the
form of a cane or tube, having at the end of it a fmall
iron bar, a foot long, laid equally upon the long one,
and making with it a T. This little bar is full of the
matter of the glafs, about four inches thick. This
red hot pontil is prefented to the diameter of the
glafs, which coalefces immediately with the matter
round the pontil, fo as to fupport the glafs for the
follow ing operation. When this is done, they fepa-
rate the tube from the glafs, by ftriking a few blows
with a chifiel upon the end of the tube which has been
cooled ; fo that the glafs breaks dire<ftly, and makes
this feparation, the tube being difcharged of the glafs
now adhering to the pontil. They next prefent to the
furnace the pontil of the glafs, laying it on the treffel
to heat, and redden the end ot the glafs, that the
workman may open it with his (h- ais, as he has al¬
ready opened one end of it, to complete the cylinder j
the affiftant holding it on his ftool as before. For the
laft time, they put the pontil on the treffel, that the
glafs may become red hot, and the workman cuts it
quite open with his (hears, right over againft the fore-
mentioned cut j this he does as before, taking care that
both cuts are in the fame line. In the mean time,
the man who looks after the carquaifles comes to re¬
ceive the glafs upon an iron (hovel two feet and a
half long without the handle, and two feet wide, with
a fmall border of an inch and a half to the right and
left, and towards the handle of the (hovel. Upon
this the glafs is laid, flattening it a little with a fmall
ftick a foot and a half long, fo that the cut of the
glafs is turned upwards. They feparate the glafs from
the psntil, by ftriking a few gentle blows between the
two with a chiffel. The glais is then removed to the
mouth of the hot carquaifle, where it becomes red hot
gradually ; the workman, wdth an iron tool fix feet
long, and widened at the end in form of a club at cards
four inches long, and two inches wide on each fide,
very flat, and not half an inch thick, gradually lifts
up the cut part of the glafs to unfold it out of its form
of a flattened cylinder, and render it fmooth, by turn¬
ing it down upon the hearth of the carquaifle. The
tool already defcribed being infinuated within the cy¬
linder, performs this operation by being pu(hed hard
againft all the parts of the glafs. When the glafs is thus
made quite fmooth, it is puihed to the bottom of the
5 C carquaifle
Giafs.
G L A [ 754 ] G L A
t carquaiffe or annealing furnace with a finall iron raker,
' v and ranged there with a little iron hook. When the
carquaiffe is full, it is flopped and cemented as in the
cafe of run glaffes, and the glafs remains there for a
fortnight to be annealed j after which time they are
taken out to be poliihed. A workman can make but
one glafs in an hour, and he works and refts for fix
hours alternately.
Such w as the method formerly made ufe of for blowr-
ing plate glafs, looking glaffes, &c.; but the work¬
men, by this method, could never exceed 50 inches in
length, and a proportional breadth, becaufe what were
larger were always found to warp, which prevented
them from refle&ing the objects regularly, and wanted
fubftance to bear the neceflary grinding. Thefe im¬
perfections have been remedied by the following inven¬
tion of the Sieur Abraham Thevart, in France, about
the year 1688.
3. CaJHng or Running of Large Mirror GLASS P/aies.
The furnace is of a very large dimenfion, environed
CCXLVII feveral ovens, or annealing furnaces, called car-
t)j> 2 9ua!l/fsi befides others for making of frit and calcining
old pieces of glafs. This furnace, before it is fit to run
glafs, cofls 35C0I. It feldom lafts above three years,
and even in that time it muft be refitted every fix
months. It takes fix months to rebuild it, and three •
months to refit it. The melting pots are as big as
large hoglheads, and contain about 2000 weight of me¬
tal. If one of them burfts in the furnace, the lofs of
the matter and time amounts to 250I. The materials
in thefe pots are the fame as defcribed before. When
the furnace is red hot, thefe materials are put in at
three different times, becaufe that helps the fufion ; and
in 24 hours they are vitrified, refined, fettled, and fit for
cafiing. A is the bocca, or mouth of the furnace B
is the ciftern that cenveys the liquid glafs it receives
out of the melting pots in the furnace to the cafting
table. Thefe cifterns are filled in the furnace, and re¬
main therein fix hours after they are filled 5 and then
are hooked out by the means of a large iron chain,
guided by a pulley, placed upon a carriage with four
wheels marked C, by two men. This carriage has no
middle piece j fo that when it has brought the ciftern
to the catling table D, they flip off the bottom of the
ciftern, and out ruflies a torrent of flaming matter upon
the table : this matter is confined to certain dimenfions
by the iron rulers EE, which are moveable, retain the
fluid matter, and determine the width of the glafs ;
while a man, with the roller F refting on the edge of
the iron rulers, reduceth it as it cools to an equal thick-
nefs, which is done in the fpace of a minute. This ta¬
ble is fupported on a wooden frame, with truftles for the
convenience of moving to the annealing furnace ; into
which, itrewed with land, the new plate is ihoved, where
it will harden in about 10 days.
What is moft furprifing throughout the whole of this
operation, is the quicknefs and addrefs wherewith fuch
maffy cifterns, filled with a flaming matter, are taken
out of the furnace, conveyed to the table, and poured
therein, the glafs fpread, &c. The whole is incon¬
ceivable to fuch as have not been eye witneffes of that
furprifing manufacture.
As faft as the cifterns are emptied, they carry them
back to the furnace and take frefh ones, which they
empty as before. Thus they continue to do fo long a?
there are any full cifterns j laying as many plates in Glafs.
each carquaiffe as it will hold, and flopping them up
with doors of baked earth, and every chink with ce¬
ment, as foon as they are full, to let them anneal, and
cool again, which requires about 14 days.
The firft running being difpatched, they prepare an¬
other, by filling the eifterns anew from the matter in
the - pots ; and after the fecond, a third ; and even a
fourth time, till the melting pots are quite empty.
The cifterns at each running fhould remain at leaft
fix hours in the furnace to whiten j and when the firft
annealing furnace is full, the carting table is to be car¬
ried to another. It need not here be obferved, that
the carquaiffes, or annealing furnaces, muft: firft have
been heated to the degree proper for them. It may
be obferved, that the oven full, or the quantity of mat¬
ter commonly prepared, fupplies the running of 18
glaffes, which is performed in 18 hours, being an hour
for each glafs. The workmen work fix hours, and are
then relieved by others.
When the pots are emptied, they take them out, as
well as the cifterns, to ferape off what glafs remains,
which otherwife would grow green by continuance of
fire, and fpoil the glaffes. They are not filled again in
lefs than 36 hours j fo that they put the matter into the
furnace, and begin to run it every 54 hours.
The manner of heating the large furnaces is very
Angular 5 the two tifors, or perfons employed for that
purpofe, in their ihirts, run fwiftly round the furnace
without making the leaft flop: as they run along, they
take two billets, or pieces of wood, which are cut for
the purpofe : thefe they throw into the firft tiffart j
and continuing their courfe, do the fame for the fecond.
This they hold without interruption for fix hours fuc-
ceffively } after which they are relieved by others, 8ic.
It is furprifing that two fuch fmall pieces of wrood,
and which are confumed in an inftant, ftiould keep the
furnace to the proper degree of heat } which is fuch,
that a large bar of iron, laid at one of the mouths of
the furnace, becomes red hut in lefs than half a mi¬
nute.
The glafs, when taken out of the melting furnace,
needs nothing farther but tu be ground, polilhed, and
foliated.
4. Grinding and Polijhing of Plate GLASS. Glafs is
made tranfparent by fire ; but it receives its luftre by
the fkill and labour of the grinder and polifiier; the
former of whom takes it rough out of the hands of the
maker.
In order to grind plate glafs, they lay it horizontal¬
ly upon a flat ftone table made of a very fine grained
freeftune ; and for its greater fecurity they plafter it
down with lime or ftucco } for otherwife the force of
the workmen, or the motion of the wheel with which
they grind it, would move it about.
This ftone table is fuppcrttd by a ftrong frame A,
made of wood, with a ledge quite round its edges, ri¬
ling about two inches higher than the glafs. Upon this
glafs to be ground is laid another rough glafs not above
half fo big, and fo loofe as to Hide upon it 5 but ce¬
mented to a wooden plank, to guard it from the injury
it muft otherwife receive from the feraping of the
vheel to which this' plank is fattened, and from the
weights laid upon it to promote the grinding or tnture
of the glaffes. The whole is covered with a wheel B, :t*fi
made ‘0'
GLASS
PLATE CCXLVII
FURNACE FOR ARTIFICIAL GEMS.
1 BLOWING.
FURNACE FOR ARTIFICIAL GEMS.
fonm th Fruynortl by
fP&jP.fizanr fdznfru/yA.
G L A [?5
Glafs. made of hard light wood, about fix inches in diameter,
by pulling of which backwards and forwards alternate¬
ly, and fometimes turning it round, the workmen,
who always (land oppofite to each other, produce a
conftant attrition between the two glaffes, and bring
them to what degree of fmoothnefs they pleafe, by firtt
pouring in water and coarfe fand j after that, a finer
fort of fand, as the work advanceth, till at laft they
muft pour in the pow der of fmalt. As the upper or in¬
cumbent glafs polithes and groAvs fmoother, it muft be
taken away, and another from time to time put in its
place.
This engine is called a mi// by the artifts, and is ufed
only in the largeft fized glaffes; for in the grinding of
the leffer glaffes, they are content to work Avithout a
wheel, and to have only four wooden handles fattened
to the four corners of the ftone which loads the upper
plank, by Avhich they Avork it about.
When the grinder has done his part, Avho finds it very
difficult to bring the glafs to an exaft plainnefs, it is
turned over to the polither j who, with the fine powder
of tripoli ftone or emery, brings it to a perfeft evennefs
and luftre. The inftrument made ufe of in this branch
is a board, cc, furniftied w ith a felt, and a fmall roller,
which the workman moves by means of a double handle
at both ends. The artift, in working this roller, is af-
fifted with a wooden hoop or fpring, to the end of which
it is fixed : for the fpring, by conftantly bringing the
roller back to the fame points, facilitates the adftion of
» the workman’s arm.
Colouring of GLASS. That the colours given to glafs
may haAre their full beauty, it muft be obferved, that
every pot when new, and firft ufed, leaves a foulnefs
in the glafs from its owm earthy parts j fo that a co¬
loured glafs made in a new pot can never be bright or
perfeftly fine. For this reafon, the larger of thefe,
when new, may be glazed Avith Avhite glafs ; but the
fecond time of ufing the pots lofe this foulnefs. The
glazing may be done by reducing the glafs to powder,
and moiftening the infide of the pot w ith water ; while
it is yet moift, put in fome of the poAvdered glafs, and
fhake it about, till the whole inner furface of the pot
be covered by as much as will adhere to it, in confe-
quence of the moirture. ThroAV out the redundant part
of the poAvdered glafs; and the pot being dry, fet it
in a furnace fufficiently hot to vitrify the glafs adhering
to it, and let it continue there fome time ; after which,
care muft be taken to let it cool gradually. Thofe
pots which have ferved for one colour muft not be ufed
for another ; for the remainder of the old matter will
fpoil the colour of the new. The colours muft be very
carefully calcined to a proper degree j for if they are
calcined either too much or too little, they never do
well; the proper proportion, as to quantity, muft alfo
carefully be regarded, and the furnaces muft be fed Avith
dry hard Avood. And all the proceffts fucceed much
the better if the colour be ufed dividedly, that is, a part
of it in the frit, and the reft in the melted metal.
A hard glafs, proper for receiving colours, may be
prepared by pulverizing 12 pounds ef the beft fand,
cleanfed by waffling in a glafs or flint mortar, and mix¬
ing feven pounds of pearl allies or any fixed alkaline
fait purified with nitre, one pound of faltpetre, and
half a pound of borax, and pounding them together.
A glafs lefs hard may be prepared of twelve pounds
5 ] G L A
of white fand cleanfed, feven pounds of pearl allies pu¬
rified w ith faltpetre, one pound .of nitre, half a pound
of borax, and four ounces of arfenic prepared as be¬
fore.
Amethyjl colour. See Fur pie beloAv, and the article
Amethyst.
Balas colour. Put into a potcryftal frit, thrice Avafh-
ed in water ; tinge this Avith manganefe, prepared into
a clear purple ; to this add alumen cativum, lifted fine,
in fmall quantities, and at feveral times : this will make
the glafs grow yellowifti, and a little reddifti, but not
blackilh, and always diffipates the manganefe. The
laft time you add manganefe give no more of the alu¬
men cativum, unlefs the colour be too full. Thus wdll
the glafs be exactly of the colour of the balas ruby.
See Ruby GLASS.
The common black colour. The glafsmakers take old
broken glafs of different colours, grind it to powder,
and add to it, by different parcels, a fufticient quantity
of a mixture of two parts zaffer and one part man¬
ganefe : Avhen well purified, they work it into vef-
lels, &c.
Glafs beads are coloured with manganefe only.
Black velvet colour. To give this deep and fine colour
to glafs, take of cryftalline and pulverine frit, of each
20 pounds $ of calx of lead and tin, four pounds j fet
all together in a pot in the furnace, well heated ; aa hen
the glafs is formed and pure, take fteel well calcined
and poAvdered, fcales of iron that fly off from the
fmith’s anvil, of each an equal quantity j powder and
mix them well j then put fix ounces of this pow der to
the above-defcribed metal Avhile in fufion : mix the
whole thoroughly together, and let them all boil ftrong-
ly together 5 then let it ftand in fufion 12 hours to pu¬
rify, and after this Avork it. It will be a moft elegant
velvet black.
There is another way of doing this, which alfo pro¬
duces a very fair black. It is this ; take a hundred
weight of rochetta frit, add to this two pounds of tar¬
tar and fix pounds of manganefe, both in fine poAvder ;
mix them Avell 5 and put them to the metal while in
fufion, at different times, in feveral parcels j let it
ftand in fufion after this for four days, and then Avoik
it.
A glafs perfedlly black may alfo be formed by add¬
ing to ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard
glafs above defcribed, one ounce of zaffer, fix drachms
of manganefe, and an equal quantity of iron ftrongly
calcined.
Blue colour. A full blue may be made by adding
fix drachms of zaffer and two drachms of manganefe to
ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard glafs,
defcribed above. For a very cool or pure blue glafs,
half an ounce of calcined copper maybe ufed inftead of
the manganefe, and the proportion of zaffer diminiftied
by one half. Glafs refembling fapphire may be made
Avith ten pounds of either -of the compofitions for hard
glafs, three drachms and one fcruple of zaffer, and one
drachm of the calx cajjh or precipitation of gold by tin j
or, inftead of this latter ingredient, two drachms and two
fcruples of manganefe. Or a fapphire-coloured glafs
may be made by mixing with any quantity of the hard
glafs one-eighth of its weight of fmalt. A beautiful
blue glafs is alio produced from the oxide of cobalt.
Venetian brown, with gold fpangles, commonly called
5 C 2 the
Glafs.
G L A
the philofopher1 s Jlone, may be prepared in the following
manner: take of the fecond compofition for hard glais
above defcribed, and of the eompofition for pafte, of
each five pounds, and of highly calcined iron an ounce 5
mix them well, and fufe them till the iron be perfeftly
vitrified, and has tinged the glafs of a deep tranfparent
yellow brown colour. Powder this glafs, and add to
it two pounds of powdered glafs of antimony ; grind
them together, and thus mix them well. Take part
of this mixture, and rub into it 80 or too leaves of the
counterfeit leaf gold called Dutch gold; and when
the parts of the gold feem lufficiently divided, mix the
powder containing it with the other part of the glafs.
Fufe the whole with a moderate heat till the powder
run into a yitreous mafs, fit to be wrought into any of
the figures or veffels into which it is ufually formed j
but avoid a perfeft liquefaflion, becaufe that in a
fliort time deftroys the equal ditfufion of the fpangles,
and vitrifies, at lead in part, the matter of which they
are compofed ; converting the whole into a kind of
tranfparent olive-coloured glafs. This kind of glafs
is ufed for a great variety of toys and ornaments
with us, who at prefent procure it from the Vene¬
tians.
Chalcedony. A mixture of feveral ingredients with
the common matter of glafs, will make it reprefent the
femi-opake gems, the jafpers, agates, chalcedonies, &c.
The way of making thefe feems to be the fame
with the method of making marbled paper, by feveral
colours diflblved in feveral liquors, which are fuch as
will not readily mix with one another when put in¬
to water, before they are call upon the paper which
is to be coloured. There are feveral ways of making
thefe varioufly coloured glaffes, but the belt is the fol¬
lowing.
Diflblve four ounces of fine leaf filver in a glafs vef-
fel in itrong aquafortis j flop up the veffel, and fet it
afide.—In another vefftl, diflblve five dunces of quick-
filver in a pound of aquafortis, and fet this afide.-—
In another glafs veflel, diflblve in a pound of aquafortis
three ounces of fine filver, firft calcined in this manner :
amalgamate the filver with mercury, mix the amal¬
gam with twice its weight of common fait well puri¬
fied 5 put the mixture in an open fire in a crucible, that
the mercury may fly off, and the filver be left in form
of powder. Mix this powder with an equal quantity
of common fait well purified, and calcine this for fix
hours in a ftrong fire j when cold, wafh off the fait by
repeated boilings in common water, and then put the
filver into the aquafortis. Set this folution alfo afide.
—In another vtflel, diffolve in a pound of aquafortis
three ounces of fal ammoniac \ pour oft the folution and
diflblve in it a quarter of an ounce of gold. Set this
alfo afide.—In another veflel, diffolve three ounces of
fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis \ then put into
the folution cinnabar, crocus martis, ultramarine, and
ferretto of Spain, of each half an ounce. Set this alfo
afide.—In another veffel, diflblve in a pound of. aqua¬
fortis three ounces of fal ammoniac } then put into it
crocus martis made with vinegar, calcined tin, zaffer,
and cinnabar, of each half an ounce \ let each of thefe
be powdered very fine, and put gently into the aqua¬
fortis. Set this alfo afide.—In another veffel, diflblye
three ounces of fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis,
«nd add to it brafs calcined with brimftone, brafe thrice
G L A
calcined, manganefe, and fcales of iron which fall from Glafs.
the fmith’s anvil, of each half an ounce j let each be '“V"
well powdered, and put gently into the veffel. Then
fet this alfo afide.—In another veffel, diffolve two oun¬
ces of fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis, and put
to it verdigrife an ounce, red lead, crude antimony,
and the caput mortuum of vitriol, of each half an
ounce; put thefe well powdered leifurely into the vef¬
fel, and fet this alfo afide.—In another veflel, diffolve
two ounces of fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis,
and add orpiment, white arfenic, painters lake, of each
half an ounce.
Keep the above nine veffels in a moderate heat for
15 days, fhaking them well at times. After this pour
all the matters from thefe veffels into one large vtffel,
well luted at its bottom ; let this Hand fix days, ftiaking
it at times ; and then fet it in a very gentle heat, and
evaporate all the liquor, and there will remain a powder
of a purplifh green..
When this is to be wrought, put into a pot very,
clear metal, made of broken cryftalline and white glafs
that has been ufed } for with the virgin frit, or fuch
as has never been wrought, the chalcedony can never
be made, as the colours do not flick to it, but are
confumed by the frit. 1 o every pot of 20 pounds of
this metal put two or three ounces of this powder at
three feveral times; incorporate the powder well v ith.
the glafs } and let it remain an hour between each time
of putting in the powders. After all are in, let it
Hand 24 hours j then let the glafs be well mixed, and
take an affay of it, which will be found of a yellowifh
blue j return this many times into the furnace 5 when
it begins to grow cold, it will fliow' many waves of dif¬
ferent colours very beautifully. 1 hen take tartar eight
ounces, foot of the chimney two ounces, crocus mar¬
tis made with brimftone, half an ounce j let thefe be
well powdered and mixed, and put them by degrees
into the glafs at fix times, waiting a little while be¬
tween each putting in. When the whole is put in, let
the glafs boil and fettle for 24 hours ; then make a
little glafs body of it $ which put in the furnace many
times, and fee if the glafs be enough, and whether it
have on the outfide veins of blue, green, red, yellow,
and other colours, and have, befide thefe veins, waves¬
like thofe of the chalcedonies, jafpers, and oriental
agates, and if the body kept within looks as red as
fire. .
When it is found to anfwer this, it is perfect, and
may be worked into toys and veffels, which will always
be beautifully variegated $ thefe muft be wTell annealed,
which adds much to the beauty of their veins. Malles
of this may be poliflied at the lapidary’s wheel as natu¬
ral ftones, and appear very beautiful. If in the work¬
ing the matter grow tranfparent, the work mull be
flopped, and more tartar, foot, and crocus martis, muft
be put to it, which will give it again the neceflary body
and opacity, without which it does not ftiow the co¬
lours well. .
Chryfolite colour may be made of ten pounds of either
of the compofitions for hard glafs defcribed above, and
fix drachms of calcined iron.
Red cornelian colour may be formed by adding one
pound of glafs of antimony, two ounces of the calcin¬
ed vitriol called fcarlet ochre, and one drachm of manga¬
nefe or magnefia, to two pounds of either of the com¬
pofitions
[ 756 ]
G L A
[ 757 1
G L A
©lafs. pofitions for hard glafs. The glafs of antimony and
  ' rnagnefia are firft fufed with the other glafs, and then
powdered and ground with the fcarlet ochre : the whole
mixture is afterwards fufed with a gentle heat till all
the ingredients are incorporated. A glafs refethbling
the white cornelian may be made of two pounds of ei¬
ther of the compofitions for hard glafs, and two drachms
of yellow ochre well walhed, and one ounce of calcined
bones : grind them together, and fufe them with a gen¬
tle heat.
Emerald colour. See Green below.
Garnet colour. To give this colour to glafs, the work¬
men take the following method. They take equal
quantities of cryftal and rochetta frit, and to every
hundred weight of this mixture they add a pound of
manganefe and an ounce of prepared zaffer : thefe are
to be powdered feparately, then mixed and added by
degrees to the frit while in the furnace. Great care is
to be taken to mix the manganefe and zaffer very per-
fettly ; and when the matter has flood 24 hours in fufion,
it may be worked.
Glafs of this kind may be made by adding one pound
of glafs of antimony, one drachm of manganefe, and the
fame quantity of the precipitate of gold by tin, to
two pounds of either of the compofitions for hard
glafs 5 or the precipitate of gold may be omitted, if the
quantities of the glafs of antimony and manganefe be
doubled.
Gold colour. This colour may be produced by ta¬
king ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard
glafs, omitting thedaltpetre •, and for every pound add¬
ing an ounce of calcined borax, or, if this quantity doth
not render the glafs fufficiently fufible, two ounces 5 ten
Ounces of red tartar of the deepeft colour 5 twm ounces
of magnefia *, and two drachms of charcoal of fallow,
or awy other foft kind. Precipitates of filver baked on
glafs will ftain it yellow, and likewife give a yellow co¬
lour on being mixed and melted with 40 or 50 times
their weight of vitreous compofitions ; the precipitate
from aquafortis by fixed alkali feems to anfwer beft.
Yellow glaffes may alfo be obtained with certain pre¬
parations of iron, particularly with Pruflian blue. But
Dr Lewis obferves, that the colour does not conftantly
lucceed, nor approach to the high colour of gold, with
filver or with iron. The neareft imitations of gold
which he has been able to produce have been effected
with antimony and lead. Equal parts of the glafs of
antimony, of flint calcined and powdered, and of mi¬
nium, formed a glafs of a high yellow 5 and with two
parts of glafs of antimony, two of minium, and three
of powdered flint, the colour approached ftill more to
that of gold. The laft compofition exhibited a multi¬
tude of fmall fparkles interfperfed throughout its whole
fubftance, which gave it a beautiful appearance in the
mafs, but were really imperfections, owing to air bub¬
bles.
Neri dlreCts, for a gold yellow colour, one part of red
tartar and the fame quantity of manganefe, to be mixed
with a hundred parts of frit. But Kunckel oblerves,
that thefe proportions are faulty $ that one part, or one
and a quarter, of manganefe, is fufficient for a hundred
of frit ; but that fix parts of tartar are hardly enough,
unlefs the tartar is of a dark red colour, almoft blackifti j
and that he found it expedient to add to the tartar
about a fourth of its weight of powdered charcoal. He
adds, that the glafs fwells up very much in melting, and
that it rauft be left unflirred, and worked as it flands in ’
fufion. Mr Samuel More, in repeating and varying
this procefs in order to render the colour more perfeCt,
found that the manganefe is entirely uneflential to the
gold colour 5 and that the tartar is no otherwife of ufa
than in virtue of the coaly matter to which it is in part
reduced by the fire, the phlogifton or inflammable part
of the coal appearing in feveral experiments to be the
direCt tinging fubflance. Mr Pott alfo oblerves, that
common coals give a yellow colour to glafs ; that dif¬
ferent coaly matters differ in their tinging power j that
caput mortuum of foot and lamp black anfwer better
than common charcoal \ and that the fparkling coal,
which remains in the retort after the rectification of the
thick empyreumatic animal oils, is one of the moft ac¬
tive of thefe preparations. This preparation, he fays,
powdered, and then burnt again a little in a clofe veffel^
is excellent for tinging glafs, and gives yellow, brown,
reddiflr, or blackilh colours, according to its quantity j
but the frit muft not be very hard of fufion, for in this
cafe the ftrong fire will deftroy the colouring fub¬
ftance before the glafs melts : and he has found the fol¬
lowing compofition to be nearly the beft j viz. fand
two parts, alkali three parts j or fand two, alkali
three, calcined borax one $ or fand twro, alkali two,
calcined borax one : and though faltpetre is hardly ufed
at all, or very fparingly, for yellow glafles, as it too
much volatilizes the colouring fubftance ; yet here for
the moft part a certain proportion of it, eafily deter¬
mined by trial, is very neceffary $ for without it the
concentrated colouring matter is apt to make the glafs
too dark, and even of an opake pitchy blacknefs. It
does not certainly appear that there is any material di-
verfity in the effeCts of different coals, the difference
being probably owing to the different quantities of the
inflammable matter which they contain j fo that a little
more (hall be required of one kind than of another for
producing the fame degree of colour in the glafs. Nor
does the ibftnefs or fufibility of the frit appear to be in
any refpeft necefiary.
Gold-coloured fpangles may be diffufed through the
fubftance of glafs, by mixing the yellow talcs with pow¬
dered glafs, and bringing the mixture into fufion.
Green. This colour may be imparted to glafs by add¬
ing three ounces of copper precipitated from aquafortis,
and two drachms of precipitated iron, to nine pounds of
either of the compofitions for hard glafs. The finefl:
method of giving this beautiful colour to glafs is this :
Take five pounds of cryftalline metal that has been paf-
fed feveral times through water, and the fame quantity
of the common white metal of polverine, four pounds
of common polverine frit, and three pounds of red
lead j mix the red lead well with the frit, and then
put all into a pot in a furnace. In a few hours the
whole mafs will be well purified : then caft the whole
into water, and feparate and take out the lead ; then
return the metal into the pot, and let it ftand a day long¬
er in fufion 5 then put in the powder of the refiduum
of the vitriol of copper, and a very little crocus martis,
there will be produced a moft lively and elegant green,
fcarce inferior to that of the oriental emerald. There
are many ways of giving a green to glafs, but all are
greatly inferior to this.—To make a fea green, the fineft
cryftalline glafs only muft be ufed, and no manganefe
muft
Glafs.
GUfs.
G L A [758] G L A
mu{t be added at find to the metal. The cryftal frit
muft be melted thus alone $ and the fait, which fwims
like oil on its top, mult be taken off with an iron ladle
very carefully. Then to a pot of twenty pounds of
this metal add fix ounces of calcined braG, and a fourth
part of the quantity of powdered zafter : this powder
muft be well mixed, and put into the glafs at three
times; it will make the metal fwell at firit, and all muft
be thoroughly mixed in the pot. After it has flood in
fufion three hours, take out a little for a proof: if it be
too pale, add more of the powder. Twenty-four hours
after the mixing the powder the w hole will be ready to
work ; but muft be well ftirred together from the bot¬
tom, left the colour Ihould be deepeft there, and the
metal at the top lefs coloured, or even quite colourlefs.
Some ufe for this purpofe half cryftal frit and half ro-
chetta frit, but the colour is much the fineft w'hen all
cryftal frit is ufed.
Lapis lazuli colour. See Lapis LAZULI.
Opal colour. See Opal.
Purple of a deep and bright colour may be produced
by adding to ten pounds of either of the compofitions
for hard glafs, above delcribed, iix drachms of zaffsr and
one drachm of gold precipitated by tin j or to the fame
quantity of either compofition one ounce of manganefe
and half an ounce of zaffer. The colour of amethyft
may be imitated in this way.
Red. A blood-red glafs may be made in the fol¬
lowing manner : Put fix pounds of glafs of lead, and ten
pounds of common glafs, into a pot glazed with white
glafs. When the whole is boiled and refined, add by
fmall quantities, and at fmall diftances of time, copper
calcined to a rednefs as much as on repeated proofs is
found fufficient : then add tartar in powder by fmall
quantities at a time, till the glafs is become as red as
blood } and continue adding one or other of the ingre¬
dients till the colour is quite perfect.
Ruby. The way to give the true fine red of the ruby,
with a fair tranfparence, to glafs, is as follows : Calcine
in earthen veffels gold diffolved in aqua-regia 5 the men-
ftruum being evaporated by diftillation, more aqua-re¬
gia added, and the abftradlion repeated five or fix
times, till it becomes a red powder. This operation
wrill require many days in a hot furnace. When the
powder is of a proper colour, take it out: and when it
is to be ufed, melt the fineft cryftal glafs, and purify it
by often cafting it into water ; and then add, by fmall
quantities, enough of this red powder to give it the true
colour of a ruby, with an elegant and perfedl tranfpa¬
rence.
The procefs of tinging glafs and enamels by prepara¬
tions of gold was firit attempted about the beginning
of the lait century Libavius, in one of his tracts en¬
titled Alchymia, printed in 1606, conjectures that the
colour of the ruby proceeds from gold, and that gold
diffolved and brought to rednefs might be made to
communicate a like colour to factitious gems and glafs.
On this principle Neri, in his Art of Glafs, dated in
1611, gives the procefs above recited. Glauber in 1648
publithed a method of producing a red colour by gold,
in a matter which is of the vitreous kind, though not
perfect glafs. For this purpofe he ground powdered
flint or fand with four times its weight of fixed alkaline
fait : this mixture melts in a moderately ftrong fire,
and when cool looks like glafs, but expofed to the air
runs into a liquid ftate. On adding this liquor tofolu- Glafs.
tion of gold in aqua-regia, the gold and flint precipi-
tate together in form of a yellow- powder, which by
calcination becomes purple. By mixing this powder
with three or four times its weight of the alkaline ib-
lution of flint, drying the mixture, and melting it in a
flrong fire for an hour, a mal's is obtained of a tranfpa-
rent ruby colour and of a vitreous appearance j which
neverthelefs is foluble in water, or by the moifture of
the air, on account of the redundance of the fait. The
Honourable Mr Boyle, in a work publifhed in 1680,
mentions an experiment in which a like colour was in¬
troduced into glals without fufion ; for having kept
a mixture of gold and mercury in digeftion for fome
months, the fire was at laft immoderately increafed, fo
that the glafs burft with a violent explofion j and the
hnver part of the glafs was found tinged throughout of
a tranfparent red colour, hardly to be equalled by that
of rubies.
About the fame time Caffius is faid to have difcover- ,
ed the precipitation of gold by tin, and that glafs
might be tinged of a ruby colour by melting it with
this precipitate j though he does not appear, fays Lis Commerce
Lewis, from his treatife De Auro^ to have been the e/Arj, p,
difcoverer of either. He defcribes the preparation 171> 6*1,
of the precipitate and its ufe 5 but gives no account ^c'
of the manner of employing it, only that he fays one
drachm of gold duly prepared will tinge ten pounds of
glafs.
This procefs w'as foon after brought to perfection by
Kunckel j who fays, that one part of the precipitate is
fufficient to give a ruby colour to 1 280 parts of glafs,
and a fenfible rednefs to upwards of 1900 parts j but
that the fuccefs is by no means conffant.. Kunckel alfo
mentions a purple gold pow der, refembling that of Neri j
which he obtained by infpiffating folution of gold to
drynefs j abftraCting from it freth aqua-regia three or
four times, till the matter appears like oil •, then preci¬
pitating with ftrong alkaline ley, and waffling the preci¬
pitate with water.. By diffolving this powder in fpirit
of fait and precipitating again, it becomes, he fays, ex¬
tremely fair \ and in this ftate he direCls it to be mixed
w ith a due proportion of Venice glafs,
Orfchal, in a treatife entitled Hoifine Ve/le, gives the
following procefs for producing a very fine ruby. He
directs the purple precipitate made by tin to be ground
with fix times its quantity of Venice glafs into a very
fine powder, and this compound to be very carefully
mingled with the frit or vitreous compofition to be
tinged. His frit confifts of equal parts of borax, nitre,
and fixed alkaline fait, and four times as much calcined
flint as of each of the falts ; but he gives no directions
as to the proportion of the gold precipitate or mode of
fufion. Hellot defcribes a preparation, which, mixed
w ith Venice glafs, was found to give a beautiful purple
enamel. This preparation confifts of equal parts of
folution of gold and of folution of zinc in aqua-regia
mixed together, with the addition of a volatile fait pre¬
pared from fal ammoniac by quicklime, in fufficient
quantity to precipitate the two metals. The precipi¬
tate is then gradually heated till it acquires a violet
colour. However, though a purple or red colour, ap¬
proaching to that of ruby, may, by the methods above
recited, be baked on glafs or enamels, and introduced
into the mafs by fufion, the way of equally diffufing
fuch
OLA
Glais. ^fucli a colour through a quantity of fluid glafs is ftill,
y 1J fays Dr Lewis, a fecret. I he following procefs for
making the ruby glafs was communicated to Dr Lewis
by an artift, who afcribed it to Kunckel. The gold
is direfted to be diffolved in a mixture of one part of
fpirit of fait and three of aquafortis, and the tin in a
mixtuie of one part of the former of thefe acids with
twro of the latter. ihe folution of gold being pro¬
perly diluted with w'ater, the folution of tin is added,
and the mixture left to ftand till the purple matter
has fettled to the bottom. The colourlefs liquor is then
poured off, and the purple fediment, while moift and
not very thick, is thoroughly mixed with powdered
flint or fand. This mixture is well ground with pow¬
dered nitre, tartar, borax, and arfenic, and the com¬
pound melted with a fuitable fire. The proportions of
the ingredients are 2560 parts of fand, 384 of nitre,
240 of tartar, 240 of borax, 28 of arfenic, five of tin,
and five of gold.
Topa’z Colour. Glafs refembling this (tone may be
made by pulverizing ten pounds of either of the com-
pofitions for hard glaffes with an equal quantity of the
gold-coloured glafs, and fufing them together.
White opake and. ftruitranfparent glafs may be made of
ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard glafs,
and one pound of well calcined horn, ivory, or bone;
or an opake whitenefs may be given to glafs by adding
one pound of very white arfenic to ten pounds of flint
glafs. Let them be well powdered and mixed by grind¬
ing them together, and then fufed with a moderate heat
till they are thoroughly incorporated. A glafs of this
kind is made in large quantities at a manufactory near
London ; and ufed not only for different kinds of vef-
fels, but as a white ground for enamel in dial plates and
fnufif boxes, which do not require finilhing with much
fire, becaufe it becomes very white and fufible wuth a
moderate heat.
TTellow. See Gold colour above.
Fainting in GLASS. The ancient manner of painting
in glafs was very fimple: it confilted in the mere ar¬
rangement of pieces of glafs of different colours in fome
fort of fymmetry, and conftituted what is now called
mofaic work. See Mosaic.
In procefs of time they came to attempt more regular
defigns, and alfo to reprefent figures heightened with all
their fliades : yet they proceeded no farther than the
contours of the figures in black with water colours, and
hatching the draperies after the fame manner on glaffes
of the colour of the objeCt they defigned to paint. For
the carnation, they ufed glafs of a bright red colour ;
and upon this they drew the principal lineament of the
face, &c. with black.
