Present t't) in £/$.lo ^£,S ^J ? Ctupclopartria Brttamitta: ► OR, A DICTIONARY i OF ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE; ENLARGED AND IMPROVED. THE FIFTH EDITION. 3Illu0trateti tott!) nearly $iv imnDreO <2Bngtat)tngtf* 1 VOL. VII. INDOCTI DISCANX; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI. EDINBURGH: Printed at the Encyclopaedia Press, FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH f GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON AND SONS, YORK. 1815. YEAVLOlTOia ioa(ivih siiomaou, ;>Tjia ■ ;:• . m: . d:*j0nu^ ^ tthasn tftlttf c * ' ' ■ no J1 . iiI f “ : :: / ' i S' ‘ ■ -•;v 1 .■' ■ li i- ' oa /■•> .vow t ■ ,v f.t ti. - ...t, . ■: . : •'< ai.o:; r • v. on ’404 /t/- \ i- .2 hoy t3HO - c >: A Encyclopaedia Britannica. GTE Cryftals II Ctefiphon. CRYSTALS, ia Chemiftry, falts or otlier matters which aflume a regular form. See Chemistry Index; and Crystallization. CTESIAS, a native of Cnidos, who accompanied Cyrus the fon of Darius in his expedition againft his brother Artaxerxes ; by whom he was taken prifoner. But curing Artaxerxes of a wound he received in the battle, he became a great favourite at the court of Perfin, where he continued praftiling phyfie for 17 years, and was employed in feveral negociations. He wrote the Hiftory of Perfia in 23 books, and a Hi- ftory of the Indies 5 but thefe works are now loft, and all we have remaining of them is an abridgment com¬ piled by Photinus. 1 he moft judicious among the an¬ cients looked upon Ctefias as a fabulous writer \ yet feveral of the ancient hiftorians and modern Chriftian writers have adopted in part his chronology of the Aflyrian kings. C FESIBIUS, a mathematician of Alexandria, a- bout I 20 years before Chrift. He was the firft who invented the pump. He alfo invented a clepfydra, or water-clock. This invention of meafuring time by water was wonderful and ingenious. Water was let drop upon wheels which it turned : the wheels com¬ municated their regular motion to a fmall wooden image, which by a gradual rife pointed with a ftick to the proper hours and minutes, -which were engraven on a column near the machine. This ingenious invention gave rife to many improvements ; and the modern method of meafuring time with an hour-glafs is in imitation of the clepfydra of Ctefibius. CTESIPHON, a celebrated Greek arehiteft, who gave the defigns of the famous temple of Ephefus, and invented a machine for bringing thither the co¬ lumns to be ufed in that noble ftrubture. He ftourifh- ©d 544 BC.' Ctesi?hon, in /Indent Geography, a large village, or rather a fine city, of Chalonitis, the molt fouthern province of Affyria. It was fituated on the left or eaft fide of the Tigris, oppoftte to Seleueia on this fide j and built by the Parthians, to rival Seleucia. Here the kings of Parthia palled the winter ('Strabo); as tli^y did the fummer at Ecbatana. . Ctesiphon was alfo the name of feveral noted per- fons of antiquity. 1. An Athenian, who adviled his fellow citizens to crown publicly Demofthenes with a golden crown for his probity and virtue. This was op no fed by the orator AEfchlnes, the rival of De- VOL. VII. Part I. CUB mofthenes, who accufed Ctefiphon of feditious views. Ctefipho* Demofthenes undertook the defence of his friend, in I! a celebrated oration ftill extant, and AEfchines was ba-, u ya‘ , nifiied. 2. A Greek architecl, who made the plan of DianaL temple at Ephefus. 3. An elegiac poet, whom King Attains fet over his poffeflions in AEolia. 4. A Greek hiftorian, who wrote a hiftory of Bce- otia. CUB, a bear’s whelp. Among hunters, a fox and marten of the firft year are alfo called cubs. See Ursus. CUBA, a large and very important illand in the Weft Indies, belonging to Spain. On the fouth-eaft begins at 20. 20. N. Eat. teuches the tropic of Can¬ cer on the north, and extends from 74. to 85. 15. W. Long. It lies 60 miles to the weft of Hifpaniola, 25 leagues north of Jamaica, 100 miles to the eaft of Ju- catanj and as many to the fouth of Cape Florida ; and commands the entrance of the gulfs both of Mexi¬ co and Florida, as alfo the Avindward paffages. By this fituation it may be called the key of the Weft In¬ dies. It Avas difcovcred by Columbus in T492, who gave it the name of Ferdinando, in honour of King Ferdinand of Spain ; but it quickly after recovered its ancient name of Cuba. The natives did not regard Columbus with a \rery favourable eye at his landing ; and the weather proving very tempeftuous, he foon * left this ifiand, and failed to Hayti, noAv called Hifpa¬ niola, Aihere he Avas better received. The Spaniards, however, foon became mafters of it. By the year 1511 it was totally conquered ; and in that time they had deftroyed, according to their own accounts, feve¬ ral millions of people. But the poffeflion of Cuba was far from anfwering the expectations of the Spanifii adventurers, whofe avarice could be fatiated Avith nothing but gold. Thefe monfters, finding that there Avas gold upon the illand, concluded that it muft come from mines; and therefore tortured the few inhabi¬ tants they had left, in order to extort from tl a dif- covery of the places were thefe mines lay. ihe mi- feries endured by thefe poor creatures were fuch that they almoft unanimoufly refdlved to put an end to their own lives ; but were prevented by one of the Spanilh’ tyrants called Vafco Povccllos. This Avretch threaten¬ ed to hang himfelf along Avith them, that he might have the pleafure, as he faid, of tormenting them in the next Avorkl worfe than he had done in this; and fo much were they afraid of the Spaniards, that this A threat CUB [2 Cuba, threat diverted thefe poor favages from their defperate 1 _ refolution. In 1511, the town of Havannah was built, now the principal place on the illand. The houfes were at firft built only of wood j and the town itfelf was for a long time fo inconliderable, that in 1536 it wa# taken by a French pirate, who obliged the inha¬ bitants to pay yco ducats to lave it from being burnt. The very day after the pirate’s departure, three Spa- nifh Ihips arrived from Mexico, and having unloaded their cargoes, failed in purfuit of the pirate Ihip. But fuch was the cowardice of the officers, that the pirate took all the three ffiips, and returning to the Havan¬ nah, obliged the inhabitants to pay 700 ducats more. To prevent misfortunes of this kind, the inhabitants built their houfes of Hone 5 and the place has fince been Itrongly fortified. See Havannah. According to the Abbe Raynal, the Spaniffi fettle- ment at Cuba is very important, on three accounts j j. The produce of the country, which is confiderable. 2. As being the ftaple of a great trade 5 and, 3. As being the key to the Welt Indies. The principal pro¬ duce of this illand is cotton. This commodity, how¬ ever, through negleft, is now become fo fcarce, that fometimes feveral years pafs without any of it being brought into Europe. In place of cotton, coffee has been cultivated ; but, by a limilar negligence, that is produced in no great quantity •, the whole produce not exceeding 30 or 35 thoufand weight, one-third of which is exported to Vera Cruz, and the reft to Spain. This cultivation of coffee naturally leads to that of fugar ; and this, which is the moft valuable produc¬ tion of America, would of itfelf be fufficient to give Cuba that ftate of profperity for which it feems de- figned by nature. Although the furface of the illand is in general uneven and mountainous, yet it has plains fufficiently extenfive, and well enough watered, to fup- ply the confumption of the greateft part of Europe with fugar. The incredible fertility of its new lands, if properly managed, w ould enable it to furpafs every other nation, however they may have now got the Hart of it : yet fueh is the indolence of the Spaniards, that to this day they have but few plantations, where,, with the fineft canes, they make but a fmall quantity • of coarfe fugar at a great expence. This ferves partly for the Mexican market, and partly for the mother- country j while the indolent inhabitants are content to import fugar for themfelves at the expence of near 220,cocl. annually. It has been expedted with pro¬ bability, that the tobacco imported from Cuba w ould compenfate this lofs; for after furnilhing Mexico and Peru, there was fufficient, with the little brought from Caracca and Buenos Ayres, to fupply all Spain. But this trade too has declined through the negligence of the court of Madrid, in not gratifying the general tafte for tobacco from the Havannah. The Spaniffi colonies have an univerfal trade in fkins ; and Cuba iiipplies ymually about 10 or 12 thoufand. The num¬ ber might eaftly be increafed in a country abounding with wild cattle, where feme gentlemen poffefs large trafts of ground, that for want of population can fcarce be applied to any other purpofe than that of breeding cattle. The hundredth part of this Bland is not yet cleared. The true plantations are all confined to the beautiful plains of the Havannah, and even thofe are not what they might be. AH thefe plantations ] CUB together may employ about 25,000 male and female Cuba flaves. The number of whites, meftees, mulattoes, l! and free negroes, upon the whole ifland, amounts to ,<"u^c'!(‘cr~j about 30,000. The food of thefe different fpecies con- fifts of excellent pork, very bad beef, and caffava bread. The colony would be more flourilhing, if its produdlions had not been made the property of a com¬ pany, whofe exclufive privilege operates as a conftant and invariable principle of difcouragement. If any thing could lupply the want of an open trade, and a- tone for the grievances occafioned by this monopoly at Cuba, it would be the advantage which this illand has for fuch a long time enjoyed, in being the rendezvous of almoft all the Spaniih veffels that fail to the new world. This praftice commenced almoft with the colony itfelf. Ponce de Leon, having made an at¬ tempt upon Florida in 1512, became acquainted with- the new canal of Bahama. It was immediately dif- covered that this was the belt route the fhips bound from Mexico to Europe could poffibly take $ and to this the wealth of the ifland is principally, if not alto¬ gether, owing. CUBE, in Geometry, a folid body conflfting of fix equal fides. See Geometry. CURE Root of ami Number or Quantity, is fuch a num¬ ber or quantity, which, if multiplied into itfelf, and then again the produft thence arifing by that number or quantity, being the cube-root, this laft product ftiall be equal to the number or quantity whereof it is the cube-root 5 as 2 is the cube-root of 8 ; becaufe two times two is /j, and two times 4 is 8 ; ?.x\& a-\-b is the cube-root of a* -{-7, a a b fo, a b b See Algebra. CUBEBS, in the Materia Medico, a fmall dried fruit j'efembling a grain of pepper, but often fomewhut longer, brought into Europe from the ifland of Java. In aromatic warmth and pungency, they are far infe¬ rior to pepper. CUBIC equation. See Algebra. CUBIDIA, a genus of fpars. The word is derived from xi/Sof, “ a die f” and is given them from their be¬ ing of the lhape of a common die, or of a cubic figure. Thefe bodies owe this thape to an admixture of lead, and there are only two known fpecies of the genus. I. A eolourlefs cryftalline one, with, thin flakee, found in the lead-mines of Yorklhire, and feme other parts- of the kingdom ; and, 2. A milky white one with thicker crufts. This is found in the lead-mines of Derbylhire and Yorklhire, but is ufually fmall, and is not found plentifully. CUBIT, in the menfuratien of the ancients, a long meafure, equal to the length of a man’s arm, from the elbow to the tip of the fingers.. Dr Arbuthnot makes the Englilh cubit equal to 18 inches •, the Roman cubit equal to 1 foot 5.406 inches ; and the cubit of the Scripture equal to 1 foot 0.888 inches. CUBITiEUS muscles, the name of tw^o mufcies of the hand. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufclcs. CUBI I US, in Anatomy, a bone of the arm, reach¬ ing from the elbow to the wrift ; otherwife called ulna, or the greater fojfle. Some ufe the word for all that part of the arm between the elbow and the w-rift ; in¬ cluding the ulna or cubitus, properly fo called, and the radius. CUBQIDES, or Os CUBIFORME, in Anatomy, the feventh CuCirt:!3 GUC [ Caboides feventh bone of the foot fo called from its being in !! . form of a cube or die. c“rr>iS'. CUCKING-stool, an engine invented for punilb- ing fcolds and unquiet women, by ducking them in water j -called in ancient times a tumbrel, and fome- times a trebuchet. In Domefday, it is called cathedra Jlercoris; and it was in ufe even in the Saxon times, by whom it was deferibed to be cathedra in qua rix- ofee tmiheres fedentes aquis deme^gebantur. It was an¬ ciently alfo a punithment inflifted upon brewers and bakers tranfgreiling the laws j who were thereupon in fuch a {tool immetged over head and ears injlercore, fome {linking water, Some think it a corruption from ducking-Jlool; others from choaking-Jlool, quia hoc Tiiodo demerfee aquis fere fujfocantur. See Castiga- TORY. CUCKOW. See Cuculus, Ornithology Index. CUCKOW-Spit, the fame with froth-fpit. See Froth- Spit, and Cicada. CUCUBALUS, Berry-bearing Chick-weed, a genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs \ and in the natural method ranking under the 22d order, Caryophyllei. See BoTany Index. CUCULUS, the CuckoW, a genus of birds belong¬ ing to the order of pie*. See Ornithology Index. CUCUMBER. See Cucumis, Botany Index, CUCUMIS, the Cucumber : a genus of plants be¬ longing to the moijcecia clafs j and in the natural method ranking under the 54th order, Cucurbit ace a. See Botany Index. Four varieties of the cucumis fativus are chiefly cul¬ tivated in this country. They are raifed at three dif¬ ferent feafons of the year : 1. on hot-beds, for early fruit j 2. under bell or hand-glaffes, for the middle crop j 3. on the common ground, which is for a late crop, or to pickle. The cucumbers which are ripe before April are unwholefome j being raifed wholly by the heat of the dung without the afliftance of the fun, Thofe raifed in April are good, and are raifed in the following manner. Towards the latter end of January, a quantity of frelh horfe-dung muft be procured with the litter among it j and a fmall proportion of fea-coal allies fliould be added to it. In four or five days the dung will begin to heat; at which time a little of it may be drawn flat on the outfide, and covered with two inches thicknefs of good earth : this niuft be covered with a bell glafs; and after two days, when the earth is warm, the feeds muft be fown on it, covered with a quarter of an inch of frefti earth, and the glafs then fet On again. The glafs muft be covered with a mat at night, and in four days the young plants will ap¬ pear. When thefe are feen, the reft of the dung muft be made up into a bed for one or more lights. This muft be three feet thick, beat clofe together, and co¬ vered three inches deep with fine frefh earth; the frame muft then be put on, and covered at night, or in bad weather, with mats. When the earth is hot enough, the young plants from under the bell muft be removed into it, and fet twm inches diftant. The glaifes muft be now and then a little raifed, to give nir to the plants, and turned often, to prevent the wet from the fteam of the dung from dropping dowm upon them. The plants muft be watered at proper times: and the water ufed for this purpofe muft be i ] CUC fet on the dung till it becomes as vrarm as the air in the frame : and as the young plants increafe in bulk, ^ they muft be earthed up, which wall give them great ^ additional ftrength. If the bed is not hot enough, fome frefli litter ftiould be laid round its fides : and if too hot, fome holes (hould be bored into feveral parts of it with a ftake, which will let out the heat 5 and when the bed is thus brought to a proper coolnefs, the holes are to be ftopped up again with frelh dung. When thefe plants begin to (hoot their third or rough leaf, another bed muft be prepared for them like the firit; and when it is properly warm through the earth, the plants of the other bed muft be taken up, and planted in this, in which there muft be a hole in the middle of each light, about a foot deep, and nine inches over, filled with light and fine frefti earth laid hollow in form of a baton : in each of thefe holes there muft be fet four plants: thefe rauft be, for two or th ree days, {haded from the fun, that they may take firm root: after which they muft have all the fun they can, and now and then a little frefli air, as the ■weather will permit. When the plants are four or five inches high, they muft be gently pegged down towards the earth, in directions as different from one another as may be; and the branches afterwards pro¬ duced ftiould be treated in the fame manner. In a month after this the flowers will appear, and foon af¬ ter the rudiments of the fruit. The glaffes fliould nowr be carefully covered at night *, and in the day¬ time the whole plants ftiould be gently fprinkled with water. Thefe will produce fruit till about midfum- mer; at which time the fecond crop will come in to fupply their place j thefe are to be raifed in the fame manner as the early crop, only they do not require fo much care and trouble. This fecond crop {hould be fown in the end of March or beginning of Aprils The feafon for fowing the cucumbers of the laft crop, and for pickling, is towards the latter end of May, when the weather is fettled : thefe are fown in holes dug to a little depth, and filled up with fine earth, fo as to be left in the form of a bafon 3 eight or nine feeds being put into one hole. Thefe will code up in five or fix days; and till they are a week old, are in great danger from the fparrow's. After this they require only to be kept clear of weeds, and w atered now and then. There Humid be only five plants left at firft in each hole; and when they are grown a little farther up, the worft of thefe is to be pulled up, that there may finally remain only four. The plants of this crop w ill begin to produce fruit in July. CUCURBIT, the name of a chemical veffel em¬ ployed in diftillatidn, when covered with its head. Its name comes from its elongated form in ftiape of a gourd: fome cucurbits, however, are {hallow and wide-mouthed. They are made of copper, tin, glafs, and ftone ware, according to the nature of the fub- ftances to be diftilled. A cucurbit, provided with its capital, conftitutes the vefibl for diftillation called an alembic. CUCURBITA, the Gourd, and Pompion ; a ge¬ nus of plants belonging to the monoecia clafs j and in the natural method ranking under the 34th order, Cucurbitaceae. See Botany Index. All the fpecies of gourds and pompions, with their refpeftive varieties, are raifed from feed fown anually A 2 in Guar hits. u Cuadalore. C U JD [! 4 in April hr the beginning of M-ay, either vdtli ar with¬ out the help of artificial heats- But the plants forward¬ ed in a hot bed till about n month old, produce fruit a month or fix weeks earlier on. that account, axd ripen proportionably focner. The firft fpecies particu¬ larly will fcarce ever produce tolerably fixed fruit in this country,, without the treatment above mentioned. In this country thefe plants are cultivated only for curiofity •, but in the places where they are natives, they anfwer many important purpofes. In both the Indies, bottle-gourds are very commonly cultivated and-fold in the markets. They make the principal food of the common people, particularly in the warm months' of June, July, land Auguft. The Arabians call this kind of gourd charra/i. It grows commonly on the mountains in their deierts. The natives boil and feafon it with vinegar ; and fometimes, filling the thell with rice and meat, make a kind of pudding of it. The hard fliell is ufe* for holding water, and fome of them are capacious enough to contain 22 gallons •, thefe, however, are very uncommon. The fruit of the pompion likewife conititute? a great part of the food of the common people during the hot months, in thofe places where they grow. If gathered when not much bigger than a hen or goofe egg, and properly feafoned with butter, vinegar, &c. they make a toler¬ able good fauce for butcher’s meat, and are alfo ufed in foups. In England they are feldpm ufed till grown to maturity. A hole is then made in one fide, through which the pulp is feooped out; after being divefted of the feeds, it is mixed with diced apples, milk, fugar, and grated nutmeg, and thus a kind of pud¬ ding is made. The whole is then baked in the oven, and goes by the name of a pumpkin pije. For this pur- pofe the plants are cultivated in many places in Eng¬ land by the country people, who raile them upon old dung-hills. The third fpecies is alfo ufed in North America for culinary purpofes. The fruit is gathered when about half grown, boiled and eaten as fauce to butcher’s meat. The fqualhes are alfo treated in the fame manner, and by fome people eiteemed delicate eating. CUCURBITACEAi, the name of the 34th order in Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method, confiding of plants which referable the gourd in external figure, habit, virtues, and fenfible qualities. This order con¬ tains the following genera, viz. gronovia, melothria, paffiflora, anguria, bryonia, cucumis, cucurbita, fevil- lea, momordica, ficyos, trichofanthes. CUCORUCU, in Zvology7 the name of a ferpent found in America, growing 10 or 12 feet long. It is alfo .very thick in proportion to its length, and is of a yellowiih colour, ftrongly variegated with black fpots, which are irregularly mixed among the yellow, and often have fpots of yellow within them. It is a very poifonous fpecies, and greatly dreaded by the natives ; but its defh is a very rich food, and much efteemed among them, when prope^y prepared. CUD, fometimes means the infide of the throat in beads •, but generally the food that they keep there, and chew over again. See Anatomy Index. CUDDALORE, a town on the coad of Coro¬ mandel in India* belonging to the Englilh, very near the place where Fort St David once flood, N. Lat, II. - c u :> 30. E. Lang. 79" 53* This place was re'dufced by Ctfddalore. the French in the year 1781 ; and in 1783 underwent —""v a fevere fi'cge by the Britilh forces commanded by Ge¬ neral Stuart. At tips time it was become the prin¬ cipal place of arms held by the enemy on that coad: < they had exerted themfelves to the utmod in fortify* ing it} and it was garrifoned by a numerous body of the. bed forces of France, well provided with artil¬ lery, and every thing, neceffary for making a vigorous defence. Previous to the commencement of the fiege, they had condrufted drong lines of defence all along the jort, excepting one place where the town was covered by a wood, fuppofed to be inacceflible. Through this wood, however, General Stuart began to cut his way ; on which the befieged began to draw a line of fortifi¬ cation within that alfo. The Britifo commander then determined to attack thefe fortifications before they were quite completed ; and for this purpofe a vigor:. attack was made by the troops under General Bruce. The grenadiers aflailed a redoubt which greatly an¬ noyed them, but were obliged to retire *, on which the whole army advanced to the attack of the lines.. The French defended themfelves with refolution j and as both parties charged each other with fixed bayonets, a dreadful daughter enfued. At laid the Britilh were obliged to retreat; but the French having imprudent¬ ly come out of their lines to purfue them, were in their turn defeated, and obliged to give up the linea they had conftru&ed with fo much pains, and fo gal¬ lantly defended. The lofs on the part of the Britilh amounted to near 1000 killed and wounded, one halt of whom were Europeans } and that of the French was not lels than 600. Though the Britilh proved vidforious/in this con- teft, yet the viflory colt fo dear that there was not now a fufficient number to carry on the fiege with any effe£L The troops alfo became fickly j and their ftrength diminilhed fo much, that the befieged formed a defign of not only obliging them to Vaife the fiege, •but of totally deftroying them. For this purpofe 4000 men were landed from the fquadron command¬ ed by M. Suffrein 5 and the conduct of the enterprife committed to the Chevalier de Damas, an experienced and valiant officer. On the 25th of June 1783, he fal- lied out at the head of the regiment of Aquitaine, fup¬ pofed to be one of the belt In the French fervice, and of which he was colonel 5 with other troops feledfed from the bravefl of the garrifon. The attack was made by day-break -, but though the Britilh were at firft put into fome diforder, they quickly recovered themlelves, and not only repulfed the enemy, but pur¬ ified them fo warmly, that the Chevalier de Damas himfelf was killed with about 200 of his countrymen, and as many taken prifoners. , This engagement was attended with one of the moft remarkable circumftances that happened during the whole war, viz. a corps of fepoy grenadiers en¬ countering the French troops oppofed to them with fixed bayonets, and overcoming them. This extraor¬ dinary bravery was not only noticed with due applaufe, but procured for that corps a provifion for themfelves and families from the prelidencies to which they be¬ longed, No other operation of any confequence took place C U D [ CeJctdore plade daring the fiege, which was how Toon ended by li , the news of peace having taken place between the bel- (Aidvvorti). }-gerent p0Wers of Europe. 'r~W ^CUDDY, in a firft rate man of war, is a place lying between the captain-lieutenant’s cabin and the quarter¬ deck ; and divided into partitions for the mailer and other officers. It denotes alfo a kind of cabin near the item of a lighter or barge of burden. CUDWEED. See Gnaphalium, Botany Lr* dex. CUDWORTH, Ralph, a very learned divine of the church of England in the 17th, century. In Janu¬ ary 1657, he was one of the perfons nominated by a committee of the parliament to be confulted about the Engliih tranfiation of the bible. In 1678 he publilhed his True Intelle<5tual Syftem of the Univerfe 5 a work .which met with great oppofition. He likewife publilh¬ ed a treatife, entitled, Deus jujlijicatus : or, “ The di¬ vine goodnefs of God vindicated, againft the aEertions of abfolute and unconditionate reprobation.” He em¬ braced the mechanical or corpufcular philofophy : but with regard to the Deity, fpirits, genii, and ideas, he followed the Platonifts. He died at Cambridge in 1688. The editor of the new edition of the Biogra- phia Britannica obferv.es, that it is not eafy to meet with a greater ftorehoufe of ancient literature than the “ Intellectual Syftem and various' writers, we ■ believe, have been indebted to it for an appearance of learning which they might not otherwife have been able to maintain. That Dr Cudworth was fanciful in fome of his opinions, and that he was too devoted a follower of Plato and the Platonifts, will fcarcely be denied even by thofe who are moft fenfible of his gene¬ ral merit/ The reflections that have been caft upon fuch a man as the author, by bigotted writers, are altogether contemptible. It is the lot of dzftinguilhed merit to be thus treated. Lord Shaftelbury, fpeaking on this fubjeCt, has given an honourable teftimony to the me¬ mory of Dr Cudworth. “ You know (fays his lord- ftiip) the common fate of thofe who dare to appear fair authors. What was that pious and learned man’s cafe, who wrote the Intellectual Syftem of the Uni¬ verfe ! I confefs it was pleafant enough to confider, that though the whole world were no lefs fatisfied with his capacity and learning, than with his fincerity in the caufe of Deity ; yet he was accufed of giving the upper hand to the atheifts, for having only ftated their reafons, and thofe of their adverfaries, fairly to¬ gether.” It is ohferved by Dr Birch, that Dr Cudworth,'S Intellectual Syftem of the Univerfe has railed him a reputation, to which nothing can add but the publi¬ cation of his other writings ftill extant in manufeript. That thefe writings are very valuable cannot be doubt¬ ed. We may be affured that they difplay a great compafs of fentiment and a great extent of learning. Neverthelefs, from their voluminous quantity, from the abftrufenefs of the fubjeCts they treat upon, and from the revolutions of literary tafte and opinion, it is morally certain that the publication of them would not be fuccefsful in the prefent age. Mr Cud worth’s daughter Damaris, who married Sir Francis Malham of Oates in Effex, was a lady of genius and learning : fhe had a great friendIhip for Mr Locke, who refided 5 1 C U F feveral'years at her houfe at Oates, where tie died ui J7°4. CUE, an item or inuendo, given to the actors on the ftage what or when to fpeak. See Prompyek. CUENZA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, and in the territory of the Sierra, with a bifhop’s fee. It was taken by Lord'Peterborough in 1706, but reta¬ ken by the duke of Berwick. It is feated on the river Xucar, in V/. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat, 40; 10. CUERENHER1', Theodore Van, a very extra-' ordinary perfon, was a native of Arfcfterdam, where- he was born in 1552. It appears, that early in liter he travelled into Spain and Portugal \ but the motives of his journey are not afeertained. He was a man of fcience, and according to report, a good poet. The filter arts at firft he eonlidered as an amufoment only \ but in the end he was, it feems, obliged to have re- - courfe to engraving alone for his fupport. And though the different ftudies in which he employed his time prevented his attachment to his profeffion being U* clofe as it ought to have beeir, yet at leaft the marks of genius are difcoverable in his works. They aro flight, and haftily executed with the graver alone j but in an open carelefs ftyle, fo as greatly to refemble de- figns made with a pen. He was eftablilhed at Haer- lem) and there purluing his favourite ftudies in litera¬ ture, he learned Latin, and was made fecretary to that town, from whence he was fent feveral times as am- baffador to the prince of Orange, to whom he addref- fed a famous manifefto, which that prince publiihed in 1566. Had he flopped here, it had been well -, but directing his thoughts into a different channel, he undertook an argument as dangerous as it Avas ablurd. Pie maintained that, all religious communions were corrupted ; and that, without a fupernatural miflion, accompanied with miracles, no perfon had a right to adminifter in any religious ■ office : he therefore pro¬ nounced that man to be unworthy the name ot a Chriftian who would enter any place of public wor- Ihip. This he not only advanced in words, but ftrove to ihow the fincerity of-his belief by praCtice $ and for that reafon would not communicate with either Pfo- teftant or Papift. His works were publiftied in three volumes folio in 1630 ; and though he was feveral times imprifoned* and at laft fentenced to banilhment, yet he does not appear to have altered his fentrments. He died at Dergoude in 1590, aged 68 years. It is no fmall addition to the honour of this lingular man, that he was the inftruCtor of that juflly celebrated artift Henry Goltzius. Cuerenhert worked jointly with the Galles and other artifts, from the defigns of Martin Hemlkerck. The fubjeCts are from the Old and New Teftament, and confift chiefly of middling-fized plates lengthwife. He alfo engraved feveral lubjeCts from Franc. Floris. CUERPO. Tonw/k in cuerpOy is a Spanilh phrafe for going without a cloak j or without all the formali¬ ties of a full drefs. CUFF, Henry, the unfortunate fectetary of the unfortunate earl of Effex, was born at Hinton St George in Somerfetlhire, about the year 1560, of a genteel family, who were pofieffed of conliderable e~ Rates in that- county. In 1576, he was entered 01 Trinity college Oxford, where he foon acquired con- fiderable Cudwdhh I! Cuff, C U I [ 'Guff Merable reputation as a Grecian and difputant. He Cuirafs. obtaIued a fellott'ihip in the above-mentioned college ; but was afterwards expelled for fpeaking difrefpedt- fully of the founder'(a). He was, however, foon after admitted of Merton college j of which, in 1586, he was elected probationer, and in 1588 fellow. In this year he took the degree of matter of arts. Some time after he was elected Greek profefior, and in I ^4 pro&or of the univerfity. When he left Oxford is uncertain ; nor are we better informed as to the means of his introduction to the earl of Etfex. When that nobleman was made lord lieutenant of Ireland, Mr Cuff was appointed his fecretary, and continued inti¬ mately connected with his lordlhip until his confine¬ ment in the tower; and he is generally fuppofed to have advifed thofe violent meafures which ended in their mutual deitruCtion. The earl indeed confeffed as much before his execution, and charged him to his face with being the author of all his misfortunes. Mr •Cuff was tried for high-treafon, convicted, and execut¬ ed at Tyburn on the 30th of March 1601. Lord Ba¬ con, Sir Henry Wotton, and Camden, fpeak of him in very harfh terms. He was certainly a man of learning .and abilities. He wrote two books ; the one entitled. The Differences of the Ages of Man’s Life ; the other, Be Rebus Gejlis in SanSio Concilio Nicarw. The -firff was publilhed after his death 3 the fecond is Hill in ma- nufeript. CU.TAS, James, in Latin Cujacius, the bell civi¬ lian of.his time, was born at Touloufe, of obfeure pa¬ rents, in 1520. He learned polite literature and hi- itory 3 and acquired great knowledge in the ancient laws, which he taught with extraordinary reputation at .Touloufe, Gabors, Boufges, and Valence in Dau- phine. Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, invited him to Turin, and gave him fingiilar marks of his e- iteem. Cujas afterwards refufed very advantageous offers from Pope Gregory XIII. who was defirous of having him teach at Bologna 3 but he chofe rather to fix at Bourges, where he had a prodigious number of fcholars 5 whom he not only took great pleafure in in- ftrufting, but affifted with his fubilance, which occa- fioned his being called the Rather of his Scholars. He -died at Bourges in 1590, aged 70. His works are in high efteem among civilians. CUJ AVI A, a territory of Great Poland, having on the north the duchy of Pruflia, on the weft the palati¬ nate of Kalilk, and on the fouth thofe of Licici and Ra- va, and on the weft that of Ploczko. It contains two palatinates, the chief towns of which are Inowloez and Breft 3 as alfo Uladiftaw, the capital of the dif- trift. CUIRASS, a piece of defenfive armour, made of iron plate, well hammered, ferving to cover the body, from the neck to the girdle, both before and behind. Some derive the word, by corruption, from the Italian 6 ] CUE cuore, u heart 3” bccaufe it covers that part: others CuirtA from the French cuir, or the Latin coriwn, “ leather 3” II whence coriaceous ; becaufe defenfive arms were origi- , Cld!’'Ve- nally made of leather. The cuirafs was not brought 'r*~* into ufe till about the year 1300, though they were known both to the ancient Greeks and Romans in dif¬ ferent forms. CUIRASSIERS, cavalry armed with cuirafles, as moft of the Germans are : The French have a regiment of cuirafliers 5 but we have had none in the Britifh ar¬ my fince the revolution. CULDEE, in church-hiftory, a fort of monkifti priefts formerly inhabiting Scotland and Ireland. Be¬ ing remarkable for the religious exercifes of preaching and praying, they were called, by way of eminence, cultores Dei; from whence is derived the word culdees. They made choice of one of their own fraternity to be their fpiritual head, who was afterwards called the SVc./r bijhof). CULEMB ACH,a diftridt or marquifateof the circle of‘Franconia, in‘Germany. It is bounded on the weft by the biftiopric of Bamberg 3 on the fouth by the ter¬ ritory of Nuremberg 3 on the eaft by the palatinate of Bavaria and Bohemia 3 and on the north by Voegt- land and part of the circle of Upper Saxony. It is about 50 miles in length from north to fouth, and 30 in. breadth from eaft to weft. It is full of forefts and high mountains *, the moft confiderable of the latter are thofe of Frichtelberg, all of them covered with pine- trees. Here are the fources of four large rivers, the Maine, .the Sala, the Eger, and the Nab. This mar- quifate is the upper part of the burgraviate of Nurem¬ berg. Culembach, a town of Germany, in Franconia, the capital of the marquifate of the fame name. It has good fortifications, and is feated at the confluence of two branches of the river Maine. It was pillaged and burnt by the Huffites in 1430, and by the inhabi¬ tants of Nuremberg in J573. E. Long. 11. 28. N- Lat. 50. 12. CULEUS, in Roman antiquity, the largeft mea- fure of capacity for things liquid, containing 20 amphorae, or 40 urnae. It contained 143 gallons 3 pints, Englifti wine-meafure, and was 11,003 folid inches. CULEX, the Gnat 3 a genus of infe&s belonging to the order of diptera. See Entomology Index. ° CULIACAN, a province of North America, m the audience of Guadalajara. It is bounded on the north by New Mexico, on the eaft by New Bifcay and the Zacatecas, on the fouth by Chiametlan, and on the weft by the fea. It is a fruitful country, and has rich mines. CULLIAGE, a barbarous and immoral pra&ice, whereby the lords of manors anciently affumed a right to the firft night of their vaffals brides. CULLEN, (a) The founder of Trinity college was Sir Thomas Pope, who, it feems, would often take a piece of plate from a friend shoufe, and carry it home concealed under his gown, out of fun, no doubt. Cuff, being- merry with feme of his acquaintance at another college, happened to fay, alluding to Sir Thomas Pope’s ufual ioke above mentioned, A pox on this beggarly houfe ! why, our founder ftole as much plate as would build fuch another ” 1 his piece of wit was the caufe of his ex pulfion. The heads of colleges in thofe days did not underftand humour. Anthony Wood was told this ftory by Dr Bathurft, s 7 C U L [7 ' Cullen. CULLEN, a borough town in the county of Banff ' in Scotland. It is fituated on the fea-coaft. W. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. 57. 38. The manufacture of linen and damalk has been eftablilhed in this town for more than 50 years. Cullen, Dr William, an eminent phyfician and diftinguiihed medical teacher, was born in Lanarklhire, in the weft of Scotland, llth December, 1712. His father was for fome time chief magiftrate of the town of Hamilton ; but though a very refpeCtable man, his eireumftances were not fuch as to permit him to lay out much money on the education of his fon. William there¬ fore, after ferving an apprenticeftiip to a furgeon apothe¬ cary in Glafgow, went feveral voyages to the Weft In¬ dies as a furgeon in a trading veffel from London : but of this employment he tired, and fettled himfelf, at an early period of life, as a country furgeon in the parilh of Shotts, where he ftaid a fhort time praftifmg a- mong the farmers and country people, and then went to Hamilton with a view to praCtife as a phyiician, hav¬ ing never been fond of operating as a furgeon. While he refided near ShottSj. it chanced that Archi¬ bald duke of Argyle, who at that time bore the chief political fway in Scotland, made a viftt to a gentleman of rank in that neighbourhood. The duke was fond of literary purfuits, and was then particularly engaged in fome chemical refearches, which required to be elu¬ cidated by experiment. Eager in thefe purfuits, his grace, -while on his vifit, found himfelf much at a lofs for the want of fome fmall chemical apparatus, which his landlord could not furniib : but happily recollecting young Cullen in the neighbourhood, he mentioned him to the duke as a perfon who could probably furnilh it. *—He was accordingly invited to dine \ was introduced to his grace,—who was fo much pleafed with his know¬ ledge, his politenefs and addrefs, that he formed an ac¬ quaintance which laid the foundation of all Dr Cul¬ len’s future advancement. The name of Cullen by this time became familiar at every table in that neighbourhood j and thus he came to be known, by character, to the duke of Hamilton, who then redded, for a ftiort time, in that part of the country : and that nobleman having been fuddenly ta¬ ken ill, .the afiiftanee of young Cullen was called in j which proved a fortunate circumftance in ferving to promote his advancement to a ftation in life more fuited to his talents than that in which he had hitherto moved. The duke was highly delighted with the fpright- ly eharafter and ingenious eonverfation of his new acquaintance. Receiving inftruction from him in a much more pleafing, and an infinitely eafier way than he had ever before obtained, the converfation of Cullen proved highly interetting to his grace. —-No wonder then that he foon found means to get his favourite doctor, who was already the efteemed acquaintance of the man through whole hands all pre¬ ferments in Scotland were obliged to pais, appointed to a place in the univerfity of Glafgow, where his fin- ' gular talents for difeharging the duties of the ftation he now occupied foon became very confpicuous. During his refidence in the country, however, feve¬ ral important incidents occurred, that ought not to be palled over in filence. It was during this time that was formed a connexion in bufinefs in a very humble ] c u L line between two men, who became afterwards eminent- Cullen, ly confpicuous in much more exalted ftations. William, afterwards Doctor Hunter, the famous letfturer on ana¬ tomy in London,,-was a native of the fame part of the country ; and not being in affluent circumftances more than Cullen, thefe two young men, ftimulated by the impulfe of genius to profecute their medical ftudies with ardour, but thwarted by the narrownefs of their fortune, entered into a copartnery bufinefs as furgeons and apothecaries in the country. The chief end of their contraft being to furnifh the parties with the means of prefeeuting their medical ftudies, which they could not feparately fo well enjoy, it was ftipulated, that one of them alternately ftiould be allowed to ftudy in what college he inclined, during the Avinter, while the other Ihould carry on the bufinefs in the country, for the common advantage. In confequence of this agreement, Cullen was firft allowed to ftudy in the uni¬ verfity of Edinburgh for one winter j but when it came to Hunter’s turn next winter, he, preferring Lon¬ don to Edinburgh, Went thither. There his lingular neatnefs in differing, and uncommon dexterity in ma¬ king anatomical preparations, his aflkluity in ftudy, his mildnefs of manner, and pliability of temper, foon re¬ commended him to the notice of Dr Douglas, who then read lectures upon anatomy and midwifery there ; who engaged Hunter as an afliftant, and rvhofe chair he afterwards filled with fo much honour to himfelf and la- tisfaftion to the public. Thus Avas diftolved, in