At length, the taihe for this kind of painting improv¬
ing confiderably, and the art being found applicable to
the adorning of churches, bafilics, &c. they found out
means of incorporating the colours in the glafs itfelf,
by heating them in the fire to a proper degree; having
firfl laid on the colours. A French painter at Marfeilles
is faid to have given the firft notion of this improvement,
upon going to Rome under the pontificate of Julius XL;
but Albert Durer and Lucas of Leyden were the firft
that carried it to any height.
1 his art, however, has frequently met with much
interruption, and fometimes been aJmoft totally loft; of
[ 759 1
G L A
which Mr Walpole gives us the following account, in
his Anecdotes of Painting in England.
“ The firft interruption given to it was by the refor¬
mation, which banilhed the art out of churches; yet it
was in fome meafure kept up in the efcutcheons of the
nobility and gentry in the windows of their feats. To¬
wards the end of £)ueen Elizabeth’s reign it was omit¬
ted even there ; yet the pradfice did not entirely ceafe.
The chapel of our Lady at Warwick was ornamented
anew by Robert Dudley earl of Leicefter, and his coun-
tefs, and the cipher of the glafs-painter’s name yet re¬
mains, with the date 1574 : and in fame of the chapels
at Oxford the art again appears, dating itfelf in 1622,
by the hand of no contemptible mafter.
“ I could fupply even this gap of 48 years by many
dates on Flemifti glafs; but no body ever fuppofed that
the fecret was loft fo early as the reign of James I. and
that it has not perifhed lince will be evident from the
following feries, reaching to the prefent hour.
“ The portraits in the windows of the library at
All Souls, Oxford. In the chapel at Queen’s College
there are twelve windows dated 1518. P. C. a cipher
on the painted glafs in the chapel at Warwick, 1574.
The windows at Wadham’s College ; the drawing pret¬
ty good, and the colours fine, by Bernard Van Linge,
1622. In the chapel at Lincoln’s Inn, a window, with
the name Bernard, 1623. This was probably the pre¬
ceding Van Linge. In the church of St Leonard,
Shoreditch, two windows by Baptifta Sutton, 1634.
The windows in the chapel at Univerfity College, Hen.
Giles pinxit, 1687. At Chrift Church, Ifaac Oliver,
aged 84, 1700. Window’ in Merton Chape), William
Price 1 700. Windows at Queen’s New College, and
Maunlin, by William Price, the fon, now living, whofo
colours are fine, whofe drawing is good, and whofe tafte
in ornaments and mofaic is far fuperior to any of his
predeceffors; is equal to the antique, to the good
Italian mailers, and only furpaffed by his own lingular
modefty.
“ It may not be unwelcome to the curious reader to
fee fome anecdotes of the revival of tafte for painted
glafs in England. Price, as we have faid, w as the only
painter in that ftyle for many years in England. Af¬
terwards one Rowell, a plumber at Reading did fome
things, particularly for the late Henry earl of Pem¬
broke ; but Rowell’s colours foon vanilhed. At laft
he found out a very durable and beautiful red; but he
died in a year or two, and the fecret with him. A man
at Birmingham began the fame art in 1756 or 1757,
and fitted up a window for Lord Lyttleton, in the
church of Hagley ; but foon broke. A little after
him, one Peckitt at York began the fame bufinefs, and
has made good proficiency. A few lovers of that art
colledted fome difperfcd panes from ancient buildings,
particularly the late Lord Cobham, who eretfted a Go¬
thic temple at Stowe, and filled it with arms of the
old nobility, &c. About the year 1753, one Afciotti,
an Italian, who had married a Fl< mifli woman, brought
a parcel of painted glafs from Flanders, and fold it for
a few guineas to the Honourable Mr Batemen, of Old
Windfor. Upon that I fent Afciotti again to Flan¬
ders, who brought me 450 pieces, for which, including
the expence of his journey, I paid him thirty-fix gui¬
neas. His wife made more journeys for the fame pur-
pofe;
G L A [ 760 ] G L A
pofe; anti fold her cargo to one Palmer a glazier in
St Martin’s lane, who immediately raifed the price to
one, two, or five guineas for a Angle piece, and fitted
up entire windows with them, and with mofaics of
plain glafs of different colours. In 1761, Paterfon,
an auctioneer at Effex houfe in the Strand, exhibited
the two -firft auftions of painted glafs, imported in
like manner from Flanders. All this manufacture
confided in rounds of Scripture ftories, ftained in black
and yellow, or in fmall figures of black and white ;
birds and flowers in colours, and Flemilh coats of
arms.
The colours ufed in painting or ftaining of glafs are
very different from thofe ufed in painting either in wa¬
ter or oil colours.
For black, take fcales of iron, once ounce 5 fcales of
copper, one ounce j jet, half an ounce: reduce them
to powder, and mix them. For blue, take powder
of blue, one pound", fal nitre, half a pound : mix
them and grind them well together. For carnation,
take red chalk, eight ounces; iron fcales, and litharge
of filver, of each two ounces 5 gum arabic, half an
ounce : diflblve in water 5 grind all together for half an
hour as ftiff as you can •, then put it in a glafs and ftir
it well, and let it ftand to fettle 14 days. For green,
take red lead one pound ", fcales of copper, one pound 5
and flint, five pounds : divide them into three parts j
a:*d add to them as much fal nitre •, put them into a
crucible, and melt them with a ftrong fire j and when
it is cold, powder it, and grind it on a porphyry. For
gold colour, take filver, an ounce } antimony, half an
ounce : melt them in a crucible ", then pound the mafs
to powder, and grind it on a copper plate", add to it
yellow ochre, or brick dull calcined again, 15 ounces j
and grind them well together with w'ater. For purple,
take minium, one pound ; brown ftone, one pound $
white flint, five pounds : divide them into three parts,
and add to them as much El nitre as one of the parts j
calcine, melt, and grind it as you did the green. For
red, take jet, four ounces j litharge of filver, twro oun¬
ces ; red chalk, one ounce : powder them fine, and
mix them. For w hite, take jet, two parts 5 white flint,
ground on a glafs very fine, one part : mix them. For
yellow, take Spanifh brown, ten parts ; leaf filver, one
part; antimony, half a part: put all into a crucible,
and calcine them well.
In the windows of ancient churches, &c. there are
to be feen the moff beautiful and vivid colours imagi¬
nable, which far exceed any of thofe ufed by the mo¬
derns, not fo much becaufe the fecret of making thofe
colours is entirely loff, as that the moderns will not go
to the charge of them, nor be at the neceffary pains,
by reafon that this fort of painting is not now fo much
in efteem as formerly. Thofe beautiful works which
were made in the glafs houfes were of two kinds.
In fome, the colour was diffufed through the whole
fubftance of the glafs. In others, which were the more
common, the colour was only on one fide, fcaree pene¬
trating within the fubftance above one-third of a line ",
though this was more or lefs according to the nature of
the colour, the yellow being always found to enter the
deepeft. Thefe laft, though not fo ftrong and beauti¬
ful as the former, were of more advantage to the work¬
men, by reafon that on the fame glaf, though already
mluured, they could ihow other kinds of colours where
there was occafion to embroider draperies, enrich them Glafs.
with foliages, or reprefent other ornaments of gold, fil-  
ver, &c.
In order to this, they made ufe of emery, grinding
or wearing down the furface of the glafs till luch time
as they were got through the colour to the clear glafs.
This done, they applied the proper colours on the other
fide of the glafs. By thefe means, the new colours were
hindered from running and mixing with the former,
when they expofed the glaffestothe fire, as will appear
hereafter.
When indeed the ornaments were to appear white,
the glafs was only bared of its colour w ith emery, w ith¬
out tinging the place with any colour at all ; and this
was the manner by which they wrought their light and
heightenings on all kinds of colour.
The firft thing to be done, in order to paint or ftain
glafs, in the modern way, is to defign, and even colour,
the whole fubjedt on paper. Then they choofe luch
pieces of glafs as are clear, even, and fmooth, and pro¬
per to receive the feveral parts j and proceed to diftri-
bute the defign itfelf, or papers it is drawn on, into
pieces fuitable to thofe of the glafs j alw ays taking care
that the glaffes may join in the contours of the figures
and the folds of the draperies 5 that the carnations, and
other finer parts, may not be impaired by the lead with
which the pieces are to be joined together. Ihe di-
ftribution being made, they mark all the glafies as w'ell
as papers, that they may be known again: which done,
applying every part of the defign upon the glals intend¬
ed for it, they copy or transfer the defign upon this
glafs with the black colour diluted in gum water, by
tracing and following all the lines and ftrokes as they
appear through the glafs with the point of a pencil.
When thefe ftrokes are well dried, which will hap¬
pen in about two days, the work being only in black
and white, they give a flight w afti over w ith urine, gum
arabic, and a little black j and repeat it feveral times,
according as the {hades are defired to be heightened j
with this precaution, never to apply anew wafti till the
former is fuificiently dried.
This done, the lights and rifings are given by rub¬
bing off the colour in their reipe&ive places with a
wooden point, or the handle of the pencil.
As to the other colours above mentioned, they are
ufed with gum water, much as in painting in minia¬
ture ", taking care to apply them lightly, for fear of
effacing the outlines of the defign ; or even, for the
greater fecurity, to apply them on the other fide j
efpecially yellow, which is very pernicious to the
other colours, by blending therewith. And here too,
as in pieces of black and white, particular regaid
muft always be had not to lay colour on colour, or
lay on a new lay, till fuch time as the former are well
dried.
It may be added that the yellow is the only colour
that penetrates through the glafs, and incorporates
therewith by the fire j the reft, and particularly the
blue, which is very difficult to ufe, remaining on the
furface, or at leaft entering very little. When the
painting of all the pieces is*finiflied, they are carried to
the furnace or oven to anneal or bake the colours.
The furnace here ufed is fmall, built of brick, from
18 to 3c inches fquare. At fix inches from the bot¬
tom is an aperture to put in the fuel and maintain the
G'i ill's.
G L A [
fire. Over this aperture is a grate made of three fquare
bars of iron, which traverfe the furnace, and divide it
into two parts. Two inches above this partition is
another little aperture, through which they take out
pieces to examine how the codlion goes forward. On
the grate is placed a fquare earthen pan, fix or feven
inches deep, and five or fix inches lefs every way than
the perimeter of the furnace. On the other fide here¬
of is a little aperture, through which to make trials,
placed diredlly oppofite to that of the furnaces deftined
for the fame end. In this pan are the pieces of glafs to
be placed in the following manner : Firft, The bottom
of the pan is covered with three ftrata or layers of
quicklime pulverized 5 thofe ftrata being feparated by
two others of old broken glais, the defign whereof is to
fecure the painted glafs from the too intenfe heat of the
fire. I his done, the glafles are laid horizontally on
the laft or uppermoft layer of lime.
1 he firft row of glafs they cover over with a layer
of the fame powder an inch deep 5 and over this they
lay another range of glaffes, and thus alternately till
the pan is quite full $ taking care that the whole heap
always end with a layer of the lime powder.
1 he pan being thus prepared, they cover up the fur¬
nace with tiles, on a fquare table of earthen ware,
clofely luted all round ; only leaving five little aper¬
tures, one at each corner, and another in the middle,
to ferve as chimneys. Things thus difpofed, there re¬
mains nothing but to give the fire to the work. The
fire for the firft two hours muft be very moderate, and
muft be increaled in proportion as the coftion advances,
ff,r. t^le %ace of ten or twelve hours j in which time
it is ufually completed. At laft the fire, which at
firft was charcoal, is to be of dry wood, fo that the
fiame covers the whole pan, and even iflues out at the
chimneys.
During the laft hours, they make eflays, from time
to time, by taking out pieces laid for the purpofe
through the little aperture of the furnace and pan, to
fee whether the yellow be perfect, and the other colours
in good order. When the annealing is thought fuffi-
cient, they proceed with great hafte to extinguifti the
fire, which otherwife would foon burn the colours, and
break the glaffes.
Glass Balls, which are circular, or otherwife fiiaped
hollow veflels of glafs, may be coloured within, fo as to
imitate the femipe]lucid gems. The method of doing
it is this : make a ftrong folution of ichthyocolla, or
]
G L A
ifinglals, in common water, by boiling j pour a quan¬
tity of this while warm into the hollow of a white glafs
veffel; fiiake it thoroughly about, that all the lides may
be wetted, and then pour off the reft of the moifture.
Immediately after this, throw in red lead, ftiake it
and turn it about, throw it into many places with a
tube, and the moifture will make it ftick and run in
waves and pretty figures. Then throw in fome of the
painters blue fmalt, and make it run in waves in the
ball as the red lead} then do the fame with verdigrife,
next with orpiment, then with red lake, all well ground;
always cafting in the colours in different places, and
tinning the glafs, that the moifture within may run
them into the waves. I hen take fine plafter of Paris,
and put a quantity of it into the ball j {hake it alfo
nimbly about; this will everywhere ftick firmly to the
.glafs, and give it a ftrong inner coat, keeping all the
Vol. IX. Part II.
colours on very tairly and ftrongly. Thefe are fet on
frames of carved wood, and much efteemed as orna¬
ments in many places.
Glass Drop, See Rupert's Drops.
Engraving on Glass. Profeffor Beckmann has pro¬
ved, that fo early as the year 1670 the art of etching
upon glafs was difeovered by Henry Schwanhard, fi>n
of George Schwanhard, who was a celebrated glafs-
cutter,. patronized by the emperor Ferdinand III. about
the middle of the laft century. At the time of his
death, 1667, the father praftifed his art at Prague
and Ratiihon. Whether the fon followed the fame bu-
finels at the fame towns, or removed to Nuremberg, is
not very evident; but in the year above mentioned,
fome aqua-regia (nitro-muriatic acid) having acciden¬
tally fallen on his fpeftacles, he was furprifed to find
the glafs corroded by it, and become quite foft. He
thus, it is faid, found himfelf in poffeflion of a liquid
by which he could etch writing and figures upon plates
of glafs. 1 1
But it is probable, as Beckmann feems to think, that
he had difeovered the fluoric acid itfelf; for in the yeaf
1725 there appeared in a periodical work the folio whig
receipt for making a powerful acid, by which fioures
of every kind can be etched upon glafs-,
“When Xhz fpiritus nit ri per dift illation em has pa fled
into the recipient, ply it with a ftrong fire, and when
well dephlegmated, pour it, as it corrodes ordinary
glrifs, into a W eldenberg flalk. 1 hen throw into it a
pulverized green Bohemian emerald, otherwife called
hefphorus, (which, when reduced to powder, and heat¬
ed, emits in the dark a green light), and place it in
warm fand for 24 hours. Take a piece of glafs well
cleaned, and freed from all greafe by means of a ley ;
put a border of wax round it, about an inch in height’
and cover it all over with the above acid. The longer
you let it ftand fo much the better ; and at the end6of
lome time the glafs will be corroded, and the figures
which have been traced out with fulphur and varnilh
will appear as if raifed above the pane of glafs.”
That the Bohemian emerald or hefphorus mentioned
in this receipt is green fparry fluor, cannot, fays the
profeffor, be doubted ; and he feems to have as little
doubt of the receipt itfelf having paffed from Schwan¬
hard and his fcholars to the periodical work of 1*25
from which it was infetted in the Oekonomifche Encv-
clopedie of Krunitz. I his fuppofition certainly acquires
a confiderable degree of probability from the fimilaritr
of Schwanhard’s method of etching to that which is
here recommended, and which is fo different from what
is now followed. At prefent, the glafs is covered with
a varnifh either of ifinglafs diffolved in water, or of
turpentine oil mixed with a little white lead, through
which the figures to be etched are traced as on copper ;
but Schwanhard, when he had drawn his figures, co¬
vered them with varnifh, and then by his liquid’cor¬
roded the glafs. around them. His figures, therefore,
when the varnifli was removed, remained fmooth and
clear, appearing raifed from a dim or dark ground 5
and M. Beckmann, who perfuaded fome ingenious ar-
tifts to make trial of this ancient method of etching,
declares, that fueh figures have a much better effeft
than thofe which are cut into the glafs.
Foliating of GLASS. See FOLIATING and LOOKING-
SlafS'
5 ® Gilding
GlafSs
G L A [ 762 ] G L A
Gilding of Glass. See Gilding.
ImprefjioHS of antique Gems taken in GLASS. See
Gems.
GLASS of Lead^ a glafs made with the addition of a
large quantity of lead, of great ufe in the art of making
counterfeit gems. The method of making it is this :
Put a large quantity of lead into a potter’s kiln, and
keep it in a ftate of fufion with a moderate fire, till it
is calcined to a gray loole powder 5 then fpread it in
the kiln, and give it a greater heat, continually ftirring
it to keep it from running into lumps j continue this fe-
veral hours, till the powder become of a fair yellow ;
then take it out, and lift it fine : this is called calcined
lead. Take of this calcined lead 45 pounds, and cry-
ftalline or other frit 12 pounds j mix thefe as well as
polfible together ; put them into a pot, and fet them
in the furnace for ten hours j then call the whole, which
will be now perfectly melted, into water; feparate the
loofe lead, from it, and return the metal into the pot j
and after Handing in fufion 1 2 hours more, it will be
fit to Avork. It is very tender and brittle, and muft be
worked with great care, taking it flowly out of the
pot, and continually wetting the marble it is wrought
upon.
It is well knqAvn that cerufe or white lead, minium,
litharge, and all the other preparations and calces of
lead, are eafily fufed by a moderate fire, and formed
into a tranfparent glafs of a deep yellow colour. But
this glafs is fo penetrating and powerful a flux, that it
is neceffary to give it a greater confidence, in order to
render it fit for ufe. With this view, two parts of calx
of lead, e. g. minium, and one part of fand or powdered
flints, may be put into a crucible of refraftory clay,
and baked into a compadt body. Let this crucible,
Avell clofed with a luted lid, be placed in a melting
furnace, and gradually heated for an hour, or an hour
and a half j and afterwards let the heat be increafed fo
as to obtain a complete fufion, and continued in that
ftate for the fame time: let the crucible remain to cool
in the furnace j and when it is broken a very tranfpa¬
rent yellow' coloured glafs will be found in it. Some
add nitre and common fait to the above mixture, be-
caufe thefe falts promote the fufion and the more equal
diftribution of the fand. This glafs of lead has a con-
fiderable fpecific gravity, and its lowed: part is always
the heavieft. It is an important flux in the affays of
ores to facilitate their fcorification.
Glafs of lead is capable of all the colours of the gems
in very great perfedlion. The methods of giving
them are thefe : for green, take pulverine frit 20
pounds, lead calcined 16 pounds j fift both the pow¬
ders very fine ; then melt them into a glafs, feparating
the unmixed lead, by plunging the mafs in water j af¬
ter this return it into the pot, and add brafs thrice cal¬
cined fix ounces, and one pennyweight of crocus martis
made Avith vinegar ; put this in at fix different times,
always carefully mixing it together, and take a proof
of it j when the colour is right, let it Hand eight hours,
and then work it. If inftead of the calcined brafs the
fame quantity of the caput mortuum of the vitriolum
veneris be ufed, the green is yet much finer.
For topaz colour, take crytlal frit 15 pounds, cal¬
cined lead 12 pounds j mix them aacII together, by
fifiir.g the poAvders through a fine ,fieve ; then fet them
in a furnace not too hot, and feparate the fuperfluous
X
unmixed lead, by calling the whole into crater j repeat GlaiL
this tw ice : then add half gold yellow glafs, and lety'—
them incorporate and purify, and they Avill be of the
true and exadl colour of the oriental topazes.
For fea green, take cryftal frit 16 pounds, calcined
lead io pounds j mix and fift them together, and fet
them in a pot in a furnace j in 12 hours the Avhole
will be melted ; then call it into water, and feparate it
from the loofe lead •, put them into the furnace again
for eight hours 5 then feparate the loofe lead by Avaftr-
ing a fecond time, and return it to the pot for eight
hours more.
Mufcovy Glass. See Mica, Mineralogy Index.
Painting on GLASS by means of Prints. See BACK-
painting.
GLASS Porcelain, the name given by many to a mo¬
dern invention of imitating the china ware with glafs.
The method given by M. Reaumur, who was the firft
that carried the attempt to any degree of perfe<ftion,
is fliortly this : The glafs veffels to be converted into
porcelain are to be put into a large earthen vtffel, fuch
as the common fine earthen dilhes are baked in, or in¬
to fufficiently large crucibles ; the veffels are to be fill¬
ed with a mixture of fine white fand, and of fine gyp-
fum or plafter ftone burnt into Avhat is called plafter
of Paris, and all the interftices are to be filled up Avith
the fame powder, fo that the glafs veffels may noAvhere
touch either one another, or the fides of the veffel they
are baked in. The veffel is to be then covered down
and luted, and the fire does the reft of the Avork ; for
this is only to be put into a common potter’s furnace,
and when it has flood there the ufual time of the bak¬
ing the other veffels, it is to be taken out, and the
Avhole contents will be found no longer glafs, but con¬
verted into a white opaque fubftance, which is a very
elegant porcelain, and has almoft the properties of that
of China.
The powder which has ferved once will do again as
well as frefti, and that for a great many times : nay, it
feems, ever fo often. The caufe of this transformation,
fays Macquer, is probably that the vitriolic acid of the
gypfum quits its bafis of calcareous earth, and unites
with the alkaline fait and faline earth or the glafs, w ith
Avhich it forms a kind of fait, different from the calca¬
reous felenite, by the interpofition of Avhich matter the
glafs acquires the qualities of porcelain.
GLASS Pots, the veffels in the glafs trade ufed for
melting the glafs. Thofe for the Avhite glafs works are
made of a tobacco pipe clay, brought from the ifle of
Wight, Avhich is firft well wafhed, then calcined, and
afterwards ground to a fine poAfder in a mill 5 Avhich
being mixed with water, is then trod Avith the bare
feet till it is of a proper confiftence to mould Avith the
hands into the proper fliape of the veflels. When thefe
are thus made, they are afterwards annealed over the
furnace. Thofe for the green glafs works are made of
the nonfuch, and another fort of clay from Stafford-
ftiirej they make thefe fo large as to hold three or four
hundred weight of metal. And btfides thefe, they have
a fimall fort called piling pots, Avhich they fet upon the
larger, and which contain a finer and more nice metal
fit for the niceft works.
The clay that is ufed for this purpofe ftiould be of
the pureft and moft refraftory kind, and well cleanfed
fiom all Tandy, ferruginous, and pyritous matters j and
ts>
Clafs.
G L A [ ^5^
, tJh,s 11 ?ri11 be Proper to add ground crucibles, white
land, calcined flints duly levigated, or a certain propor¬
tion ot the fame clay baked, and pounded not very
finely The quantity of baked clay that ought to be
mixed with the crude day, to prevent the pots from
crackmg when dried, or expofed to a great heat, is not
]
G L A
r i ? , : *. j 7 —r-icu LU a great neat, is not formed by the common convex le
abfolutely determined, but depends on the quality of the der the viTion extremewTndifiinft
crude clay, rrh.ch ,s more or lefs fa,. M. D'Antic, The i„di^A™r l ".r'”*
crude clay, which is more or lefs fat. M. l)Antic
in a memoir on this fubjed, propofes the following
method of alcertaining it: The burnt and crude clay
being mixed in different proportions, Ihould be formed
into cakes, one inch thick, and four inches long and
wide. Let thefe cakes be flowly dried, and expofed to
a violent heat, till they become as hard and as much
contracted as poffible, and in this Hate be examined •
and the cake, he fays, which has fuffered a diminution
ot its bulk equal only to an eighteenth part, is made of
the belt proportions. He obferves, in general, that
moft clays require that the proportion of the burnt
mould be to the frelh as four to five.
Tm Glass, the fame with Bifmuth. See Bismuth
Chemistry Index. ’
Glasses are diftinguifhed, with regard to their form
iV , Vanf)US kinds’ as drinking glaffes, optical
glades, looking glaffes, burning glaffes, &c.
Dnnhng Glasses, are fimple veffels of common glafs
®r cryftal, ufually made in form of an inverted cone.
Lach glafs confilts of three parts, viz. the bowl, the
bottom, and the foot; which are all wrought or blown
Separately.
Nothing can be more dexterous and expeditious than
the manner of blowing thefe parts : two of them open¬
ed, and all three joined together. An idea is only to
be had thereof, by feeing it a&ually done. For the
method °f griding the edges of drinking glaffes, fee
GILDING on Enamel and Glafs.
Optical Glasses. See Optics.
2. Hence it happens, that the rays of light, when
rerracted by a common lens, do not all unite in one fo-'
cus, but in reality form as many different foci as there
are colours j and hence arife the prifmatic colours, or
miles, which appear towards the borders of the image
formed by the common convex lenfes, and which ren-
3. The indilbrnffncfs of vifion produced by thiscaufe,
"hick fimfible in telefcopes of a fmall aperture, in .
creales m fo great a proportion, viz. as the cubes of the
diameters, that it feemed impoflible to increafe the
power of dioptric telefcopes greatly, without extending
them to a very inconvenient length, unlefs this confu-
lion ot colours could be corre&ed.
f kn°T’n thatdJfferent tranfparent bodies pof-
M?Hnlfegree!, ° crefraaive P°'Ver’ and
thatfhi f d‘(C0Ver^d1the contrary, it was fuppofed,
at the re fra el 10ns of the coloured rays were always in
a determined ratio to one another. C)„ this fuppofition
t leemed impoflible to corred the faults of refraaing
telefcopes : for it was fuppofed, that if the difperfion of
light pioduced by a convex lens were counteraaed by
another lens or medium of a concave form, the refrac-
lon would be totally deftroyed ; and this indeed would
be the cafe if the two mediums were made of the fame
atier, and from fome experiments made by Sir Ifaac
Newton, this was fuppofed to be aaually the cafe in alt
lubltances whatever.
r S‘ ,Fr;m C0.nfidcring that the eyes of animals are
" “5dAUmS °f different coIo«rs, it occurred firft
to Mr David Gregory, the celebrated profeffor of aftro-
nomy at Oxford, and then to Mr Euler, that, by a
combination of mediums which bad different refraaive
powers it might be poflible to remedy the imperfec¬
tions of dioptric telefcopes. It does not, however, ap¬
pear, that either of thefe gentlemen underftood the true
pnnciple on which thefe phenomena depend. Mr Euler
executed his irUo r*.- _ 1 , . . .
The improvements hitherto made in telefcopes by executed hl'idepV11^ pk(Jnomena dePend- Mr Euler
means of combining lenfes made of different kinds of from two a r7 fc.r^lng 3 compound objea lens
glafs, though very great are vet hv nn mpon j ‘ ^ lenfes with water interpofed, but his at-
to the expectations that might reafonably be firmed ele^w^led by W'th luCCers- ,Mr Dollond, how-
.f opt.c.ans could fall on any method of obtaining piece, gendieTra of s * ^me[ar8uments by Mr Klin-
:ff ^
lofophei himfelf to fimnofi=> ihof tLo   . £
of Mr Dollond’s difeovery. Unfortunately, however,
hough the board of longitude have offered a confider-
able reward for bringing this art to the requifite per-
tection, no attempt of any confequence has hitherto
been made. Mr Keir is of opinion, that the accom-
plilnment of this is by no means an eafy talk ; as it re¬
quires not only a competent knowledge of the proper¬
ties of glafs fitted for the purpofe (the faults not bfiino-
evident to common infpeaion), but a confiderable de¬
gree of chemical knowledge is alfo neceffary in order to
invent a compofition by which thefe faults may be
avoided ; and laftly, a kind of dexterity in the execu¬
tion of the work, which can only be acquired by prac¬
tice. Our author, however, thinks, that if the fubjeft
Vere more generally underftood, and the difficulties
more fully pointed out, for which purpofe he makes
the following remarks, the.end may be more eafily ac-
comphffied.
i. The rays of light pa fling through a glafs lens or
prilm, or through any other medium of unequal thick-
are , efraCled ; but not in an equal manner, the
blue, violet, &c. being more refra&ed than the red.
lofopher himfelf to fuppofe that
wards executed by Mr Dollond was impoflible. Th s
experiment was made by Sir Ifaac Newton, by placing
a glafs pnfm within a prifmatic veffel filled with watef
m luch a manner that the rays of light which were re!
fraCted by the glafs pnfm ffiould pafs through and be
refraaed m a contrary direaion by the water prifm
In this manner the refraction of the light was emirely
deftroyed. But when Mr Dollond repeated the ex^
penment, he found, that, contrary to his own expt-aa-
tions, when the angles of the two prifms were fo pro¬
portioned that they counteraaed each other’s mean re-
fraaion tlren colours appeared ; and on the other
band when they were fo proportioned that the difner-
fion of the coloured rays was counteraaed, the mean re-
fraaion ftill fubfifled y which evidently proved, that the
mean refraaive and difperfive powers of glafs and wa¬
ter were not proportional to one another.
6 To apply this to the propofed improvement, Mr
Lollond examined Teveral kinds of glafs. Crown glafs
was found to poffefs the fnialleft dilperfive power in
proportion to Us refraaion ; while flint glafs pofl'dTed
5 2 the
Glafs.
G L A [ 7<H ] G1 L A
Glafs. the greateft difperfive power in proportion to its re-
1 fraftion, which was alfo very great. On comparing
thefe two exaftly together, he found, that a wedge of
white flint glafs whofe angle was about 25 degrees, and
another of crown glafs whofe angle was 29 degrees,
refra6ied very nearly alike. He found alfo, that, when
the wedges were ground to fuch angles, the refrac¬
tion produced by the flint glafs was to that produced
by the crown glafs nearly as two to three 5 the refratl-
ed light was then free from colour. On meafuring the
general refraining pow ers of thefe tw o glafles, he found,
that in flint glafs, the fine of incidence of the rays was
to the fine of mean refra&ion as 1 to 1.583 5 and that
in crown glafs, the fine of incidence was to the fine of
mean refraffion as 1 to 1.53.
The methods of determining the diflerent refraflive
powers of glafs are given under the article T)ptics.
Here we (hall only obferve, that two kinds of glafs are
neceffary for the conftruclion of achromatic telefcopes j
one of which lhall poflefs as fmall, and the other as
great, difperfive powers, relative to their mean refracting
powers, as can be produced. The difference of glailes
in this refpeft depends on the quality of the ingre¬
dients employed in their compofition. Crown glafs,
which is compofed of fand melted by means of the
allies of fea weeds, barilla, or kelp, both which fluxes
are known to confiit of vegetable earth, alkali, and
neutral fait, is found to give the fmalleft difperfive
power. Plate glafs, which eonfiils of fand melted by
means of fixed vegetable alkali, with little or no vege¬
table earth, gives a greater difperfive power j but both
thefe give much lefs than flint glafs, which conflfts of
fand melted by means of minium and fixed alkali. It
appears, therefore, that the difperfion of the rays is
greatetl when minium, or probably other metallic cal¬
ces, are made ufe of j and that alkalies give a greater
power of difperfion than vegetable or other earths. Mr
Zieher of Pcterfburgh, however, informs us, that he
has- made a kind of glafs, much fuperior in this refpeCt
to flint glafs j but it does not as yet appear whether
it be more fit for optical purpofes than that commonly
made ufe of. There feems no difficulty in augmenting
the difperfive power, as that is found to depend on
the quantity of minium or other flux : but thus w e un¬
fortunately increafe alfo the capital fault to which
flint glafs and all compofitions of that kind are fubjeft ;
namely, the being fubjedt to veins or fmall threads
running through it. By thefe, even when fo fmall as
to be imperceptible to the naked eye, the rays which
fall on them are diverted from their proper direction,
and thereby render the images confufed. I his is ow¬
ing to the greater denfity of the veins, as appears by
their image being received on white paper, when the
glafs is held between the paper and the fun or a candle
at a proper diftance. The rays of light being then
made to converge by the fuperior denfity of the veins,
their images will appear as bright lines bordered with
obfeure edges on the paper. Flint glafs is fo much
fubjeft to this kind of imperfeClion, that it is with dif¬
ficulty the opticians can pick out pieces of the fize
commonly ufed from a large quantity of the glafs. It
is farther to-be regretted, that the minium which pro¬
duces the greatelt difperfive power, is likewife the
very fubfiance which renders flint glafs much more
fubjeCl to thefe imperfeCUons than any other. The
reafon is, that the fand and earthy matters mix uni¬
formly in fufion j and having not only a confiderable
degree of affinity towards each other, but alfo being
not much different from each other, they are not apt to
feparate. On the other hand, when fuch a heavy
fubffance as minium is added to thefe earthy fubftances,
though it has a pretty ffrong tendency to unite with the
earthy i'ubftances, it has none Avith the fixed alkali, which
is another ingredient in this glafs. Hence fome parts of
the glafs will contain more metallic matter than the refi 5
particularly that near the bottom of the pot, which is fo
full of large veins as to be applied only to the making
of wares of little value. The veins in this cafe are
formed by the defcent of the minium at the bottom,
w hich in its paffage forms threads or veins by dragging-
other parts of the glafs along with them.
The correction of this fault appears therefore to be-
very difficult. M. Macquer informs us, that he had
in vain tried to remove it by very long fufion and a
fierce fire j which indeed others have found by expe¬
rience not to correCt, but to augment the evil. Mr
Keir is of opinion that fome new compofition muff b«
difcovered, which, along with a fufficient refraCtive
power, ffiould poffefs a greater uniformity of texture 5
but he is likewile of opinion, that fcarce any alteration
in this refpeCt could be made w ithout injuring the colour
of the glafs. For optical purpofes, however, our authos
does not think that an alteration in the colour of the
ingredients would be very detrimental. I am con¬
vinced (fays he), that glaffes fenlibly tinged with co¬
lour, might tranfmit as much or more light than the
belt flint glafs. For the colourlefs appearance of flint
glafs is au optical deception. The minium gives it a
confiderable tinge of yellow, and the alkali inclines it to
a bluith cart,, befides the colour avifing from a greater
or lefs impurity of the materials j fo that the glafa
would aCIually be very fenfibly coloured, unlefs by the
addition of manganefe, which is known to give a pur-
plilh red. Thus the other tinges are counteracted, but
not effaced or deftroyed as has been frequently imagined.
By the mixture of the three principal colours, red,
yellow, and blue, more or lefs exaCtly counterpoifed, a
certain dark ffiade is introduced, in which, as not any
one of the colours predominates, no coloured tinge ap¬
pears, but the effeCt is merely a diminution of the tranf-
parency of the glafs, which, however, is too fmall for
ordinary obfervation.” Mr Keir is even of opinion,
that a certain tinge of yellow would in many cafes be
of fervice, becaufe it would exclude feme of the blue
rays, which being molt refrangible are molt injurious tir
the diftinCtnefs of vifion.
Very confiderable difficulties, however, mult arife
in attempting improvements of'this kind j as the expe¬
riments muff all be tried on a very large feale. This
is not only attended with a very heavy expence in itfelf
on account of the quantity of materials employed, but
from the heavy duty of excife which is rigoroufly ex¬
acted whether the glafs be manufactured into faleable
articles or not. It is obferved in the manufacture of
every kind of glafs, that the glafs in the middle of the
area or tranfverfe feCtion of a pot is much purer and
freer from veins and other imperfections than the part
which is near the fides, and that the glafs at the bot¬
tom is the worft of all. Confequently it is chiefly in-
large pots, fuch as are ufed in manufactures, that there-
G L A
^ji 'ifSj
Glaston¬
bury.
is a probability of fuccefs. Very fine and beautiful
glaffes, called pajle and artificial gems, may be made in
fmaller pots or crucibles; but this glafs is fuffered to
cool and fubfide in the veffel, by which means the con¬
tiguous parts are more uniform in their texture than
can be expected in a piece of glafs taken out of the pot
while hot in the common way, by making it adhere
and twill round an iron rod or pipe. But although
the method of allowing the glafs to cool in the pots is
very advantageous for thepurpofes of the jeweller, it is
by no means applicable to thofe of the optician. Glafs
cooled in that gradual manner, fufiers fome degree of
cryilallization or peculiar arrangement of its parts j the
coufequence of which is, that the rays of light undergo
certain refractions independent on the form of the glafs,
which greatly aflfeCt the diltinCtnefs of vifion in telefcopes.