a premature manner, a copart¬ nery perhaps of as lingular a kind as is to be found in the annals of literature : nor Avas Cullen a man of that difpolition to let any engagement Avith him prove a bar to his partner’s advancement in life. The articles Avere freely departed from by him; and Cullen and Hunter ever after kept up a very cordial and friendly corref- pondence 5 though, it is believed, they never from that time had a perfonal intervieAV. During the time that Cullen pra&ifed as a country furgeon and apothecary, he formed another connexion of a more permanent kind, which happily for him, was not diffolved till a very late period of his life. With the ardour of difpolition he pofteffed, it cannot be fup- pofed he beheld the fair fex with indifterence. Very early in life he took a ftrong attachment to an amiable Avoman, a Mifs Johnfton, daughter to a clergyman in that neighbourhood, nearly of his own age, \dio Avas prevailed on to join Avith him in the facred bonds of Avedlock, at a time Avhen he had nothing elfe to recom¬ mend him to her except his perfon and difpofitions. After giving to him a numerous family, and partici¬ pating with him the changes of fortunewhich he ex¬ perienced, Ihe died in fummer 1786. In tbe year 1746, Cullen, Avho had now taken the degree of doftor in phylic, was appointed a lecturer in cheraiftry in the univerfity of Glafgow : and in the month of October began his lectures in that fcience. His lingular talents for arrangement, his diftinftnefs of enunciation, his vivacity of manner, and his knowledge of the fcience he taught, rendered his le6lures intereft- ing to the Undents to a degree that had been till then unknown at that univerfity. Pie became, therefore, in fome meafure, adored by the ftudents. The former pro- feffbrs were eclipled by the brilliancy of his reputation 5 and he had to experience all thofe little rubs that envy t C U L [ Culleti. and difappbinted ambition naturally threw in bis way. Regardlelis, however, of thefe fecret chagrins, he pref- fed forward with ardour in his literary career } and, fupported by the favour of the public, he confoled him- felf for the contumely he met with from a few indivi¬ duals. His practice as a phyfician increafed from day ■to day ; and a vacancy having occurred in the year 1751, he was then appointed by the king profeffor of medicine in that univerfity. This new appointment ferved only to call forth his powers, and to bring to light talents that it was not formerly known he poffef- fed •, fo that his fame continued to increafe. As, at that period, the patrons of the univerfity of Edinburgh were conftantly on the watch for the moft eminent medical men to fupport the riling fame of the college, their attention was foon direfted towards Cul¬ len } who, on the death of Dr Plummer, profeffor of chemiftry, was, in 1756, unanimoully invited to accept the vacant chair.. This invitation he accepted : and having religned all his employments in Glafgow, he began his academical career in Edinburgh in the month of October of that year 3 and there he relided •till his death. If the admilTron of Cullen into the univerlity of Glaf- -gow gave great fpirit to the exertions of the Undents, this was ftill, if poffible, more ftrongly felt in Edin¬ burgh. Chemiftry, which had been till that time of fmall account in that univerfity, and was attended to by very few of the ftudenls, inftantly became a favourite ftudy *, and the leflures upon that fcience were more frequented than any others in the univerfity, anatomy alone excepted. The ftudents, in general, fpoke uf Cullen with the rapturous ardour that is natural to youth when they are highly pleafed. Thefe eulogiures appeared extravagant to moderate men, and could not fail to prove difgufting to his colleagues. A party was formed among, the -ftudents for opposing this new fa¬ vourite of the public j and thefe ftudents, by- mifrepre- fenting the doflrines of Cullen to others who could not have an opportunity of hearing thefe doiffrines them- ffelves, made evenfomeof the moft intelligent men in the nniverfity think it their duty publicly to oppofe thefe imaginary tenets. The ferment was thus -augmented j and it was fome time before the profeffors difeovered the arts by which they had been impofed upon, and univerfal harmony reftored. During this time of public ferment, Cullen went fteadily forward, without taking any part himfelf in • thefe difputes. He never gave ear to any tales refpecl- ing his colleagues, nor took any notice of the dodlrines .they taught : That fome of their unguarded ftriftures ■might at times come to his knowledge, is not impofli- ble; but if they did, they feeraed to make no impreflion on his mind. Thefe attempts of a-party of ftudents to lower the ehara&er of Cullen on his firft outfet in the univerfity of Edinburgh having provedfruitlefs, his fame as a profef¬ for, and his reputation as a phyfician, became more and more refpedted every day. Nor . could it well be otherwife : Cullen’s profeffionai knowledge was always great, and his manner of lecturing ilngularly clear and intelligible, lively and entertaining andtohispatients, his conduct in general as a.phyfician was fo pleafing, |bis addrefs fo affable and engaging, and his manner id open,. 1q kind, and fc little regulated by pecuniary T3 ! 1 C U L confiderations, that it was impoffible for thofe who had Culler.. occafion to call once for his medical affiftance, ever to be fatisfied on any future occafion without it. He be¬ came the friend and companion of every family he vi- fited ; and his future acquaintance could not be dift penfed with. But if Dr Cullen in his public capacity deferved to be admired, in his private capacity by his ftudents he deferved to be adored. His conduft to them was fo attentive, and the intereft he took in the private con¬ cerns of all thole ftudents who applied to him for ad¬ vice, was fo cordial and fo warm, that it was impoffi- ble for any one who had a heart fufceptible of gene¬ rous emotions, not to be enraptured with a condufl fo uncommon and fo kind. Among ingenuous youth, gratitude eaftly degenerates into rapture—into refpeit nearly allied to adoration. Thofe who advert to this natural conftruclion of the human mind, will be at no lofs to account for that popularity that Cullen enjoy¬ ed—a popularity, that thofe who attempt to weigh every occurrence by the cool ftandard of reafon alone, will be inclined to think exceffive. It is fortunate, ho wever, that the bulk of mankind will ever be in¬ fluenced in their judgment not lefs by feelings and af- feftions than by the cold and phlegmatic diftates of reafon. The adoration which generous conduft ex¬ cites, is the reward which nature hath appropriated exclufively to difinterefted beneficence. This was the fecret charm that Cullen ever carried about with him, which fafeinated fuch numbers of thofe who had in¬ timate accefs to him. This wras the power which his envious o] ponents never could have an opportunity of feeling. The genera] conduct of Cullen to his ftudents was this. With all fuch as he obfervtd to be attentive and diligent, he formed an early acquaintance, by inviting them by twos, by threes, or by fours at a time, to iup with him, converfing w ith them on thefe occafions with the moft engaging cafe, and freely entering with them on the fubjedl of their ftudies, their amufements, their difficulties, their hopes, and future profpedls. In this way, he ufually invited the whole of his numerous clafs, till he made himfelf acquainted with their abilities, their private eharafler, and their objects bf purfuit. Thofe among them whom he found nioft affiduous, belt difpofed, or the moft friendlefs, he invited the moft fre¬ quently, till an intimacy was gradually formed, which proved highly beneficial to them. Their doubts, with regard to their objedls of ftudy he liftened to with at¬ tention, and folved with the moft obliging condefcen- fion. His library, which confifted of an excellent af- fortment of the beft books, efpeeially on medical fub- jefls, was at all times open for their accommodation ; and his advice, in every cafe of difficulty to them, they always had it in their power moft readily to obtain. They feemed to be his family ; and few perfons of dif- tinguifhed merit have left the univerfity of Edinburgh in his time, with whom he did not keep up a corref- pondcnce till they were fairly eftabliflied in bufinefs. By thefe means, he came to have a moft accurate know¬ ledge of the ftate of every country, with refpetl to practitioners in the medical line ; the only ufe he made of which knowledge, was to direct ftudents in their chtfice of places, where they might have an opportuni¬ ty bf engaging in bufinefs w ith a rtafenable profpebt of Tuccefs. C U L Cullen, fuccefs. Many, very many, able men has he thus ■—■V—- put into a good line of bufinefs, where they never could have thought of it themfelves; and they are now reaping the fruits of this beneficent forefight on his part. Nor was it in this way only that he befriended the fludents at the univerfity ef Edinburgh. Poffeffing a benevolence of mind that made him ever think firlt of the wants of others, and recollefting the difficulties that he himfelf had to ftruggle with in his younger days, he was at all times Angularly attentive to their pecuniary concerns. From his general acquaintance * among the ftudents, and the friendly habits he was on with many of them, he found no difficulty in difcover- ing thofe among them who were rather in embarrafied circumftances, without being obliged to hurt their de¬ licacy in any degree. To fuch perfons, when their habits of ftudy admitted of it, he was peculiarly at¬ tentive. They were more frequently invited to his houfe than others 5 they were treated with more than ufual kindnefs and familiarity j they were conduced to his library, and encouraged by the moft delicate addrefs to borrow from it freely whatever books he thought they had occafion for : and as perfons in thefe circum¬ ftances were ufually more ffiy in this refpeft than others, books were fometimes preffed upon them as a fort of conftraint, by the doctor infifting to have their opinion of fuch or fuch paflages they had not read, and defiring them to carry the book home for that purpofe. He, in fliort, behaved to them rather as if he courted their company, and flood in need of their acquaintance than they of his. He thus raifed them in the opinion of their acquaintance to a much higher degree of eftima- lion than they could otherwife have obtained ; which, to people whofe minds were depreffed by penury, and whofe fenfe of honour was fharpened by the confciouf- nefs of an inferiority of a certain kind, was Angularly engaging. Thus they were inlpired with a fecret feni'e of dignity, which elevated their minds, and excited an uncommon ardour of purfuit, inftead of that melancho¬ ly inactivity which is fo natural in fuch circumftances, and which too often leads to defpair. Nor was he lefs delicate in the manner of fupplying their wants, than attentive to difcover them. He often found out fome polite excufe for refufing to take payment for a firfl: courfe, and never was at a lofs for one to an after courfe. Before they could have an opportunity of applying for a ticket, he would fometimes lead the converfation to fome fubjeft that occurred in the courfe of his leClures j and as his leClures were never put in writing by him- felf, he would fometimes beg the favour to fee their notes, if he knew they had been taken with attention, under a pretext of affifting his memory. Sometimes he would exprefs a wilh to have their opinion of a particu¬ lar part of his courfe, and prefented them with a ticket for that purpofe; and fometimes he refufed to take payment, under the pretext that they had not received his full courfe the preceding year, fome part of it ha¬ ving been neceffarily omitted for want of time, which he meant to include in this courfe. By fuch delicate addrefs, in which he greatly excelled, he took care to forerun their w ants. Thus he not only gave them the benefit of his own le&ures, but by refufing to take their money, he alfo enabled them to attend thofe of others that were neceffary to complete their courfe of Vox. VJtl. Part I. C U L fludies. Thefe were particular devices he adopted to Cullen, individuals to whom economy was neceflary •, but it was 'v™--' a general rule with him, never to take money from any ftudent for more than two courfes of the fame fet of lectures, permitting him to attend thefe ledtures as many years longer as he pleafed gratis. He introduced another general rule into the univer¬ fity, that was dictated by the fame principle of difin- terefted beneficence, that ought not to be here paf- fed over in filence. Before he came to Edinburgh, it was the cuftom of medical profeffors to accept of fees for their medical affiftance, when wanted, even from medical ftudents themfelves, who were perhaps attend¬ ing the profeffor’s own le&ures at the time. ^But Cul¬ len never would take fees as a phyfician from any ftu¬ dent at the univerfity, though he attended them, when called in as a phyfician, with the fame affiduity and care as if they had been perfons of the firft rank, who paid him moft liberally. This gradually induced ethers to adopt a fimilar pra&ice : fo that it is now become a general rule for medical profeffors to decline taking any fees when their affiftance is neceffary to a ftudent. For this ufeful reform, with many others, the ftudents of the univerfity of Edinburgh are folely indebted to the liberality of Dr Cullen. The firft ledlures which Cullen delivered in Edin¬ burgh were on chemiftry j and for many years he alfo gave clinical le&ures on the cafes which occurred in the royal infirmary. In the month of February 1763, Dr Alfton died, after having begun his ufual courle of le&ures on the materia medica j and the magillrates of Edinburgh, as patrons of that profeffnrffiip in the uni¬ verfity, appointed Dr Cullen to that chair, requeuing that he w ould finiftuhe courfe of le&ures that had been begun for that feafon. This he agreed to do •, and though he was under a neccffity of going on with the courfe in a few days after he was nominated, he did not once think of reading the le&ures of his predeceffor, but refolved to deliver a new courfe entirely his own. The popularity of