Mujical Glasses. See Harmonica.
Looking Glasses. See Looking Glafs, Mirror,
and Foliating.
Burning GLASS. See BURNING Glafs.
Weather GLASS. See BAROMETER,
Capping Glass. See Surgery.
Hour Glass. See Hour Glafs.
Watch Glass. See Watch.
Glass Wort. See Salsola, Botany Index.
GLASTONBURY, a town of Somerfetfhire in
England ; fituated in W. Long. 2. 41. N. Lat. 51. 9.
—It is noted for a famous abbey, fome magnificent
ruins of which Hill remain. The curious itructure call¬
ed the Abbot’s kitchen is Hill pretty entire. The monks
pretend that it was the refidcnce of Jofeph of Arima-
thea, and of St Patrick. The king of the WeH
Saxons eredted a church here, which he and the fuc-
eeeding kings enriched to fuch a degree, that the abbot
lived like a prince, had the title of lord, and fat
among the barons in parliament; and no perfon, not
even a bilhop or prince, durlt fet foot on the ifle of
Avalon, in which the abbey Hands, without his leave.
The revenue of the abbey was above 40,000!. per ann.
befides feven parks well flocked with deer. The lafl ab¬
bot (Richard Whiting), who had 100 monks, and 300
domeflics, was hanged in his pontificals, with two of
his monks, on the Tor, a high hill in the neighbour¬
hood, for refuting to take the oath of fuprcmacy to
Henry VIII. and furrender his abbey when required.
Edgar and many other Saxon kings were buried here $
and, as fome will have it, Arthur the Britifh king.
Every cottage here has part of a pillar, a door, or a
window of this fabric ; of which there Hill remain the
ruins of the choir, the middle tower and the chapels.
The walls that remain of the abbey are overgrown with
ivy, and the afpecl of the whole is both melancholy and
venerable. Here are two parilh churches. This
town, while under the prote61ion of its abbots, was a
parliamentary borough, but it lofl that and its privilege
of a corporation; the latter of which was, however, re-
flored by Queen Anne, wjio granted it a new' charter for
a mayor and burgeffes. The only manufadfory here is
flockings. At a little diftance from the old church,
and facing the monks churchyard, are tw'o remarkable
pyramids, with infcriptions, that are in charadlers un¬
intelligible, and an image in biftiop’s veflments. The
flory of the Glaftonbury thorn, and of its budding upon
Chriitmas day, is well known. This is not corredtly
true) but if the winter is mild, it always buds about
f 765 3
G L A
the latter end of December, but later if the weather is
fevere.
GLATZ-, a flrong town of Silefia, capital of a
county of the fame name, feated on the river Neifle ; 1
and well fortified with a caflle. The town contains 400
houfes, and as many in the fuburbs. The county was
ceded to the king of Pruflia by the queen of Hungary
in 1742 \ and is about 45 miles in length, and 25 in
breadth. It has mines of pit coal, filver, and iron j
good quarries, plenty of cattle, and fine fprings of mi¬
neral water. The.town is fituated in E. Long. 16. 26.
N. Lat. 50. 16.
GLAUBER, John Rhodolphus, a celebrated Ger¬
man chemifl, who flouriflied about the year 1646. He
wrote a great number of different treatifes on chemi-
ftry, fome of which have been tranfiated into Latin and
French. All his works have been collefled into one
volume, entitled Glauberus concentratus, which was-
tranflated into Englifh, and printed at London, in folio,
in 1689.
Glauber'’s Salts, or Sulphate of Soda. See Chemi¬
stry Index.
GLAUCOMA, in Medicine and Surgery, the name
of a difeafe in the eye, wherein the cryflalline humour
is turned of a bluith or greenilh colour, and its tranf-
parency hereby diminilhed.—The word comes from
yXxvKos, ccefius, “ fea-green, Iky coloured or grayifh.”
Thofe in whom this diforder is forming, difeover it
hence, that all objects appear to them as through a cloud
or miff ; when entirely formed, the vifual rays are all
intercepted, and nothing is feen at all.
It is reckoned incurable, when inveterate, and in
aged perfons : and even under other circumftances, is
very difficult of cure, externals proving of little fervice.
The internals beff fuited to it, are thofe ufed in the
gutta ferena. Jul. Ctefar Claudinus, Conful. 74. gives
a remedy for the glaucoma.
The glaucoma is ufually diffinguifhed from the cata-
ra£t or fuffufion, in this, that in the cataradl the white-
nefs appears in the pupil, very near the corner j but it
fliows deeper in the glaucoma. See SURGERY Index.
GLAUCUS, a marine god, or deity of the fea-
There are a great many fabulous accounts of this divi¬
nity : but in the poetical hiffory of him is, that before
his deification, he was a fiflierman of the town of An-
thedon, who having one day taken a confiderable num¬
ber of fillies, which he laid upon the bank, on a Hidden
perceived, that thefe fiffies, having touched a kind of
herb that grew on the fiiore, received new Hrength, and
leaped again into the fea: upon the fight of which ex¬
traordinary accident, he was tempted to tafle of the
herb himfelf, and prefently leaped into the fea after
them, uffiere he was metamorphofed into a Triton, and
became one of the fea gods.
GLAUX, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 17th order, Ca/ycanthenne. See Botany Index.
GLAZIER, an artificer who works in glafs.—The
principal part of a glazier’s bufinefs confifls in fitting
panes of glafs to the faflies and window frames of houfesr
pictures, &c. and in cleaning the fame.
GLAZING, the cruHing over earthen ware wdth a
vitreous fubffance, the bafis of which is lead. See
Glass of Lead.
The workers of common earthen ware, however, are
not
Glafton*
bury
11
Glazing-.
Glazing.
G L A [766
j not at tlie trouble of thus previoufly making A pure
glafs of lead. Their ufual cornpofition for glazing their
ware is formed of white fand 40 pounds, of red lead 20
pounds, of pearl alhes 20 pounds, and of common fait
12 pounds. Powder the fand by grinding it, and then
add it to the other ingredients and grind them to¬
gether : after which calcine them for fome time with a
moderate heat, and when the mixture is cold, pound it
to powder •, and when wanted for ufe temper it with
■water. The proportion of thefe ingredients may be oc-
cafionally varied. I he ware after being turned on the
wheel and dried in the open air, is covered over with
the above compofition by means of a brulh j and when
let in the furnace the violent heat foon reduces it to a
perfect glafs, covering the whole internal and external
furfaee of the veffel.
Wemayobferve, however, in general, that lead ought
to be excluded from the compofition of glazings, and
other fluxes fubftituted in its Head. A traniparent
glazing may be prepared without lead, by calcining 40
pounds of white land, 25 pounds of pearl afhes, and 15
pounds of common fait •, and proceeding as before : and
a more perfe6t tranfparent glazing may be made of
fand 40 pounds, of wood alhe,s perfectly burnt 50
pounds, of pearl allies 10 pounds, and of common fait
12 pounds. The following receipts are taken for the
molt part from Kunckel, wdio fays, that they are the
true glazings ufed at I)elft and other Dutch manu-
fa&ories.
Black is made of eight parts of red lead, iron filings
three, copper alhes three, and zaffer two meafures.
This when melted w ill make a brown black j and if you
want it blacker, add more zaffer to it.
Blue is thus prepared : Take lead afhes or red lead
one pound, clear fand or powdered flints two pounds,
common fait two pounds, white calcined tartar one
pound, Venice or other glafs half a pound, zaffer half
a pound 5 mix them well together and melt them for
feveral times, quenching them always in cold water.
If you would have it fine and good, it will be pro¬
per to put the mixture into a glafs furnace for a day
or two.
Another blue glazing may be formed of one pound
of tartar, a quarter of a pound of red lead, half an
ounce of zaffer, and a quarter of a pound of powdered
flints, which are to be fufed and managed as in the lafl
receipt. Or, take two pounds of calcined lead and tin,
add five pounds of common fait, five pounds of pow¬
dered flints, and of zaffer, tartar, and Venetian glafs,
each one pound. Calcine and fufe the mixture as be¬
fore. Or, again, take of red lead one part, of fand
three parts, and of zaffer one part. For a violet blue
glazing, take four ounces of tartar, two ounces of red
lead, five ounces of powdered flints, and half a drachm
ef manganefe.
Brown is made of red lead and flints of each 14
parts, and of manganefe two parts fufed ; or of red
lead i 2 parts, and manganefe one part fufed. A brown
glazing, to be laid on a white ground, may be made
of manganefe two parts, and of red lead and white
glafs of each one part, twice fufed.
Ftejh coloured is made of 12 parts of lead alhes, and
one of white glafs.
Gold coloured. Take of litharge three parts, of fand
or calcined flint one part j pound and mix thefe very
]
G L A
well together, then run them into a yellow glafs with Glazing;
a Itrong fire. Pound this glafs, and grind it into a
fubtile powder, which moiffen with a well faturated
folution of filver ; make it into a pafte, which put in.
to a crucible, and cover it with a cover. Give at firft
a gentle degree of fire j then increafe it, and continue
it till you have a glafs, which will be green. Pound
this glafs again, and grind it to a fine powder 5 moiften
this powder with fome beer, fo that by means of a
hair pencil you may apply it upon the vtffels or any
piece of earthen w'are. The veffels that are painted or
covered over with this glazing mult be firft well heated,
then put under a muffle 5 and as foon as the glafs runs,
you muft fmoke them, by holding them over burning
vegetables, and take out the veffels. Mr fleinfius of
Peterlburgh, who fent this receipt to the RoyaljSociety,
ufes the words qfflare debes fumum, which is rendered
fmoke them, in the Tranfadions. Phil. Tranf.
§ 6.
Kunckel gives feveral preparations for a gold co¬
loured yellow glazing. This may be produced by fuf»
ing a mixture of three parts of red lead, two parts of
antimony, and one part of faffron of Mars j by again
melting the powdered mafs, and repeating the opera¬
tion four times, or by fufing four or five times a com¬
pofition of red lead and antimony of each an ounce,
and of feales of iron half an ounce : or by calcining
and fufing together eight parts of red lead, fix parts of
flints, one part of yellow ochre, one part of antimony,
and one part of white glafs. A tranfparent gold-
coloured glazing may be obtained by twice fufing
red lead and white flints, of each 12 parts, and of
filings of iron one part.
Green may be prepared of eight parts of litharge or
red lead, eight parts of Venice glafs, four parts of
brafs dull or filings of copper ; or of ten parts of li¬
tharge, twelve of flint or pebble, and one of ecs vfum
or copper alhes.—A fine green glazing may be pro¬
duced by fufing one part of the Bohemian granate,
one part of filings of copper, one part of red lead, and
one part of Venetian glafs ; or by fufing one part of
white glafs, the fame quantity of red lead, and alfo of
filings of copper j powdering the mafs, and adding one
part of Bohemian granate to two parts of this pow¬
der. A fine green may be obtained by mixing and
grinding together any of the yellow glazings with
equal quantities of the blue glazings ; and all the lhades
and teints of green will be had by varying the propor¬
tion of the one to the other, and by the choice of the
kind of yellow and blue.
Sea green is made of five pounds of lead allies, one
pound of tin alhes, three pounds of flint, three quarters
of a pound of fait, half a pound of tartar, and half a
pound of copper dull.
Iron colour is prepared of 15 parts of lead alhes of
red lead, 15 of white fand or flints, and five of cal¬
cined copper. This mixture is to be calcined and
fufed.
Liver colour is prepared of 12 parts of litharge,
eight of fait, fix of pebble or flint, and one of manga¬
nefe.
Purple brown confifts of lead alhes 15 parts, clean
fand or powdered flints 18 parts, manganefe one part,
and white glafs 15 meafures, to which fome add one
meafure of zaffer.
Red
©lazing
® L A t 7
^ Rea is made of antimony three pounds, litharge or
red lead three, and ruft of iron one : grind them to a
fine pow der. Or, take two pounds of antimony, three
of red lead, and one of calcined faffron of Mars, and
proceed as before.
White. The white glazing for common ware is
made of 40 pounds of clear fand, 75 pounds of litharge
or lead afhes, 26 of pot afhes, and ten pounds of fait:
thefe are three times melted into a cake, quenching
it each time in clear cold water. Or it may be made
of 50 pounds of clean fand, 70 of lead allies, 30 of
wood allies, and 12 of fait.
For a fine white : Take two pounds of lead and one
of tin; calcine them to alhes : of this take two parts,
calcined flint, white fand, or broken white glafs, one
part, and fait one part •, mix them well together and
melt them into a cake for ufe. The trouble of calcin¬
ing the tin and lead may be prevented by procuring
them in a proper ftate.
. -A- very fine white glazing may be obtained by cal¬
cining two parts of lead and one part of tin 5 and
taking one part of this mafs, and of flints and common
fait of each one part, and fuling the mixture.
A white glazing may be alfo prepared by mixing
loo pounds of mafticot, 60 pounds of red lead, 20
pounds of calcined tin or putty, and 10 pound^ of
common fait, and calcining and powdering the mix¬
ture leveral times.
. Tel/ow is prepared of red lead three pounds 5 cal¬
cined antimony and tin, of each two pounds; or, ac¬
cording to fome, of equal quantities of the three in¬
gredients. Thefe mull be melted into a cake, then
ground fine ; and this operation repeated feveral times 5
or it may be made of i 5 parts of lead ore, three parts
of litharge of filver, and 15 parts of fand.—A fine
yellow glazing may be procured by mixing five parts
of red lead, two parts of powdered brick, one part of
fand, one part of the white glazings, and two parts of
antimony, calcining the mixture and then fufing it.
Or, take four parts of white glafs, one part of anti-
mony, three parts of red lead, and one part of iron
f-% IT" •  7      xxmll
icales, and fule the mixture ; or fufe 16 parts of flints,
one part of iron filings, and 24 parts of litharge. A
light yellow glazing may be produced with ten parts
of red lead, three parts of antimony, and three of
glafs, and two parts of calcined tin. See Gold colour,
above.—A citron yellow is made of fix parts of red
lead, feven parts of fine red brick dull, and two parts
of antimony. This mixture mull be calcined day and
night for the fpaee of four days, in the afli hole of a
glafs-houfe furnace, and at lall urged to fufion.
I'or the glazing of Delft ware. Porcelain, Stone-
v.’are, &c. fee the articles DELFT Ware, Porcelain,
and Pottery.
1 he Romans had a method of glazing their earthen
veffels, which in many refpedls appears to have been
iuperior to ours. Fhe common brown glazing eafily
Icales oft, cracks, and in a fhort time becomes dif-
agreeable to the eye. Befides, it is very eafily de¬
ployed by acids; nor can veflels glazed in this man¬
ner be even employed to hold water, without part of
it oozing through their pores. Lead is alfo very de-
flructive. to the human body ; and if acids are unwa¬
rily put into veflels glazed with lead, the liquors will
receive a very dangerous impregnation from the me-
67 3 G L e
tal. The Roman glazing, which is yet to be feen Glazing
upon urns dug up in feveral places, appears to have I!
been made of fome kind of varnifti; and Pliny gives Glenda-
us a hint that it was made of bitumen. He tells us ' r
that it never loft its beauty, and that at length it be- ^
came cuftomary to glaze over ftatues in this manner.
As this varnifti funk deep into the fubftance of the
ware, it was not lubjedl to thofe cracks and flaws which
disfigure our veffels; and as it was not liable to be
corroded by acids, it could not be fubjeft to any of
the accidents which may enfue from the ufe of veffels
glazed with lead.
GLEAD, or Glade, a name ufed in the northern
parts of the kingdom for the kite. See Falco, Orni¬
thology Index.
GLEAM is popularly ufed for a ray or beam of
light. Among falconers a hawk is faid to gleam when
Hie cafts or throws up filth from the gorge.
GLEANING, the aft of gathering or picking up
the ears of corn left behind after the field has been
reaped and the crop carried home. By the cuftoms
of tome countries, particularly thofe of Melun and
Eftampes, all farmers and others are forbid, either by
themfelves or fervants, to put any'cattle into the fields,
or prevent the gleaning in any manner whatever for
the (pace of 24 hours after the carrying off the corn
under the penalty of confifcation.
. GLEBE, among miners, fignifies a piece of earth
in which is contained fome mineral ore.
Glebe, in Law, the land belonging to a parilh
church befides the tithes.
GLECHOMA, Ground Ivy, a genus of plants
belonging to the didynamia clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 4:d order, Verticillatcc. See
Botany Index.
GLEDITSIA,Triple Thorned Acacia, or Ho.
ney Locvjl, a genus of plants belonging to the polyga-
mia clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the
33d order, Lomentacecc. See Botany Index.
GLEET, in Medicine, the flux of a thin limpid hu¬
mour from the urethra. See Medicine Index.
GLENDALAGH, otherwife called the Seven
Churches, anciently a celebrated town of Ireland
fituated five . miles north-weft of Rathdrum, in the
county of Wicklow, and province of Leinfter. The
name fignifies “ the valley of the two lakes.” In
this valley, furrounded by high and almoft inaccef-
fible mountains, St Kevin or Cavan, called alfo St
Cocmgene, about the middle of the 6th century, found¬
ed a monaftery, which in a ftiort time from the fanc-
tity of its founder, was much reforted to, and at
length became a biftiopriek and a religious city. St
Kevin died 3d June 618, aged 120; and on that
day annually numbers of perfons flock to the Seven
Churches -to celebrate the feftival of that venerated
Lint. During the middle ages the city of Glen-
dalagh, called by Hovedon Epifcopalus Bijlc.gnienjis,
was held in great efteem, and received feveral valuable
donations and privileges, its epifcopal jurifdiftion ex¬
tending to the walls of Dublin.—About the middle
of the 12th century, on fome account or other, it was
much neglefted by the clergy ; and became, inftead of
a.holy city, a den of thieves, wherefore Cardinal Pa-
piro, in 1214, united it to the fee of Dublin, which u-
mon was confirmed by King John. The O’Tools, chiefs
of
GliiTbn.
G L I [ 768 ]
Glendalaghof Firtliual, however, by the affiftance of the Pope, reperlis
continued long after this period to ele6l bifhops and
r abbots to Glendalagh, though they had neither reve¬
nues or authority, beyond the diftrift of Tuathal,
which was the weftern part of the county of Wicklow' $
in confequence of which the .city was fuffered to decay,
and had become nearly a defert, in 1497, when Den¬
nis White, the lalt titular bithop, furrendered his right
in the cathedral church of St Patrick, Dublin. From
the ruins of this ancient city ftill remaining, it ap¬
pears to have been a place of confequence, and to have
contained feven churches and religious houfes j fraall
indeed, but built in a neat elegant ftile, in imitation
of the Greek architefture : the cathedral, the walls of
which are yet Handing, was dedicated to St Peter and
St Paul. South of the cathedral Hands a fmall church
roofed with Hone, nearly entire $ and in feveral parts
of the valley are ,a number of Hone croffes, feme of
which are eurioufly carved, but without any infcrip-
tions. In the north-wed corner of the cemetery be-
longing to the cathedral Hands a round tower, 95
feet high, and 15 in diameter *, and in the cemetery of
a fqiall church, on the fouth fide of the river, near
the great lake, called the Rhefeart church, are feme
tombs, with Irifh infcriptions, belonging to the
O’Toolsu In a perpendicular projecting rock on the
fouth fide of the great lake., 30 yards above the fur-
face of the water, is the celebrated bed of St Kevin,
hewn out of the rock, exceedingly difficult of accefs and
terrible of profpect. AmongH the ruins have been dil-
covered a number of Hones, curioufiy carved, and con¬
taining infcriptions in the Latin, Greek, and Irilh
languages. As this city was in a valley, furrounded
on all fides, except the cad, by high, barren, and in-
acceffible mountains, the artificial roads leading there¬
to are by no means the lead curious part of the re¬
mains j the principal is that leading into the. county
of Kildare through Glendafon. This road for near
two miles is yet perfeQ:, compofed of Hones placed on
their edges, making a firm and durable pavement, a-
bout 10 feet broad. At a fmall diltance from St Ke¬
vin’s bed, on the fame fide of the mountain, are to be
i'een the ruins of a fmall Hone building called Saint Ke¬
vin's cell.
GLENOIDES, the name of two cavities, or fmall
depreffions, in the inferior part of the firlt vertebra of
the neck.
GLIMMER, or Glist. See Mica, Mineralo¬
gy Index.
G LIN US, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging
to the decandria elafs; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 22d clafs, CaryopJnjllece. See Botany
Index-
GLIRES, the name of Linnaeus’s fourth order of
mammalia. See Mammalia Index.
GLISSON, Francis, a learned Englifh phyfieian
in the 17th century, was educated at Cambridge, and
was made regius profeffor of that univerfity. in 1634
he was admitted a fellow of the College of Phyficians in
London. During the civil wars, he praftifed phyfic
at Colchefler, and afterwards fettled in London. He
greatly improved phyfic by his anatomical diffeftions
and obfervations, and made feveral new difeoveries of
fingular ufe towards efiabliffiing a rational practice. He
wrote, 1. De rachitide3 &c. 2. De lymphiduHis nuper
G L O
with the Anatomica prolegomena, et Anatomia
hepatis. 3. De naturce fubjlantia energitica ; feu de via
vita: natura:, ejufque tribusprimis facultalibus, &c. quar¬
to. 4. Trattains de ventriculo et intejlinis, See. The world
is obliged to him for the capfula communis, or vagina
porta.
GLISTER, in Surgery. See Clyster.
GLOBBA, a genus of plants belonging to the mon-
andria clafs. See Botany Index.
GLOBE, in Geometry, a round or fpherical bodv#
more ufually called a Sphere. See Sphere.
Globe is more particularly ufed for an artificial
fphere of metal, plafier, paper, or other matter } on
whofe convex furface is drawn a map, or reprefenla-
tion either of the earth or heavens, with the feveral
circles conceived theron. See Geography.
Globes are of two kinds, terrejlrial and celejlial; each
of very confiderable ufe, the one in afirenomy, and the
other in geography, for performing many of the opera¬
tions thereof in an eafy obvious manner, fo as to be
conceived without any knowledge of the mathematical
grounds of thofe arts.
The fundamental parts, common to both globes, are
an axis, reprefenting that of the world ; and a fpherical
Ihell, or cover, which makes the body of the globe, on
the external furface of which the reprefentation is
drawn. See Geography Index.
Globes, we have obferved, are made of different ma¬
terials, viz. filver, brafs, paper, plafter, &c. Thofe
commonly ufed are of plaiter and paper. For the con-
HrufHon of globes, fee Geography Index.
For the ufes, &c. of the globes, fee GEOGRAPHY
and Astronomy.
Globe Animal. See Animalcule.
Globe Fiflj. See Ostracion, Ichthyology In¬
dex.
GLOBULARIA, Globular Blue Daisy j a ge¬
nus of plants, belonging to the tetrandria clafs ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 48th order,
Aggregata. See Botany Index.
GLOBULE, a diminutive of globe, frequently
ufeff by phyficians in fpeaking of the red particles of
the blood. See Blood,
GLOCESTER, the capital of Glocefierffiire, in
England, 106 miles from London. It is an ancient
city ; and by Antoninus is called Clevum, or Glevvm,
which Camden thinks was formed from the Britilh
Caer-Glowe, fignifying “ a fair city.” It was one of the
28 cities built by the Britons before the arrival of
the Romans, who made it one of their colonies, and
in the eighth century it was efieemed one of the
nobleff cities in the kingdom. It has fuffered con-
fiderably by fire at different periods. It Hands upon
a hill } and from the middle of the city, where the four
principal Hreets meet, there is a defeent every way,
which makes it not only clean and healthy, but adds to
the beauty of the place. Forging of iron feems to have
been its manufacture fo early as the time of William
the Conqueror. King Henry VIII. made it the fee of
a bilhop, with a dean and fix prebends. Its cafile,
which was erected in the time of William the Conquer¬
or, is very much decayed part of it is leafed out by
the crown ; and the reff ferves for a prifon, one of the
befl in England. In its cathedral, which is an ancient
Glitfou
u
Glocefter.
but magnificent fabric, and has a tower reckoned
one
G L O
Clocefler. one of the nroft curious pieces of architeaure in Eng¬
land, are the tombs of Robert duke of Normandy,
fon to William the Conqueror, and of Edward II. and
there is a whifpering place like to that of St Paul’s
at London. In the chapter houfe lies Strongbow
who conquered Ireland. There are i 2 chapels in it,
with the arms and monuments of many great per-
fons. King John made it a borough to be go¬
verned by two bailiffs. Henry III. who wTas crowned
here, made it a corporation. By its prefent charter
from Charles I. it is governed by a Reward, who is ge¬
nerally a nobleman ; a mayor; a recorder j i 2 aldermen,
out of whom the mayor is chofen ; a town clerk •, two
flieriffs, chofen yearly out of 26 common councilmen j
a fword-bearer ; and four ferjeants at mace. Here are
I 2 incorporated trading companies, whofe mailers at¬
tend the mayor on all public occafions, &c. Befides
the cathedral, there are five parilh churches in this
city j which is likewife well provided with hofpitals,
particularly an infirmary upon the plan of thofe at
London, \V inchefter, Bath, &c. Here is a good ftone
bridge over the river Severn, with a quay, wharf, and
cuffomhoufe 5 but moft of its bufinefs is engroffed by
Britlol. King Edward I. held a parliament here in
1272, wherein fqme good laws were made, now called
the Statutes of Giocefier ; and he erefted a gate on the
loutn fide of the abbey, ffill called by his name, though
almofl demohfired in the civil wars. King Richard II.
alfo held a parliament here : and King Richard III. in
confideration of his having (before his acceffion to the
crown) borne the title of Duke of Glocefler, added the
two adjacent hundreds of Dudfion and King’s Barton
to it, gave it his fword and cap of maintenance, and
made it a county of itfelf by the name of the county
of the city of Glocejler. But after the Reiteration the
hundreds were taken away by aft of parliament, and
the walls pulled down ; becaufe the city (hut the gates
againft Charles I. when he befieged it in 1643 ; by
which, though the fiege was raifed by the earl of Ef-
fex, it had fuffered 20,000]. damage, having 241
houfes deltroyed, which reduced it fo much that it
has fcarce recovered its former fize and grandeur. Be¬
fore that time it had 1 x parilh churches, but fix of
them were then demolifhed. Here are abundance of
crofles, and fiatues of the Englifii kings, fome of whom
kept their Chriltmas here j feveral market houfe-s fup-
ported with pillars; and large remains of monafteries,
which were once fo numerous, that it gave occafion to
the monkilh proverb, As fire as God is in Glocefer.
Here is a barley market; and a hall for the afiizes, cal¬
led the Booth Hall. Its chief manufacture is pins. Un¬
der the bridge is a water engine to fupply the town,
and it is ferved with it alfo from Robin Hood’s well,
to which is a fine walk from the city. Camden fays,
that the famous Roman way, called Ermin Street,
which begins at St David’s in Pembrokefhire, and
reaches to Southampton, pafles through this city. Sud-
mead in the neighbourhood is noted for horfe races.
Here is a charity febool for above 80 children, of whom
above 70 are alfo clothed; and a well endowed blue
coat fchool. J he city fends two members to parlia¬
ment. W. Long. 2. 13. N. Lat. 51. 48.
Glocestkr is alfo the name of two counties and
of feveral towns in America ; Inch as the county of
Giocefier in New Jerfey, bounded on the north by
Vol, IX. Part II.
[ 769 ]
G L O
Burlington, on the fouth by Salem and Cumberland, 6loeeftefi,
on the eaft by the Atlantic ocean, and on the weft by Giocefter-
the river Delaware. It contains 13,172 inhabitants, flare: r
befides 191 flaves. Glocefter in Virginia is a well cul¬
tivated and fruitful county, about 53 miles long and 30
broad, with a population of 13,498 fouls, among whom
are included 7063 flaves.
GLOCESTERSHIRE, a county of England, is
bounded on the weft by Montnouthflure and Here-
fordthire, on the north by Worcefterlhire, on the eafl:
by Oxfordftiire and Warwickfliire, and on the fouth
by Wiltlhire, and part of Somerfetfhire. It is fixty
miles in length, twenty-fix in breadth, and one hun¬
dred and fixty in circumference ; containing 1,100,000
acres, 26,760 houfes, 162,560 inhabitants, 290 pa-
rifhes, 140 are impropriations, 1229 villages, 2 cities,
and 28 market towns. It fends only 8 members to
parliament, 6 for three towns, viz. Glocefter, Tewkef-
bury, and Cirencefter ; and two for the county. Its
manufatftures are woollen cloths of various kinds, men’s
hats, leather, pens, paper, bar iron, edge tools, nails,
wire, tinned plates, brafs, &c.: and of the principal
articles of commerce of the county, it exports cheefe
8000 tons; bacon, grain, cyder, 5000I. worth ; perry,
fifli, 4000I. worth, &c. It lies in the diocefe that
takes, its name from the capital, and in the Oxford
circuit. The air of the county is very wholefome, but
the face of it is very different in different parts : for
the eaftern part is hilly, and is called Cottefwo/d; the
weftern woody, and called the Foref of Dean; and the
reft is a fruitful valley, through which runs the river
Severn. This river is in fome places between two and
three miles broad ; and its courfe through the county,
including its windings, is not lefs than feventy miles.
I he tide of flood, called the Boar, rifes very high, and
is very impetuous. It is remarkable, that the greateft
tides are one year at the full moon, and the other at
the new; one year the night tides, and the next the
day. Ibis river affords a noble conveyance for goods
and merchandife of all forts to and from the county j
out it is watered by feveral others, as the Wye, the
Avon, the Ifis, the Leyden, the Frome, the Stroud,
and Windrufh, befides leffer ftreams, all abounding
with fifh, the Severn in particular Avith falmon, con¬
ger eels, and lampreys. The foil is in genera] very
fertile, though pretty much diverfified, yielding plen¬
ty of corn, pafture, fruit, and wood. In the hilly
part of the county, or Cottefwold, the air is {harper
than in the lowlands; and the foil, though not fo fit
for grain, produces excellent pafture for flieep ; fo that
of the four hundred thoufand that are computed to be
kept in the county, the greater part are fed here. Of
thefe (heep the wool is exceeding fine ; and hence it is
that this (hire is fo eminent for its manufaifture of
cloth, of which fifty thoufand pieces are faid to haA'e
been made yearly, before the praftice of clandeftinely
exporting Englilh Aveol became fo common. In the
vale, or lower part of the county, through which the
Severn pafles, the air and foil are very different from
thofe of the Cottelwold : for the former is much warmer,
and the. latter richer, yielding the moft luxuriant paf-
tures; in confequence of which, numerous herds of
black cattle are kept, and great quantities of that ex¬
cellent cheefe, for which it is fo much celebrated, made
in it. The remaining part of the county, called the
5 E Fore/7
Gloeefter-
fhire
G L O
[
/,
Forejl of Dean, was formerly almoft entirely overrun
with rvood, and extended 20 miles in length, and 10 in
breadth. It was then a nefi: of robbers, efpecially to¬
wards the Severn ; but now it contains many towns
and villages, confifting chiefly of miners, employed in
the coal pits, or in digging for or forging iron ore,
with both which the foreft abounds. Thefe miners
have their particular laws, cuftoms, courts, and judges :
and the king, as in all royal forefts, has a fwain-mote
for the prefervation of the vert and venifon. This fo¬
reft was anciently, and is ftiil noted for its oaks, which
thrive here furprifingly , but as there is a prodigious
confumption of wood in the forges, it is continually
dwindling away. A navigable canal is made from
Stroud to Framilode, forming a junflion between the
Severn and Thames. Its chalybeate fprings are, St
Anthony’s well, in Abbenhall parifti j at Barrow and
Maredon, in Bodington parifh •, at Afh-church, near
Tewkefbury ; at Dumbleton, near Winchcomb j at
Eafington, near Durfley j and at Cheltenham. Its an-
eient fortifications, attributed to the Romans, Saxons,
or Danes, are Abfton and Wick, and at Dointon,
Dixton, Addlefthorp, Knole, Over Upton, Hanham
Bodington, and Bourton on the Water.
GLOCHIDON, a genus of plants, belonging to
the monoecia clafs. See Botany Index.
GLOGAW, a ftrong town of Germany, in Silefia,
and capital of a duchy of the fame name. It is not
very large, but is well fortified on the fide of Poland.
It has a handfome caftle, with a tower, in which feve-
ral counfellors were condemned by Duke John, in 1498,
to perilh with hunger. Befides the Papifts, there are
a great number of Proteftants and Jews. It was taken
by affault, by the king of Pruflia, in 1741, and the
garrifon made prifoners. After the peace in 1742, the
king of Pruflia fettled the fupreme court of juftice
here, it being, next to Breflaw, the moft populous place
in Silefia. It is feated on the river Oder, in E. Long.
16. 15. N. Lat. 51. 39.
Glogaw the Less, a town of Silefia, in the duchy
of Oppeln, now in the polfeflion of the king of Pruf-
fia. It is 19 miles fouth of Oppeln, and 45 north-
weft of Breflaw. E. Long. 16. 15. N. Lat. 51. 38.
GLORIA Patri, among ecclefiaftical writers. See
Doxology.
GLORIOSA, Superb Lily, a genus of plants, be¬
longing to the hexandria clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the nth order, Sarmentofce. See
Botany Index.
GLORY, renown or celebrity. The love of re¬
nown, or defire of fame and reputation, appears to be
one of the principal fprings of adftion in human fociety.
Glory, therefore, is not to be contemned, as fome of
the ancient philofophers affe&ed to teach : but it im¬
ports us to regulate our purfuit after it by the di&ates
of reafon j and if the public approbation will not fol¬
low us in that courfe, we muft leave her behind.—
We ought to have our judgments well inftrufled as
to what aftions are truly glorious 5 and to remember,
that in every important enterprife, as Seneca obferves,
Re Be fach feciffe fnerces ejl ; officii fruBus, ipfum qffi-
cium eji : “ The reward of a thing well done, is to have
done it j the fruit of a good office, is the office itfelf.”
Thofe who by other methods fcatter their names Into
o ] G L O
many mouths, ffiow they rather hunt after a great re¬
putation than a good one, and their reward is oftener
infamy than fame.
Men generally, and almoft inftimftively, affix glory
only to fuch adtions as have been produced by an in¬
nate defire for public good 5 and we meafure it by that
degree of influence which any thing done has upon the
common happinefs.
If the attions of the hero condudt fooneft to glory
and with the greateft fplendour, and if the victorious
general is fo great after a fignal engagement; it is be-
caufe the fervice he has done is for the moment, and
for all; and becaufe we think without refledting, that
he has faved our habitations, cur wealth, and our chil¬
dren, and every thing that attaches us to life. If the
man of fciencc, who in his ftudy has difeovered and
calculated the motions of the heavenly bodies, who in
his alembics has unveiled fome of the fecrets of nature,
or who has exhibited to mankind a new art, rifes to
fame with lefs noife j it is becaufe the utility which
he procures is more widely diffufed, and is often of lefs
fervice to the prefent than to fucceeding generations.
The confequences, therefore, of thefe two advan¬
tages are as oppofite as the caufes are different \ and
while the benefits procured by the warrior appear to
have no more influence, and while his glory becomes
obfeure, that of a celebrated writer or inventor ftill in-
creafes, and is more and more enlarged. His wrorks
every day bring back his name to that age which ufes
them, and thus ftill add to his celebrity and fame.
This pofthumous fame indeed has been decried by
fome writers. In particular, the author of the Religion
of Nature delineated has treated it as highly irrational
and abfurd. “In reality (fays he) the man is not
known ever the more to pofterity, becaufe his name i
tranfmitted to them : He doth not live, becaufe his
name does. When it is faid Julius Csefar fubdued
Gaul, conquered Pompey, &c. it is the fame thing as^
to fay, the conqueror of Pompey was Julius Caefar j
i. e. Ceefar and the conqueror of Pompey is the fame
thing ; Caefar is as much known by one defignation as
by the other. The amount then is only this, that the
conqueror of Pompey conquered Pompey 5 or fome-
body conquered Pompey j or rather, fince Pompey is
as little known now as Caefar, fomebody conquered
fomebody. Such a poor bufinefs is this boafted immor¬
tality ! and fuch is the thing called glory among us !
To difeerning men this fame is mere air, and what they
defpife if not ffiun.”
But furely it were to confider too curioufly (as Ho¬
ratio fays to Hamlet) to confider thus. For (as the
elegant author of Fitzofborne’s Letters obferves) al¬
though fame with pofterity ffiould be, in the ftridl ana-
lyfis of it, no other than what is here deferibed, a mere
uninterefting propofition, amounting to nothing more
than that fomebody a£ted meritorioufly ; yet it would
not neceflarily follow, that true philofophy w’ould ba-
nith the defire of it from the human breaft : for this paf-
fion may be (as moft certainly it is) wifely implanted
in our fpecies, notwithftanding the correfponding ob¬
ject ffiould in reality be very different from what it ap¬
pears in imagination. Do not many of our moft refin¬
ed and even contemplative pleafuresowe their exiftence
to our miftakes ? It is but extending fome of our fenfes
to
G L O [ ]
to a higher^ degree of ^.cutenefs than we now poflefs compound of yA<y<me,
(lloiy
Gloffopetra t^em’ t0 ma^e fa*reft vievvs of nature, or the nobleft
"productions of art, appear horrid and deformed. To fee
things as they truly and in themfelves are, would not
always, perhaps, be of advantage to us in the intellec¬
tual world, any more than in the natural. But, after
all, who (hall certainly affure us, that the pleafure of
virtuous fame dies with its poffeffor, and reaches not to
a farther fcene of exiftence ? There is nothing, it fhould
feem, either abfurd or unphilofophical in fuppofing it
poffible at leaft, that the praifes of the good and the ju¬
dicious, the fweeteft mufic to an honeft ear in this world,
may be echoed back to the manfions of the next 5 that
the poet’s defcription of Fame may be literally true,
and though (he walks upon earth, {he may yet lift her
head into heaven.
t To be convinced of the great advantage of cherifli-
ing this high regard to pofterity, this noble defire of
an after life in the breath of others, one need only look
back upon the hiftory of the ancient Greeks and Ro¬
mans. For W’hat other principle was it which produced
that exalted drain of virtue in thofe days, that may
well ferve, in too many refpedls, as a model to thefe ?
Was it not the confentiens laus honorum, the incorrupta
vox bent judicantium (as Tully calls it), “ the concur¬
rent approbation of the good, the uncorrupted ap-
plaufe of the wife,” that animated their mod generous
purfuits ?
In Ihort, can it be reafonable to extinguifh a paflion
which nature has univerfally lighted up in the human
bread, and w'hich we condantly find to burn with mod
drength and brightnefs in the nobled and bed formed
bofoms ? Accordingly revelation is fo far from endea¬
vouring to eradicate the feed which nature has thus
deeply planted, that Ihe rather feems, on the contrary,
to cherifli and forward its growth. To be exalted with
honour, and to be had in everlafting remembrance, are
in the number of thofe encouragements which the
Jewidi difpenfation offered to the virtuous ; and the
perfon from whom the facred Author of the Chridian
fydem received his birth, is herfelf reprefented as re¬
joicing that all generations Jhould call her blejfed.
GLOSS, a comment on the text of any author, to
explain his fenfe more fully and at large, whether in
the fame language or any other. See the article Com¬
mentary.—The word, according to fome, comes from
the Greek yXacrrx, “ tongue 5” the office of a glofs be¬
ing to explain the text, as that of the tongue is to dif-
cover the mind.
Gloss is likewife ufed for a literal trandation, or an
interpretation of an author in another language word
for word.
Gloss is alfo ufed in matters of commerce, &c. for
the ludre of a filk, duff, or the like.
GLOSSARY, a fort of didfionary, explaining the
obfcure and antiquated terms in fome old author; fuch
are Du Cange’s Latin and Greek Gloffaries, Spelman’s
Gloffary, and Rennet’s Gloffary at the end of his Pa¬
rochial Antiquities.
GLOSSOPETRA, or Glottopetra, in Natural
Hi/lory, a kind of extraneous foffil, fomewhat in form
of a ferpent’s tongue ; frequently found in the ifland
«f Malta and other places.
I he vulgar notion is, that they are the tongues of
ferpents petrified ; and hence their name, which is a
G L O
Glove.
tongue” and wir^et, 11 done.” Gloffopetra
Hence alfo their traditionary virtue in curing the bites
of ferpents. The general opinion of naturalids is, that
they are the teeth of fiffies, left at hand by the waters
of the deluge, and fince petrified.
1 he feveral fizes of the teeth of the fame fpecies, and
thofe of the feveral different fpecies of fiiarks, afford a
vad variety of thefe foffil fubdances. Their ufual co¬
lours are black, bluifii, whitiffi, yellowifh, or brown ;
and in drape they ufually approach to a triangular fi¬
gure. Some of them are fimple ; others are tricufpi-
date, having a fmall point on each fide of the large
one : many of them are quite draight 5 but they are
frequently found crooked, and bent in all directions ;
many of them are ferrated on their edges, and others
have them plain 5 fome are undulated on their edges,
and fiightly ferrated on thefe undulations. They differ
alio in fize as much as in figure *, the larger being four
or five inches long, and the fmaller lefs than a quarter
of an inch.
They are mod ufually found with us in the drata of
blue clay, though fometimes alfo in other fubdances, and
are frequent in the clay pits of Richmond and other
places. They are very frequent alfo in Germany, but
nowhere fo plentiful as in the ifland of Malta.
The Germans attribute many virtues to thefe foffil
teeth I. they call them cordials, fudorifics, and alexh
pharmics : and the people of Malta, where they are
extremely plentiful, hang them about their children’s
necks to promote dentition. They may poffibly be of
as much fervice this way as an anodyne necklace; and
if fufpended in fuch a manner that the child can get
them to its mouth, may, by their hardnefs and fmooth-
nefs, be of the fame ufe as a piece of coral.
GLOTTIS, in Anatomy, the narrow flit at the up¬
per part of the afpera arteria, which is covered by the
epiglottis when we hold our breath and when we fwal-
low. The glottis, by its dilatation and contraction,
modulates the voice. See Anatomy, N° 183.
GLOVE, a covering for the hand and wrid.
Gloves, with refpeCt to commerce, are didinguiffied
into leathern gloves, filk gloves, thread gloves, cotton
gloves, worded gloves, &c. Leathern gloves are made
of chamois, kid, lamb, doe, elk, buff, &c. Gloves
now pay a duty to the king, which increafes according
to their value.
lo throw the glove, was a praCHce or ceremony
very ufual among our forefathers; being the challenge
whereby another was defied to Angle combat. It is
dill retained at the coronation of our kings 5 when the
king’s champion cads his glove in Wedminder hall.
See Champion.
lavyn fuppoffes the cudom to have arifen from the
eaftern nations, who in all their fales and deliveries of
lands, goods, &c. ufed to give the purchafer their
glove by way of livery or invediture. To this effeCi
he quotes Ruth iv. 7. where the Chaldee paraphrafe
calls glove what the common verfion renders by Jhoe.
He adds, that the Rabbins interpret by glove that
paffage in the cviiith Pfalm, In Idumeam cxtendam cal-
ceamentum meum, “ Over Edom will I cad out my ffioe.”
Accordingly, among us, he who took up the glove, de¬
clared thereby his acceptance of the challenge ; and
as a part of the ceremony, continues Favyn, took the.
glove off his own right hand, and cad it upon the
5 T 2 ground,
G L O [ 772 ] G L O
dove, ground, to be taken up by the challenger. This had
Ciover. tjle force Gf a mutual engagement on each fide, to meet
at the time and place which thould be appointed by the
king, parliament, or judges. The fame author afferts,
that the cuftom which ftill obtains of blefling gloves in
the coronation of the kings of France, is a remain of
the eaftern pra£tice of giving poffeflion with the glove,
lib. xvi. p. 1017, &c.
Anciently it was prohibited the judges to wear
gloves on the bench. And at prefent in the ftables of
jnoft princes, it is not fafe going in without pulling off
the gloves.
GLOVER, Richard, the author of Leonidas and
feveral other efteemed works, was the fon of Richard
Glover, a Hamburgh merchant in London, and was
born in St Martin’s lane in the year 1712. He very
early fhowed a ftrong propenfity to and genius for
poetry $ and while at fchool, he wrote, amongfi: other
pieces, a poem to the memory of Sir Ifaac Newton,
prefixed to the view of that incomparable author’s
philofophy, publithed in 410, in 1728, by his intimate
friend Dr Pemberton. But though poffeffed of talents
which were calculated to excel in the literary world, he
was content to devote his attention to commerce, and
at a proper period commenced a Hamburgh merchant.
He ftill, however, cultivated literature, and affociated
with thofe who were eminent in fcienee. One of his
earlieft friends was Matthew Green, the ingenious but
obfcure author of fome admirable poems, which in
1737, after his death, were collefted and publilhed by
Mr Glover. In I 737, Mr Glover married Mifs Nunn,
with whom he received a handfome fortune j and in
the fame month publiftied Leonidas, a poem in 410,
which in this and the next year pafied through three
editions. This poem was inferibed to Lord Cobham ;
and on its firft appearance was received by the world
with great approbation, though it has fince been un¬
accountably negledted. Lord Lyttleton, in a popular
publication called Common Senfe, and in a poem ad-
dreffed to the author, praifed it in the warmeft terms;
and Dr Pemberton publiftied, Obfervations on Poetry,
efpecially epic, occafioned by the late poem upon Leo¬
nidas, 1738, i2mo, merely with a view to point out its
beauties. In 1739, Mr Glover publiftied “ London,
or the Progrefs of Commerce,” 4to ; and a ballad en¬
titled, Hofier’s Ghoft. Both thefe pieces feem to have
been written with a view to incite the public to refent
the mifbehaviour of the Spaniards 5 and the latter had
a very confiderable effeft. The political diffenfions at
this period raged with great violence, and more efpe¬
cially in the metropolis j and at different meetings of
the livery on thofe occafions, Mr Glover was always
called to the chair, and acquitted himfelf in a very able
manner, his conduft being patriotic and his fpeeches
mafterly. His talents for public fpeaking, his know¬
ledge of political affairs, and his information concern¬
ing trade and commerce, foon afterwards pointed him
out to the merchants of London as a proper perfon to
conduft their application to parliament on the fubjeft
of the negleft of their trade. He accepted the office j
and in fumming up the evidence gave very ftriking
proofs of his oratorical powers. This fpeech was pro¬
nounced Jan. 27. 1742.
In the year 1744 died the duchefs of Marlborough,
and by her will left to Mr Glover and Mr Mallet
3
500I. each, to write the Hiftory of the Duke of Marl- Glover,
borough’s Life. This bequeft, however, never took ~
place. It is fuppofed that Mr Glover very early re¬
nounced his ffiare of it ; and Mallet, though he con¬
tinued to talk of performing the talk almott as long as
he lived, is now known never to have made the leaft
progrefs in it. About this period Mr Glover withdrew
a good deal from public notice, and lived in retire¬
ment. He had been unfuccefsful in his bufinefs ; and
with a very laudable delicacy had preferred an obfcure
retreat to popular obfervation, until his affairs Ihoisld
put on a more profpercus appearance. He had been
honoured with the attention of Frederick prince of
Wales, who once prefented him with a complete fet of
the clafllcs, elegantly bound , and, on his abfenting
himfelf for fome time on account of the embarraffment
in his circumftances, fent him, it is faid, 500I. The
prince died in March 1751 } and in May following
Mr Glover was once more drawn from his retreat by
the importunity of his friends, and flood candidate for
the place of chamberlain of London. It unfortunately
happened that he did not declare himfelf until moft of
the livery had engaged their votes j by which means
he loft his eleftion.
In 1753, Mr Glover produced at Drury Lane his
tragedy of Boadicea ; which was afted nine nights, in
the month of December. It had the advantage of the
performance of Mr Garrick, Mr Moffop, Mrs Cibber,
and Mrs Pritchard. From the prologue it feeirs to
have been patronized by the author’s friends in the
city j and Dr Pemberton wrote a pamphlet to recom¬
mend it.—In 1761, Mr Glover publithed Medea, a
tragedy written on the Greek model j but it was not
afted until 1767, when it appeared for the firft time
on the ftage at Drury Lane for Mrs Yates’s benefit.
At the acceffion of his prefent majefty, he appears to
have furmounted the difficulties of his fituation. In
the parliament which was then called, he was chofen
member for Weymouth, and continued to fit as fuch
until the diffolution of it. He, about this time, in-
terefted himfelf about India affairs, at one of Mr Sul¬
livan’s elections j and in a fpeech introduced the fable
of the man, horfe, and bear ; and drew this conclufion,
that, whenever merchants made ufe of armed forces to
maintain their trade, it would end in their deftruftion.
In 1770, the poem of Leonidas requiring a new
edition, it was republiftied in two volumes 1 2mo, cor-
refted throughout, and extended from nine books to
twelve. It had alfo feveral new characters added, be.
fides placing the old ones in new fituations. The im¬
provements made in it were very confiderable ; but we
believe the public curiofity, at this period, was not fuf-
ficiently alive to recomjrenfe the pains beftowed on this
once popular performance. The calamities arifing from
the wounds given to public credit, in June 1772, by
the failure of the bank of Douglas, Heron, and Co. in
Scotland, occafioned Mr Glover’s taking a very aftive
part in the fettling thofe complicated concerns, and
in flopping the diftrefs then fo univerfally felt. In Fe¬
bruary 1774, he called the annuitants of that banking-
houfe together, at the King’s Arms tavern, and laid
propofals before them for the fecurity »f their de¬
mands, with which they were fully fatisfied. He alfo
undertook to manage the interefts of the merchants
and traders,of London concerned in the trade to Ger-
ruanj
G L U [ j>
Glover many and Holland, and of the dealers in foreign linens,
Glue t^le’r application to parliament in May 1774. Both
—-v—the fpeeches made on thefe occafions were publilhed in
a pamphlet in that year. In the fucceeding year
he engaged on behalf of the Weft India merchants
in their application to parliament, and examined the
witneffes and fumraed up the evidence in the fame
mafterly manner he had done on former occafions. For
the affiftance he afforded the merchants in this bufi-
nefs, he was complimented by them with a fervice of
plate, of the value of 300I. The fpeech which he de¬
livered in the houfe was in the fame year printed.
This, we believe, was the laft opportunity he had of
difplaying his oratorical talents in public. Having
now arrived at a period of life which demanded a recefs
from buiinefs, Mr Glover retired to eafe and indepen¬
dence, and fpent the remainder of his days with dig¬
nity and with honour. It is probable that he ftill con¬
tinued his attention to his mufe, as we are informed
that, hefides an epic poem of confiderable length, he
has left fome tragedies and comedies behind him in
manufcript. After experiencing for fome time the
infirmities of age, he departed this life 25th November
1785-, leaving behind him a mcft eftimable character
as a man, a citizen, and a writer.
GLOW-worm. See Lampyris, Entomology lur/ex.
GLUCINA, in Chemiftry, an earthy fubftance which
was dilcovered by ^ auquelin in J798, in analyzing the
emerald of which it forms a component part. For an
account of its properties and combinations, fee Che¬
mistry, N° 116?.
GLUCKSTADT, a ftrong and confiderable town
of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and duchy
of Holftein, with a ftrong caille, and fubjedl to Den¬
mark. It is feated on the river Elbe, near its mouth,
and 28 miles from Hamburgh. E. Long. 9. 20. N.
Lat. 53-31-
GLUE, among artificers, a tenacious vifcid matter,
which ferves as a cement to bind or conned things to¬
gether.
Glues are of different kinds, according to the vari¬
ous ules they are defigned for, as the common glue,
glove glue, and parchment glue; whereof the two laft
are more properly called Ji%e.
Hamel du Monceau has written one of the heft works
on the fubjed of glue. According to this author, glue
was at firft principally prepared from the membranous,
tendinous, and cartilaginous parts of animals, and after
being dried, they wore melted into tablets. It is cer¬
tain, however, that every animal fubftance containing
jelly, may be ufed in the manufadure of glue j and,
according to Du Hamel himfelf, a ftrong, but black-
coloured glue may be obtained from bones and hartf-
horn, after they are diffolved in Papin’s digefter. Of
the truth of this fad Papin himfelf likewife affures us,
for he prepared a jelly from bones, and even from ivo-
ry, by which he glued together fome pieces of broken
glafs ; and lubfequent experiments made by other che-
mifts have confirmed his affertion.
do the information contained on this fubjed in the
works of Papin, Spielman has added many valuable
remarks. He not only extraded glue from bones, but
alfo from all the folid parts of animals, by boiling alone,
as well as from the teeth of the fea horfe, the wild
boar, the wood-loufe, and the viper.
M 1 G L U
The glue manufadured in Europe is of different G'ue.
kinds $ but that which is made in England is efteemed 1 "''V-”
the heft. Its colour is of a brownifti red. The Flan¬
ders glue is confidered as of an inferior quality to that
made in England, while the glue manufadured in
kranee is not lo good as either. The reafon afiigned
for this difference of quality is, that bones and finews
are made ufe of by the Flemifh and French in the ma¬
nufadure of this article, while the Englilh employ Ikins,
which yield a much ftronger glue. Dr Lewis informs
us that the Englilh fteep and walh the cuttings of the
hides in water, then boil them in freftr water till the
liquor becomes of a proper confiftence ; after which
they ftrain it through balkets, allow it to fettle, then
expole it to further evaporation, and pour it into flat
moulds, where it unites. When thoroughly cooled, it
is converted into lolid cakes, which are cut into pieces,
and dried on a kind of net.
Grenet for many years turned his attention to the
manufaduring of glue. Having made a number of ex¬
periments on every fubftance formerly employed for
this purpofe, he found that bones afford the molt abun¬
dant quantity of glue, and yield it with facility. Ha¬
ving deprived them of the fat they contain, he procur¬
ed a jelly by limply boiling them, which, when dried,
and thus changed into glue, he found fuperior to that
which was prepared in France, and nearly equal to the.
beft glue of commerce.
from the experiments of Parmentier, it appears that
fix pounds of button-makers rafpings yielded a pound of
excellent glue, not inferior to that which is manufac¬
tured in England. The glue which he obtained from
the filings of ivory was equally as good, but more
highly coloured. The filings of horn yielded none of
this fubftance.
Lo obtain glue as colourlefs as poflible, a very fmall
quantity of water fliould be employed for extracting
the jelly, by w hich means it may be concentrated with¬
out long evaporation, as expofure to heat has always a •
greater or lefs influence on the colour in proportion to
the time. The whitenefs and tranfparency of the Flan¬
ders glue are faid to originate-from an adherence to this
plan.
In their confiftence, colour, tafte, fmell, and folubi-
lity, glues are found to differ from each other. Some
glues w’ill diffolve by agitation in cold water, while
others are only foluble at the point of ebullition. It is
generally admitted that the beft glue is tranfparent, of
a brownifti yellow colour, and having neither tafte nor
fmell. .It is perfeftly foluble in water, forming a vif-
cous fluid, which, when dry, preferves its tenacity and
tranfparency in every part, and has more folidity, co¬
lour, and vifeidity, in proportion to the age and
ftrength of the animal from wrhich it is produced.
For the following account of the manufacture of glue,
we are indebted to Mr John Clennel of Newcaftle. “ The
improvement (he obferves) of any manufacture depends
upon .its eafy accefs to men of fcience, and a prudential
theorift can never be better employed than in attempting
to reduce to regularity or to fyftem the manufactures that
may fall under his attention. In conformity to the firft
principle, I made fome notes whilft vifiting a glue ma¬
nufactory a few years ago in Southwark, and thofe, in¬
terwoven with the remarks oft that fubjeft of fome che-
mifts of the firft refpeCtability, I take the liberty of
fending
1
G L U
Glue, fending you: at the fame time I muft beg of you, or
v your correfpondents, that where it may be correfted in
any manner, it may be done, and I fhall feel myfelf
obliged by the attention.
“ Glue is an infpiffated jelly, made of the parings of
hides or horns of any kind, the pelts obtained from fur¬
riers, and the hoofs and ears of horfes, oxen, calves,
theep, 8tc. quantities of all which are imported in ad¬
dition to the home fupply, by many of the great manu-
faflurers of this article : thefe are firft digefted in lime
•water, to cleanfe them as far as it can from the greafe
or dirt they may have contracted they are then fteep-
ed in clean water, taking care to ftir them w'ell from
time to time •, afterwards they are laid in a heap, and
the fuperabundant water prefled out j then they are
boiled in a large brafs caldron with clean water, Ikim-
ming off the dirt as it rifes, and further cleanfed by put¬
ting in, after the whole is diflblved, a little melted
alum or lime finely powdered, which, by their deterfive
properties, ftill further purge it : the flamming is con¬
tinued for fome time, when the mafs is drained through
balkets, and fuffered to fettle, that the remaining im¬
purities, if any, may fubfide •, it is then poured gently
into the kettle again, and further evaporated by boiling
a fecond time, and flamming, until it becomes of a clear
but darkifh brown colour : when it is thought to be
flrong enough (which is known either by the length of
time a certain quantity of water and materials have
boiled, or by its appearance during ebullition), it is
poured into frames or moulds of about fix feet long,
one broad, and two deep, where it hardens gradually
as the heat decreafes : out of thefe troughs or receivers
it is cut, when cold, by a fpade, into fquare pieces or
cakes, and each of thefe placed within a fort of wood¬
en box, open in three divifions to the back-, in this the
glue, as yet foft, is taken to a table by women, where
they divide it into three pieces (a) with an inftrument
not unlike a bow, having a brafs wire for its firing j
with this they Hand behind the box and cut by its
openings, from front to back : the pieces thus cut are
taken out into the open air, and dried on a kind of
coarfe net w'ork, faftened in moveable flieds of about
four feet fquare, which are faftened in rows in the glue-
maker’s field (every one of which contains four or five
rows of net work) ; when perfeftly dry and hard, it is
fit for fale.
« That is thought the beft glue which fwells confi-
derably without melting, by three or four days immer-
fion in cold water, and recovers its former dimenfions
and properties by drying. Glue that has got froft, or
that looks thick and black, may be melted over again
and refined, with a fufficient quantity added of frefh to
overcome any injury it may have fuftained j but it is
generally put into the kettle after what is in it has
been purged in the fecond boiling. To know good
from bad glue, it is neceffary for the purchafer to hold
it between his eye and the light, and if it appears of a
ftrong dark brown colour, and free from cloudy or
black fpots, the article is good.”
A glue that is colourlefs and of fuperior quality, is
G L U
obtained from the fldns of eels, and known by the name Glue,
ofJize. It is even procured from vellum, parchment, —V"
and fome of the white fpecies of leather ; but for com¬
mon purpofes this is by far too expenfive, and is only
made ufe of in thofe cafes of delicate workmanftiip
where glue would be too grofs. The fldns of the rab¬
bit, hare, and cat, are made ufe of in the manufac¬
turing of fize, by thole who are employed in gilding
gold, polilhing, and painting, in various colours.
From the experiments of Mr Hatchett it appears,
that membrane yields different quantities of gelatine,
the folutions of which evaporated to drynefs, afforded
him an opportunity of obferving the different degrees
of vifcidity and tenacity of mucilage, fize, and glue.
He alfo found that the more vifcid glues are obtained
with greater difficulty than fuch as are lefs fo. When
a cake of glue has been fteeped three or four days in
cold water, it is confidered of the beft quality, if it
fwell much without being diffolved, and if, when taken
out, it recovers its original figure and hardnefs by
drying.
On comparing the fldns of different animals, Mr
Hatchett found, that fuch as were moft flexible mor*
readily yielded their gelatine, and that produced from
the fldn of the rhinoceros was by far the moft vifcid of
any. The true fldn of any animal was moft affe£led
by long boiling; but the hide of the rhinoceros was
the moft infoluble.
He found that hair was not fo much affe&ed as fldn j
but the cartilages of the joints, when boiled long in
water, were as perfeftly foluble as the cutis, which is
not the cafe with the other cartilages, as they afford
little or no gelatine. The horns of the ox, ram, and
goat, are very different from thofe of the ftag ; and
the fmall quantity of gelatine they are found to contain,
is produced more gradually, and with greater diffi¬
culty.
According to Hatchett, the effects of diluted nitric
acid on the fubftances commonly employed in the ma-
nufadturing of glue, were exadlly analogous to thofe of
boiling water, and were always moil powerful on thofe
fubftances which contained the greateft quantity of ge¬
latine. Almoft all animal fubftances are convertible
either into glue or foap, with this additional advantage,
that thofe parts of them which would not be employed
in making the one, are the moft proper in the manu-
fadture of the other.
Another fine fpecies of glue, known by the name of
ifinglafsy is the produce of certain filh, very common
in the Ruffian Teas, found on entering the rivers Wol-
ga, Lyak, Don, and Danube. In Mufcovy it is pre¬
pared of the Jlurgeon and the Jiorted, which yield the
moft beautiful ifinglafs. The fifti from frefb water are
efteemed the beft, as they afford an ifinglafs more flex¬
ible and tranfparent than any other.
When the bladder is extradled, it is wrafhed in water
to free it from the blood, if any adheres to it, but not
otherwife. It is then cut longitudinally, and the outer
membrane taken off, the colour of which is brown,
while the other membrane is fo fine and white as to be
with
[ 774 1
(a) When the women, by miftake, cut only two, that which is double the ftze is called a bifiop, and thrown
into the kettle again.
4
I
G L U
Clue with difficulty feparated from thef.fli. ^,JV,
Gluttony. ed r0ll.S °f the .flZe °f the finger> with the fine
* -_ ■ WGG^brane in the middle, and hung in the air to dry
by degrees. Good iiingiafs is white, perfectly dry,
femitranfparent, and without fmell. It is foluble in
water with a gentle heat, but is eafily diffolved in al¬
cohol, in which it differs effentially from common glue.
That which is made from different parts of fea wolves,
fea cows, lharks, and whales, is employed in the clari¬
fying of different wdnes and other liquors. Ifinglafs is
of all fhades of colour, from pure tranfparency to black ;
but fucli as are large and yellow are reckoned the
worft. They are- opaque, and their fmell is difagree-
able. °
from 500 grains of ifinglafs Mr Hatchett obtained
56 grains of coal, from which 14 grain of earthy refi-
duum were obtained by reducing it to afhes. Of con-
fequence there were only 54.5 grains of pure coal, and
the remaining 1.5 he found to be phofphate of foda,
with an extremely fmall proportion of " phofphate of
lime. r
GLUME (gluma), among botaniffs, a fpecies of
calyx, conlifting of two or three membranous valves,
which are often pellucid at the edges. This kind of
calyx belongs to the graffes.
GLUT, among falconers, the {limy fubftance that
lies in a hawk’s paunch.
GLUJ A, a genus of plants belonging to the gy-
, nandria clafs. See Botany Index.
GLUTEUS, a name common to three mufcles
whole office it is to extend the thigh. See Anatomy,
1 able of the Mufcles.
GLUTTON. See Mustela, Mammalia Index.
GLUTTONY, a voracity of appetite, or a propen-
fity to gormandizing.
.There is a morbid fort of gluttony, called fames ca-
mna “ dog-like appetite,” which fometimes occurs,
and renuers the perfon feized with it an objeft of pity
and of cure as in other dileafes : (fee Bulimy). But
profeifed habitual gluttons may be reckoned amongft
the monfters of nature, and deemed in a manner puniffi-
able for endeavouring to bring a dearth or famine into
the places where they live. For which reafon, people
think King James I. was in the right, when a man be¬
ing prefented to him who could eat a whole ffieep at
one meal, he affied “ What he could do more than an¬
other man ?” and being anfwered “ He could not do fo
n1UCi j i- “ then 5 for it is unfit a man
mould live that eats fo much as 20 men, and cannot do
10 much as one.”
Ihe emperor Clodius Albinus would devour more
apples at once than a buffiel would hold. He would
eat 500 figs to his breakfaft, 100 peaches, 10 melons,
20 pound weight of grapes, 100 gnat-fnappers, and
400 oyfters. “ Fye upon him (faith Lipfius) : God-
keep fuch a curfe from the earth.”
One of our Daniffi kings named Hardiknute was fo
great a glutton, that a hiftorian calls him Bacca de Por-
co, “ Swine’s mouth.” His tables were covered four
times a-day with the moft coftly viands that either the
air fea, or land, could furniffi ; and as he lived he
died; for, revelling and caroufing at a wedding ban¬
quet at Lambeth, he fell down dead. His deatli was
io welcome to his fubjeas, that they celebrated the day
with fports and paftimes, calling it Hock tide, which
1 775 3 G M E
They are form- fignifies fcorn and contempt. With this king ended Gluttony
the reign of the Danes in England. ||
One Phagon, under the reign of the emperor Au-, .
relianus, at one meal, ate a whole boar, 100 loaves of "
bread, a ffieep, a pig, and drank above three gallons of
wine.
We are told by Fuller* that one Nicholas Wood,*
oi Harnfon in Kent, ate a whole ffieep of 16s. price P- s<>*
at one meal, raw j at another time 30 dozen of pi¬
geons. At Sir William Sidley’s in the fame county,
le ate as much victuals as would have fufficed 30 men.
At Lord Wotton’s manfion houfe in Kent, he devour-
ed at one dinner 84 rabbits j which, by computation,
at ha.r a rabbit a man, would have ferved 168 men.
He ate to his breakfaft 18 yards of black pudding. He
devoured a whole hog at one fitting down 5 and after
it, being accommodated with fruit, he ate three pecke
of damofins. r
A counfellor at lawq whofe name w-as Mallet, well
known in the reign of Charles I. ate at one time an
ordinary provided in Weftminfter for 30 men at l2d.
a-piece. His praftice not being fufficient to fupply
mm with better fort of meat, he fed generally on of¬
fals, ox livers, hearts, &c. He lived to almoft 60
years ®f age, and for the feven laft years of his life ate
as moderately as other men. A narrative of his life
was publiffied.
GLYCINE, Knobbed-rogted Liquorice-vetch^
a genus of plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs 5
and m the natural method ranking under the 3 2d or¬
der, Papilionacece. See Botany Index.
GL^CIRRHIZA, Liquorice j a genus of plants
belonging to the diadelphia clafs 5 and in the natural
method ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilionaeea:.
See Botany and Materia Medica Index.
, GLYNN, a county in the lower diftrift of Georgia,
in America, bounded on the eaft by the ocean, on the
north by the river Alatamaha, by which it is feparated
from Liberty county, and on the fouth by Camden.
It contains 413 people, of which 215 are ’{laves. The
chief town is Brunfwick.
GTA PH, in Sculpture and ArchiteEiure, denotes
any canal or cavity ufed as an ornament.
GMELIN, John George, M. D. public leaurer
on botany and phyfic at Tubingen, member of the
Royal Society of Gottingen, and of the Academy of
Sciences at Stockholm, was born on the 12th of Au-
guft 1709, at lubingen, where his father was an apo¬
thecary. Such was his diligence while at fchool, that
he was qualified to attend the academical leftures at
the age of 14, and was created doftor of medicine
when only 19. He paid a vifit about this time to the
metropolis of the Ruffian empire, that he might have
the pleafure of feeing fome of his former teachers.
There he became acquainted with Blumentroft, direc¬
tor of the academy, who introduced him to the meet¬
ings of the members, and procured for him an annual
penfion. At Peterffiurgh he ivas fo much efteemed,
that when he intimated a wiffi in 1729 to return to
Tubingen, he was honoured with a place among the
regular members of the academy, and chofen profeffor
of chemiftry and natural hiftory in the year 1731. In
order to carry into execution a plan which had been
formed by Peter the Great, for exploring a paffage to
China and Japan along the coaft of the Ruffian empire,
Gmelin
G M E [ 776 ] G N O
fJmelin. Gmelin was felefted along with two others, as properly
 v-1 qualified for that undertaking, and likewife to afcertain
the boundaries of Siberia. The department of natural
hiltory was afligned to our author. He had with him
and his companions, fix fiudents, two draftfmen, two
hunters, two miners, four land-iurveyors, and 12 fol-
diers, with a'ferjeant and drummer. They began their
journey on the 19th of Auguft 1733 > an<^ I73^v
Steller and a painter joined their fociety, in order to
affift Gmelin in his arduous labours.
By exploring Kamtfchatka, they hoped to accom-
plilh their million in a latisfaftory manner, for which
purpofe Steller proceeded to this place, and the reft of
the fociety continued their travels through Siberia. In
February 1743 Gmelin returned to Peter.fburgh in fafe-
ty after a dangerous journey which lafted nine years
and a half, but proved of the utmoft importance to va¬
rious branches of fcience. He refumed the offices which
he had filled before ; and having paid a vifit in 1747 to
his native country, he was chofen profeilor, while ab-
fent, in the room of Bachmeifter deceafed. He was
feized with a violent fever in May 1755, which put a
^period to his valuable life, in the 45^ year his age.
He was undoubtedly one of the moft eminent botanifts
of the laft century, and has rendered his name immor¬
tal by his Flora Sibirica,feu hijloria plantarum Siberia:,
in four parts, large quarto. He determined the boun¬
daries between Europe and Alia, which every celebra¬
ted geographer has adopted fince his day. Ihrough
all his works the traces of great modefty, a facred re¬
gard to truth, and the moft extenfive knowledge of na¬
ture, are remarkably confpicuous.
Gmelin, Dr Samuel, was born in 1743 at "I ubin¬
gen, where he alfo ftudied, and became doftor in me¬
dicine in 1763. He was afterwards admitted a mem¬
ber of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St Peterf-
burg. He commenced his travels in June 1768 j and
having traverfed the provinces of Mofcow, Voronetz,
New Ruffia, Azof, Cafan, and Aftracan, he vifited,
in 1770 and 1771, the different harbours of the Cal-
pian, and examined with peculiar attention thofe parts
of the Perfian provinces which border upon that fea, of
which he has given a circumftantial account in the three
volumes.of his travels already publiffied. A61uated by
a zeal for extending- his obfervations, he attempted to
pafs through the weftern provinces of Perfia, which
are in a perpetsal ftate of warfare, and infefted by nu¬
merous banditti. Upon this expedition, he quitted, in
April 1772, Einzillee, a fmall trading place in Ghi-
lan, upon the fouthern ffiore of the Cafpian } and, on
account of many difficulties and dangers, did not, un¬
til December 2. 1773, reach Sallian, a town fituated
upon the mouth of the river Keor. Thence he pro¬
ceeded to Baku and Kuba, in the province of Shirvan,
where he met with a friendly reception from Ali Feth
Khan, the fovereign of that diftrift. After he had
been joined by 20 Uralian Coffacks, and when he vas
only four days journey from the Ruffian fortrefs Killar, he
and his companions were, on the 5th of February L774>
arrefted by order of Ufmei Khan, a petty I artar prince,
through whofe territories he was obliged to pafs. Ul-
mei urged as a pretence for this arreft, that 30 years
ago feveral families had efcaped from his dominions,
and had found an afylum in the Ruffian territories 5
adding, that Gmelin ftiould not be releafed until thefe
families were reftored. The profeffor was removed Gmella
from prifon to prifon *, and at length, wearied out with
continued perfecutions, he expired, July 27th, at Ach- . J '
met-Kent, a village of Mount Caucafus. His death
was occafioned partly by vexation for the lofs of feveral
papers and colleftions, and partly by diforders contraift-
ed from the fatigues of his long journey. Some of his
papers had been fent to Killar during his imprifon-
ment, and the others were not without great difficulty
refcued from the hands of the barbarian who had
detained him in captivity. The arrangement of thefe
papers, which will form a fourth volume of his travels,
was at firft configned to the care of Guildenftaedt, but
upon his death has been transferred to the learned
Pallas.