Cullen at this time may be guefled at by the increafe of new ftudents who came to attend his courfe in addition to the eight or ten who had en¬ tered to Dr Aifton. "Ihe newr ftudents exceeded too. An imperfed copy of thefe le&ures thus fabricated in hafte, having been publilhed, the dodor thought it ne¬ ceffary to give a more corred edition of them in the latter jiart of his life. But his faculties being then much impaired, his friends looked in vain for thofe linking beauties that charaderifed his literary exer¬ tions in the prime of life. Some years afterwards, on the death of Dr White, the magillrates once more appointed Dr Cullen to give ledures on the theory of phyfic in his Head. And it was on that occafion Dr Cullen thought it expedient to refign the chemical chair in favour of Dr Black, his former pupil, whofe talents in that department of fcience were then well known, and who filled the chair till his death with great fatisfadion to the public. Soon after, on the death of Dr Rutherford, who for many years had given ledures wdth applaufe on the pradice of phy¬ fic, Dr John Gregory (whofe name can never be men¬ tioned by any one who had the pleafure of his acquain¬ tance without the warmeft tribute of a grateful refped) having become a candidate for this place along with Dr Cullen, a fort of compromife took place between them, B by 1 9 1 tfuen C U L [ 1 by vlilcb they agreed each to give lectures alternately on the theory and on the practice of phyfic dining their joint lives, the longed furvivor being allowed to hold either of the claffes he fhould incline. In confe- quence of this agreement, Dr Cullen delivered the firft courfe of leftures on the pradlice of phyfic in winter 1766, and Dr Gregory fucceeded him in that branch the following year. Never perhaps did a literary ar¬ rangement take place that could have proved more be¬ neficial to the ftudents than this. Both thefe men pof- felTed great talents, though of a kind extremely diffimi- lar. Both of them had certain failings or defers, which the other was aware of, and counterafted. Each of . them knew and refpefted the talents of the other. They co-operated, therefore, in the happiefl: manner, to en¬ large the underftanding, and to forward the purfuits of their pupils. Unfortunately this arrangement was foon deftroyed by the unexpefted death of Dr Gregory, who was cut off in the flower of life by a fudden and unfore- feen event. After this time, Cullen continued to give It flu res on the pracfice of phyfic till a few months be¬ fore his death, which happened on the 5th of February 1790, in the 77th year of his age. In drawing the character of Dr Cullen, his biogra¬ pher, Dr Anderfon obferves, that in fcientific purfuits men may be arranged into two grand dalles, which, though greatly different from each other in their ex¬ tremes, yet approximate at times fo near as to be blend¬ ed indifcriminately together j thofe who poffefs a ta- 1 :nt for detail, and thofe who are endowed with the faculty of arrangement. The firft may be faid to view objefls individually as through a microfcope. The field of vilipn is confined 5 but the obje&s included within that field, which mull ufually be confidered fingiy and apart from all others, are feen with a won¬ drous degree of accuracy and diftinflnefs. The other takes a fweeping view of the univerfe at large, con- fiders every objeft be perceives, not individually, but as a part of one harmonious whole : His mind is there¬ fore not fo much employed in examining the feparate parts of this individual objeft, as in tracing its rela¬ tions, conneflions-, and dependencies on thofe around it.—Such was the turn of Cullen’s mind. The talent for arrangement was that which peculiarly diftinguifti- ed him from the ordinary clafs of mortals $ and this talent he poffeffed perhaps in a more diftinguiftied de¬ gree than any other perfon of the age in which he liv¬ ed. Many perfons exceeded him in the minute know¬ ledge of particular departments, who, knowing this, naturally looked upon him as their inferior \ but pof- feffing not at the fame time that glorious faculty, which, “ with an eye wide roaming, glances from the earth to lieaven,” or the charms which this talent can infufe into congenial minds, felt difguft at the pre-eminence he obtained, and aftonifhment at the means by which he obtained it. An Ariftotle and a Bacon have had their talents in like manner appreciated \ and many are the perfons who can neither be exalted to fublime ideas with Homer, nor ravifhed with the natural touches of a Shakefpeare. Such things are wifely ordered, that every department in the univerfe may be properly filled by ihofe who have talents exactly fuited to the talk aflign- ed them by heaven. Had Cullen, however, poffeffed the talents for ar¬ rangement alone, fmall would have been his title to i:t 'J..-- ■ l lis o ] CU T, that high degree of applaufe he has attained. With- Cullen, out a knowledge of fails, a talent for arrangement pro- ‘ "■ v~~~ duces nothing but chimeras ; without materials to work upon, the ftrudftures which an over-heated imagination may rear up are merely “ the bafeleff fabric of a vifion.n No man was more fenfible of the juftnefsof this remark than Dr Cullen, and few were at greater pains to avoid it. His whole life, indeed, wTas employed, almoft with¬ out interruption, in collecting fa£ts. Whether he was reading, or walking, or converting, thefe were continu¬ ally falling into his way. With the keen perception of an eagle, he marked them at the firft glance 5 and with¬ out Hopping at the time to examine them, they were ftored up in his memory, to be drawn forth as occafton required, to be confronted with other fadls that had been obtained after the fame manner, and to have their truth afeertained, or their falfity proved by the evidence which ftiould appear when carefully examined at the impartial bar of juftice. Without a memory retentive in a fingular degree, this could not have been done •, but fo very extraordinary was Dr Cullen’s memory, that till towards the very decline of life, there was fcarcely a faft that had ever occurred to him which he could not readily recollecl, with all its concomitant cir- cumftances, whenever he had occafion to refer to it. It was this faculty which fo much abridged his labour in- ftudy, and enabled him fo happily to avail himfelf of the labour of others in all his literary fpeculations. life often reaped more by the converfation of an hour than another man would have done in whole weeks of labori¬ ous ftudy. In his prelections, Dr Cullen never attempted to read. His ledlures were delivered viva voce, without having been previoufly put into writing, or thrown in¬ to any particular arrangement. The vigour of his mind was fueh, that nothing more was neceffary than a few Ihort notes before him, merely to*prevent him from va¬ rying from the general order he had been accuftomed to obferve. This gave to his difeourfes an eafe, a vi¬ vacity, a variety, and a force, that are rarely to be met with in academical difeourfes. His leflures, by confe- quence, upon the fame fubjeft, were never exaftly the fame. Their general tenor indeed was not much va¬ ried ^ but the particular illuftrations were always new, well fuited to the circumftances that attracted ihe ge¬ neral attention of the day, and were delivered in the particular way that accorded with the caft of mind the prele&or found himfelf in at the time. To thefe cir¬ cumftances muft be aferibed that energetic artlefs elo¬ cution, which rendered his le£tures fo generally capti¬ vating to his hearers. Even thofe who’could not fol¬ low him in thofe extenfive views his penetrating mind glanced at, or who were not able to underftand thofe apt allufions to collateral objefls which he could only rapidly point at as he went along, could not help being warm¬ ed in fome meafure by the vivacity of his manner. But to thofe who could follow him in his rapid career, the^ ideas he fuggefted were fo numerous, the views he laid open were fo extenfive, and the objefts to be at¬ tained were fo important—that every aftive faculty of the mind was roufed ; and fuch an ardour of enthufiafm was excited in the profecution of ftudy, as appeared to be perfeflly inexplicable to thofe who were merely un¬ concerned fpeftators. In confequence of this unihack- led freedom in the compofition and delivery of his lec- - tures, G U L [i Cullen, tares, every circumftance was in lire niceft unifon with the tone of voice and exprelfion of countenance, which the particular call of mind he was in at the time infpi- red. Was he joyous, all the figures introduced for il- luftration were fitted to excite hilarity, and good hu¬ mour : wras he grave, the objefts brought under view ■were of a nature more folemn and grand : and was he peevilh, there was a peculiarity of manner in thought, in word, and in aftion, which produced a molt linking and interefting effeft. The languor of a nervelefs uni¬ formity was never experienced, nor did an abortive at¬ tempt to excite emotions that the fpeaker himfelf could not at the time feel, ever produce thofe difcordant ideas which prove difgufting and unpleafing. It would feem as if Dr Cullen had conlidered the proper bufinefs of a preceptor to be that of putting his pupils into a proper train of ftudy, fo as to enable them to profecute thofe ftudies at a future period, and to car¬ ry them on much farther than the Ihort time allowed for academical preleftions would admit. He did not, therefore, fo much ftrive to make thofe who attended his le&ures deeply verfed in the particular details of obje.£t3, as to give them a general view of the whole fubjeft •, to iliew what had been already attained re- fpecling it ; to point out what remained yet to be dif- covered 5 and to put them into a train of ftudy that fhouid enable them at a future period, to remove thofe difficulties that had hitherto obftru&ed our progrefs, and thus to advance themfelves to farther and far¬ ther degrees of perfection. If thefe were his views, nothing could be more happily adapted to them than the mode he invariably purfued. He firfl drew, with the ftriking touches of a mafter, a rapid and general out¬ line of the fubjeft, by which the whole figure was feen at once to flart boldly from the canvas, diftinCt in all its parts, and unmixed with any other objeft. He then began anew to retrace the picture, to touch up the lei- fer parts, and to finiffi the whole in as perfeCt a manner as the fate of our knowledge at the time w'ould permit. Where materials were wanting, the picture there conti¬ nued to remain imperfeCt. The wants -were thus ren¬ dered obvious; and the means of fupplying thefe were pointed out with the moft careful difcrirnination. The fludent whenever he looked back to the fubjeCt, per¬ ceived the defeCts ; and his hopes being awrakened, he felt an irrefiftible impulfe to explore that hitherto un¬ trodden path which had been pointed out to him, and fill up the chafm which fill remained. Thus were the active faculties of the mind molt powerfully excited ; and inftead of labouring himfelf to fupply deficiencies that far exceeded the power of any one man to accom- plifh, he fet thoufands at work to fulfil the talk, and put them into a train of going on with it. It was to thefe talents, and to this mode of applying them, that Dr Cullen owed his celebrity as a profef- for ; and it was in this manner that he has perhaps done more towards the advancement of fcience than ,any other man of his time, though many individuals might perhaps be found who were more deeply verfed in the particular departments he taught than he him¬ felf was. Dr Cullen’s external appearance, though ftriking and not unpleafing, was not elegant. He had an ex- preffive countenance and a lively eye. In his perfon i ] C U L he was tall and thin, fcooping much about the {boulders; CuTiett^ and when he walked he had a contemplative look, ^u' feemingly regarding little the cbjefts around him. Ac¬ cording to the obtervation of one who was well ac¬ quainted with the charaCler of Cullen, he was eminent¬ ly diftinguiihed as a profeffor for three things. I he energy of his mind, by which he viewed every fubject with ardour, and combined it immediately with the whole of his knowledge. “ The fcientific arrangement which he gave to his fubjeCt, by which there was a lucidus ordo to the dulleft fcholar. He w'as the firft perfon in this country who made chemifiry ceafe to be a chaos. “ A wonderful art of interefting the ftudents in every thing w hich he taught', and of railing an emulative en- thufiafm among them.” Life of Cullen, bij Dr Anderfon, in the Bee. CULLODEN, a place in Scotland within two miles of Invernefs, chiefly remarkable for a complete viClory gained over the rebels on the i6th of April 1746* That day the royal army, commanded by the duke of Cumberland, began their march from Nairn, form¬ ed into five lines of three battalions each ; headed by Major-general Hulke on the left, Lord Sempill on the right, and Brigadier Mordaunt in the centre ; flanked by the horfe under the generals Hawley and Bland, who at the fame time covered the cannon on the right and left. In this order they marched about eight miles, when a detachment of Ivingfton’s horfe, and of the Highlanders, having advanced before the reft of the army, difeovered the van of the rebels com¬ manded by the young Pretender. Both armies im¬ mediately formed in the order and numbers ftiown in the annexed fcheme. About twa) in the afternoon the rebels began to cannonade the king’s army ; but their artillery being ill ferved, did little execution ; while the fire from their enemies was feverely felt, and occafioned great diforder. The rebels then made a puftr at the right of the royal army, in order to draw the troops for¬ ward ; but finding themfelves difappomted, they turn- ed their whole force on the left; falling chiefly on Barrel’s and Munro’s regiments, where they attempt¬ ed to flank the king’s front line. But this defign alfo was defeated by the advancing of Wolfe’s regi¬ ment, while.in the mean time the cannon kept play¬ ing upon them with cartridge-fhot. General Hawley, with fome‘Highlanders, had opened a pafiage through fome ftone walls to the right for the horfe which ad¬ vanced on that fide ; while the horfe on the king’s right wheeled off upon their left, difperfeci their bo¬ dy of referve, and met in the centre of their front line in their rear; when being repulfed in the front, and great numbers of them cut oft, the rebels fell in¬ to very great confufion. A dreadful carnage was made by the cavalry on their backs; however, fome part of the foot ftill preferved their order ; but King- fton’s horfe, from the referve, gallopped up brilkly, and falling upon the fugitives, did terrible execution. A total defeat inftantly took .place, with the lofs of 2 $00 killed, wounded, and prrfoners, on the part of the rebels, while the royalifts loft not above 200. The young Pretender had his horfe {hot under him during the engagement: and after the battle retired to the B 2 heufe C U L [ I C CuTm"’ ^0u^e 3 f"a^or °f Lord Lovat, about ten miles from i.. . u>m‘ . Invernefs. where he ftaid that night. Next day he let out for Fort-Auguifus, from w’hence he purfued his journey through wild deferts with great difficulty and didrefs, till at lafl he fafely reached France, as related under the article Britain, N° 423. (a). CULM, or Culmus, among botanids, a draw or haulm j defined by Linnaeus to be the proper trunk of the grades, which elevates the leaves, flower, and fruit. I his fort of trunk is tubular or hollow, and has frequently knots or joints didributed at proper diflan- ees through its whole length. The leaves are long, fleek, and placed either near the roots in great num¬ bers, or proceed fingly from the different joints of the dalk, which they embrace at the bafe, like a ffieath or glove. 