GMELINA, a genus of plants belonging to the di-
dynamia clafs j and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 40th order, Perfonatce. See Botany Index.
GNAPHALIUM, Cud-weed, Goldy-locks, E-
TERNAL Flower, &c. \ a genus of plants belonging
to the fyngenefia clafs j and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49th order, Compofitce. See BOTANY
Index.
GNAT. See Culex, Entomology Index.
GNESNA, a large and ftrong town of Great Po¬
land, of which it is capital, and in the palatinate of
Califfi, with an archbilhop’s fee, whofe prelate is pri¬
mate of Poland, and viceroy during the vacancy of the
throne. It was the hrft town built in the kingdom,
and formerly more confiderable than at prefent. F,
Long. 17. 42. N. Lat. 52. 26.
GNETUM, a genus of plants belonging to the mo-
noecia clafs. See Botany Index.
GNIDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the oc-
tandria clafs. See Botany Index.
GNOMES, Gnomi, certain imaginary beings, who,
according to the cabbalifts, inhabit the inner parts of
the earth. They are fuppoftd fraall in ftature, and the
guardians of quarries, mines, &c. See Fairy.
GNOMON, in Dialling, the ftyle, pin, or cock of
a dial, which by its Ihadow ffiows the hour of the day.
The gnomon of every dial reprefents the axis of the
earth: (See Dial and Dialling).—The void is
Greek, yvupm, which literally implies fomething that
makes a thing known $ by reafon that the ilyle or pin
indicates or makes the hour known.
Gnomon, in ydjlronomy, a ftyle erected perpendicu¬
lar to the horizon, in order to find the altitude of the
fun. See Astronomy.
By means of a gnomon, the fun’s meridian altitude,
and confequently the latitude of the place, may be
found more exa&ly than with the fmaller quadrants.
See Quadrant.
By the fame inftrument the height of any objeft
may be found : for as the diftance of the obferver’s eye
from the gnomon, is to the height of the ftyle j fo is
the diftance of the obferver’s eye from the object, to its
height.
For the ufes and application of gnomons, fee Geo¬
graphy.
GNOMON of a Globe ; the index of the hour circle.
GNOMONICS, the art of dialling. See Dial-
ling.
GNOSTICS, ancient heretics, famous from the fitit
rife of Chriftianity, principally in the eaft. ^
Gnoftics
G N O r 7
. appears from feveral paflages of the facred writ¬
ings, ^particularly i John ii. 18. i Tim. vi. 20. and
Col. 11.-8. that many perfons were infe&ed with the
Gnoftic herefy in the firlt century ; though the fe& did
not render itfelf confpicuous, either for number or re¬
putation, before the time of Adrian, when fome wri¬
ters erroneoufly date its rife.
the name is formed of the Latin gn^/cus, and that
of the Greek yvarixos, “ knowing,” of yjwrjccy, “ J
knowand was adopted by thole of this ft£t, as if
they were the only perfons who had the true know¬
ledge of Chriftianity. Accordingly, they looked on
all other Chriftians as fimple, ignorant, and barbarous
perfons, who explained and interpreted the facred
writings, in a too low, literal, and unedifying fignifica-
tion.
At firft the Gnodics were only the philofophers and
wits of thofe times, who formed for themfelves a pecu¬
liar fyftem of theology, agreeable to the philo%hy of
Pythagoras and Plato ; to which they accommodated all
their interpretations of Scripture. But
Gnostics afterwards became a general name, com¬
prehending divers feds and parties of heretics, who rofe
in the firif centuries, and who, though they differed
among themfelves as to circumftances, yet all agreed in
fome common principles. They were fuch as corrupt¬
ed the doctrine of the gofpel by a profane mixture of
tiiC tenets of the oriental philofophy, concerning the
origin of evil and the creation of the world, with its
divine truths. Such were the Valentinians, Simonians,
Carpocratians, Nieolaitans, &c.
Gnostics was fometimes alfo more particularly at¬
tributed to the fucceffors of the firft Nicolaitans and
Carpocratians, in the fecond century, upon their laying
afide the names of the firft authors. Such as would
be thoroughly acquainted with all their dodrines, re¬
veries, and vifions, may confult St Irenaeus, Tertullian,
Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, and St Epiphanius •
particularly the firft of thefe writers, who relates their
fentiments at large : and confutes them at the fame
time : indeed, he dwells more exprefsly on the Valenti¬
nians than any other fort of Gnoftics ; but he ftiows the
general principles whereon all their miftaken opinions
were. founded, and the method they followed in ex¬
plaining feripture.. He accufes them of introducing
into religion certain vain and ridiculous genealogies,
i. e. a kind of divine proceflions or emanations which
had no other foundation but in their own wild imagi¬
nations.
In effed, the Gnoftics confeffed that thefe aeons or
emanations were nowhere exprefsly delivered in the fa¬
cred writings ; but infifted at the fame time, that Jefus
Chrift had intimated them in parables to fuch as could
underftand him. i hey built their theology not only
on the golp<-]s and the epiftles of St Paul, hut alfo en
the law of IVIofcs and the prophets. Thefe laft laws
were peculiarly ferviceable to them, on account of the
allegories and allufions with which they abound, which
are capable of different interpretations : Though their
dodrine,. concerning the creation of the worldly one
or more inferior beings of an evil or imperfed nature,
led them to deny the divine authority of the books of
the Old Pefiament, which contradidtd this idle fic¬
tion, and filled them with an abhorrence of Mofes and
the religion he taught; alleging, that he was aduated
Vol. IX. Part II.
77 ] G N O
by the malignant author of this world, who confulted Gnoftks.
his own glory and authority, and not the real advan- u
tage of men. Their perfuafion that evil refided in mat¬
ter, as its centre and lource, made them treat the body
■with contempt, difeourage marriage, and rejed the
dodrine of the refurredion of the body and its re-union
with the immortal fpirit. Their notion, that malevo¬
lent genii prefided in nature, and occafioned difeafes
and calamities, wars, and defolations, induced them to
apply themlelves to the lludy of magic, in order to
w eaken the powers or fufpend the influence of their ma¬
lignant agents.
The Gnoftics confidered Jefus Chrift as the Son of
God, and confequently inferior to the Father, who
came into the world for the refeue and happineisof mi-
lerable mortals, oppreffed by matter and evil beings j
but they rejeded our Lord’s humanity, on the prin¬
ciple that every thing corporeal is * fientially and in-
trinfieally evil j and therefore the greateft part of
them denied the reality of his fufferings. They
fet a great value on the beginning of the gofpel of St
John, where they fancied they faw a great deal of their
aeons, or emanations, under the Word, the Ltfc, the
Light, &c. . They divided all nature into three kinds
of beings, viz, foj/ic, or material; pfyehic, or animal $
and pneumatic, or fpiritual. On the like principle they
ali'o diftinguifhed three forts of men 5 material, animal.
Spiritual. 1 he firft, who were material and incapa¬
ble of knowledge, inevitably perifhed, both foul and
body } the third, fuch as the Gnoftics themfelves pre¬
tended to be, were all certainly faved ; the pfychic, or
animal, who were the middle between the oilier two
were capable either of being faved or damned, accord¬
ing to their good or evil a diions.
With regard to their moral dodirines and condudi,
they were much divided. The greateft part of the ft &
adopted very auftere rules of hie, recommended rigo¬
rous abftinence, and preferibed fevere bodily mortifica¬
tions, with a view of purfiying and exalting the mind.
However, fome maintained, that there was no moral
difference in human adtions ; and thus confounding
right and wrong, they gave a loofe rein to all the paf-
fions, and afferted the innocence of following blindly
all their motions, and of living by their tumultuous
dictates. They fupported their opinions and pradtice
by various authorities; fume referred to fidfitious and
apocryphal writings of Adam, Abraham, Zoroafter,
Chrift, and his qpofiles; others boafted, that they had
deduced their fentiments from feeret dodtrines of Chrift
concealed from the vulgar ; others affirmed, that they
arrived at fuperior degrees of wifdoni by an innate vi¬
gour of mind 5 and others afferted, that they were in-
ftrudted in thefe myflerious parts of theological fcience
by Theudas, a difciple of St Paul, and by Matthias,
one^ of the friends of our Lord. The tenets of the
ancient Gnoftics w'ere revived in Spain, in the fourth
century, by a fedt called the Fmfciilianjh.
I he appellation Gnojlic fometimes alfo occurs in a
good ienfe, in the ancient eccl’efiaftical writers, and
particularly Clemens xMexandrinus, who, in the perfon
of his Gnoftic, deferibes the charadfers and qualities of
a perfedl Chriftian. This point he labours in the
feventh book of his Stromata, where he fhows that none
but the Gnoftic, or learned perfon, has any true reli¬
gion. He affirms, that were it poflible for the know-
5 ^ ledge
GOA [7
Ccoftics ledge of God to be feparatcd from eternal falvation, the
ii Gnoitic would make no fcruple to choofe the know-
^ ledge j and that if God would promife him impunity
in doing of any thing he has oncefpoken againft, or of¬
fer him heaven on thofe terms, he would never alter a
whit of his meafures. In this fenfe the father ufes
Gnoftics, in oppolition to the heretics of the fame
name ; affirming, that the true Gnoitic is grown old in
the ftudy of the holy fcriptures j and that he preferves
the orthodox doftrine of the apoftles and of the church ;
whereas the falfe Gnoitic abandons all the apoltolical
traditions, as imagining himfelf wifer than the apoltles.
At length the name Gnojiic, which originally was the
molt glorious', became infamous, by the idle opinions
and difiolute lives of the perfons who bore it.
GNU, or Gnou. See Capra, Mammalia Index.
GOA, a large and Itiong town of Alia, in the pe-
ninfula on this fi • the Ganges, and on the Malabar
coait. It \vas taken by the Portuguefe in 1508, and
is the chief town of all their fettlements on this fide
the Cape of Good Hope. It Hands in an ifland of the
fame name, about 1 2 miles in length, and fix in breadth ;
and the city is built on the north fide of it, having the
conveniency of a fine falt-water river, capable of re¬
ceiving (hips of the grealelt burden, where they lie
within a mile of the town. The Banks of the river
are beautified with a great number of handfome ftruc-
tures •, fuch as churches, caltles, and gentlemen’s houfes.
The air within the town is unwholefome, for which
reafun it is not fo well inhabited now as it was for¬
merly. The viceroy’s palace is a noble building j and
Hands at a final] diflancefrom the river, over one of the
gates of the city, which leads to a fpacious flreet,
terminated by a beautiful church. This city contains
a great number of handiome churches, convents, and
cloiHers, with a flately large hofpital ; all well endow¬
ed, and kept in good repair. The market place occu¬
pies an acre of ground ; and in the ffiops about it may
be had the produce of Europe, China, Bengal, and
other countries of lefs note. Every church has a fet
of bells, fome of which are continually ringing.
There are a great many Indian converts; but they
generally retain fome of their old cuftoms, particular¬
ly they cannot be brought to eat beef. The clergy
are very numerous and illiterate 5 but the churches
are finely embelliffied/and have great numbers of ima¬
ges. In one of thefe churches, dedicated to Bon
Jefus, is the chapel of St Francifco de Xaviere, whofe
tomb it contains : this chapel is a mofi fuperb and
magnificent place •, the tomb of the faint is entirely
of fine black marble brought from Lifbon ; on the four
Tides of it the principal adtions of the life of the faint
are mofi elegantly carved in baffo relievo thefe re-
prefent his converting the different nations to the Ca¬
tholic faith : tire figures are done to the life, and moff
admirably executed : it extends to the top in a pyra-
midical form, which terminates w ith a coronet of mo¬
ther-of-pearl. On the fides of this chapel are excel¬
lent paintings, done by Italian mailers; the fubjedts
chiefly from Scripture. This tomb and the chapel ap¬
pertaining to it, mufl have cofi an immenfe fum of mo¬
ney ; the Portuguefe juftly efteem it the greateft rarity
in the place. The houfes are large, and make a fine
ffiow ; but w'ithin they are but poorly furniffied. The
inhabitants are contented with greens, fruits, and
1
8 ] GOD
roots 5 which, with a little bread, rice, and fiffi, is Or.ofties
their principal diet, though they have hogs and fowls f!
in plenty. The river’s mouth is defended by feveral ,
forts and batteries, well planted with large cannon on
both fides ’y and there are leveral other forts in different
places.
Goa is the refidence of a captain general, who lives
in great fplendour. He is alfo commander in chief of
all the Portuguefe forces in the Eaff Indies. They
have here two regiments of European infantry, three
legions of fepoys, three troops of native light horfe,
and a militia j in all about five thoufand men. Goa is
at prefent on the decline, and in little or no efiima-
tion with the country powers j indeed their bigotry
and fuperftitious attachment to their faith is fo gene¬
ral, that the-inhabitants, formerly populous, are now
reduced to a few thinly inhabited villages j the chief
part of whom have been baptized; for they will not
fuffer any Muffulman or Gentoo to live within the
precindts of the city : and thele few are unable to
cany on the huffiandry cr manufaftures of the country^
The court of Portugal is obliged to lend out annually
a very large lum of money, to defray the current ex-
pences of the government; which money is generally
{wallowed up by the convents and foldiery.
There was formerly an inquilition at this place, but
it is now aboliffied ; the building Hill remains, and by
its black outfide appears a fit emblem of the cruel and
bl oody tranfadlions that palled within its walls ! Provi-
fions are to be had at this place in great plenty and
perfeftion. E. Long. 73. 46. N. Lat. 15. 28.
i GOAL. See Gaol.
GOAT. See Capra, Mammalia Index.
Goat's Beard. See Tragopogon, Botany Index.
GoAT-Sucker. See Caprimulgus, Ornithology
Index.
GOBELIN, Giles, acelebrated French dyer, in the
reign of Francis I. difeovered a method of dyeing a
beautiful fcarlet, and his name has been given ever fince
to the finefl French fcarlets. His houle, in the fuburb
of St Marcel at Paris, and the river he made ufe of,
are Hill called the Gobelins. An academy for drawing,
and a manufactory of fine tapeftries, were erected in
this quarter in 1666; for which reafon the tapeftries
are called the Gobelins.
GOBIUS, a genus of fifties belonging to the or¬
der of thoracici. See Ichthyology Index.
GOBLET, or Gobelet, a kind of drinking cup,
or bowl, orv narily of a round figure, and without ei¬
ther foot or handle. The word is French, gobelet;
which Salmafius, and others, derive from the barba¬
rous Latin cvpa. Budeus deduces it from the Greek
*.v7;i'hhv», a fort cf cup.
GOD, one of the many names of the Supreme
Being. See CHRISTIANITY, METAPHYSICS, MORAL
Philosophy, and Theology.
God is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the falfe deities of
the heathens, many of which were only creatures to
which divine honours and worlhip were fuperftitioufty
paid.
The Greeks and Latins, it is obfervable, did not
mean by the name of GW, an all-perfedl being, where¬
of eternity, infinity, omniprefence, &c.were effential at¬
tributes ; with them, the word only implied an excel¬
lent and fuperior nature; and accordingly they gave
the
COD [ 779 ] GOD
appellation gods to all beings of a rank or clafs olhenvife called Guttcv Anglic a rue t the fecret of which Goddard
(toddard. .§^er anc^ 11101,0 pcrfeft than that of men j and eipe- he fold to Charles II. for 5000I. and which Dr Lifter II
y—* cially to thofe who were inferior agents in the divine alfuy s us was only the volatile fpirit of raw filk retti-
adminiftration, all tubjeft to the one Supreme. Lhu.s fied with oil of cinnamon or fome other eflential oil,
men themfelves, according to their lyitevn, might be- But he claims more particular regard, if what Biftiop
come gods after death *, inafnauch as their fouls might Seth Ward (ays be true, that he was the firft Engliih-
attain to a degree of excellence fuperior to what they man who made that noble aftronomical inftrument the
were capable of in life. telefcope.
The firft divines, Father Boffu obferves, were the GODDESS, a heathen deity of the female fex.
poets : the two fumftions, though now feparated, w’ere The ancients had almoft as many goddefles as gods:
originally combined j or, rather, were one and the fame fuch were, Juno the goddefs of air, Diana the goddefs
... woocls, &c. and under this character were reprefented
Now- the great variety of attributes in God, that is, the virtues, graces, and principal advantages of life j
the number of relations, capacities, and circumftanees, truth, juftiee, piety, liberty, fortune, viftory, &c.
wherein they had occafion to confider him, put thefe It was the peculiar privilege of the goddeifts to be
poets, &c. under a necelfityol making a partition, and reprefented naked on medals; for it was fuppofed that
cf feparating the divine attributes into feveral perlons; the imagination muft be awed and reftrained by the
becauie the weaknefs of the human mind could not confideration of the divine chara6fer.
conceive fo much power and aaion in the fimplicity GODFATHERS and Godmothers, perfons who,
of one fingle divine nature. Ihus the omnipotence of at the baptifm of infants, anfwer for their future con-
God came to be reprefented under the perfon and duff, and folemnly promife that they will renounce the
appellation^ of Jupiter;, the wifdom of God, under devil and all his works, and follow a life of piety and
that of Minerva ; the juftice of God, under that of virtue ; and by this means lay themfelves under an in-
. difpenfable obligation to inftrudl them, and watch over
The firft idols or falfe gods that are faid to have been their conduft.
adored, were the ftars, fun, moon, &c. on account of This cuftom is of great antiquity in the Chriftian
the light, heat, and other benefits, which we derive church ; and was probably inftituted to prevent chil-
from them.. Afterwards the earth came to be deified, dren being brought up in idolatry, in cafe their parents
for furniftiing fruits necelfary for the lubfiftence of men died before they arrived at years of difcretion.
and animals; then fire and water became objefls of di- The number of godfathers and godmothers is re¬
vine worfhip, for their ufefulnefs to human life. In duced to two, in the church of Rome ; and three, in
procefs of time, and by degrees, gods became multi- the church of England : but formerly they had as
plied to infinity: and there wasfcarce any thing but the many as they pleafed.
weaknefs or caprice, of fome devotee or other elevated GODFREY of Bouillon, prince of Lorrain, a
into the rank of deity ; things ufelefs or even deftruc- moft celebrated crufader, and viflorious general. He
tive not excepted. ^ See Mythology. was chofen general of the expedition which the Chri-
GODALMING, a town of England, in the conn- ftians undertook for the recovery of the Holy Land,
ty of Surrey, fituated on the river Wye, 3 5 miles from and fold his dukedom to prepare for the war. He
London. Here is a manufaflory of mixed and blue took Jerufalem from the Turks in 1099; but his pie-
kerfeys, and of (lockings; the place is alfo famous for ty, as hiftorians relate, would not permit him to wear
liquorice, and (lore of peat that burns better than pit- a diadem of gold in the city where his Saviour had
coal: in i.739> fmallpox carried off above 500 per- been crowned with thorns. The fultan of Egypt after-
fons here in three months, which was more than a third wards fent rf terrible army againft him ; which he de-
of the inhabitants. W. Long. o. 31. N. Lat. 51. 1. feated, with the (laughter of about 100,coo of the ene-
GODDARD, Jonathan, an eminent phyfician and my. He died in 1160.
chemift, and one of the firlt promoters of the Royal GODMANCHESTER, a town of Huntingdon-
Society, was born about the year 1617. He was ele6l- (hire 16 miles from Cambridge, and ^7 from London,
ed a .fellow of the college of phyficians in 1646, and It has a bridge on the Oufe, oppofite to Huntingdon ;
appointed reader of the anatomical ledlure in that col- was formerly a Roman city, by the name of Durofi-
lege in 1647. J^-s I10 Part againft Charles I. ac- ponte, where many Roman coins have been often dug
cepted the wardenlhip of Merton-college, Oxford, from up; and according to old writers, in the time of the
Oliver Cromwell when chancellor, and fat foie repre- Saxons it was the fee of a bifliop, and had a ealtle built
Tentative of that univerfity in Cromwell’s parliament, by one Gorman a Danirti king, from which the town
he was removed from his wardenlhip in a manner dif- was called Gornwnchejler. It is a large village, con-
graceful to him by Charles II. He was however then taining 1373 inhabitants in 1801, and is feated in a
qp.rofeflor of phyfic at Grefliam college, to which he re- fertile foil, abounding with corn. It is faid that no town
tired, and continued to attend thofe meetings that gave in England kept more ploughs at work than this has
birth to the Royal Society; upon the firft eftablilhment done. The inhabitants boaft they formerly received our
of which he was nominated one of the council. Being kings as they made a progrefs this way, with nine fcore
fully perfuaded that the preparation of medicines was ploughs at a time, finely adorned with their trappings,
no lefs the phyfician’s duty than the prcfcribing them, &c. James I. made it a corporation by the name of
he conftantly prepared his own ; and in 1668 publifhed two bailiffs, 12 afliftants, and the commonalty of the
a treatife recommending his example to general prac- borough of Godmanchefter. Here is a fchool, called
tice. He died of an apoplectic fit in 1674; and his the Free Grammar-School of Queen Elizabeth. On
memory was preferved by the drops that bore his name, the weft fide of the town is a noble though ancient feat
3 F 2 «f
fioclmaft'
chefter
GOG [ 780 ] G O L
of the earl of Sandwich. Near this place, in the Lon¬
don road between Huntingdon and Caxton, is a tree
well known to travellers by the name of Beggar’s
Bulh.
GODSTOW, a place north-well of Oxford, in a
fort of ifland formed by the divided llreams of the Ills
after being joined by the Evenlode. It is noted for
catching of filh and drefling them j but more fo for
the ruins of that nunnery which fair Rofamond quit¬
ted for the embraces of Henry II. The people Ihow
a great hole in the earth here, where they fay is a fub-
terraneous paffage, which goes under the river to
Woodftoek, by which Ihe ufed to pafs and repafs.
Little more remains at prefent than ragged walls, fcat-
tered over a conliderable extent of ground. An arched
gateway, and another venerable ruin, part of the tower
of the conventual church, are itill Handing. Near the
altar in this church fair Rofamond was buried, but the
body was afterwards removed by order of a bilhop of
Lincoln, the vtlitor. The only entire part is frriall,
formerly a private chapel. Not many years fince a Hone
coffin, faid to have been Rofamond’s, who, perhaps,
was removed from the church to this place, was to be
feen here. The building has been put to various ufes,
and at prefent ferves occalionally for a liable.
GODWIN, Francis, fucceffively bilhop of Llan-
daff and Hereford, was born in 1567. Fie was emi¬
nent for his learning and abilities j being a good mathe¬
matician, an excellent philofopher, a pure Latinift, and
an accurate hillorian. He underllood the true theory of
the moon’s motion a century before it was generally
known. He firit llarted thole hints afterwards purfued
by Bilhop Wilkins, in his “ Secret and fwift meffen-
ger and publilhed “ A catalogue of the lives of En-
glilh bilhops.” He has neverthelefs been accufed as a
great limoniac, for omitting no opportunity of difpoling
of preferments in order to provide for his children. He
died in 1648.
Godwin or Goodwin Sands. See Kent.
GODWIT. See Scolopax, Ornithology Index.
GOES, or Ter Goes, a llrong and conliderable
town of the United Provinces, in Zealand, and capital
of the iiland of South Beverland. It communicates
with the fea by a canal j and is 10 miles call of Mid-
dleburgh, and 30 north of Ghent. E. Long. 3. 50.
N. Lat. 51. 33.
GOG and Magog, two names generally joined to¬
gether in fcripture, Ezek. xxxviii. 2, 3, &c. xxxix.
1, 2, &c. Rev. xx. 8 ). Moles fpeaks of Magog the
Ion of Japhet, but fays nothing of Gog, (Gen. x. 2.
I Chr. i. 5.). Gog was prince of Magog, according
to Ezekiel. Magog fignifies the country or people,
and Gog the king of that country. The generality of
the ancients made Magog the father of the Scythians
and Tartars } and feveral interpreters dilcovered many
footlleps of their name in the provinces of Great Tar¬
tary. Others have been of opinion that the Perfians
were the delcendants of Magog 5 and fome have ima¬
gined that the Goths were delcended from Gog and
Magog 5 and that the wars defcribed by Ezekiel, and
undertaken by Gog againll the faints, are no other
than thofe which the Goths carried on in the fifth age
againll the Roman empire.
Bochart has placed Gog in the neighbourhood of
Caucafus. He derives the name of this celebrated
2
mountain from the Hebrew Gogchafan “ the fortrefs of Gog
Gog.” He maintains that Prometheus, faid to be
chained to Caucafus by Jupiter, is Gog, and no other.
There is a province in Iberia called the Gogarene.
Laltly, the generality believe, that Gog and Ma¬
gog, mentioned in Ezekiel and the Revelation, are to
be taken in an allegorical fenfe, for fuch princes as were
enemies to the church and faints. Thus many by Gog
in Ezekiel underlland Antiochus Epiphanes, the per-
fecutor of the Jews who were firm to their religion4
and by the perfon of the fame name in the Revela¬
tions, they fuppofe Antichriil to be meant, the great
enemy of the church and faithful. Some have endea¬
voured to prove that Gog, fpoken of in Ezekiel, and
Cambyfes king of Perfia, were one and the fame perfon j
and that Gog and Magog in the Revelation denote all
the enemies of the church, wholhould be perlecutorsof
it to the confummation of ages.
GOGGLES, in Surgery, are inllruments ufed for
curing Iquinting, or that dillortion of the eyes which
occafions this dilorder. They are ffiort conical tubes,
compofed of ivory llained black, with a thin plate of
the fame ivory fix,ed in the tubes near their anterior
extremities. Through the centre of each of thefe
plates is a fmall circular hole, about the fize of the pu¬
pil of the eye, for the tranfmiffion of the rays of light.
Thefe goggles mull be continually worn in the day¬
time, till the mufcles of the eye are brought to aft re¬
gularly and uniformly, lo as to direft the pupil ftraighfc
forwards 5 and by thefe means the cure will be fooner
or later effefted.
GOGMAGOG hills, are hills fo called, three
miles from Cambridge, remarkable for the intrench-
ments and other w orks call up here : whence fome fup¬
pofe it was a Roman camp} and others, that it was the
work of the Danes.
GOGUET, Antony-Yves, a French writer, and
author of a celebrated work, intitled, L'Origine de*
Loix, des Arts, des Sciences, et de leur Progres clieez,
les anciens Peufr/es, 1758, 3 vols 410. His father
was an advocate, and he was born at Paris in 1716.
He was very unpromifing as to abilities, and reckoned
even dull, in his early years •, but his underflanding de¬
veloping itfelf, he applied to letters, and at length pro¬
duced the above w;ork. The reputation he gained by
it was great j but he enjoyed it a very ffiort time j dy¬
ing the fame year of the fmallpox, which diforder, it
feems, he always dreaded. It is remarkable, that Con¬
rad Fugere, to whom he left his library and his MSS.
was fo deeply affefted with the death of his friend, as
to die himfelf three days after him. The above work
has been tranilated into Engliffi, and publiffied in 3
vols 8 vo.
GOITO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mantua,
taken by the Germans in 1701, and by the prince of
Heffe in 1706. It is feated on the river Mincio, be¬
tween the lake of Mantua and that of Garda, 10
miles north-w ell of Mantua. E. Long. 11. o. N. Lat.
45- l6r . . , .
GOLCONDA, a kingdom of Afia, in the pemn-
fula on this fide the Ganges. It is bounded on the
north by that of Orixa, on the well by that of Ba-
lagate, on the fouth by Bifnagar, and on the call
by the gulf of Bengal. It abounds in corn, rice,
and cattle; but that w hich renders it moil remark¬
able
Gold.
G O [ 781 ]
^ aBle are the diamond-mines, they being the moft con- one at each end
fiderable in the world : they are ulually purchafed of
the black merchants, who buy parcels of ground to
fearch for thefe precious ftones in. They fometimes
fail in meeting with any, and in others they find im-
menfe riches. They have alfo mines of fait, fine iron
for fword-blades, and curious callicoe's and chintzes. It
is fubjeft to the Great Mogul j and has a town of the
fame name, feated at the foot of a mountain, being
one of the largeft in the Eaft Indies. It is about fix
miles in circumference *, and was formerly the refidence
of the kings, till it was conquered by the Great Mogul.
It is now much frequented by the European merchants.
E. Long. 70. 10. N. Lat. 16. 30.
GOLD, the mod valuable of all the metals, is of a
bright yellow colour when pure, but becomes more or
lefs white in proportion as it is alloyed with other me¬
tals. It is the heavieft of all known bodies, platina
only excepted. See Chemistry and Mineralogy
Index.
Method of Recovering GOLD from Gilt Works. The
folubility of gold, and the indiffolubility of filver, in a-
qua regia, affords a principle on which gold may be fe-
parated from the furface of fiiver ; and, on this foun¬
dation, different proceffes have been contrived, of which
the two following appear to be the bell.—Some pow¬
dered fal ammoniac, moiftened with aquafortis into the
confiftence of a pafte, is fpread upon the gilt filver,
and the piece heated till the matter fmokes and be¬
comes nearly dry : being then thrown into water, it is
rubbed with a fcratch brulh compofed of fine brafs wire
bound together j by which the gold ealily comes off.
The other way is, by putting the gilt filver into com¬
mon aqua regia, kept fo hot as nearly to boil, and
turning the metal frequently till it becomes all over
black 5 it is then to be walked with a little water, and
rubbed with the fcratch brulh, to get off what gold the
aqua regia may have left. This lait method appears
preferable to the other j as the fame aqua regia may be
made to ferve repeatedly till it becomes fatuiated with
the gold, after which the gold may be recovered pure
by precipitation with fulphate of iron.
For feparating gold from gilt copper, feme dire<ff a
folution of borax to be applied on the gilt parts, but
nowhere elfe, with a pencil, and a little powdered ful-
phur to be fprinkled on the places thus moiftened ; the
principal ufe of the folution of borax feems to be to
make the fulphur adhere j the piece being then made
red hot, and quenched in water, the gold is faid to be
fo far loofened, as to be wiped of with a brufti. Others
mix the fulphur with nitre and tartar, and form the
mixture with vinegar into a pafte, which is fpread upon
the gilt parts.
Schlutter recommends mechanical means, as being
generally the lealt expenfive, for feparating gold from
the furface both of filver and copper. If the gilt veffel
is round, the gold is conveniently got off by turning
it in a lathe, and applying a proper tool, a Ikin being
placed underneath for receiving the Ihavings : he fays
it is eafy to collect into two ounces of (havings all the
gold of a gilt veffel weighing thrice as many pounds.
Where the figure of the piece does not admit of this
method, it is to be properly fixed, and ferapers ap¬
plied of different kinds according to its fize and fi¬
gure j fome large, and furnilhed with two handles,
G O L
others fmall and narrow, for pene¬
trating into depreffed parts. If the gold cannot be
got oft by either of thefe ways, the file muft be had
recourfe to, which takes off more of the metal uni
derneath than the turning tool or the feraper, partL
eularly than the former. The gold icrapings or filings
may be purified from the filver or copper they con*
tain, by the methods defcribed under the article Me¬
tallurgy.
The editors of the Encyclopedic give a method of re¬
covering the gold from wood that has been gilt on a
water fize : this account is extratfted from a memoir on
the fame fubjeft, prefented to the Academy of Sciences
by M. de Montamy. The gilt wood is fteeped for a
quarter of an hour in a quantity of water fufficient to
cover it, made very hot : the fize being thus foftened,
the wood is taken out, and fcrubbed piece by piece,
in a little warm water, with (hort (lift' briftle brufties of
different fizes, fome fmall for penetrating into the car¬
vings, and others large for the greater difpateh in flat
pieces. The whole mix-ture of water, fize, gold, &c.
is to be boiled to drynefs, the dry matter made red hot
in a crucible to burn off the ftze, and the remainder
ground with mercury, either in a mortar, or, where
the quantity is large, in a mill.
GoLD-CoaJ). See Guinea.
GOLD- Were, a cylindrical ingot of filver, fuperficial-
ly gilt or covered with gold at the fire, and afterwards
drawn fucceffively through a great number of little
round holes, of a wire-drawing iron, each lefs than the
other, till it be fometimes no bigger than a hair of the
head. See WlRE-Drnwing.
It may be obferved that, before the wire be reduced'
to this exceflive finenefs, it is drawn through above
140 different holes ; and that each time they draw it,
it is rubbed afrelh over with new wax, both to facili¬
tate its paffage, and to prevent the lilver’s appearing
through it.
GOLD-Wire flatted, is the former wire flatted be¬
tween two rollers of poliftied fteel, to fit it to be fpun
on a ftick, or to be ufed flat, as it is, without fpin-
ning, in certain fluffs, laces, embroideries, &cc. See
Stuff, &c.
GOLD-Thread, or Spun-gold, is flatted gold, wrapped
or laid over a thread of filk, by twilling it with wheel
and iron bobbins.
To difpofe the wire to be fpun on filk, they pafs it
between two rollers of a little mill : thele rollers are of
nicely poliftied fteel, and about three inches in diame¬
ter. They are fet very clofe to each other, and turn¬
ed by means of a handle faitened to one of them, wLich
gives motion to the other. The gold wire in palling
between the two is rendered quite flat, but without lo-
fing any thing of its gilding ; and is rendered fo ex¬
ceedingly thin and flexible, that it is eafily fpun on filk-
thread, by means of a hand-w heel, and fo wound on a
fpool or bobbin. See WlRE-Drawing.
GOLD- Leaf or Beaten Gold, is gold beaten with a
hammer into exceeding thin leaves, fo that it is com¬
puted, that an ounce may be beaten into i6co leaves,
each three inches fquare, in which ftate it takes up
more than 159,032 times its former furface.
The preparation of gold leaf, according to Dr Lewis,
is as follows :
“ The gold is melted in a black-lead crucible, with
fome
Gold;
Gold.
G O I
feme borax, in a wind furnace, called by the workmen
a wind-hole: as foon as it appears in perfect fution, it
is poured out into an iron ingot mould, fix or eight
inches long, and three quarters of an inch wide, pre-
viouily greafed, and heated, fo as to make the tallow
run and fmoke, but not to take tiame. The bar of
gold is made red hot, to burn off the unftuous matter,
and forged on an anvil into a long plate, which is fur¬
ther extended by being paffed repeatedly between
polilhed Heel rollers, till it becomes a ribbon a.- thin
as paper. Formerly the whole of this extenfion was
procured by means of the hammer, and fome of the
French workmen are Hill faid to follow the lame
praflice : but the ufe of the Hatting mill both abridges
the operation, and renders the plate of more uniform
thicknefs. The ribbon is divided by compalfes, and
cut wdth (heers into equal pieces, which confequently
are of equal weights : thefe are forged on an anvil till
they are an inch fquare j and afterwards well nealed,
to correft the rigidity which the metal has contia&ed
in the hammering and flatting. Two ounces of gold,
or 960 grains, the quantity which the workmen ulual-
ly melt at a time, make 150 of theie fquares, whence
each of them weighs fix grains and two-fifths ; and
as 902 grains of gold make a cubic inch, the thick¬
nefs of the fquare plates is about the 766th part of an
inch.
“ In order to the further extenfion of thefe pieces
into fine leaves, it is neceflary to interpofe fome fmooth
body between them and the hammer, for foftening its
blow, and defending them from the rudenefs of its
immediate aftion : as alfo to place between every two
of the pieces fome proper intermedium, which, while
•it prevents their uniting together, or injuring one
another, may fuffer them freely to extend. Both thefe
ends are anfw'ered by certain animal membranes.
“ The goldbeaters uie three kinds of membranes ;
for the outfide cover, common parchment made of
fheep Ikin ; for interlaying with the gold, firfi: the
fmootheft and clofeft vellum, made of calf Ikin ; and
afterwards the much finer fkins of ox gut, ftript off
from the large ftraight gut ilipt open, curioufly pre¬
pared on purpofe for this ufe, and hence called go/d-
beater)s Jkin. The preparation of thefe lafl is a diftinft
bufinefs, pra61ifed by only twro or three perfons in the
kingdom, fome of the particulars of which I have not
latisfa61orily learned. The general procefs is faid to
confift, in applying one upon another, by the fmooth
fides, in a moiil llate, in which they readily cohere
and unite infeparably ; ftretching them on a frame,
and carefully feraping off the fat and rough matter, fo
as to leave only the fine exterior membrane of the gut;
beating them between double leaves of paper, to force
out what unftuofity may remain in them } moiftening
them once or twice wdth an infufion of warm fpices 5
and laflly, drying and prefling them. It is faid, that
fome calcined gypfum, or plafter of Paris, is rubbed
■with a hare’s foot both on the vellum and the ox gut
{kins, which fills up fuch minute holes as may happen
in them, and prevents the gold leaf from flicking, as
it would do to the Ample animal membrane. It is
obfervable, that, notwithllanding the vaft extent to
which the gold is beaten between thefe {kins, and the
great tenuity of the {kins themfelves, yet they fuftain
continual repetitions of the procefa fur feveral months,
G O L
wdthout extending or growing thinner. Our work- Gold,
men find, that, after 70 or 80 repetitions, the {kins,
though they contraft no flaw, will no longer permit
the gold to extend between them ; but that they may
be again rendered fit for ufe by impregnating them
with the virtue which they have loft, and that even
holes in them may be repaired by the dexterous appli¬
cation of frefti pieces of ikin : a mierofcopical exami¬
nation of fome {kins that had been long ufed plainly
{bowed theie repairs. The method of reftoring their
virtue is {aid in the Encyclopedic to be, by interlaying
them with leaves of paper moiftened with white wine
vinegar, beating them for a whole day, and after¬
wards rubbing them over as at firlt with plafter of
Paris. The gold is laid to extend between them more
eafily, after they have been ufed a little, than when
they are new.
“ The beating of the gold is performed on a fmooth
block of black marble, weighing from 2CO to 600
pounds, the heavier the better; about nine imhes
fquare on the upper furface, and fometimes lefs, fitted
into the middle of a wooden frame, about two feet
fquare, fo as that the furface of the marble and the
frame form one continuous plane. Three of the fides
are furnifhed with a high ledge ; and the front, which
is open, has a leather flap faflened to it, which the
gold-beater takes before him as an apron, for preferv-
ing the fragments of gold that fall off. Three ham¬
mers are employed, all of them with two round and
fomewhat convex faces, though commonly the work¬
man ufes only one of the faces : the firlt, called the
cutch hammer, is about four inches in diameter, and
weighs 15 or 16 pounds, and fometimes 20, though
few workmen can manage thofe of this laft fize : the
fecond, called the Jhoddcring hammer, weighs about 1 2
pounds, and is about the fame diameter : the third,
called the gold hammer, or Jini/hing hammer, weighs 10
or 11 pounds, and is nearly of the fame width. The
French ufe four hammers, differing both in fize and
ihape from thofe of our workmen : they have only one
face, being in figure truncated cones. The firfl has
very little convexity, is near five inches in diameter,
and weighs 14 or 15 pounds : the fecond is more con¬
vex than the firft, about an inch narrower, and fcarce-
ly half its weight: the third, {till more convex, is only
about two inches wide, and four or five pounds in
weight : the fourth or finifhing hammer is near as
heavy as the firfl, but narrower by an inch, and the
moil convex of all. As thefe hammers differ fo re¬
markably from ours, I thought proper to inlert them,
leaving the workmen to judge w hat advantage one fet
may have above the other.
“ A hundred and fifty of the piedes of gold are
interlaid with leaves of vellum, three or four inches
fquare, one vellum leaf being placed between every
two of the pieces, and about 20 more of the vellum
leaves on the outfides ; over thefe is drawn a parch¬
ment cafe, open at both ends, and over this another in
a contrary direftion, fo that the affemblage of gold
and vellum leaves is kept tight and clofe on all fides.
The whole is beaten with the heavieft hammer, and
every now and then turned upfide down, till the gold
is ftretched to the extent of the vellum ; the cafe being
from time to time opened for difeovering how the ex¬
tenfion goes on, and the packet, at times, bent and
rolled
r 782 i
COL [ 7s
rolled as It were between the hands, for procuring fuf-
fident freedom to the gold, or, as the workmen"5 fay,
to make the gold work. 1 he pieces taken out from
between the vellum leaves, are cut in four with a Heel
knife j and the 6oo divifions, hence refulting, are in¬
terlaid, in the fame manner, with pieces of the ox-gut
fkins five inenes fejuare. ihe beating being repeated
with y lighter hammer till the golden plates have again
acquired^ the extent of the fkins, they are a fecond
time divided in four : the inftrument ufed for this di-
yifion is a piece of cane cut to an edge, the leaves be-
ing now fo light, that the moifture of the air or breath
condenfing on a metalline knife would occafion them
to Hick to it. f hefe laid divifions being fo numerous
that the fkins neceilary for interpofing between them
would make the packet too thick to be beaten at
once, they are parted into three parcels, which are
beaten feparately, with the fmalleft hammer, till they
are ftretched for the third time to the fize of the
fkins: they are now found to be reduced to the great-
eft thinneis they will admit of j and indeed many of
them, before this period, break or fail. The French
workmen, according to the minute detail of this pro¬
cess given in the Encyclopedic, repeat the divifion and
the beating once more ; but as the fquafes of gold,
taken for the firft operation, have four times the area
of tho:e ufed among us, the number of leaves from an
equal area is the fame in both methods, viz. I 6 from
a fquare inch. In the beating, however fimple the
procefs appears to be, a good deal of addrefs is requi-
flte, for applying the hammers fo as to extend the
metal uniformly from the middle to the fides : one im-
proper blow is apt not only to break the gold leaves,
but to cut the fkins.
After the laft beating, the leaves are taken up by
the end of a cane inftrument, and, being blown flat on
a leather cufhion, are cut to a fize, one by one, with a
fquare frame of cane made of a proper fharpnefs, or
with a frame of wood edged with cane : they are then
fitted into books of 25 leaves each, the paper of which
is well fmoolhed, and rubbed with red bole to prevent
their flicking to it. Ihe French, for fizing the leaves,
ufe only the cane knife ; cutting them firft ftraight on
one fide, fitting them into the book by the ftraight
fide, and then paring off the fuperfluous parts of the
gold about the edges of the book. The fize of the
French gold leaves is from fomewhat lefs than three
inches to three and three quarters fquare j that of ours,
from three inches to three and three-eighths.
The procefs of gold-beating is confiderably in¬
fluenced by the weather. In wet weather, the fkins
grow fomewhat damp, and in this ftate make the ex-
tenfion of the gold more tedious : the French are faid
to dry and prefs them at every time of ufing ; with
care not to overdry them, which would render them
unfit for farther lervice. Our workmen complain
more of froft, which appears to aft'e<£t the metalline
leaves themfelves : in froft, a gold leaf cannot eafily
be blown flat, but breaks, wrinkles, or runs together.
Gold leaf ought to be prepared from the fineft
gold ; as the admixture of other metals, though in too
fmall a proportion to affedl fenfibly the colour of the
leaf, would difpofe it to lofe of its beauty in the air.
And indeed there is little temptation to the workman
to ufe any other j the greater hardnefs of alloyed gold
3 1 G O L
occafioning as much to be loft in point of time and
labour, and in the greater number of leaves that break,
as can be gained by any quantity of alloy that would
not be at once difcoverable by the eye. All metals
render gold harder and more difficult of extenfion.
Fven lilver, w hich in this refpeft feems to alter its qua¬
lity lefs than any other metal, produces with gold a
mixture ienfibly harder than either of them feparately?
and this hardnefs is in no art more felt than in the
goldbeater’s. Ihe French are faid to prepare what
is called the green gold leaf, from a compofition of one
part of copper and two of filver with eighty of gold.
Fut this is probably a miftake : for fuch an admixture
gives no greennefs to gold: and I have been informed
by oui workmen, that this kind of leaf is made from
the fame fine gold as the higheft gold-coloured fort,
the greenfth hue being only a fuperficial teint induced
upon the gold in fome part of the procefs : this greenifli
leaf is little otherwife ufed than for the gilding of cer¬
tain books.
_ -^ut though the goldbeater cannot advantageoufiy
diminifh the quantity of gold in the leaf by the ad¬
mixture of any other fubftance with the gold, yet
means have been contrived for fome particular purpofes,
^av'ng the precious metal, by producing a kind
or leaf, called party-gold, whole balls is filver, and
which has only a fuperficial coat of gold upon one
fide : a thick leaf of filver and a thinner one of gold,
laid flat on one another, heated and prefled together,
unite and cohere ; and being then beaten into fine
leaves, as in the foregoing procefs, the gold, though
its quantity is only about one-fourth of that of the
filver, continues everywhere to cover it, the exten¬
fion of the former keeping pace with that of the
latter.”
But it is to obferved by Mr Nicholfon, that pure
gold is too duftile to be worked between the gold¬
beater’s ikin. 1 he neweft Ikins will wmrk the fineft
gold, and make the thinnefl leaf, becaufe they are the
fmootheft. Old Ikins, being rough or foul, require
coarfer gold. I he finer the gold, the more dudlilej
infomuch, that pure gold, w hen driven out by the ham¬
mer, is too foft to force itfelf over the irregularities
biU would pafs round them, and by that means become
divided into narrow flips. The fineft gold for this pur-
pofe, has three grains of alloy in the ounce, and the
coarfeft twelve grains. In general the alloy is fix
grains, or one-eightieth part. That which is called
pale gold contains three pennyweights of filver in the
ounce. Flie alloy of gold leaf is filver, or copper, or
both, and the colour is produced of various tints ac¬
cordingly.^ Two ounces and two pennyweights ot
gold is delivered by the mailer to the workman, who,
if extraordinarily ikilfu!. returns two thoufand leaves,
or eighty books of gold, together with one ounce and
fix. pennyweights of wafte cuttings. Hence one book
weighs 4.8 grains j and as the leaves meafure 3.3 inches
in the fide, the thicknefs of the leaf is one two hundred
and eighty-two thoufandth part of an inch.
The yellow metal called Dutch gold is fine brafs.
It is faid to be made from copper plates, by cementa¬
tion with calamine, without fubfequent fufion. Its
thicknefs, compared with that of leaf gold, proved as
19 lo 4, and under equal furfaces it is confiderably more
than twice as heavy as the gold. Jour. vol. i.-
Gold.
It
G O L
[ lU 1
G O L
Gold,
■Golden.
It muA: be obfervcd, however, that gold is beaten
more or ltd's, according to the kind or quality of the
work it is intended for } that for the gold-wire drawers
to gild their ingots withal, is left much thicker than
that for gilding the frames of pi&ures, &c. See
Gilding.
Gold Brocade. See Brocade.
Fulminating GOLD. See Chemistry Index.
Mofaic GOLD, is gold applied in pannels on a proper
ground, diftributed into fquares, lozenges, and other
compartments j part of which is lhadowed to raife or
heighten the reft. See Mosaic.
GOLD Plates for Enamelling are generally made of
ducat gold, whofe finenefs is from 234 to 23^ carats j
and the fineft gold is the belt for this purpofe, unlefs
where fome parts of the gold are left bare and unpolilh-
ed, as in watch-cafes, fnuff-boxes, &c. for which pur¬
pofe a mixture of alloy is neceffary, and filver is pre¬
ferred to copper, becaufe the latter difpofes the plates
to tarnifh and turn green. See Enamelling.
Shell-Gold is that ufed by the gilders and illuminers,
and with which gold letters are written. It is made
by grinding gold leaves, or gold-beaters fragments,
with a little honey, and afterward* feparating the ho¬
ney from the pow'dered gold by means of water. When
the honey is walhed away, the gold may be put on
paper or kept in Ihells j whence its name. When it
is ufed, it is diluted with gum-water or foap-fuds.—
The German gold-powder, prepared from the Dutch
gold leaf in the fame manner, is generally ufed •, and
w hen it is well fcoured with varnifti, anfwers the end in
japanners gilding as well as the genuine.
GOLD Size for burniftied gilding is prepared of one
pound and a half of tobacco-pipe clay, half an ounce
of red chalk, a quarter of an ounce of black lead,
forty drops of fweet oil, and three drams of pure tal¬
low ; grind the clay, chalk, and black lead, feparately,
very fine in water ; then mix them together, add the
oil and tallow, and grind the mixture to a due confift-
ence.
Gold fize of japanners may .be made by pulverizing
gum animi and afphaltum, of each one ounce ; red lead,
litharge of gold, and umber, of each one ounce and a
half, mixing them with a pound of linfeed oil, and
boiling them, obferving to ftir them till the whole be
incorporated, and appears on grow ing cold of the con-
fiftence of tar: ftrain the mixture through a flannel,
and keep it flopped up in a bottle for ufe. When it
is ufed, it muft be ground w-ith as much vermilion as
will give it an opaque body, and diluted with oil of
turpentine, fo that it may be worked freely with the
pencil. A fimple preparation confifts of one pound of
linfeed oil and four ounces of gum animi $ powder the
gum, and mix it gradually with the boiling oil j let
it continue to boil till it becomes of the confiftence of
tar •, ftrain it through a coarfe cloth ; keep and ufe it
as the other.
Gold Finch. See Fringilla, Ornithology Index.
GoLD-Fifh. See Cyprinus, Ichthyology Index.
GOLDEN, fomething that has a relation to gold
or confifts of yold.
Golden Calf, was a figure of a calf, which the
Ifraelites caft in that metal, and fet up in the wilder-
nefs to wurfhip during MTes’s abfence in the mount ;
and which ihut legiilaior at his return burnt, grinded
to powder, and mixed with the water the people were
to drink oft 5 as related in Exod. xxxii. The com-1'
mentators have been divided on this article 5 the pul¬
verizing of gold, and rendering it potable, is a very
difticult operation in chemiftry. Many, therefore,
fuppofe it done by a miracle 5 and the reft, who allow
of nothing fupernatural in it, advance nothing but
conjedlures as to the manner of the procefs. Mofes
could not have done it by fimple calcination, nor
amalgamation, nor antimony, nor calcination j nor is
there one of thofe operations that quadrates with the
text.
M. Stahl has endeavoured to remove this difficulty.
The method Mofes made ufe of, according to this au¬
thor, was by diffolving the metal with hepar fulphuris j
only, inftead of the vegetable alkali, he made ufe of
the Egytian natron, which is common enough through¬
out the eaft.
GOLDEN-Fleece, in the ancient mythology, was the
fkin or fleece of the ram upon which Phryxus and
Hella are fuppofed to have fwam over the fea to Colchis j
and which being facrificed to Jupiter, was hung upon
a tree in the gi'ove of Mars, guarded by two brazen-
hoofed bulls, and a monftrous dragon that never flept j
but was taken and carried off by Jafon and the Argo¬
nauts.
Many authors have endeavoured to ffiow that this
fable is an allegorical reprefentation of fome real hif-
tory, particularly of the philofophers ftone. Others
have explained it by the profit of the w'ool trade to
Colchis, or the gold which they commonly gathered
there wdth fleeces in the rivers. See Argonauts.
Order of the GOLDEN Fleece, is a military order infti-
tuted by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429.
It took its denomination from a reprefentation of the
golden fleece, borne by the knights on their collars,
which confifted of flints and fteels. The king of
Spain is now grand-mafter of the order, in quality of
duke of Burgundy : the number of knights is fixed
to thirty-one.
It is ufually faid to have been inftituted on occafion
of an immenfe profit which that prince made by wool;
though others will have a chemical myftery couched
under it, as under that famous one of the ancients,
which the adepts contend to be no other than the fe- '
cret of the elixir, wrote on the fleece of a ffieep.
Oliver de la Marche whites, that he had fuggefted
to Philip I. archduke of Auftria, that the order was
inftituted by his grandfather Philip the Good duke
of Burgundy, with a view' to that of Jafon j and that
John Germain biffiop of Chalons, chancellor of the
order, upon this occafion made him change his opi¬
nion, and affured the young prince that the order had
been inftituted with a view to the fleece of Gideon.
William bifhop of Tournay, chancellor likewife of the
order, pretends that the duke of Burgundy had in
view both the golden fleece of Jafon and Jacob’s fleece ;
i. e. the fpeeked fheep belonging to this patriarch, ac¬
cording to agreement made w ith his father-in-law
Laban. Which lentiment .gave birth to a great work
of this prelate in two parts : in the firft, under the
fymbol of the fleece of Jafon, is reprefented the virtue
of magnanimity, which a knight ougfi to poffefs j and
under the fymbol of the fleece of Jacob he repreftnts
the virtue of juftice.
Paradin
Golden.
Golden
G I- oni
G O L r 785
Paradin is of the fame mind; and tells us, that the
duke defigned to infinuate that the fabulous conqueft
which Jafon is faid to have made of the golden fleece in
Colchis, was nothing elfe but the conqueft of virtue,
which gains a victory over thofe horrible monfters vice’
and our evil inclinations.
Golden Number, in Chronology, a number fhowing
■what year of the moon’s cycle any given year is. bee
Chronology, N° 27—30.
(-'olden Rod, in Botany. See Solid ago, Botany
-Index.
GOLDEN Rofe. The pope annually confecrates a
golden rofe on the fourth Sunday in Lent, which is
lent to princefles, or to feme church, as a mark of his
peculiar afTeftion.
GOLDEN Rule, in Arithmetic, a rule or praxis, of
great ufe and extent in the art of numbers j where¬
by we find a fourth proportional to three quantities
given.
The golden rule is alfo called the Rule of Three, and
Rule of Proportion. See its nature and ufe under the
article Arithmetic, N° 13.
GOLDENGEN, a town of Poland in the duchy
of Cour1and, with a handfome caftle, feated on the ri¬
ver Weia, in E. Long. 21. 44. N. Lat. 56 48.
GOLDONI, Charles, a comic writer of confider-
able eminence, was born at Venice in the year 1707,
in which city his father atted in the capacity of phyfi-
cian. His attachment to the drama became confpi-
cuous even in childhood, which his father was fond of
countenancing, ereamg a theatre in his own houfe,
where young Goldoni and fome of his companions were
the adlors. It is faid that he even drew the outlines of
a comedy of his own invention when he was no more
than eight years of age—a moft extraordinary indication
of his future, eminence. He ftudied rhetoric at Perugia,
in the college of the Jefuits, and profecuted his philoib-
phical ftudies at Rimini. The ftage, however, had too
many charms to allow hum to pay much attention to
Ariftotle or Quintilian, and he eloped from Rimini with
a company of comedians when they removed to Chioz-
za. In vain did his father attempt to make him fall in
love with phyfic, or the ftudy of the law j yet his ar¬
dent imagination was fo forcibly ftruck with a particu¬
lar church-ceremony, that he formed the refolution of
commencing capuchin, but the diflipation of Venice
foon deftroyed this refolution. After the demife of his
father, he was prevailed upon by his furviving parent
to take up the profeflion of the law for immediate fup-
port, but fome unknown reafons induced him to quit
the bar, after which he went to Milan, where he was
appointed fecretary to the Venetian refident.
At Milan he brought out his firft performance, un¬
der the title of // Gondoliere Vene%iano. He removed
afterwards to Verona, where he joined himfelf to a
company of players 7 and here too he entered into a
ftate of wedlock. He compofed a number of pieces for
the players to whom he attached himfelf. While at
Venice, he formed the laudable refolution of reforming
the Italian ftage, which at that time was difgraced by
contemptible farce and low buffoonery. He made him¬
felf acquainted wilh the true nature of comedy, and
kept within the limits of nature and decorum. Such
was the fertility of his genius, and fuch his indefati¬
gable induftry, that he produced no fewer than fixteen
Vol. IX. Part II.
1
G O L
comedies and 42 other theatrical pieces in the courfeof Goldoni,
twelve months And what is molt aftonilhing, fome ofGoldfunth.
thefe hafty performances are deemed his mafterpieces. '—'Y—
His works in 10 vols. 8vo. were firft printed in 1753,
and in 1761 his new pieces amounted to 59. About
this time he was invited to Paris by the manager of the
Italian theatre in that city, to compofe pieces for the
ftage, of which invitation he accepted. His firft at¬
tempt was unfuccefsful, becaufe he had to contend with
the pantomime drollery, which was moft agreeable to
the depraved tafte of the times. When about to leave
Paris on the expiration of his engagement, he was in-
troduced to the court, and appointed teacher of the
Italian language to the princeffes. He had lodgings
in Verfailies, but his pennon was not fufficient to keep
him from writing for the ftage. When 62 years old,
he ventured to compofe in a foreign language, his La
Bourru B'enfaifnnt, which was received in the court
theatre with extraordinary applaufe. Pie was deprived
of his penlion in confequence of the revolution, and re¬
duced to indigence. It ought to be confefl'ed, how¬
ever, that this verfatile nation was juft about to make
him amends when he expired in 1792, and in the 8 5th
year of his age. If the rapidity with which Goldoni
compofed was fuch as to prevent him from ranking
with authors of the firft clafs, it cannot be denied that
his talent for comedy was very great. Some have given
him the appellation of the Moliere of Italy, but this
perhaps is too flattering a title. His whole works were
printed at Leghorn about the years 1788 and 1791,
in 31 volumes 8vo.
GOLDSMITH, or, as fome choofe to exprefs it,
Jilverfmith, an artift who makes veffels, utenfils, and
ornaments, in gold and ftlver.
I he goldlmith’s wrork is either performed in the
mould, or beat out with the hammer or other engine.
All works that have raifed figures are call in a mould,
and afterwards poliftied and finilhed ; plates or difties’
of filver or gold, are beat out from thin flat plates •
and tankards, and other veffels of that kind, are
formed of plates foldered together, and their mould¬
ings are beat, not call. The bufinefs of the gold-
fmiths formerly required much more labour than it
does at prefent; for they were obliged to hammer the
metal from the ingot to the thinnefs they wanted 5 but
there are now ^invented flatting-mills, which reduce
metals to the thinnefs that is required, at a very fmall
expence. The goldfmith is to make his own moulds j
and for that reafon, ought to be a good defigner, and
have a tafte in fculpture : he ought alfo to know enough
of metallurgy to be able to affay mixed metals, and to
mix the alloy.
The goldfmiths in London employ feveral hands
under them for the various si tides of their trade j fuch
are the jeweller, the fnuff-box and toy-maker, the fil-
ver-turner, the gilder, the burnifher, the chafer, the
refiner, and the gold-beater.
Goldfmiths are fuperior tradefmen 5 their wares
muft be affayed by the wardens of the company of
this name in London, and marked j and gold is to be
of a certain touch. No goldfmith may take above one
(hilling the ounce of gold, befides what he has for the
fafhioning, more than the buyer may be allowed foe
it at the king’s exchange; and here any falfe metal
ftiall be feized and forfeited to the king. The cities
£ G
0:
[ 786
are places appointed
of goldfmiths j alfo a
of lixpence an ounce,
G O L
Goklfmitli. of York, Exeter, Briitol, &c.
■' for the afiaying wrought plate
duty is granted on lilver-plate
&c. Plate made by goldfmiths {hall be of a particular
finenefs, on pain of forfeiting 10I. and if any parcel
of plate lent to the allayers is difcovered to be of a
coarfer alloy than the refpeclive ftandards, it may be
broken and defaced ; and the fees for allaying are par¬
ticularly limited.
Goldsmith, Oliver, a celebrated Englilh writer,
was born at Rofcommon in Ireland in the year 1731.
His father, who poffeffed a fmall eftate in that county,
had nine Tons, of whom Oliver was the third. He
was originally intended for the church •, and with that
view, after being well inftrufted in the claflics, was,
with his brother, the Rev. Henry Goldfmith, placed
in Trinity College, Dublin,, about the latter end of the
year 1749. In this feminary of learning he conti¬
nued a few years, when he took a bachelor’s degree :
but his brother not being able to obtain any prefer¬
ment after he left the college, Oliver, by the advice
of Dean Goldfmith of Cork, turned his thoughts to
the itudy of phylic •, and, after attending feme courfes
of anatomy in Dublin, proceeded to Edinburgh in the
year 1751, where he ftudied the feveral branches of
medicine under the different profeflbrs in that univer-
fity. His beneficent difpofition foon involved him in
unexpedled difficulties ; and he was obliged precipi¬
tately to leave Scotland, in confequence of engaging
himfelf to pay a confiderable fum of money for a fel-
low'-ltudent.
A few days after, about the beginning of the year
17 54, he arrived at Sunderland, near Newcaffle,
where he was arrefted at the fuit of a taylor in Edin¬
burgh, to whom he had given fecurity for his friend.
By the good offices of Laughlan Maclane, Eiq. and
Dr Sleigh, who were then in the college, he was foon
delivered out of the hands of the bailiff; and took his
paffage on board a Dutch flrip to Rotterdam, where,
after a fhort flay, he proceeded to Bruffels ; he then
vifited great part of Flanders \ and after parting fome
time at Strafburg and Louvain, where he obtained a
degree of bachelor of phyfic, he accompanied an Englifh
gentleman to Berne and Geneva.
It is undoubtedly faft, that this ingenious unfortu¬
nate man travelled on foot molt part of his tour. He
had left England with very little money $ and being
of a philofophical turn, and at that time puffeffing a
body capable of fuflaining every fatigue, and a heart
not eafily terrified at danger, he became an enthuliaft
to the defign he had formed of feeing the manners of
different countries. He had fome knowledge of the
French language and of mufic, and he played tolerably
rvell on the German flute j which, from an amufe-
ment, became at fome times the means of fubfiffence.
His learning produced him a hofpitable reception at
moft of the religious houfes *, and his mufic made him
welcome to the peafants of Flanders and other parts of
Germany. “ Whenever I approached,” he ufed to
fay, “ a peafant’s houfe towards night-fall, I played
one of my moft merry tunes •, and that procured me
not only a lodging, but fubfiftence for the next day :
but in truth (his eonftant expreffion), I mull own,
whenever I attempted to entertain perfons of a higher
rank, they always thought my performance odious,
]
G O L
and never made me any return for my endeavours to Goldfmith-
pleafe them.”
On Mr Goldfmith’s arrival at Geneva, he was re¬
commended as a proper perfon for a travelling tutor
to a young man, who had been unexpectedly left a
confiderable fum of money by his uncle Mr S ,
formerly an eminent pawnbroker near Holborn. This
youth, who had been articled to an attorney, on re¬
ceipt of his fortune determined to fee the world 3
and, on his engaging with his preceptor, made a
provifo that he Ihould be permitted to govern him-
felf j and Goldfmith foon found his pupil underftood
the art of directing in money-concerns extremely well,
as avarice was his prevailing paffion. His queftions
were ufually how money might be faved, and which
was the leaft expenfive courfe of travelling *, whether any
thing could be bought that would turn to account
when difpofed of again in London ? Such curiofities
on the way as could be feen for nothing he was ready
enough to look at; but if the fight of them was to
be paid for, he ufually aflerted that he had been told
they were not worth feeing. He never paid a bill
that he would not obferve how amazingly expenfive
travelling w'as ; and all this, though he was not yet
twenty-one. During Goldfmith’s continuance in Swit¬
zerland, he afliduoully cultivated his poetical talent,
of which he had given fome ftriking proofs while at
the college of Edinburgh. It w'as here he fent the
firft {ketch of his delightful poem called the Travellery
to his brother the clergyman in Ireland, who, giving
up fame and fortune, had retired with an amiable wife,
to happinefs and obfeurity, on an income of only 40I,
a-year.
From Geneva Mr Goldfmith and his pupil vifited
the fouth of France ; where the young man, upon
fome difagreement with his preceptor, paid him the
fmall part of his falary which was due, and embarked
at Marfeilles for England. Our wanderer was left once
more upon the world at large, and paffed through a
variety of difficulties in traverfing the greateft part of
France. At length his curiofity being fatiated, he
bent his courfe towards England, and arrived at Dover
the beginning of the winter 175^’ When he came to
London, his ftock of caflr did not amount to two livres.
An entire ftranger in this metropolis, his mind was
filled with the moft gloomy reflexions on his embar-
raffed fituation. With fome difficulty he difcovered
that part of the towm in which his old acquaintance
Dr Sleigh refided. This gentleman received him with
the warmeft affeXion, and liberally invited him to
{hare his purfe till fome eftabliiliment could be procu¬
red for him. Goldfmith, unwilling to be a burden to
his friend, a ffiort time after eagerly embraced an of¬
fer which was made him to affift the late Rev. Dr
Milner in inftruXing the young gentlemen at the aca¬
demy at Peckham ; and acquitted himfelf greatly to
the DoXor’s fatisfuXion for a ffiort time : but having
obtained fome reputation by the criticifms he had
written in the Monthly Review, Mr Griffith, the pro¬
prietor, engaged him in the compilation of it; and,
refolving to purfue the profeffion of writing, he return¬
ed to London, as the mart where abilities of every kind
were fure of meeting diftinXion and reward. As his
finances were by no means in a good ft ate, he deter¬
mined to adopt a plan of the ftriXeft economy : and
took
< G O L [787
Gold fail th. took lodgings in an obfcure court in the Old Bailev,
where he wrote feveral ingenious little pieces. The
late Mr Newberry, who at that time gave great en-
' couragement to men of literary abilities, became a
kind of patron to our young author ; and introduced
him as one of the writers in the Public Ledger, in
which his Citizen of the World originally appeared,
under the title of Chinefe Letters.
Fortune now feemed to take fome notice of a man
fhe had long negledted. The fimplicity of his charac¬
ter, the integrity of his heart, and the merit of his pro¬
ductions, made his company very acceptable to a num¬
ber of relpedable families j and he emerged from his
fhabby apartments in the Old Bailey to the politer air
of the Temple, where he took handfome chambers, and
lived in a genteel Ityle. The publication of his Tra¬
veller, and his Vicar of Wakefield, was followed by the
performance of his comedy of the Good-natured Man
at Covent Garden theatre, and placed him in the firft
rank of the poets of the age.
Among many other perfons of diftinftion who were
defirous to know him was the duke of Northumber¬
land ; and the circutHiiance that attended his introduc¬
tion to that nobleman is worthy of being related, in
order to Ihow a ftriking trait of his charader. “ I was
invited,” faid the Doctor, (as he was then univerfally
tailed), “ by my friend Mr Percy, to wait upon the
duke, in confequence of the fatisfadlion he had received
from the perufal of one of my productions. I drefled
myfelf in the belt manner I could j and, after ftudying
fome compliments 1 thought neceffary on fuch an occa-
fion, proceeded to Northumberland-houfe, and acquaint¬
ed the lervants that I had particular bufinefs with his
Grace. They (bowed me into an antichamber 5 where,
after waiting fome time, a gentleman very genteelly
dreffed made his appearance. Taking him for the
duke, I delivered all the fine things I had compofed in
order to compliment him on the honour he had done
me; when, to my great aftonithment, he told me I had mif-
taken him for his mailer, who would fee me immediate¬
ly. At that inllant the duke came into the apartment $
and 1 was fo confufed on the occafion, that I wanted
words barely iufficient to exprefs the fenfe I entertain¬
ed of the duke’s politenefs, and went away extremely
chagrined at the blunder I had committed.”
Another feature of his character we cannot help lay¬
ing before the reader. Previous to the publication of
his Lelerted V illage, the bookfeller had given him a
note for one hundred guineas for the copy, which the
DoClor mentioned a few hours after to one of his
friends : who obferved, it was a very great fum for fo
fhort a performance. “ In truth,” replied Goldfmith,
“ I think lo too ; I have not been eafy fince I received
it; therefore I will go back and return him his note $”
which he abfolutely did ; and left it entirely to the
bookfeller to pay him according to the profits produced
by the fale of the piece, which turned out very confi-
derable.
Luring the lall rehearfal of his comedy intitled She
(loops to Conquer, which Mr Coleman had no opinion
would iucceed, on the Lector’s objecting to the repe¬
tition of one of JL'ony Lumkin’s fpeeches, being appre-
henfive it might injure the play, the manager with
great keennefs replied, “ Plha, my dear Loftor, do not
] GOT,
be fearful of fquibs, when we have been fitting ajmoll Goldfmitb.
thefe two hours upon a barrel of gunpowder.” The
piece, however, contrary to Mr Coleman’s expectation,
was received with uncommon applaufe by the audience j
and Goldfmith’s pride was fo hurt by the feverity of
the above obfervation, that it entirely put an end to his
friendlhip for the gentleman that made it.
Notwithfianding the great luccefs of his pieces, by
fome of which it is afferted, upon good authority, he
cleared 1800I. in one year, his circumftances were by
no means in a profperous fituation j which was partly
owing to the liberality of his difpofition, and partly to
an unfortunate habit he had contracted of gaming j the
arts of which he knew very little of, and confequently
became the prey of thofe who were unprincipled enough
to take advantage of his fimplicity.
Juft before his death he had formed a defign for exe¬
cuting an Univerfal LiCtionary of Arts and Sciences,
the profpeCtus of which he aCtually publilhed. In this
work feveral of his literary friends, (particularly Sir
Jofhua Reynolds, Lr Johnfon, Mr Beauclerc, and Mr
Garrick), had undertaken to furnilh him with articles
upon different fubjeCts. He had entertained the molt
languine expectations from the fuccefs of it. The un¬
dertaking, however, did not meet with that encourage¬
ment from the bookfellers which he had imagined it
would undoubtedly receive 5 and he ufed to lament this
circumltance almoit to the laft hour of his exiltence.
He had been for fome years afflicted, at different
times, with a violent ftrangury, which contributed not
a little to embitter the latter part of his life j and which,
united with the vexations which he fuffered upon other
occafions, brought on a kind of habitual defpondency.
In this unhappy condition he was attacked by a nervous
fever, which, being improperly treated, terminated in
his diffolution on the 4th of April 1774.
As to his character, it is Itrongly illuftrated by Mr
Pope’s line,
In wit a man, fimplicity a child.
The learned leifure he loved to enjoy was too often
interrupted by diftreffes which arofe from the liberality
of h is temper, and which fometimes threw him into
loud fits of paflion : but this impetuofity was correct¬
ed upon a moment’s reflection ^ and his fervants have
been known, upon thefe occafions, purpofely to throw
themfelves in his way, that they might profit by it im¬
mediately after ; for he who had the good fortune to
be reproved, was certain of being rewarded for it.
The univerfal efteem in which his poems were held,
and the repeated pleafure they give in the perufal, is a
ftriking left of their merit. He w as a itudious and cor-
reCt obferver of nature ; happy in the feleCtion of his
images,( in the choice of his fubjeCts, and in the har¬
mony of his verfification ; and, though his embarraffed
fitualion prevented him from putting the laft hand to
many of his productions, his Hermit, his Traveller,
and his Leferted Village, bid fair to claim a place
among the moil finifhed pieces in the Englifh lan¬
guage.
Befides the works already mentioned, he wrote, 1.
Hiftory of the earth and animated nature, 6 vols 8vo.
2. Hiitory of England, 4 vols 8vo. 3. Hiftory of
Rome, a vols. 4. Abridgements of the twro laft, for
5 G 2 th^
G O L r 788 1
A view of experimental philofo- ern language
G 0 L
Golius.
Gold uni th tlie ufe of fcliools,
phy, 3 vols 8vo •, a pofthumous work, not efteemed.
, 6. Mifcellanies, &c.
GOLF, the name of a certain game among the
Scots, and faid to be peculiar to their country.—
Among them it has been very ancient •, for there are
ftatutes prohibiting it as early as the year 1457, left it
fhould interfere with the fport of archery. It is com¬
monly played on rugged broken ground, covered with
Ihort grafs, in the neighbourhood of the fea fhore. A
field of this fort is in Scotland called links. The game
is generally played in parlies of one or two on each
fide. Each party has an exceeding hard ball, fome-
vhat larger than a hen’s egg. This they ftrike with a
{lender and elaftic club, of about four feet long, crook¬
ed in the head, and having lead run into it, to make it
heavy. The ball being ftruck with this club, will fly
to the diftance of zoo yard's, and the game is gained
by the party who puts his ball into the hole with the
feweft itrokes. But the game does not depend folely
upon the linking of the longeit ball, but alio upon mta-
furing the llrength of the Itroke, and apphing it in
fuch direflion as to lay the ball in fmooth ground,
whence it may be eaflly moved at the next ftroke. To
encourage this amufement, the city of Edinburgh,
A. D. 1744, gave to the company of golfers a lilver
club, to be played for annu illy by the company, the
vidlor to append a gold or filver piece to the prize.