2 ] c U L The haulm is commonly garniffied with leaves: Culm, fometimes, however, it is naked j that is, devoid ofl——v— leaves, as in a few fpecies of cyprefs-grafs. Mod grades have a round cylindrical dalk j in fome fpecies of fchcenus, fcirpus, cyprefs-grafs, and others, it is tri¬ angular. The dalk is fometimes entire, that is, has no bran¬ ches y fometimes branching, as in fchoenus aculeatur et capenfis; and not feldom conflds of a number of fcales which lie over each other like tiles. Laflly, in a few grades the dalk is not interrupted with joints, as in the greater part. The fpace contain¬ ed betwixt every two knots or joints, is termed by bo» tanids internodium and articulus culmi. This fpecies of trunk often affords certain marks of didimdion in difcriminating the fpecies. Thus, in the genus eriocaulon, the fpecies are fcarce to be didxn- guiffied ( A) Plan of the Battle of Culloden. sJ,88 11® S4U011^U!3 P-tBMOjj Xauaijn^ neajajieg; ajioq &tuop§un! . *j.Nnvcnjoj\[ ‘Sug; Siiimsu ?, ° 2 igdutag jaiuoSrj (j P, P. •axsnpj 'U3£) AofBp\r ■Ifep pnCmg jj | xUqotQ « ° aoug • ° qrjnj -oS ° ® oiuo^j5, ® puz# -suoo2*ia stx»X cativig; ’uaQ 'fej^ •aTavwaaiy jo [ang; maQ "inatT; ‘AIM'aV StONIX 3HX •KftWNy pjo'j puo^ N. Duke of Perth. The REBEL ARMY. Lord John Drummond. Lord Geo. Murray. Left flank 400. Ld. John Drummond. Guards, huffars, and Perthffiire fquadron. Fird column 800. Thofe of the above, who have only guns, and Kilmarnock’s guards. The young Pretender. Second column 800. Fitzjames’s horfe. Right flank 400 Piquets, by Stapleton. Ld. Lewis Gordon’s and Glenbucket’s, to be ready to fuccour when needful. The D. of Perth’s reg. and Ld. Ogilvie’s, not to fire without pofitive order j and to keepclole as afrethcorpsde referve. 8co,- Third column 800. Colonel Roy Stuart’s, and thofe of the above who have only guns. -In all 8350. S. ?r o *- CU o 3 p cr *- of Clyde in Scotland. At prefent it is a county of w—v—«L» England, which gives the title of duke to one of the royal family, and fends two members to parliament. It is bounded on the north and north-weft by Scot¬ land j on the fouth and fouth-eaft by part of Lanea- flrire and Weftmoreland: it borders on the eatt with Northumberland and Durham j and on the weft is walhed by the Irifli fea. The length from north to fouth may amount to 55 miles, but the breadth does not exceed 40. It is well watered with rivers, lakes, and fountains ; but none of its ftreams are navigable. In fome places there are very high mountains. The air is keen and piercing on thefe mountains, towards the north j and the climate is moift, as in all hilly countries. The foil varies with the face of the coun¬ try j being barren on the moors and mountains, but fertile in the valleys and level ground bordering on the fea. In general, the eaftern parts of the ftiire are barren and defolate : yet even the leaft fertile parts are rich in metals and minerals. The mountains of Copland abound with copper : veins of the fame metal, with a mixture of gold and lilver, were found in the , reign of Queen Elizabeth among the fells of Derwent 5 and royal mines were formerly wrought at Kef- wick. The county produces great quantities of coal: it abounds with lead mines, has a mine of black lead, and feveral mines of lapis calaminaris j and it is faitl there was formerly an inconfiderable pearl-filhery on the coaft near Ravenglafs. Cumberland, Richard, a learned Englilh divine in the end of the 17th century, was fon of a citizen of London, and educated at Cambridge. In 1672 he publiihed a Treatife of the Laws of Nature j and in 1686, An EfTay toward the Jewifli Weights and Mea- fures. After the Revolution he was nominated by King William to the bilhopric of Peterborough. He wrote on hiftory, chronology, and philofophy ; and^was as remarkable for humility of mind, benevolence of temper, and innocence of life, as for his extenfive learning. He died in 1718. CUMBRAY, Great and Little, two iflands in the frith of Clyde, in Scotland. The firft is about fix miles in circumference, and lies between the ifle of Bute and the coaft of Ayrlhire. The other is of fmaller ' extent, and has a light-houfe. CUMINUM, Cumin j a genus of plants belong¬ ing to the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the 45th. order, umbellatcc. See Bo-- TANY Index. CUN^US, PETER, born in Zealand in 1586, was diftinguilhed by his knowledge in the learned langua¬ ges, and his Ikill in the Jewilh antiquities. He alfo ftudied law, which he taught at Leyden in 16155, and read politics there till his death in 1638. His principal work is a treatife, in Latin, on the republic of the Hebrews. CUNEIFORM, in general, an appellation given to any body having the lhape of a wedge. CUNEIFORM Bone, in Anatomy, the feventh bone of the cranium, called alfo os bajimre, and os fphenoides. See Anatomy Index. CUNEUS, in antiquity, a company of infantry drawn : C U N [ 14 ] CUN the better to break r-i ». **4. ii L,»JV^ o xaiixvo* ham.45 CUNICULUS. See Lefus, MAMMALIA Index. > Cuniculus, in mining, a term ufed by authors in diftinftion from puteus, to exprefs the feveral forts of pafiages and cuts in thefe fubterranean works. The 'cunicuh are thofe direft paffages in mines where they walk on horizontally j but the putei are the perpen¬ dicular cuts or defeents. The miners in Germany call thefe by the name Jlollen, and fchachts ; the firft word exprefling the horizontal, and the fecond the perpen¬ dicular cuts. C UNI L A, a genus of plants belonging to the mo- Handria clafs •, and in the natural method ranking under the 42a order, Verticillatce. See Botany Index. CUNINA, in Mythology, a goddefs who had the care, of little children. CUNITZ, or Cunitia, Maria, aftronomer, wts the eldeft daughter of Hendric Cunitz, doctor of medicine in Silelia, and was born about the beginning of the 17th century. She learned languages with amazing facility; and underftood Polifli, German, French, Italian, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. She at¬ tained a knowledge of the fciences with equal eafe : fne was {killed in hiftory, phyfic, poetry, painting, mufic, and playing upon inllruments j and yet thefe were only an amufement. She more particularly ap¬ plied herfelf to the mathematics, and efpecially to adronomy, which {he made her principal lludy, and xras ranked in the number of the mod able afl.ro- nomers of her time. Her Ailronomical Tables ac¬ quired her a prodigious reputation : the printed them in Latin and German, and dedicated them to the em¬ peror Ferdinand III. She married Elias de Lewin, M. D. and died at Piflehen in 1664. CUNNINGHAM, one of the four bailiwicks in Scotland ; and one of the three into which the {hire of Ayr is fubdivided. It lies north eafl: of Kyle. It contains the fea port towns of Irvine and Saltcoats. Cunningham, Alexander, author of a Hiftory of Great Britain from the Revolution to the accef- flon of George I. was born in the fouth of Scotland {ibout the year 1654, in the regency of Oliver Crom¬ well. His father vras minifter at Ettrick, in the prefbytery and {hire of Selkirk. He was educated, as was the cuflom among the Scottilh prelbyterian gentlemen of thofe times, in Holland ; where he imbibed his principles of government, and lived much with the Englifli and Scots refugees at the Hague before the revolution, particularly with the earls of Argyle and Sunderland. He came over to England with the prince of Orange, and enjoy¬ ed the confidence and intimacy of many leading men among the whig party, that is, the friends and abet¬ tors of King William and the revolution. He -was employed, at different times, in the charadter of a travelling companion or tutor \ firft, to the earl of Hyndford, and his brother Mr William Carmichael, folicitor-general, in the reign of Queen Anne, for Scotland j fecondly, with the lord Lome, afterwards fo well known under the name of John duke of Ar¬ gyle ; and thirdly, with the lord vifeount Lonfdale. In his travels, we find him, at the German courts, in company with the celebrated Mr Jofeph Addifon, y/hoie virtues he celebrates, f 4 Cuneus drawn up in form of a wedge, tnrmifrl-1 fho *-o *-1 Ir Lord Lome, at the time he was under the tuition CunniW- of Mr C unningham, though not feventeen years of age, Lun. ‘was colonel of a regiment, which his father, the earl of Argyle, had railed for his majefty’s fervice in Flan¬ ders. Mr Cunningham’s connedtion with the duke of Argyle, with whom he had the honour of main¬ taining an intimacy as long as he lived, together4 with the opportunities he enjoyed of learning, in his travels, what may be called military geography, naturally tended to qualify him for writing on military •affairs. Mr Cunningham, both when he travelled with the nobleman above mentioned, and on other oecafions, was employed by the Englifli miniftry in tranfmitting fecret intelligence to them on the moff important fub- jedls. He was alfo, on fundry occafions, employed by the generals of the confederate armies, to carry in¬ telligence, and to make reprefentations to the court of Britain. In Carftaires’s State Papers, publithed by Dr Macormick, principal of the United College of St An¬ drew’s, in 1774, there are two letters from our author, dated Paris the 22d and 26th of Auguft 1701, giving an account of his conferences with 5 the marquis de Torcy, the French minifter, relative to the Scots trade with France. This commercial negociation, from the tenor of Cunningham’s letters compared with his hiftory, appears to have been only the often- fible objedl of his attention : for he fent an exadf ac¬ count to King William, with whom he was perfonally acquainted, of the military preparations throughout all France. Mr Cunningham’s political friends, Argyle, Sun¬ derland, Sir Robert Walpole, &c. on the acceffion of George I. fent him as Britilh envoy to the republic of Venice. He arrived in that city in 1715*, and con¬ tinued there, in the character of refident, till the year 1720, when he returned again to London. He lived many years after, which he feems chiefly to have paf- fed in a ftudious retirement. In 1735, he was vilited in London by Lord Hyndford, by the dir eft ion of his lordfhip’s father, to whom he had been tutor, when he appeared to be very old. He feems to have lived about two years after : for the body of an Alexander Cunningham lies interred in the vicar chancel of St Martin’s church, who died in the 83d year of his age, on the 15th day of May 173 7; and who was pro¬ bably the fame perfon. His “ Hiftory of Great Britain, from the revolu¬ tion in 1688 to the acceffion of George I.” was pub- liftied in two volumes 4to, in 1787. It was written by Mr Cunningham in Latin, but was tranflated into Englifli by the reverend William Thomfon, L.L.D. The original manufeript came into the poffeffion of the reverend Dr Hollingberry, archdeacon of Chichefter, fome of whofe relations had been connefted with the author. He communicated it to the earl of Hardwicke, and to the reverend Dr Douglas, now biffiop of Car- lifle, both of whom recommended the publication. In a Ihort preface to the work, the archdeacon fays, /$-e/they form¬ ed x.vvtKYi' Cupel, Cujjella- tion. CUP [ ufe of vegetable afhes,' freed by boiling in water from their faline matter, which would caufe them melt in , the fire. The bones, burnt to perfefl whitenefs, fo that no particle of coaly or inflammable matter may remain in them, and well wafhed from filth, are ground into moderately fine powder j which in order to its being formed into cupels, is moiilened with juft as much V'ater as is fufficient to make it hold together when ftrongly preifed between the fingers j fome direft glu¬ tinous liquids, as whites of eggs or gum-water, in or¬ der to give the powder a greater tenacity : but the inflammable matter, however fmall in quantity, which accompanies thefe fluids, and cannot be eafily burnt out from the internal part of the mafs, is apt to revive a part of the metallic fcoria that has been abforbed, and to occafion the veifel to burft or crack. The cu¬ pel is formed in a brafs ring, from three quarters of an inch to two inches diameter, and not quite fo deep, placed upon fome fmooth fupport: the ring being fill¬ ed with moillened powder, which is preffed clofe with the fingers; a round-faced peftle, called a monk, is flruck down into it with a few blows of a mallet, by which the mafs is made to cohere, and rendered fuf- ficiently compaft, and a fhallow cavity formed in the middle : the figure of the cavity is nearly that of a fphere, that a fmall quantity of metal melted in it may run together into one bead. To make the ca¬ vity the fmoother, a little of the fame kind of afhes levigated into an impalpable powder, and not moift- ened, is commonly fprinkled on the furface, through a fmall fine fieve made for this purpofe, and the monk again ftruck down upon it. The ring or mould is a little narrower at bottom than at top j fo that by pref- fing it down on fome of the dry powder fpread upon a table, the cupel is loofened, and forced upwards a little; after which it is eafily pulhed out with the finger, and is then fet to dry in a warm place free from dull. CUPELLA1 ION, the aft of refining gold or fil- ver by means of a cupel. For this purpofe another veifel, called a mi/jfle, is made ufe of, within which one or more cupels are placed. The muffle is placed upon a grate in a proper furnace, with its mouth facing the door, and as clofe to it as may be. The furnace be¬ ing filled up with fuel, fome lighted charcoal is thrown on the top, and what fuel is afterwards neceffary is fupplied through a door above. The cupels are fet in the muffle; and being gradually heated by the fuccef- five kindling of the fuel, they are kept red hot for fome time, that the moifture which they ftrongly re¬ tain may be completely diffipated : for if any vapours fhould iffue from them after the metal is put in, they would occafion it to fputter, and a part of it to be thrown off in little drops. In the fides of the mufflle are fome perpendicular flits, with a knob over the top of each, to prevent any fmall pieces of coals or affles from falling in. The door, or fome apertures made in it, being kept open, for the infpeftion of the cupels, frelh air enters into the muffle, and paffes off through thefe flits : by laying fome burning charcoal on an iron plate before the door, the air is heated before its admiffion ; and by removing the charcoal or fupply- ing more, the heat in the cavity of the muffle may be fomewhat diminifhed or increafed more fpeedily than 16 ] CUP can be effected by fuppreffipg or exciting the fire in the furnace on the outiide of the muffle. 