It has been played for every year fince, except the
years 1746 and 1747. For their better accommoda¬
tion, 22 members of the company fubfcribed 3.0I. each
in the year 1768, for building a houfe, where their
meetings might be held. The fpot chofen for this pur-
pofe was the fouth-welt corner of Leith Links, where
an area was taken in feu from the magiilrates of
Edinburgh, and a commodious houfe and tavern built
upon it.
GOLIUS, James, a celebrated profeflor of Arabic
and the mathematics at Leyden, was defcended from a
very honourable family, and born at the Hague in the
year 1596. He was put to the univerflty of Leyden,
where he ftudied under Erpinius ; and having made
himfelf mailer of all the learned languages, applied
himfelf to the mathematics, phylic, and divinity. He
afterwards travelled into Africa and Afia j and became
greatly efteemed by the king of Morocco, and the ful-
tan of the Turks. He at length returned to Leyden,
loaded with manufcriptsj and in 1624, fucceeded Er¬
pinius in the Arabic chair. As he had been an eye-
witnels of the wretched Hate of Chriftianity in the Ma¬
hometan countries, he was filled with the eompaflion
of a fellow-chriftian 5 and none ever folicited for a
place of honour and profit w ith greater eagernefs, than
he for procuring a new edition of the New' Teftament,
in the original language, with a tranftation into the
vulgar Greek, by an Archimandrite \ and as there are
fome of thefe Chriftians who ufe the Arabic tongue in
divine fervice, lie alfo took care to have difperfed
among them an Arabic tranflation of the confeffion of
the Proteilants, together with the Catechifm and Li¬
turgy. In 1626, he was alfo chofen profeffor of ma
theraatics ; and difcharged the functions of both pro-
fefforihips with the greateft applaufe during 40 years.
He was likewife appointed interpreter in ordinary to the
Hates for the Arabic, Turkilh, Perlian, and other eaft-
for which he had an annual penfion,
and a prefent of a gold chain, with a very beautiful
medal, which he wore as a badge of his office. He
publiffied, 1. The life of Tamerlane, written in Ara¬
bic. 2. The hiltory of the Saracens, written by EI-
macin. 3. Alferganus’s Elements of Aftronomy, with
a new verfion, and learned commentaries. 4. An ex¬
cellent Arabic lexicon. 5. A Perfian Didlionary. He
died in 1667.
GOLTZ1US, Henry, a famous engraver and paint-*
er, born in 1558, at Mulbreck in the duchy of Juliers*
He was taught the art of engraving by Theodore Cue-
renhert ; and fucceeded very wonderfully in it, not-
withftanding the difadvantage of a lame hand, which
was occafioned by his falling into the fire whilft young.
He was firft employed by his mafter, and afterwards
he worked for Philip Galle. Homeftic troubles and
ill health occafioned him to. travel. He went through
Gc rmany into Italy ; and palled under a feigned name,
that his Undies might not be interrupted. He vifited
Bologna, Florence, Naples, and \enice, conftantly
applying himfelf to drawing from the antique ftatues*.
and the works of the great mailers. At Rome he re-
fided the longeft •, and there he produced feveral excel¬
lent engravings from Polidoro Raphael, and other emi¬
nent painters. On his return to his native country he
eftabhlhed himfelf at Haerlem, where he engraved many
of the drawings which he had made during his abode
in Italy. He died at Haerlem in 1617, aged 39. He
is faid to have been 4.0 years old before he began t®
paint : yet his pi&ures are fpoken of with great com¬
mendation ; but as he did not produce any great num¬
ber of them, they are rarely to be met with. As aa
engraver, he delerves the higheft commendation. No
man ever iurpr.iltd, and few have equalled, him in the
command of the graver and freedom of execution. H«
copied the ftyle of Albert Durer, Lucas of Leyden,
and other old mailers, with aftoniffiing exadlnels. Some¬
times his engravings are neat in the extreme *, at other
times they are performed in a bold open manner, with¬
out the leaft reftraint. He alfo engraved fe veral of his-
own defigns on wood, in that manner which is diftia-
guilhed by the appellation of chiaro feuro. Of his
prints, which are very numerous, it may here fuffice to
fpecify two or three of the moft celebrated : 1. Six
large upright plates, known by the name of his majler-
pieces. Thefe, it is faid, he engraved to convince the
public that he was perfedlly capaole of imitating the
ityles of Albert Darer, Lucas Van Leyden, and other
mailers, whole works were then held in higher eftima-
tion than his own : for he had adopted a new manner,
which he purfued b* caule he thought it fuperior, and
not becaufe he, was incapable of following the o hers.
It is reported that with one of them, the Cireumc ifioa,
which he fmoked to give it the more plaufible air of
antiquity, he adlually deceived fome of the moft capi¬
tal connoilTeurs of the day •, by one of whom it was
bought for an original engraving of Albert Durtr,
The fub}e£ls of thefe plates are, The Annunciation of
the Virgin ; the Meeting of the Virgin with Elizabeth,
called the Vifitation j the Nativity of Chrift \ the Cir-
cumcifion of Chrift } the Adoration of the Wile Men j
the Holy Family. 2. The Judgment of Midas, a large
plate lengthwiie. 3. The Venetian Ball, a large plate
lengthwile, from Theodore Bernard. 4. The Boy and
Dogj
Goliu"?,
Goltzius.
G O M [ 789 1 GO M
Goltzius Dog, a rrtJddling-fized upright plate, from a defign of
Gombroon 0Wn ’ an adm*ra’D^e print. 5. The Necromancer,
l ° 1 ^ 'n' a middling-fized upright oval print, in chiaro-fcuro.
6. Night in her Chariot, the fame.
GOMBAULD, John Ogier de, one of the beft
French poets in the 1 7th century, and one of the firft
members of the French academy, was=- born at St Juft
de Imflac. He acquired the efteem of Mary de Medi-
cis, and of the wits of his time; He was a Proteftant,
and died in a very advanced age. He wrote many
works in ve-rfe and profe. His epigrams, and fome of
his fonnets, are particularly efteemed.
GOMBROON, by the natives called Bander
a city of Perfia, fituated in N. I^at. 27. 20. E. Long.
55. 40. The name of Gombroon, or Cooierong, Cap¬
tain Hamilton tells us, it had from the Portuguefe 5
becaufe it was remarkable for the number of prawns
and fhrimps caught on its coafts, by them called come-
rong. This city owes its wealth and grandeur to the
demolition of Ormus, and the downfal of the Portu¬
guefe empire in the Eaft Indies. It is now juftly ac-i
counted one of the greateft marts in the Ealt, was
built by the great Shah Abas, and from him, as fome
think, obtained the name of Bonder sibafli, which lig¬
nites the court of Abas. It Hands on a bay about
nine leagues to the northward of the eaft end of the
iftand of Kilhmith, and three leagues from the famous
Ormus. The Knglifh began to fettle here about the
year 1631, when, in coniideration of their fervices
againft the Portuguefe, Shah Abas granted them half
the cuiloms of that port. This was confirmed by a
phirmaund, and duly regarded, till the Engliih began
to negleft the fervices they had llipulated. Whether
the company has any emolument from the cuftoms at
prefent, is what we cannot pretend to afcertain. The
town is large, but its fituation bad •, wanting almoft
every thing that contributes to the happinefs and even
fupport of life. Towards the land it is encompalfed
by a fort of wall; and towards the fea are feveral fmall
forts with a platform, and a cattle or citadel, mounted
with cannon to fecure it and the road from the at¬
tempts of an enemy by fea. The houfes in molt of
the ftreets are fo out of repair, fi>me half down, others
in a. heap of rubbifh, that a ft ranker would imagine
the town had been facked and ravaged by a barbarous
people; not a veftige of the uealth really contained
in the place appearing in view. T he bazars and Ihops
round them are kept, for the moft part, by Banians,
whofe houfes are generally in g od order. Moft of
the houfes are built with earth and lime, but fome of
the beft with Hone. Many of them have a fort of
ventilators at top, which contributes greatly to the
health of the inhabitants in the hot fea Tons of the
year. The moft fickly months here are April, May,
September, and Oflober. With filh and mutton the
inhabitants are well fupplied. Rice is imported from
India ; and wheat is fo plenty, that the poor fubfift
chiefly on bread and dates. The country hereabouts
abounds in the moft delicious fruits, as apricots, peach¬
es, pomegranates, pears, mangoes, grapes, quavas,
plums, fweet quinces, and water melons The apricots,
however, are fmall, and extremely dangerous if eaten
to excefs.
Thofe conveniences are more than overbalanced by
the fcarcity of frefh water, with which the inhabitants
are fupplied from Affeen, a place feven miles cfiftant, Gombroon-
there not being a fpring or well in the town. Perfons , Gomera.^
of condition keep a camel conftantly employed in y **
bringing frelh and wholefome water. Captain Hamil¬
ton gives it as his opinion, that one eaufe of the un-
wholefomenefs of this city is the refleftion of the rays
of light from a high mountain to the north of it*
He fays, that when the beams are refle&ed from this-
mountain, they almoft fire the air, and, for two or-
three months in the year, render the fituation intole¬
rable. For this reaibn the people of condition retire
into the country, to pals the heats of June, July, and
Auguft. The very lea, during this feafon, is aftecled,
infomuch that the flench is no lefs difagieeable than
that of putrid carcafes; and this is increafed by the
quantities-of ftiell fifn left on the ftiore, from which an
exhalation ariles that tarnifhes goid and filver, and is
lefs tolerable than the bilge-water of a tight £hip. At
Afleen the Englifti faflory have a country houfe and
gardens, to which they retire occafionally. Here they
have whole groves of Seville orange trees, which^
though not natural to the country, thrive very well,
and are always verdant, bearing ripe and green fruit,..
with bloffoms, all at the fame time. They have like-
wife tanks and ponds of fine frelh water, with every
thing elfe that can moderate the heat of the climate^
and render life agreeable and elegant. About 10 miles
from Affeen is a place called Minoa, where are cold
and hot natural baths, reckoned infallible in the cure
of all fcrophulous diforders, rheumatifms, .and o{her dif-
eafes, by bathing.
Gombroon is extremely populous,.on account of the
commerce carried on by the Dutch and Englifti fafto-
ries, as well as the natives. The Engliih fadlory is clofe
by the fea, at fome diftance from the Dutch, which is
a commodious and fine new building. A great part of
the company’s profits arifes from freights. As the na¬
tives have not one good (hip of their own, and are ex¬
tremely ignorant of navigation, they freight their goods
for Surat, and other Indian marts, in Englilli and
Dutch bottoms, at an exorbitant rate. The commodi¬
ties of the Gombroon market are, fine wines of differ¬
ent kinds, raifins, almonds-, kilh-milhes, prunellas, dates,
piftachio-nuts, ginger, filks, carpets, leather, tutty,
galbanum, ammoniac, affatoetida, tragacanth, with
other gums, and a variety of ftiop medicines. Thefe
are in a great meafure the produce of Carmania, which
they bring to Gombroon in caravans. The Englifh
company had once a fmall fadlory in the province of
Carmania, chiefly for the fake of a fine wool produced
there, and ufed by the hatters. The laid company had
once a projedl of carrying a breed of the Perlian goats
to St Helena ; but whether it was executed, or what
fuccefs it met with, we cannot fay. Although the
company pay no cuftoms, yet they ufually make a pre¬
fent to the lhabander, to avoid the trouble he has it in .
his power to give thi m. All private traders with the
company’s paffes, enjoy the fame privileges, on paying
two per cent, to the company, one to the agent, and
one to the broker. All private trade, either by Euro¬
pean or country Ihips, has long been engroffed by the
company’s fervants.
GOMERA, one of the Canary illands, lying be¬
tween Ferro and Teneriffe. Tt has one good town of
the fame nanae, with an excellent harbour, where the
Spanhk
G O N [ 790 ] G O N
Gomera Spanifli fleet often taken in refrefhments. They have
C Jd u- cor:i hafficient to fupply the inhabitants, with one fu-
 gar-work, and great plenty of wine and fruits. It is
iubje£t to the Spaniards, who conquered it in I445.
W. Long. 17. 10. N. Lat. 28. o.
GOMORRAH, in Ancient Geography, one of the
cities of the plain or of the vale of Siddim in Judtea,
deftroyed together with Sodom by fire from heaven, on
account of the wickednefs of the people. To deter¬
mine its particular fituation at prefent is impoflibie.
GOMOZIA, a genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandria clafs. See Botany Index.
GOMPHOSIS, in Anatomy, that kind of articula¬
tion by which the teeth are fixed in the jaw-bone. See
Anatomy, N° 2.
GOMPHRZENA, Globe Amaranth ^ a genus of
plants belonging to the pentandria clafs $ and in the
natural method ranking under the 54th order, Mifcel-
ianeoe. See Botany Index.
GONAQdJA, the name of a nation inhabiting
about the Cape, and fuppofed by Dr Sparrman to be
a mixture of Hottentots and. Caffres. See Hotten¬
tots.
GONDAR, the capital of Abyflinia ; fituated, ac¬
cording to Mr Bruce’s obfervations, in latitude 12. 30.
north, and longitude 37. 40. call: from Greenw-ich.
-It lies upon the top of a hill of eonfiderable height,
and confifts of about 10,000 families in times of peace.
The houfes are chiefly of clay, with roofs thatched in
the form of cones. At the w'elt end of the town is the
king’s palace ; formerly, as Mr Bruce informs us, a
ftrucflure of confiderable confequence, being a large
fquare building four ftories high, flanked with fquare
towers, and affording from the top of it a magnificent
view' of all the country fouthward to the lake Tzana.
It was built in the time of Facilidas, by mafons from
India, and by fuch Abyflinians as had been inftru&ed
in architedlure by the Jefuits before their expulfion.
Great part of it is now in ruins, having been burnt
at different times .; but there is Hill ample lodging in
the two lowed floors, the audience chamber being above
120 feet long. By the fide of this ftru&ure there have
been built by different kings apartments of clay only,
in tlje fafliion of their own country. The palace, with
all its contiguous buildings, is furrounded by a double
itone wall thirty feet high and a mile and a half in
circumference, with battlements upon the outer wall,
and a parapet roof between the outer and inner, by
which you can go along the whole and look into the
ftreet. The hill on which the town is built rifes
in the middle of a deep valley, through which run two
rivers : one of which, the Kakha, coming from the
Mountain of the Sun, flanks all the fouth of the
town ; while the other, called the ingrab, falling from
the mountain Woggora, encoropaffes it on the north
and north-eaft ; and both rivers unite at the bottom of
the hill about a quarter of a mile fouth of the town.
Up on the bank oppofite to Gondar, on the other fide
of the river, is a large town of Mahometans; a great
part of whom are employed in taking care of the
king’s and nobility’s equipage, both when they take
the field and when they return from it. 'They are
formed into a body under proper officers; but never
fight on either fide, being entirely confined to the
occupation juft mentioned, in which by their care and
dexterity in pitching and ftriking the tents, and in Gondar
leading and condudting the baggage-waggons, they 1.1
are of great fervice.—The valley of Gondar is de- Gjci0m'!
feribed as having three outlets ; one fouth, to Dem-. , ',.
bea, Maitlha, and the Agows; another on the north-
Welt, towards Sennaar, from which it is diftant 183
miles, over the Mountain of the Sun ; and the third
north, leading to Woggora, over the high moun¬
tain Lamalmon, and fo on through Tigre to the Red
lea.
GONDI, John Francis Paul, Cardinal de Retz,
was the fon of Philip Emanuel de Gondi, Count de
Joigny, lieutenant-general, &c. and was born in 1613.
From a do£lor of the Sorbonne, he firlt became co¬
adjutor to his uncle John Francis de Gondi, whom he
fueceeded in 1654 as archbifhop of Paris ; and was
finally made a cardinal. This extraordinary perfon
has drawn his own character in his memoirs with im¬
partiality. He was a man who, from the greatelt
degree of debauchery, and ftill languifhing under its
confequences, made himfelf adored by the people as a
preacher. At the age of 23, he was at the head of
a confpiracy againft the life of Cardinal Richelieu ; he
precipitated the parliament into cabals, and the people
into fedition : he was (fays M. Voltaire) the firfi: bL
fliop who carried on a civil war without the malk of
religion. Flowever, his intrigues and fchemes turned
out fo ill, that he w as obliged to quit France ; and he
lived the life of a vagrant exile for five or fix years,
till the death of his great enemy Cardinal Mazarin,
when he returned on certain ftipulated conditions.
After affifting in the conclave at Rome, which chofe
Clement IX. he retired from the world, and ended
his life like a philofopher in 1679 i "Rich made Vol¬
taire fay, that in his youth he lived like Catiline, and
like Attieus in his old age. He wrote his Memoirs
in his retirement ; the belt edition of which is that of
Amiterdam, 4 vols i2mo, 1719.
GONDOLA, a flat boat, very long and narrow,
chiefly ufed at Venice to row on the canals. The
word is Italian, gondola. Du Cange derives it from
the vulgar Greek r-ovyliXus, “ a bark,” or “ little fhip
Lancelot deduces it from yov2v, a term in Athenseus for
a fort of vafe.
The middle-fized gondolas are upwards of thirty
feet long and four broad : they always terminate at
each end in a very fharp point, which is raifed perpen¬
dicularly to the full height of a man.
The addrefs of the Venetian gondoliers, in paffing
along their narrow' canals, is very remarkable : there
are ufually two to each gondola, and they xpv’ by puih*
ing before them. The fore-man refts his oar on the
left fide of the gondola : the hind-man is placed on the
ftern, that he may fee the head over the tilt or co¬
vering of the gondola, and refts his oar, which is very
long, on the right fide of the gondola.
Gondola is alfo the name of a paffage-boat of fix
or eight oars, ufed in other parts of the coaft of Italy.
GONIOMETRY, a method of meafuring angles,
fo called by M. de Lagny, who gave feverai papers, on
this method, in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy an,
1724, 1725, 1729. M. de Lagny’s method of gonip-
metry confifts in meafuring the angles with a pair of
compaffes, and that without any feale whatever, except
an undivided femicucle. Thus, having any angle
drawn
GOO
Goniome
try
drawn upon paper, to be meafured ; produce one of the
)( hdes of the angle backwards behind the angular point;
Good, "’ith a pair °f fine compaffes defcribe a pretty
—-y—large femicircle from the angular point as a centre, cut¬
ting the fides of the propofed angle, which will inter¬
cept a part of the femicircle. Take then this intercepted
part very exactly between the points of the compaffes,
and turn them fucceffively over upon the arc of the fe¬
micircle, to find how often it is contained in it, after
which there is commonly fome remainder: then take
this remainder in the compaffes, and in like manner
find how often it is contained in the laft of the integral
parts of the firft arc, with again fome remainder : find
in like manner how oftt this laft remainder is contained
in the former; and fo on continually, till the remainder
become too fmall to be taken and applied as a meafure.
By this means he obtains a feries of quotients, or frac¬
tional parts, one of another, which being properly re¬
duced into one fra&ion, give the ratio of the firft arc to
the femicircle, or of the propofed angle to two right
angles, or 180 degrees, and confequently that angle it-
felf in degrees and minutes. Hutton's Math. DiB.
GONORRHOEA, an efflux of white, greenilh, or
differently-coloured matter, from the urethra; moft
commonly owing to venereal infesftion. See Medicine
and Surgery Index.
GONZAGA, Lucretia, was one of the moft il-
luftrious ladies of the 16th century ; and much cele¬
brated for her wit, her learning, and her delicate ftyle.
Hortenfio Lando wrote a beautiful panegyric upon
her, and dedicated to her his dialogue of moderating
the paffions. Her beautiful letters have been collected
with the greateft care. We learn from thefe, that her
marriage with John Paul Manfrone was unhappy. 
She was married when (he Avas not 14 years of age,
and his conduft afterwards gave her infinite uneafi-
nefs. He engaged in a confpiracy againft the duke
of Ferrara j was detefted and imprifoned by him;
but, though condemned by the judges, not put to
death. She did all in her power to obtain his en¬
largement, but in vain 5 for he died in prifon, having
fflown fuch impatience under his misfortunes, as made
it imagined he had loft his fenfes. She never would
lirten afterwards to any propofals of marriage, though
feveral were made to her. All that came from her
pen was fo much efteemed, that a colle&ion was made
even of the notes flie writ to her fervants; feveral
of which are to be met with in the edition of her
letters.
GOOD, in general, whatever is apt to increafe
pleafure, to diminilh pain in us ; or, which amounts to
the fame, whatever is able to procure or preferve to us
the poffeffion of agreeable fenfations, and remove thofe
of an oppofite nature.
Moral GOOD, denotes the right conduct of the fe¬
veral fenles and paffions, or their juft proportion and
accommodation to their refpeftive obiedls and relations.
See Morals.
Good Shearing {bonusge/lus), fignifies an exaft car¬
riage or behaviour of a fubjeft towards the king and
the people, whereunto fome perfons upon their mifbe-
haviour are bound : and he that is bound to this, is
faid to be more ftri&ly bound than to the peace: be-
eaufe where the peace is not broken, the furety debono
[ 791 1
GOO
gejlu may be forfeited by the number of a man’s com- Good,
pany, or by their weapons. Good Hope.
GOOD Behaviour, in Law, an exaff carriage and be-
haviour to the king and his people.
A juftice of the peace may, at the requeft of ano¬
ther, or where he himfelf fees caufe, demand furety
for the good behaviour ; and to that end the juftice
may iffue out his warrant againft any perfons whatfo-
ever, under the degree of nobility $ but when it is a
nobleman, complaint is to be made in the court of
chancery, or king’s bench, where fuch nobleman may
be bound to keep the peace. Infants and feme-coverts,
who ought to find furety by their friends, may be bound
over to their good behaviour ; as alfo lunatics, that
have fome times lucid intervals, and all others who break
the peace, or being fufpe&ed to do it by affrays, af-
faults, battery, wounding, fighting, quarrelling, threat¬
ening, &c. A perfon may be likewife bound to his
good behaviour for a fcandalous way of living, keeping
bawdy-houfes, gaming-houfes, &c. and fo may com¬
mon drunkards, whoremongers, common whores, cheats,
libellers, &c. He who demands furety for the peace,
on any violence offered, muft take an oath before the
juftice, that he goes in fear of his life, or fome bodily
harm, &c. and that it is not out of malice, but from a
regard to his own fafety.
Good Breeding. See Good MANNERS.
Good Friday, a faft of the Chriftian church, in me¬
mory of the fufferings and death of Jefus Chrift. It is
obferved on the Friday in holy or pajfion week; and it
is called, by way of eminence, good, becaufe of the
bleffed effedds of our Saviour’s fufferings, which were
a propitiatory or expiating facrifice for the fins of the
world. The commemoration of our Saviour’s fufferings
has been kept from the very firft ages of Chrillianity,
and was always obferved as a day of the ftridleft farting
and humiliation. Among the Saxons it was called
Long-Friday; but for what reafon, except on account
of the long fadings and offices then ufed, is uncertain.
On Good Friday the pope fits on a plain form : and,
after fervice is ended, when the cardinals wait on him
back to his chamber, they are obliged to keep a deep
filence, as a teftimony of their forrow. In the night
of Good-Friday, the Greeks perform the obfequies of our
Saviour round a great crucifix, laid on a bed of ftate,
adorned with flowers ; thefe the bilhops diftribute a-
mong the affiftants when the office is ended. The
Armenians, on this day, fet open a holy fepulchre, in
imitation of that of Mount Calvary.
Good Hope, or Cape of Good Hope, a promontory of
Africa, where the Dutch have built a good town and
fort. It is fituated in the country of the Hottentots :
for an account of whom, and of the country at large,
with its firft difeovery, fee the article Hottentots.
The Cape of Good Hope has been generally efteem¬
ed the moft foutherly point of Africa, though it is not
truly fo. In Phillips's Voyage to Botany Bay *, we are * P. 35,
told, that the land which projefts fartheft to the fouth
is a point to the eaft of it, called by the Englilh Cape
Lagullus; a name corrupted from the original Portu-
guefe das Agulhas, which, as well as the French ap¬
pellation des Aiguilles, is deferiptive of its form, and
would rightly be tranflated Needle cape.
On approaching the cape, a very remarkable emi¬
nent
GOO [ 792 ] GOO
docrd-Hopf’. neiice may in clear weaiher be difcovered at aconfider-
l . ,  a'&je di^ance • and is called the Table-mountain from its
appearance, as it terminates in a flat horizontal lurface,
from which the face of the rock defcends almofl: per¬
pendicularly. In the mild or lummer feafon, which
commences in September, and continues till March,
the Table Land or Mountain, is fometimes fuddenly
capped with a white cloud, by fome called thefpreading
of th ' Tible-c oth. When this cloud feems to roll
down the fteep face of the mountain, it is a fure indi-
caiion of an approaching gale of wind from the fouth-
ea l ; which generally blows with great violence, and
I'omeumes continues a day or more, but in common is
of ihort duration. On the firit appearance of this
cloud, the drips in Table Bay begin to prepare for it,
by linking yards and top-malls, and making every
thing as fnug as pollible.—A little to the welt ward of
the Table Land, divided by a Imall valley, iiands on
the right-hand fide of Table Bay a round hill, call¬
ed the Sugar Loaf; and by many the Liov's H^ad, as
there is a continuance from it contiguous to the fea,
called the Lion's Rump ; and when you take a general
view of the whole, it very much refembies that animal
with his head ere£l. The Sugar Loaf or Lion’s LLad,
and the Lion’s Rump, have each a flag ftaff on them,
by which the approach of Ihips is made known to the
governor, particularizing their number, nation, and the
quarter from which they come. To tire eallwards, fe-
parated by a fmall chafm from the Table Land, Hands
Charles’s Mount, well known by the appellation of the
1)evil's Tower, or Devil's Head; and fo called from
the violent gufts of wind fuppofed to iffue from it
when it partakes of the cap that covers the Table
Land, though thefe gufts are nothing more than a de¬
gree of force the wind acquires in coming through the
.chafm. When this phenomenon appears in the morn¬
ing, which is by no means fo frequent as in the even¬
ing, the failors have a faying, as the Devil’s Tower is
almofl contiguous to the Table Land, that the old
gentleman is going to breakfaft j if in the middle of
the day, that he is going to dinner ; and if in the even¬
ing, that the cloth is fpread for fupper. Table-moun¬
tain rifes about 3 567 feet above the level of the fea j
the Devil’s "Fewer, about 3 368 •, and the Lion’s Head,
2764. In the neighbourhood of the latter lies Conjlantia,
a ditlridl confifting of two farms, wherein the famous
\yines of that name are produced
The above-deferibed high lands form a kind of am¬
phitheatre about the Table-valley, where the Cape¬
town Hands. This is fituated at the bottom of the
middle height, or Table mountain ; and almofl in the
centre of the Table Bay, fo called from that moun¬
tain.—This bay, it is obftrved in Phillips’s Voyage,
“ cannot properly be called a port, being by no means
a flation of fecurity j it is expofed to all the vio¬
lence of the winds which fet into it from the fea j
and is far from fufficiently fecured from thofe which
blow from the land. The gufts which defeend from
the fummit of Table-mountain are fufficient to force
Ihips from their anchors, and even violently to annoy
perfons on the ftiore, by deftroying any tents or other
temporary edifices, which may be erefted, and raifing
clouds of fine dull, which produce very troublefome
eflfefts. A gale of this kind, from the fouth-eaft, blew
ibr three days fuceeflively when Captain Cook lay here
in his firfi: voyage j at which time, he informs us, the Good Hope,
Refolution was the only fliip in the harbour that had
not dragged her anchor The ftorms from the lea
are Hill more formidable j fo much fo, that (hips
have frequently been driven by them from their anchor¬
age, and wrecked at the head of the bay. But thef©
accidents, happen chiefly in the quaacie moujfon, or win¬
ter months, from May 14th to the fame day of Auguil;
during which time few Ihips venture to anchor here.
Our fleet arriving later, lay perfeflly unmoleiied as
Jong as it was neceflary for it to remain in this liation.
—Falfe Bay, on ihe fouth-eaft fide of the Cape, is more
feeure than Tabh Bay during the prevalence of the
north-weft winds, but Hill lefs fo in ftrong gales from
the fouih-eaft. It is, however, lefs frequented, being
24 miles of very heavy road diftant from Cape Town,
whence almoft all neceffaries mull be procured. The
molt ftielvered part of Falfe Bay is a recefs on the well
lide, called Simon's Bay."
Mr White, in his Journal of a Voyage to New South
Wales, thus deicribes Cape Town. From the ftiip-
ping,he obferves*, the town appears pleafantly lituated, * page g-.
but at the fame time finally a deception that arifes from
its being built in a Valley with fuch ftupendous moun¬
tains direclly behind it. On landing, hoivever, you
are furprifed, and agreeably difappointed, to find it not
only extenfive, but well built, and in a good llyle ;
the ftreets fpacious, and interfedling each other at right
angles with great pvecifion. This exa£lnefs in the for¬
mation of the llreets, when viewed from the Table
Land, is obferved to be very great. The houfes in ge¬
neral are built of ftone, cemented together with a glu¬
tinous kind of earth which ferves as mortar, and after¬
wards neatly plaftered and whitewalhed with lime. As
to their height they do not in common exceed two llo-
ries, on account of the violence of the wind, which at
fome feafons of the year blows with great ftrength and
fury. For the fame reafon thatch has been ufually pre¬
ferred to tiles or ftiingles j but the bad effe£lsthat have
proceeded from this mode when fires happen, hasinduced
the inhabitants in all their new buildings to give the pre¬
ference to flates and tiles. The lower parts of the houfes,
according to the cuftom of the Dutch nation, are not
only uncommonly neat and clean in appearance, but they
are really fo j and the furniture is rather rich than ele¬
gant. But this is by no means the cafe v\ith the bed¬
rooms or upper apartments ; which are very barely and
ill furniftied. The ftreets are rough, uneven, and un¬
paved. But many of the houfes have a fpace flagged
before the door •, and others have trees planted before
them, which form a pleafant ftiade, and give an agree¬
able air to the ftreets.
The only landing-place is at the eaft end of the town,
where there is a wooden quay running fome paces into
the fea, with feveral cranes on it for the convenience of
loading and unloading the fcoots that come alongfide.
To this place excellent water is conveyed by pipes, which
makes the watering of (hips both eafy and expeditious.
Clofe to the quay, on the left hand. Hands the eaftle
and principal fortrefs ; a-ft-rong extenfive wodc, having
excellent accommodations for the troops, and for many
of the civil officers belonging to the company. Within
the jigates, the company have their principal ftores 5
which are fpacious as well as convenient. This fort
covers and defends the eaft part of the town and har¬
bour:
G O 0
good Hope, bour, as Amfterdam fort does the weft part.   
^ ter, which has been built fince Cornniodore Johnfton’s
expedition, and whereon both French and Dutch
judgment have been united to render it effeftual and
ftrong, is admirably planned and calculated to annoy
and harafs (hips coming into the bay. Some fmaller
detached fortifications extend along the coaft, both to
the eaft and weft, and make landing, which was not
the cafe before the late war, hazardous and difficult.
In a word, Cape Town is at this time fortified with
ftrength, regularity, and judgment.
The governor’s houfe is delightfully fituated, nearly
in the centre of an extenfive garden, the property of
the Dutch Eaft India company, ufefully planted, and
at the fame time elegantly laid eut. The governor’s
family make what ufe they pleafe of the produce of
the garden, which is various and abundant ; but the
original intention of the company in appropriating fo
extenfive a piece of ground to this purpofe was, that
their hofpital, which is generally pretty full when their
fhips arrive after long voyages, may be well fupplied
with fruits and vegetables, and like wife that their fhips
may receive a fimilar fupply. This garden is as public
as St James’s park j and for its handfome, pleafant,
and well-fhaded walks, is much frequented by perfons
of every defcription, but particularly by the fafhionable
and gay. At the upper end of the principal walk is a
fmall fpace walled in for the purpofe of confining fome
large oftriches and a few deer 5 and a little to the right
of this is a fmall menagery, in which the company have
half a dozen wild animals, and about the fame number
of curious birds.
I here are two churches in the town ; one large,
plain, and unadorned, for the Calvinifts, the prevail¬
ing fedl; and a fmaller one for the Lutherans. The
hofpital, which is large and*extenfive, is fituated at the
upper end of the town, clofe to the company’s garden 5
where the convalefcents reap the benefit of a wholefome
pure air, perfumed with the exhalations of a great va¬
riety of rich fruit trees, aromatic fhrubs, and odorous
plants and flowers j and like wife have the ufe of every
produfHon of it.
Befides their hofpital, the Dutch Eaft India com¬
pany have feveral other public buildings, which tend to
improve the appearance of the town. The two princi¬
pal of.thefe are, the flables and a houfe for their Haves.
The former is a handfome range of buildings, capable
«f containing an incredible number of horfes. Thofe
they have at the Cape are fmall, fpirited, and full of
life. The latter is a building of confiderable extent,
where the flaves, both male and female, have feparate
apartments, "n a very comfortable ftyle, to refide in af¬
ter the fatigues and toil of the day ; and there are feve¬
ral officers placed over them, who have commodious
apartments, and treat them humanely.
I he inhabitants of the Cape, though in their per¬
fons large, ftout, and athletic, have not all that phlegm
about them which is the charafteriftic of Dutchmen in
general, i he phyfical influence of climate may in fome
degree account for this; for it is well known that in all
(buthern latitudes the temper and ddpofition of the peo¬
ple are more gay, and that they are more inclined to
luxury and amufements of every kind, than the inhabi¬
tants ot the northern Hemil phere. The ladies are lively,
good matured, and familiar j and from a peculiar gay
Vox. IX. Part II. -I b /
f 793 1 GOO
The lat- turn, they admit of liberties that w ould be thought re- Good Hope.
prehenftble in England, though perhaps they as feldom 11
overleap the bounds of virtue as the women of other
countries.
The heavy draft work about the Cape is moftly per¬
formed by oxen ; which are here brought to an un¬
common degree of ufefulnefs and docility. It is not
uncommon to fee 14, 16, and fometimes 18, in one of
their teams ; when the roads are heavy, they fome¬
times, though rarely, yoke 20 ; all which the Hotten¬
tots, Malays, and Cape Haves, have in the moft perfect
fubje&ion and obedience. One of thefe fellows places
himfelf on the fore part of the waggon, or, when loaded,
on the top of the load, and with a tremendous long
whip, which from its fize he is obliged to hold in both
his hands, manages thefe creatures w ith inexpieflible ad-
drefs. When he finds expedition needful, he can make
them keep whatever pace he choofes, either trot or gal-
lop, (a gait performed or kept up with difficulty by
European oxen), and that with as much cafe as if he w as
driving horfes. They likewife manage horfes with the
fame dexterity ; and to fee one of them driving three,
four, five, and fometimes fix pair, in hand, with one of
thefe long whips, would make the moft complete ma¬
iler of the whip in England cut a deipieable figure.
Carriages are not very numerous at the Cape, as the in¬
habitants in general travel in covered waggons, which
better fuit the roughnefs of the country. The governor
and fome few of the principal people keep coaches,
which are a good deal in the Englifh ftyle, and always
drawn by fix horfes.
'1 he Cape of Good Hope was taken by the Britifh
on 17th Auguft 1796, with little or no difficulty, and
afterwards given up at the peace of 1801. It has been
fince retaken, and is at prefent (1806) in the poffeflioa
of the Britiflb.
When the news of the capture of this important
fettlement reached England, it was confidered as of
incalculable value to the Eaft India Company in parti¬
cular, forming a barrier or grand outwork to their im-
menfe poffieffions in India. They obtained the uncon¬
ditional grant of fupplying the Cape with India and
China goods, and care was taken to defeat every at¬
tempt that could be made to undermine their intereft.
Aware of its great importance, it was the refolution of
miniftry, “ that no foreign power, dire£lly or indiredlly,
ftiould obtain poffeflion of the Cape of Good Hope, for
that it w as the phyfical guarantee of the Britiih terri¬
tories in India.” While all were convinced of its po¬
litical importance, none difputed its commercial advan¬
tages.
_ Its geographical pofition on the globe is fo comman¬
ding a feature, that the mere looking at a map, inde¬
pendent of any other information, muft ftiew its value
and importance in various refpefts. Its diftance from
the coaft of Brazil is a month’s voyage ; from the Dutch
colonies of Surinam, Berbice, and Effequibo, it is a
voyaye of fix weeks ; it is about equally diftant from
the Red fea, and two months from Coromandel and
Malabar. It is half way between Britain and India,
in a temperate climate, and produftive of every fpecies
of refrefhment in great abundance.
Confidered in the light of a naval ftation, the im¬
portance of the Cape is equally confpicuous. It may
ierve as a port for refrelhing and refitting the ihips of
J H th©
GOO [
Sk>cdHop’, the Eafl India Company j a ftation for (hips of war
keeping the entrance into the Indian Teas, and afford¬
ing by its geographical polition, a ready communica¬
tion with every part of the globe. There is no place,
in the homeward bound voyage from India, fo proper
or convenient for the valuable fleets of the Eaft India
Company, to affemble at for convoy, as the Cape of
Good Hope. Their trews might be refreihed with
fruits, vegetables, and frefh provifions, at a very reafon-
able rate. Salt beef for the remainder of the voyage
might there be laid in. An eftablilhment for curing
fait provifions, would be an incalculable faving to the
Company, as well as a lingular convenience. The
moderate expence at which a fleet could here be main¬
tained, is a circumflance that deferves attention. At
the Cape a failor may be furnilhtd his ration of frelh
beef or mutton, bifeuit and wine, for one-fourth of
what the fame ration of fait beef cods the government
when fent out from Britain. He can have a pint of
w ine for threepence, and were it not for the monopoly
of that article, he might purchafe it for half the fum.
If a naval eftabliihment was formed at Saldanha
bay, many coafting veffels and fiffing (hips would be
condrudted in it, as it abounds with every convenience
that could be required for building (hips, which wmuld
be the means of very much increafing the coafting
trade.
To what extent the Cape might have been rendered
advantageous to the Britifti empire as an emporium of
eaftern produce, as furniihing articles of export for
confumption in Europe and the Weft Indies, and tak¬
ing articles of Britifti growth and manufacture in ex¬
change for colonial produce, it may be proper to en¬
quire. The chief objection againft this ufe of the
Cape is the prejudice it would occafton to the fales of
Leadenhall ftreet, and the diminution of his majefty’s
cuftoms 5 for though the Eaft India Company might
be made refponftble to the crown for the duties on the
amount of its fales at the Cape, yet the intention of
the emporium would be entirely defeated, if the duties
demanded there fo far enhanced the value of the Indian
commodities, as to make it equally eligible for foreign
ihipping to proceed to India, or to refort to the London
market. The Eaft India Company could fupply their
emporium at the Cape with the produce and manufac¬
ture of Great Britain to any amount, and at fo cheap a
rate as to underfell any, other nation.
Should the Cape become a commercial depot in the
hands of the Eaft India Company, the confumption in
Spanith and Portuguefe America, of eaftern produce,
would increafe to a very great extent, for all which
they would pay in fpecie, of w hich the Company Hand
in the greateft need for their China trade.
A new branch of traffic might be opened between
the Cape and New South Wales, the latter fupplying
the former with coals, of which they have abundant
mines, in exchange for cattle, butter, wine, and articles
of clothing.
The Cape may alfo be confidered as of advantage to
the Britiffi nation, by furniftiing articles of export for
general confumption in Europe and the Weft Indies.
Thefe are grain and pulfe, wine and brandy, wool,
hides and fleins, whale oil and bone, dried fruits, fait
proviftons, foap and candles, aloes, ivory, and tobacco.
Were, a depot for the fouthern whale fiftiery eftablilh-
4
79+1 G O It
ed at the Cape, it might be attended with beneficial Good Hq®
confequenees. By promoting navigation, the ftrength *1
and fecurity of the Britith empire are alfo promoted, G','rcl^,DuS*.
and its very exiftence as an independent nation is owing
to the fuperiority of its navy. A nation of fiftiermen
implies a nation of (eamen, a race of bold and hardy
warriors. The cultivation of the fftheries would afford
a never-failing fupply of men fo inftrufted, increafe our
conveniency, and promote our commerce.
The colony of the Cape comprehends at lead I 20,coo
fquare miles, yet the whole population of whites, blacks-,
and Hottentots, does not exceed 60,000 fouls, or a
fingle individual for every two fquare miles. The
upper regions of the mountains are maffes of fandftone,
and where the waters break out in fprings upon the
furface of the plains, vegetation is very luxuriant. In
the vicinity of the Cape, w here the foil is coloured with
iron, or oxide of iron combined with clay, the moft
luxuriant crops of grapes are produced. The climate
in general is friendly to vegetation, but being within
the influence of the periodical winds, the rains are very
unequal.
The chief rivers on the fouth coaft are the Gauritz:^
Knyfna, Keurboom, Camtoos, Zwartkops, Sunday,,
and Great Filh rivers, and the two principal rivers on
the weftern coaft are the Berg, or mountain river,
and the Oliphant river, which falls- into the Southern
Atlantic in 310 30' S. Lat„*. * Bnrrow'i
Good Manners, See Manners. Travels in
GOOINGS, in fea-language, are clamps of iron
bolted on the ftern-poft of a fliip, whereon to hang
the rudder and keep it heady ; for which purpofe there
is a hole in each of them, to receive a correfpondent
fpindle bolted on the back of the rudder, which turns
thereby as upon hinges.
GOOSE. See Anas, Ornithology Index. The
goofe was- held in great efteem amongft the Romans, for
having fayed the Capitol from the invaiion of the Gauls
by cackling and clapping its wings. Geefe were kept
in the temple of Juno; and the cenfors, when they en¬
tered upon their office, provided meat for them. There
was alfo an annual feaft at Rome, at which they car¬
ried a lilver image of a goofe in ftate} and hanged a
dog, to puniffi that animal becaufe he did not bark at
the arrival of the Gauls.
Goose-Ander. See Mergus, Ornithology Index.
GOOSE-Bernj. See RlBES, Botany Index.
GOOSE-Neck, in a (hip, a piece of iron fixed on the
one end of the tiller, to which the laniard of the
whip-ftaff or the wheel-rope comes, for (leering the
drip.
GOOSE-Wing, in the fea language. When a (hip
fails before, or with a quarter-wind on a freffi gale,
to make the more hafte, they launch out a boom and
fail on the lee-lide j and a fail fo fitted is called a*
goofe-wing.
GORCUM, a town in South Holland, which car¬
ries on a confiderable trade in cheefe and butter. It is
fituated on the rivers Ligne and Maefe, in E. Long,
4. 55. N. Lat. 51. 49.
GORDIANUS I. a Roman general, was for his-
valour and virtues chofen emperor by the army in the
reign of Maximinus, A. D. 237 j but his fon, whom
he had affociated with himfelf in the throne, being
llain by CapeUian; the governor of Mauritania for>
Maximinus,
G O R [ 795 ] G O R
Gordianus Maxxminus, Gordianus killed himfelf tlie fame year.
II See Rome.
on’ , Gordiakus III. grandfon of the former, a re¬
nowned warrior, and ftyled T/ie guardian of the Roman
commonwealth. He was treacheroully affaffinated by
Philippus, an Arabian, one of his generals ; who, to
the eternal difgrace of the Romans of that era, fuc-
ceeded him in the empire, A. D. 244. See Rome.
GORDIAN-knot, in antiquity, a knot made in
the leathers or harnefs of the chariot of Gordius king
of Phrygia, fo very intricate, that there was no find¬
ing where it began or ended. The inhabitants had a
tradition, that the oracle had declared, that he who
untied this knot fhould be mafter of Afia. Alexander
having undertaken it, was unable to accomplifh it;
when fearing left his not untying it fhould be deemed
an ill augury, and prove a check in the way of his
conquefts, he cut it afunder with his fword, and thus
either accomplilhed or eluded the oracle.
GORDIUS, the Hair-worm, a genus of infedls
belonging to the clafs of vermes intejiina. See Hel¬
minthology Index.
Gordius, king of Phrygia, and father of Midas,
was a poor hufbandman, with two yokes of oxen,
wherewith he ploughed his land and drew his wain.
An eagle fitting a long while upon one of his oxen, he
confulted the foothfayers j a virgin bid him facrifice
to Jupiter in the capacity of king. He married the
virgin, who brought forth Midas. The Perfians in-
ftrudled by the oracle to fet the firft perfon they met
in a wain upon the throne, met Gordius, and made him
king. Midas for this good fortune dedicated to Jupi¬
ter his father’s cart. The knot of the yoke, they fay,
was fo well twifted, that he who could unloofe it w as
promifed the empire of Afia j hence the proverb of the
Gordian knot had its original. See GORDIAN KNOT.
GORDON, Alexander, an excellent draughtfman,
and a good Greek fcholar, wko refided many years in
Italy, vifited moft parts of that country, and had
alfo travelled into France, Germany, &c. was fecre-
tary to the Society for Encouragement of Learning j
and afterwards to the Egyptian Club, compofed of
gentlemen who had vifited Egypt viz. Lord Sandwich,
Dr Shaw, Dr Pococke, &c. He fucceeded Dr
Stukeley as fecretary to the Antiquarian Society, which
office he refigned in 1741 to Mr Jofeph Ames. He
went ±0 Carolina with Governor Glen, where, befides
a grant of land, he had feveral offices, fuch as regifter of
the province, &c.; and died a juftice of the peace., leav¬
ing a handfome eftate to his family. He publifhed,
I. Itinerarium Septcntrionale, or a Journey through moft
parts of the Counties of Scotland, in two parts, with 66
copperplates, 1726, folio. 2. Supplement to the Itine¬
rarium, 1 732, folio. 3. The Lives of Pope Alexander
VI. and his fon Crefar Borgia. 4. A complete Hiftory
of the Ancient Amphitheatres, 1730, 8vo. afterwards
enlarged in a fecond edition. 5. An Eflay towards ex¬
plaining the hieroglyphical figures on the Coffin of the
ancient Mummy belonging to Capt. William Lethieuller,
1737, folio, with cuts. 6. Twenty-five Plates of all the
Egyptian Mummies and other Egyptian Antiquities
in England, 1739, folio.
Gordon, Thomas, noted for his tranflations and
political writings, was born at Kirkcudbright in North
Britain. He came young to London 5 where he fun- Gordon
ported himfelf by teaching languages, until he procu- II
red employment under the earl of Oxford in Queen, Gony‘
Anne’s time, but in what capacity is not now known.
He firft diftinguifhed himfelf in the defence of Dr
Hoadley in the Bangorian controverfy ; which recom¬
mended him to Mr Trenchard, in conjunction with
whom he wrote the well-known Cato’s Letters, upon
a variety of important public fubjedts. Thefe were
followed by another periodical paper, under the title
of the Independent Whig ; which was continued fome
years after Mr Trenchard’s death, by Gordon alone,
againft the hierarchy of the church ; but with more
acrimony than w'as ftiown in Cato’s Letters. At length
Sir Robert Walpole retained him to defend his admini-
ftration, to which end he wrote feveral pamphlets. At
the time of his death, July 28th 1750, he was firft
commiffioner of the wine licences, an office which he
had enjoyed many years. He was twice married. His
fecond wife was the widow of his great friend Tren¬
chard, by whom he had children.—He publnhed En-
glilh tranflations of Salluft and Tacitus, with additional
difeourfes to each author, which contain much good
matter. Aifo, two colledlions of his tradls have been
preferved: the firft entitled, A Cordial for Low-
fpirits, in three volumes : and the fecond, The Pil¬
lars of Prieftqraft and Orthodoxy fliaken, in two vo-.
lumes. But thefe, like many other pufthumous things,
had better have been fupprefled. In his tranjlations as
well as his other works he places his verbs at the ends
of fentences, according to the Latin idiom, in a very
ftiffand affeefted manner.
GORDO NT A, a genus of plants, belonging to the
monadelphia clafs. See Botany Index.
GORE, in Heraldry, one of the abatements, which,
according toGullim, denotes a .coward. It is a figure
confifting of two arch lines drawn one from the finifter
chief, and the other from the finifter bafe, both meet¬
ing in an acute angle in the middle of the fefs point.
See Heraldry.
GOREE, a fmall ifland of Africa, near Cape de
Verd, fubjedl to the French. It is a fmaU.fpot not
exceeding two miles in circumference, but its impor¬
tance arifes from its fituation for trade lb near Cape
Verd, and it has been therefore a bone of contention
between European nations. It was .firft poflefled by
the Dutch, from whom, in 1663., it was taken by the
Englifh ; but in 1665 it was retaken by the Dutch,
and in 1677 fubdued by the French, in whofe poflef-
fion it remained till the year 1759, when the Britiih
arms were everywdrere triumphant j and it was reduced
by Commodore Keppel, but reftured to the French
at the treaty of peace in 1763- It was retaken by
the Englilh in the laft war, but again reftored at the
peace of 1783. E. Long. 17. 20. N. Lnt. 14. 43.
Goree, the capital town of an ifland of the fame
name in Holland, eight miles fouth of Briel. E.
Long. 3. 50. N. Lat. 51. 55.
GOREY, a borough, fair, and poll-town in the
county of Wexford, province of Leinfter, olherwife
called Newborough. It ftands about 18 miles north of
Wexford town, and 45 from Dublin. N. Lat. 52. 40.
W. Long. 6. 30. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment } patronage in the family of Ram.
J H 2 GORGE,
G O R [ 796 1 G O R
C°Tge GORGE, in ArchiteRure, the narroweft part of the
•r II . Tufcan and Doric capitals, lying between the aftra-
i. ' " ’ gal, above the fhaft of the pillar, and the annulets.
Gorge, in Fortification, the entrance of the plat¬
form of any work. See FoRTIFICATIOX.
GORGED, in Heraldry, the bearing of a crown,
coronet, or the like, about the neck of a lion, a fwan,
&c. and in that cafe it is faid, the lion or cygnet is
gorged with a ducal coronet, &.c.
Gorged is alfo ufed when the gorge or neck of
a peacock, fwan, or the like bird, is of a different co¬
lour or metal from the reft.
GORGET, a kind of breaft-plate, like a half-moon,
with the arms of the prince thereon ; worn by the offi¬
cers of foot. They are to be either gilt or filver, ac¬
cording to the colour of the buttons on the uni¬
forms.
Gorget, or Gorgeret, in Surgery, is the name
which the French give to the concave or cannulated
conductor, ufed in lithotomy. See Surgery Index.
GORGON A, a fmall ifland of Italy, in the fea of
Tufcany, and near that of Corfica, about eight miles
in circumfereree ; remarkable for the large quantity
of anchovies taken near it. E. Long. 10. c. N. Lat.
43. 22.
GorgoNA, a fmall ifland of the South fea, 12 miles
weft of the coaft of Peru, in America. It is indiffer¬
ent high land, very woody, and fome of the trees are
very tall and large, and proper for mafts. It is about
10 miles in circumference, and has feveral fprings and
rivulets of excellent water, but is fubjedf to conftant
rains. W. Long. 79. 3. S. Lat. 30.
GORGONIA, in Natural Hifiory, a genus of zoo¬
phytes, which formerly were called ceratophytons, and
are known in Englifti by the names offra-fans,fea-fea-
thers, and fea-whips. Linnaeus and Dr Pallas conftder
them as of a mixed nature in their growth, between
animals and vegetables •, but Mr Ellis fhows them to
be true animals of the polype kind, growing up in a
branched form refembling a fhrub, and in no part vege¬
table. They differ from the frefh water polype in
many of their qualities, and particularly in producing
from their own fubftance a hard and folid fupport, ferv-
ing many of the purpofes of the bone in other animals.
This is formed from a concreting juice thrown out from
a peculiar fet of longitudinal parallel tubes, running a-
long the internal furface of the fleflry part : in the coats
of thefe tubes are a number of fmall orifices, through
which the offeous liquor exudes, and concreting, forms
the layers of that^ hard part of the annular circles,
which fome, judging from the confiftence rather than
the texture, have erroneoufly denominated wood. The
furface of the gorgonia is compofed of a kind of fcales,
fo well adapted to each other as to ferve for defence
from external injuries: and the flefli, or, as fome have
called it, the bark or cortex, confifts of proper muf-
cles and tendons for extending the openings of their
cells \ for fending forth from thence their polype fuc¬
kers in fearch of food} and for drawing them in fud-
denly, and contrafting the fphinifter mufcles of thefe
ftarry cells, in order to fecure thefe tender parts from
danger j and alfo of proper fecretory dufts, to furnifti
and depofit the offeous matter that forms the ftem
and branches as well as the bafe of the bone. Mr El¬
lis affirms, that there are ovaries in thefe animals, and
thinks it very probable that many of them are vivi- Gorgon®
parous. See ZoOPHYTES. |)
GORGONS, in Antiquity and Mythology. Au-, ^0d‘t!,»
thors are not agreed in the account they give of the v
Gorgons. The poets reprefent them as three fifters,
whole names were Stheno, Eunyale, and Medufa ; the
latter of whom was mortal, and, having been deflower¬
ed by Neptune, was killed by Perfeus 5 the two for¬
mer were fubjeft neither to age nor death. They are
deleribed with wings on their (boulders, with ferpents
round their heads, their hands w ere of brafs, and their
teeth of a prodigious iize, fo that they were objefts of
terror to mankind. After the death of Medufa, her
fifters, according to Virgil, were appointed to keep
the gate of the palace of Pluto.
Multaque prceterca variorum monjlra ferarum—
GORGONES, Harpy ice que 
Diodorus Siculus will have the Gorgons and Amazons
to have been two warlike nations of women, who in¬
habited that part of Libya which lay on the lake Tri-
tonidis. The extermination of thefe female nations
was not effefted till liercules undertook and performed
it.
Paufanias fays, the Gorgons wrere the daughters of
Phorbus ; after whofe death, Medufa, his daughter,
reigned over the people dwelling near the lake Tri-
tonidis. The queen was paffionately fond of hunting
and war, fo that (lie laid the neighbouring countries
quite wafte. At laft, Perfeus having made war on
them, and killed the queen herfelf, when he came to
take a view of the field of battle, he found the queen’s
corpfe fo extremely beautiful, that he ordered her
head to be cut off, which he carried with him to (how
his|countrymen the Greeks, who could not behold it
without being ftruck with aftonifhment.
Others reprefent them as a kind of monftrous wo¬
men, covered with hair, who lived in woods and forefts.
Others, again, make them animals, refembling wild
ffieep, whofe eyes had a poifonous and fatal influence.
GORITIA, or Goritz, a ftrong town of Germa¬
ny, in the circle of Auftria, and duchy of Carniola,
with a caftle ; feated on the river Lizonzo, 20 miles
north-eaft of Aquileia, and 70 north-eaft of Venice.
E. Long. 13. 43. N. Lat. 46. 12.
GORLZEUS, Abraham, an eminent antiquary,
was born at Antwerp, and gained a reputation by col-
lefting medals and other antiques. He was chiefly
fond of the rings and feals of the ancients, of which
he publirhed a prodigious number in 1601, under this
title, DaRyliotheca ; Jive Annulorum Sigillarium, quorum
apud prifeos tam Grcccos quam Romanos ufus ex ferro,
cere, argento, et auro, Promptuanum. 1 his was the
firft part of the work : the fecond was entitled, Vario¬
rum Gernmarum, quibus antiquitas in Jignando utifolita
fculpturce. This work has undergone feveral editions,
the beft of which is that of Leyden, 1 695 : for it not
only contains a vaft number of cuts, but alfo a (hort
explication of them by Gronovius. In 1680, he pub-
liftied a colle£tion of medals : which, however, if we
may believe the Scaligerana, it is not fafe always to truft.
Gorlaeus pitched upon Delft for the place of his refi-
dence, and died there in 1609. His colleftions of an¬
tiques were fold by his heirs to the prince of Wales.
GORLITZ, a town of Germany, in Upper Lufatia,
fubjeft
G O S [ 797 ] GOT
fubje& to the ele&or of Saxony. If is a handfotne
Jl rtrong place, and feated on the river Neiffe, in Ei
Go tamer. j^on^. , Latt I0#
GORTEHIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index.
GOSHAWK. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
GOSHEN, in Ancient Geography, a canton of
Egypt, which Jofeph procured for his father and his
brethren when they came to dwell in Egypt. It was
the molt fruitful part of the country : and its name
feems to be derived from the Hebrew, Gefhem, which
fignifies “ rain*,” becaufethis province lying very near
the Mediterranean, was expofed to rains, which were
very rare in other cantons, and more efpecially in Up¬
per Egypt. Calmet does not queftion but that Goihen,
- which jofliua (x. 41. xi. 16. xv. 51.) makes part of
the tribe of Judah, is the fame as the land of Goihen,
which was given to Jacob and his fons by Pharaoh
king of Egypt *, (Gen. xlvi. 28.). It is certain that
this country lay between Paleftine and the city of Ta--
nais, and that the allotment of the Hebrews reached
fouthward as far as the Nile, (Jofh. xiii. 3.).
GOSLAR, a large and ancient town of Lower
Saxony, and in the territory of Brunfwick : it is a free
imperial city, and it w^as here that gunpowder was firil
invented, by a monk as is generally fuppofed. It is a
large place, but the buildings are in the ancient tafte.
In 1728, 280 houfes, and St Stephen’s fine church,
were reduced to allies. It is feated on a mountain,
near the river Gofe, and near it are rich mines of iron.
The inhabitants are famous for brewing excellent beer.
E. Long. 10. 26. N. Lat. 51. 55.
GOSPEL, the hiftory of the life, adlions, death,
refurredtion, afeenfion, and do&rine of Jefus Chrift.—
The word is Saxon, and of the fame import with the
Latin term evangelium, which fignifies “ glad tidings,”
or “ good news.”
This hiftory is contained in the writings of St Mat¬
thew, St Mark, St Luke, and St John ; urho from
thence are called evangelijis. The Chriftian church
never acknowledged any more than thefe four gofpels
as canonical; notwithftanding which, feveralapocryphal
gofpels are handed down to us, and others are entirely
loft.
GOSPORT, a town of Hampfhire, 79 miles from
London, in the parilh of Alverftock. It has a ferry
over the mouth of the harbour to Portfmouth, and is
a large town and of great trade, efpecially in time of
war. Travellers choofe to lodge here, where every
thing is cheaper and more commodious for them than
at Portfmouth. The mouth of the harbour, which is
not fo broad here as the Thames at Weftminfter, is
fecured on this fide by four forts, and a platform of
above 20 cannon level with the water. Here is a
noble hofpital built for the cure of the lick, and wound¬
ed failors in the fervice of the navy : befides a free
fchool.
GOSSAMER is the name of a fine filmy fubftance,
like cobwebs, which is feen to float in the air, in clear
days in autumn, and is more obfervable in ftubble-
fields, and upon furze and other low bullies. This is
probably formed by the flying fpider, which, in tra-
verfing the air for food, Ihoots out thefe threads from
its anus, which are borne down by the dew, &c.
3
GOSSYPIUM, or Cotton, a genus of plants be- Goflypium,
longing to the monadelphia clafs, and in the natural Goth^
method ranking under the 37th order, Colummferev. '7™' **
See Botany Index.
The American iflands produce cotton flirubs of va¬
rious fizes, which rife and grow up without any cul¬
ture ; efpecially in low and marlhy grounds. Their
produce is of a pale red ; fome paler than others; but
fo Ihort that it cannot be fpun. None of this is brought
to Europe, thougli it might be ufefuily employed in
making of hats. The little that is picked up, ferves
to make mattrefles and pillows.
The eotton-lhrub that fupplies our manufa£l.ures, re¬
quires a dry and ftony foil, and thrives belt in grounds
that have already been tilled. Not but that the plant
appears more flouriftiing in frelh lands than in thofe
which are exhaufted; but while it produces more
wood, it bears lefs fruit.
A weftern expofure is fitteft for it. The culture of
it begins in March and April, and continues during the
fir ft fpring-rains. Holes are made at feven or eight
feet diflance fiom each other, and a few feeds thrown
in. When they are grown to the height of five or fix
inches, all the items are pulled up, except two or three
of the ftrongeft. Thefe are cropped twice before the
end of Auguft. This precaution is the more neceflary,
as the wood bears no fruit till after the fecond pru¬
ning ; and, if the Ihrub was fuffered to grow more than
four feet high, the crop Mould not be the greater, nor
the fruit fo eafily gathered. The fame method is pur-
fued for three years ; for fo long the Ihrub may conti¬
nue, if it cannot conveniently be renev ed oftener with
the profpeft of an advantage that will compenfate the
trouble.
This ufeful plant will not thrive if great attention is
not paid to pluck up the weeds that grow about it. Fre¬
quent rains will promote its growth ; but they mull
not be incelfant. Dry weather is particularly neceflary
in the months of March and April, which is the time
of gathering the cotton, to prevent it from being difeo-
loured and fpotted.
When it is all gathered in, the feeds muft be picked
out from the wool with which they are naturally mix¬
ed. This is done by means of a cotton-mill; which is
an engine compofed of two rods of hard wood, about
18 feet long, 18 lines in circumference, and fluted
two lines deep.. They are confined at both ends, fo as
to leave no more diftance between them than is necef-
fary for the feed to flip through. At one end is a
kind of little millftone, which, being put in motion
with the foot, turns the rods in contrary directions*
They feparate the cotton, and throw out the feed con¬
tained in it.
GOTHA, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up¬
per Saxony, and capital of the duchy of Saxe-Gotha,
in E. Long. 10. 40. N. Lat, 50. 37. Some fancy this
town had its name from the Goths, and that they forti¬
fied it in their march to Italy ; but it was only a village
till furrounded with Malls by the bithop of Mentz in
964. It is fituated in a fine plain on the river Leina
well built and ftrongly fortified. Here are two hand-
fome churches and a very good hofpital. Its chief
trade is in dyers weed, of which they have three crops,
but th^ third grows wild. The neighbouring country
produces a vail deal of corn. The caftle or ducal palace
GOT [ 79S 3
G O
T
Gothard
Goths.
of Gotha was rebuilt in the 16th century by duke
Erneft, furnamed the Pious, who caufed both that and
/ the town to be encompafi'ed nith ditches and ramparts ;
and gave it the name of Yriedenftein, or the Cajlle of
Peace, in oppofition to its ancient name of Grimmer-
Jlein, or the Cajlle of the Furies. It is fituated on a
neighbouring eminence, from whence there is a vaft
profpeft of a fruitful plain. In one of the apartments
there is a collection of valuable rarities, and a noble
library.
The dukedom of Saxe Gotha is about 30 miles
long, and 12 broad. The reigning duke is Lewis
Erneft, born in 1745, and married to the princefs
Maria Charlotte of Saxe Meningen, by whom he has
iifue. He is the head of the Erneftine line of Saxony,
defcended from the eledtor John Frederick the Magna¬
nimous, who was deprived of the eledtorate by the em¬
peror Charles V. in 1574; fince which tire youngett
branch called the Alhertine has enjoyed it. He has feve-
ral other principalities befxdes that of Saxe Gotha; and
his revenues are computed at 200,000!. a-year, with
which he maintains about 3000 regular troops. As
he is the moft powerful of all the Saxon princes of the
Erneftine branch ; fo of all the courts of Saxony, next
to that of Drefdt n, he has the moft numerous and the
moft magnificent. His guards are well clothed, his li¬
veries rich, and his tables ferved with more elegance
than profufion. And yet by the prudent management
of his public finances, his fubjedts are the leaft bur¬
dened with taxes of any ftate in Germany. The reli¬
gion is Lutheran.
GOTHARD, one of the higheft mountains of
Switzerland ; and from the top, where there is an hof-
pital for monks, is one of the fineft profpedts in the
world. It is eight miles from Aldorf.
GOTHEBORG, Gothenburg, or Gottenburg.
See Gottenburg.
GOTHIC, in general, whatever has any relation to
■-the Goths : thus we fay, Gothic cuftoms, Gothic ar¬
chitecture, &c. See Architecture.
GOTHLAND, the moft fouthern province of
Sweden, being a peninfula, encompaffed on three Tides
by the Baltic fea, or the channel at the entrance of it.
It is divided into feveral parts, which are, Eaft Goth¬
land, Weft Gothland, Smaland, Halland, Bleaking,
and Schonen. It was a long time in the poffeflion of
the kings of Denmark, but was ceded to Sweden in
16 C4. The principal towns of Gothland are Calmar,
Landfcroon, Chriftianople, Daleburg, Gothenburgh,
Helmftat, Lunden, Malmone, and Vexio.
GOTHS, a warlike nation, and above all others
famous in the Roman hiftory, came originally out of
Scandinavia (the name by which the ancients diftin-
guiftred the prefent countries of Sweden, Norway, Lap-
land, and Finmark). According to the moft probable
accounts they were the firft inhabitants of thofe coun¬
tries; and from thence fent colonies into the iflands of
the Baltic, the Cimbrian Cherfonefus, and the adja¬
cent places yet deftitute of inhabitants. The time of
their firft fettling in Scandinavia, and the time when
they firft peopled with their colonies the above-men¬
tioned iflands and Cherfonefus, are equally uncertain ;
though the Gothic annals fuppofe the latter to have hap¬
pened in the time of Serug the great grandfather of
Abraham. This firft migration of the Goths is faid to G?t:u,
have been conducted by their king Eric ; in which all ——y—.
the ancient Gothic chronicles, as well as the Danifli and
Swedifh ones, agree. Their fecond migration is fup-
pofed to have happened many ages after; when, the
above-mentioned countries being overftocked with
people, Berig, at that time king of the Goths, went
out with a fleet in queft of new fettlements. He landed
in the country of the Ulmerugians, now Pomerania,
drove out the ancient inhabitants, and divided their lands
among his followers. He fell'next upon the Vandals,
whofe country bordered on that of the Ulmerugians,
and overcame them ; but inftead of forcing them to
abandon their country, he only made them thare their
pofleffions with the Goths.
The Goths who had fettled in Pomerania and the
adjacent parts of Germany being greatly increafed, in-
fotnuch that the country could no longer contain them,
they undertook a third migration in great numbers,
under Filimer furnamed the Great, the fifth prince
after leaving Scandinavia; and taking their routeeaft-
ward, entered Scythia, advanced to the Cimmerian
Bofphorus, and driving out the Cimmerians, fettled
in the neighbourhood of the Palus Maeotis. Thence
in procefs of time, being greatly increafed in Scy¬
thia, they refolved to feek new fettlements ; and ac¬
cordingly taking their route eaftward, they traverfed
feveral countries, and at length returned into Ger¬
many.
Their leader in this expedition was the celebrated
Woden, called alfo Voden, Othen, Oden, Godan, and
Guadan. Of this Woden many wonderful things are
related in the Sueo-gothic chronicles. He was king of
the Afgardians, whom the northern writers will have
to be the fame with a people called Afpurgians men¬
tioned by Strabo and Ptolemy. By Strabo they are
placed near the Cimmerian Bofphcrus. Afpurgia was
the metropolis of a province which Strabo calls Afa;
and Woden and his followers are ftyled by the ancient
Gothic writers Afe, Afance, and Afotce. The kings
of Afpurgia were mafters of all that part of Scythia
which lay to the weftward of Imaus, and was by the
Latins called Scythia inlra Imaum, or “ Scythia within
Imaus.”
At what time Woden reigned in this country, is
quite uncertain ; but all hiftorians agree, that he went
out in queft of new' fettlements with incredible num¬
bers of people following him. He firft entered Roxo-
lania, comprehending the countries of Pruflia, Livo¬
nia, and great part of Mufcovy. From thence he went
by fea into the north parts of Germany; and having
reduced Saxony and Jutland, he at laft fettled in Swe¬
den, where he reigned till his death, and became fo fa¬
mous that his name reached all countries, and he was
by the northern nations worlhipped as a god. He is
fuppofed to have brought w ith him the Runic charac¬
ters out of Afia, and to have taught the northern nations
the art of poetry ; whence he is ftyled the father of
the Scaldi or Scaldri, their poets, who defcribed in
verfe the exploits of the great men of their nation, as
the bards did among the Gauls and Britons.
The Romans diftinguiihed the Goths into two claf-
fes; the Oftrogoths and Vifigoths. Thefe names they
received before they left Scandinavia, the VJigoths be¬
ing
G O T
Gotlis. ing foftened by the Latins from Wejlerogoths, or thofe
v who inhabited the weftern part of Scandinavia, as the
Oilrogoths were thofe who inhabited the eaftern part
of that, country. Their hiftory affords nothing of mo¬
ment till the time of their quarrelling with the Ro¬
mans ; which happened under the reign of the emperor
Caracalla, fon to Severus. After that time their hiftory
becomes lo clofely interwoven with that of the Ro¬
mans, that for the moft remarkable particulars of it
we muft refer to the article Rome. After the deftruc-
tion of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Oftro-
goths, under their king Theodoric, became mafters of
the greateft part of Italy, having overcome and put to
death Odoacer king of the Heruli in 494. They re¬
tained their dominion in this country till the year 5 <3 ;
when they were finally conquered by Narfes, the em¬
peror Juftinian’s general. See (Hiftory of) Italy.
i he Villgoths fettled in Spain in the time of the em¬
peror Honorius, where they founded a kingdom which
continued till the country was fubdued by the Saracens.
See Spain.
The Goths were famous for their hofpitality and
kindnefs to ftrangers, even before they embraced ths
Chriftian religion. Nay, it is faid, that from their
being eminently good, they were called GotAr, by the
neighbouring nations j that name, according to Gro-
tius and moft others writers, being derived from the
German word goten, whick fignifies “ good.” They
encouraged, fays Dio, the ftudy of philofophy above
[ 799 1
GOT
all other barbarous or foreign nations, and often chofe
kings from among their philofophers. Polygamy was
not only allowed but countenanced among them; every
one being valued or refpe&ed according to the number
of his wives. By fo many wives they had an incre¬
dible number of children, of whom they kept but one
at home, fending out the reft in queft of new fettle-
ments 5 and hence thofe fwarms of people which over¬
ran fo many countries.. With them adultery was a ca¬
pital crime, and irremiffibly puniftied with death. This
le verity, and like wife polygamy, prevailed among them
when they were known to the Romans only by the
name of Gf/a- (their moft ancient name) j as appears
from the poet Menander, who was himfelf one of that
nation ; and from Horace, who greatly commends the
chaftity oi their women. Their laws fell little thort of
thofe of the ancient Romans. Their government was
monarchical; their religion was much the fame with
that of the ancient Germans or Celtes ; and their drefs
is defcribed by Apollinaris Sidonius in the following
words: “ They are Ihod (fays he) with high (hoes
made of hair, and reaching up to their ankles, their
knee, thighs, and legs, are without any covering j
their garments of various colours fcarce reaching to the
knee 5 their fleeves only cover the top of their arms $
they wear green caffocks with a red border; their belts
hang on their (boulders; their ears are covered with
twifted locks; they ufe hooked lances and miflile wea¬
pons.”
Goths.
END OF THE NINTH VOLUME,
DIRECTIONS for fwikg the PLATES c* Vol, IX,
Part I,
Plate CCXXI—-CCXXHI. to face Page 32
CCXXIV. . - 308
cexxv.—ccxxvii. - 304
ccxxvm. . , 3 20
CCXXIX, , . 368
Part II,
CCXXX.^CCXXXVII, . <44
ccxxxvin. ccxxxix. - ed
CCXL,^CCXEV. - . 666
CCXLVI. - , 692
VQXLVH . « 1H
mm