'The renew¬ al of the air is alfo neceffary for promoting the fcorifi- cation of the lead. The cupel being of a full red heat, the lead caft in~ to a fmooth bullet, ihat it may not fcratch or injure the surface, is laid lightly in the cavity j it immedi¬ ately melts 5 and then the gold or filver to be cupelled js cautioufly introduced either by means of a Imall iron ladle, or by wrapping them in paper, and drop¬ ping them on the lead with a pair of tongs. The quantity of lead fhould be at leaf! three or four times that of the fine metal j but when gold is very impure it requires jo or i 2 times its quantity of lead for cu- pellatiom It is reckoned that copper requires for its feorification about 10 times its weight of lead: that when copper and gold are mixed in equal quantities, the copper is fo much defended by the gold, as not to be feparable with lefs than 20 times its weight of lead 5 and that when copper is in very fmall proportion, as a 2Cth or 30th part of the gold or filver, upwards of 60 parts of lead are necefiary for one of the copper. The cupel muft always weigh at leaft half as much as the lead and copper 5 for otherwife it would not be fuf¬ ficient for receiving half the fcoria j there is little dan¬ ger, however, of cupels being made too fmall for the quantity of a gold alfay. The mixture being brought into thin fufion, the heat is to be regulated according to the appearances 5 and in this confifis the principal nicety in the ope¬ ration. If a various coloured fldn rifes to the top, which liquefying, runs off to the fides, and is there abforbed by the cupel, vifibly ftaining the parts it en¬ ters j if a frefti fcoria continually fucceeds, and is ab- forbed neaily as faft as it is formed, only a fine circle of it remaining round the edge of the metal; if the lead appears in gentle motion, and throws up a fume a little way from the furface ; the fire is of the pro¬ per degree, and the procefs goes on fuccefsfully. Such a fiery brightnefs of the cupel as prevents its colour from being diftinguilhed, and the fumes of the lead rifing up almoft to the arch of the muffle, are marks of too ftrong a.heat; though it muft be obfer- ' ed, that the elevation of the fumes is not always in proportion to the degree of heat; for if the heat greatly exceeds the due limits, both the fumes and ebullition will entirely ceafe. In thefe circumftances the fire muft neceffarily be diminiftied : for while the lead boils and fmokes vehemently, its fumes are apt to carry off fome part of the gold; the cupel is liable t» crack from the hafty abforption of the fcoria, and part of the gold and filver is divided into globules, which lying difeontinued on the cupel after the procefs is fi- niffled, cannot eafily be collefted j if there is no ebul¬ lition or fumes, the fcorification does not appear to go on. Too weak a heat is known by the dull rednefs of the cupel; by the fume not rifing from the furface of the lead ; and the fcoria like bright drops in languid motion, or accumulated, or growing confiltent all over the metal. Ihe form of the furface affords alfo an ufeful mark of the degree of heat j the ftronger the fire, the more convex is the furface ; and the weaker, the more flat : in this point, however, regard muft be had to the quantity of metal; a large quantity being always flatter than a fmall one in an equal fire. 1 Towards 7 CUP [ I? ] G U Ft Curellation Towards the end of the procefs, the fire mud be [j increafed j for the greateft part of the fufible metal lead. Cupreffus. being now worked off, the gold and filver will not Vi — continue melted in the heat that was fufficient before. As the laft remains of the lead are feparating, the rain¬ bow colours on the furface become more vivid, and varioufly interfeft one another with quick motions. Soon after, difappearing -all at once, a fudden lumi¬ nous brightnefs of the button of gold and filver (hows the procefs to be finifhed. The cupel is then drawn forwards towards the mouth of the muffle ; and the button, as foon as grown fully folid, taken out. CUPELLING FURNACE. See Cupelling FUR¬ NACE. CUPID, in Pagan mythology, the god of love. Th ere feems to have been two Cupids j one the fon of Jupiter and Venus, whofe delight it was to raile fenti- ments of love and virtue j and the other the fon of Mars and the fame goddefs, who infpired bafe and im¬ pure defires. The firft of thefe, called Eros, or true love, bore golden arrows, which caufed real joy, and a virtuous affe&ion 5 the other, called Anteros, had leaden arrows, that raiftd a paffion founded only on defire, which ended in fatiety and difguft. Cupid was always drawn with wings, to reprefent his inconllancy \ and naked, to (hew that he has nothing of his own. He was painted blind, to denote that love fees no fault in the objeft beloved ; and with a bow and quiver of arrows, to ihow his power over the mind. Sometimes he is placed between Hercules and Mercury, to (how the prevalence of eloquence and valour in love ; and at others is placed near Fortune, to fignify that the fuccefs of lovers depends on that incontlant goddefs. Sometimes he is reprefented with a helmet on his head and a fpear on his flroulder, to fignify that love difarms the fierceft men j he rides upon the backs of panthers and lions, and ufes their manes for a bridle, to denote that love tames the mofl favage beafts. He is likewife pidlured riding upon a dolphin, to fignify that his em¬ pire extends over the fea no lefs than the land. CUPOLA, in Architecture, a fpherical vault, or the round top of the dome of a church, in the form of a cup inverted. CUPPING, in Surgery, the operation of applying cupping-glaffes for the difcharge of blood and other humours by the {kin. See Surgery. CUPRESSUS, the Cypress Tree, a genus of plants belonging to the moncecia clafs j and in the na¬ tural method ranking under the 51ft order, Conferee. See Botany Index. The Wood of the fempervirens, or evergreen cyprefs, is faid to refift worms, moths, and putrefa&ion, and to laft many centuries. The coffins in which the A- thenians were wont to bury their heroes, were made, fays Thucydides, of this wood j as were likewife the chefts containing the Egyptian mummies. The doors of St Peter’s church at Rome were originally of the fame materials. Thefe, after lafting upwards of 600 years, at the end of which they did not difeover the imalleft tendency to corruption, were removed by or¬ der of Pope F.ugenius IV. and gates of brafs fubftituted in their place. The fame tree is by many eminent au¬ thors recommended as improving and meliorating the -air bv its balfamic and aromatic exhalations ; upon VOL. VII. Part I. which account many ancient phyficians of the eaftern Cuprefftis countries ufed to fend their patients who were troubled |j with weak lungs to the ifland of Candia, where thefe ^ut'at-c' trees grow in great abundance ; and where, from the v'""” falubrious air alone, very few failed of a perfedt cure. In the fame illand, fays Miller, the cyprefs-trees were fo lucrative a commodity, that the plantations were called dosfilice; the felling of them being reckoned a daughter’s portion. Cyprefs, fays Mr Pococke, is the only tree that grows towards the top of Mount Leba¬ non, and being nipped by the cold, grows like a fmall oak. Noah’s ark is commonly fuppofed to have been made of this kind of wood. CUPRUM ammoniac ALE. See Chemistry In¬ dex. This preparation is recommended in fome kinds of fpafmodic difeafes, given in the dofe of one or two grains. Cuprum, or Copper. See Copper, Chemistry Index. CURACOA, or CuRASSOW, one of the larger An¬ tilles iflands, formerly iubjedl to the Dutch j fituated in W. Long. 68i 30* N. Lat. 1 2. 30. This ifland is little elfe than a bare rock, about ten leagues long and five broad •, lying three leagues off the coaft of Vene¬ zuela. It has an excellent harbour, but the entrance is difficult. The bafon is extremely large, and conve¬ nient in every refpedl ; and is defended by a fort fkil- fully conftrudled, and always kept in repair. The rea- fon of forming a fettlement upon this barren fpot, was to carry on a contraband trade with the Spanilh colonies on the continent j but after fome time the method of managing this trade was changed. Curaffow itfelf became an immenfe magazine, to which the Spaniards reforted in their boats to exchange gold, filver, va¬ nilla, cocoa, cochineal, bark, {kins, and mules, for ne¬ groes, linen, filks, India fluffs, fpices, laces, ribbands, quickfilver, fteel, and iron-ware. Thefe voyages, though continual, did not prevent a number of Dutch {loops from paffing from Curaffow to the continent. But the modern fubftitution of regifter-lhips, inftead of galleons, has made this communication lefs frequent j but it will be revived whenever, by the intervention of war, the communication with the Spanifli main {hall be cut off. The difputes between the courts of Lon¬ don and Verfailles alfo prove favourable to the trade of Curaffow. At thefe times it furnifties provifions to the fouthern parts of St Domingo, and takes off all its produce. Even the French privateers from the windward iflands, repair in great numbers to Curaf¬ fow, notwithftanding the diftance. The reafon * is, that they find there all kinds of neceffary ftores for their veffels ; and frequently Spanifti, but always Eu¬ ropean goods, which are univerfally ufed. Every com¬ modity without exception, that is landed at Curaffoiv, pays one per cent, port-duty. Dutch goods are never taxed higher ; but thofe that are {hipped from other European ports pay nine per cent. more. Foreign coffee is fubjeft to the fame tax, in order to promote the fale of that of Surinam. Every other produ&ion of America is fubjefl only to a payment of three per cent, but with an exprefs ftipulation, that they are to be conveyed diredlly to fome port belonging to the re¬ public. This ifland is now in poffeflkm of Great Britain. CURATE, theloweft degree in the church of Eng- C land j CUR [ i Curate land 5 ke who reprefents the incumbents of a church, || parfon, or vicar, and performs divince fervice in his ftead : and in cafe of pluralities of livings, or where a clergyman is old and infirm, it is requifite there fhould be a curate to perform the cure of the church. He is to be licenfed, and admitted by the bilhop of the dio- cele, or by an ordinary having epifcopal jurifdiftion 5 and when a curate hath the approbation of the bifliop, he ufually appoints the falary too ; and in fuch cafe, if he be not paid, the curate hath a proper remedy in the ecclefiaftical court, by a fequeftration of the profits of the benefice $ but if the curate is not licenfed by the biftiop, he is put to his remedy at common law, where he mull: prove the agreement, &c. A curate having no fixed eftate in his curacy, not being inftituted and indu&ed, may be removed at pleafure by the bilhop or incumbent. But there are perpetual curates as well as temporary, who are appointed where the tithes are impropriate, and no vicarage endowed : thefe are not removeable, and the improprietors are obliged to find them ; fome whereof have certain portions of the tithes fettled on them. Every clergyman that officiates in a church (whether incumbent or fubftitute) in the litur¬ gy is called a curate. Curates muft fufcribe the de¬ claration according to the a£l of uniformity, or are lia¬ ble to imprifonment, &c. CURATELLA, a genus of plants belonging to the polyandria clafs; and in the natural method rank¬ ing with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬ tany Index. CURATOR, among the Romans, an officer under the emperors, who regulated the price of all kinds of merchandife and vendible commodities in the cities of the empire. They had likewifethe fuperintendence of the cuftoms and tributes j whence alfo they were called logijlce. Curator, among civilians, a truftee or perfon no¬ minated to take care of the affairs and interefts of a perfon emancipated or interdidled. In countries where the Roman law prevails, between the age of 14 and .24 years, minors have curators affigned them ; till 14, they have tutors. CURATOB of an Univerfty, in the United Provinces, is an eleflive office, to which belongs the direction of the affairs of the univerfity $ as, the adminiftration of the revenues, the infpedlion of the profeffors, &c. The curators are chofen by the ftates of each province : The univerfity of Leyden has three j the burgher- mafters of the city have a fourth. CURB, in the manege, a chain of iron made faff to the upper part of the branches of the bridle in a hole called the eye, and running over the horfe’s beard. It confifts of thefe three parts j the hook fixed to the eye of the branch ; the chain of SS’s or links; and the two rings or mailes. Large curbs, provided they be round, are always moft gentle $ but care is to be taken that it reft in its proper place, a little above the beard, otherwife the bit-mouth will not have the effe£t that may be expe&ed from it. Englilh watering bits have no curbs ; the Turkifti bits, called genettes, have a ring that ferves inftead of a curb. See Genettes. Curb, in Farriery, is a hard and callous fwelling on the hind part of the hock, attended with ftifihefs, and fometimes with pain and lamenefs. See Spavin. ' ■ ■. : ■ t 8 ] CUR CURCAS, a name given in Egypt to an efculent Curcas root, approaching to the tafte and virtues of the colo- |] cafia. It is alfo a name ufed in Malabar for a fmall Curetes. fruit of the thape and fize of a hazel nut. Both thefe v ~ things have the credit of being ftrong provocatives : and it is very probable that the curcas of the Eaft In¬ dies may be the fruit called bell by Avicenna, and faid to poffefs the fame virtues. Gracias has been led into a very great error by this fimilarity of names and vir¬ tues j and fuppofes the curcas of Egypt the fame with that of the Eaft Indies. CURCULIO, a genus of infers belonging to the »rder of coleoptera. See Entomology Index. CURCUMA, Turmeric, a genus of plants belong¬ ing to the monandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the 8th order, Scitaminece. See Bo¬ tany Index. CURDISTAN, a country of Afia, fituated between the Turkifti empire and Perfia, lying along the eaftern coaft of the river Tigris, and comprehending great part of the ancient Affyria. Some of the inhabitants live in towns and villages, and others rove from place to place, having tents like the wild Arabs, and are alfo robbers like them. Their religion is partly Chriftian, and partly Mahometanifm. CURDLING, the coagulating or fixing of any fluid body; particularly milk. See Cheese, Agriculture Index. Paufanias fays, that Ariftaeus fon of Apollo, and Cyrene, daughter of the river Peneus, were the firft who found out the fecret of curdling milk. At Florence they curdle their milk for the making of cheefe with artichoke flowers, in lieu of the rennet ufed for the fame purpofe among us. The Bifaltae, a people of Macedonia, Rochfort ob- ferves, live wholly upon curdled milk, i. e. on curds. He adds, that curds are the whole food of the people of Upper Auvergne in France, and whey their only drink. CURETES, in antiquity, a fort of priefts or people of the ifle of Crete, called alfo Corybantes. See Co- rybantes and Crete. The Curetes are faid to have been originally of Mount Ida in Phrygia ; for which reafon they were alfo called Idcei DaByli. See Dac- TYLI. Lucian and Diodorus Siculus reprefent them as very expert in calling of darts; though other authors give them no weapons but bucklers and pikes : but all agree in furniftiing them with tabors and caftanettas : and relate, that they ufed to dance much to the noife and clalhing thereof. By this noife, it is faid, they prevented Saturn from hearing the cries of young Jupiter, whereby he was faved from being deftroy- ed. Some authors, however, give a different account of the Curetes. According to Pezron and others, the Curetes were, in the times of Saturn, &c. and in the countries of Crete and Phrygia, what the druids were afterwards among the Gauls, &c. i. e. they were priefts who had the care of what related to religion and the worfhip of the gods. Hence, as in thofe days it was fuppofed there was no communication with the gods but by divinations, auguries, and the operations of magic, the Curetes paffed for magicians and enchan¬ ters ; to thefe they added the ftudy of the liars, of na- ture? CUR [i ture, and poefy j and fo were pliilofopliers, aftrono- mers, &c. Voflius de Ido la t. diftinguifliea three kinds of Cu- retes, thofe of y^tolia, thofe of Phrygia, and thofe of Crete, who were originally derived from the Phry¬ gians. The fir ft, he fays, took their name from xaga, tonfure ; in regard, from the time of a combat wherein the enemy feized their long hair, they always kept it cut. Thofe of Phrygia and Crete, he fuppofes, were fo called from young tnan, in regard they were young, or becaufe they nurfed Jupiter when he was young. CURFEU, CuarEW, or Courfew, a fignal given in cities taken in war, &c. to the inhabitants to go to bed. Pafquin fays, it was fo called, as being intended to advertife the people to fecure themfelves from the robberies and debaucheries of the night. CURFE W-Bell, in French couvrefeu, and in law La¬ tin of the middle ages, ignitegium, or pyritegium, was a fignal for all perfons to extinguilh their fires. The moft eminent curfew in England was that eftablifhed by William the Conqueror, who appointed, under fevere penalties, that, at the ringing of a bell at 8 o’clock in the evening, every one ftiould put out their lights and fires and go to bed ; whence to this day a bell rung about this time is called a curfew-bell. This law was abo- lifhed by Henry I. in noo. This pra&ice was highly neceflary to prevent acci¬ dents in thofe ages when the fires were placed in a hole in the middle of the floor, under an opening in the roof to allow the efcape of the fmoke. This hole was covered up when the family went to bed. The fame praftice ftill exifts in fome countries, and particu¬ larly in fome parts of Scotland. But befides fecuring houfes againft accidents by fire, the law which was very generally eftablifhed in Europe for extinguilhing or covering fires, was probably meant alfo to check the turbulence which frequently prevailed in the middle ages, by forcing the people to retire to reft, or to keep within doors. From this ancient practice, in the opi¬ nion of Beckmann, has arifen a cuftom in Lower Saxo¬ ny of faying, when people wilh to go home fooner than the company choofe, that they hear the burgerglocket the burgher’s bell. The ringing of the prayer bell, as it is called, which is ftill pradlifed in fome Proteftant countries, according to Beckmann, originated in that of the curfeu-bell. Pope John XXIII. dreading that fome misfortunes were to befal him, ordered every perfon on hearing the ignitegium to repeat the ave Maria three times, with a view to avert them. When the appearance of a co¬ met, and a dread of the Turks, alarmed all Chriften- dom, Pope Calixtus VIII. increafed thefe periodical times of prayer, by ordering the prayer-bell to be rung alio at noon. Hijl. of Invent, ii. 101. CURIA, in Roman antiquity, was ufed for the fe- nate-houfe. There were feveral curiae in Rome j as the curia calabra, faid to be built by Romulus j the curia hofilia, by Tullus Hoftilus 5 and the curia pom- peia, by Pompey the Great. Curia alfo denoted the places where the curia ufed to aflemble. Each of the 30 curiae of old Rome had a temple or chapel afligned to them for the com¬ mon performance of their facrifices, and other offices of their religion j fo that they were not unlike our pa- 9 ] CUR rilhes. Some remains of thefe little temples feem to Curia have fubfifted many ages after on the Palatine hill, II where Romulus firft built the city, and afterwards re- , ''u'10, fided. Curia, among the Romans, alfo denoted a portion or divifion of a tribe. In the time of Romulus, a tribe confided of ten curiae, or a thoufand men ; each curia being one hundred. That legiflator made the firft di¬ vifion of his people into thirty curiae. Afterwards curia, or domus curialis, became ufed for the place where each curia held its affemblies. Hence alfo curia pafled to the fenate-houfe ; and it is from hence the moderns came to ufe the word curia, “ court,” for a place of juftice, and for the judges, &c. there af- fembled. Varro derives the word from cura, “ care,” q. d. an afiembly of people charged with the care of public af¬ fairs. Others deduce it from the Greeks ; maintaining, that at Athens they called x-vyct the place where the magiftrate held his affizes, and the people ufed to af- femble : kv^icc, again, may come from authority, power ; becaufe it was here the laws were made. Curia, in our ancient cuftoms.—It was ufual for the kings of England to fummon the biffiops, peers, and great men of the kingdom to fome particular place, at the chief feftivals in the year 5 and this affem- bly is called by our hiftorians curia ; becaufe there they confulted about the weighty affairs of the nation *, whence it was fometimes alfo called folemnis curia, generalis cu¬ ria, augufalis curia, and curia public a, &c. See Wl- TEKK-Mot. CURIA Baronum. See COURT Baron. Curia Claudenda, is a writ that lies againft him who ffiould fence and inclofe the ground, but refufes or de¬ fers to do it. CURIATII, three brothers of Alba, maintained the intereft of their country againft the Romans, who had declared war againft thofe of Alba. The two ar¬ mies being equal, three brothers on each fide were chofen to decide the conteft •, the Curiatii by thofe of Alba, and the Horatii by the Romans. The three firft were wounded, and two of the latter killed ; but the third joining policy to valour, ran away; and having thus tired the Curiatii, he took them one after another, and killed them all three. CURING, a term ufed for the preferving fifli, flefti, and other animal fubftances, by means of certain ad¬ ditions of things, to prevent putrefaction. One great method of doing this is by expofing the bodies to the fmoke of wood, or rubbing them with fait, nitre, &c. CURIO, the chief and prieft of a curia.—Romulus, upon dividing the people into curise, gave each divi¬ fion a chief, who was to be priett of that curia, under the title of curio and flamen curialis. His bufinefs was to provide and officiate at the facrifices of the curia, which were called curionia ; the curia furnifliing him with a fum of money on that confideration, which pen- fion or appointment was called curionium. Each divi¬ fion had the ele&ion of its curia •, but all thefe particu¬ lar curios were under the direction of a fuperior or ge¬ neral, called curio tnaximus, who was the head of the body, and elefted by all the curios affembled in the co- mitia curialis. All thefe inftitutions were introduced by Romu- C 2 lus, Gurio II Current. CUR [ 20 lus, and confirmed by Numa, as Halicarnafleus re¬ lates it. j CURIOSUS, an officer of the Roman empire du¬ ring the middle age, appointed to take care that no frauds and irregularities were committed ; particularly no abufes in what related to the polls, the roads, &c. and to give intelligence to the court of what palfied in the provinces. This made the curiofi people of impor¬ tance, and put them in a condition of doing more harm than they prevented 5 on which account, Honorius ca- fhiered them, at leaf! in fome parts of the empire, anno 4I5: The curiofi came pretty near to what w'e call control¬ lers. They had their name from cura, “ care j” quod cuns agendis ct eveBionibus curfus publici infpiciendis operam darent. CURLEW. See Scolopax. Ornithology Index. CURMI, a name given by the ancients to a fort of malt liquor or ale. It was made of barley, and w’as drunk by the people of many nations inltead of wine, according to Diofcorides’s account. He accufes it of caufing pains in the head, generating bad juices, and difordering the nervous fyftem. He alfo fays, that in the weftern part of Iberia, and in Britain, fuch a fort of liquor was in his time prepared from wheat inltead of barley. See Ale. CURNOCK, a meafure of corn containing four bu- fhels, or half a quarter. CURRANS, or Currants, the fruit of a fpecies of groffularia. See Grossularia, Botany Index. 1 he white and red fort are moltly ufed } for the black, and chiefly the leaves, upon firfl: coming out, are in ufe to flavour Englilh fpirits, and counterfeit French brandy. Currants greatly affuage drought, cool and fortify the llomach, and help digeftion j and the jelly of black currants is faid to be very efficacious in curing inflammations of the throat. Currants alfo fignify a fmaller kind of grapes, brought principally from Zante and Cephalonia. They are gathered off the bullies, and laid to dry in the fun, and fo put up in large butts. They are opening and pedoral; but are more ufed in the kitchen than in me¬ dicine. CURRENT, or Currant, a term ufed to exprels the prefent time. Thus the year 1804 *s t^ie current year, the 20th current is the 20th day of the month now running.—With regard to commerce, the price current of any merchandife is the known and ordi¬ nary price accuftomed to be given for it. The term is alfo ufed for any thing that has courfe or is re¬ in which fenfe we fay,, current eeived in commerce j coin, &c. Current, in Navigation, a certain progreffive move¬ ment of the water of the fea, by which all bodies floating therein are compelled to alter their courfe or velocity, or both, and fubmit to the laws impofed on them by the current. In the fea, currents are either natural and general, as arifing from the diurnal rotation of the earth about its axis 3 or accidental and particular, caufed by the waters being driven againft promontories, or into gulfs and ftraits, where, wanting room to fpread, they are driven back, and thus difturb the ordinary flux of the fea. Currents are various, and directed towards different parts of the ocean, of which fowe Z l 7 ] CUR are conflant, others periodical. The moft extraordi¬ nary current of the fea is that by which part of the Atlantic or African ocean moves about Guinea from Cape Verd towards the curvature or bay of Africa which they call Fernando Poo ; viz. from weft to eaft* contrary to the general motion : and fuch is the force of the current, that when Ihips approach too near the Ihore, it carries them violently towards that bay, and deceives the mariners in their reckoning. There’ is a great variety of ftiifting currents, which do not laft, but return at certain periods : and thefe do, moft of them, depend upon and follow the anniverfary winds or monfoons, which by blowing in one place may caufe a current in another. Varenius informs us, that at Java, in the ftraits of Sunda, when the monfoons blow from the weft, viz. in the month of May, the currents fet to the call ward, contrary to the general motion. Between the ifland of Celebes and Madura, when the weftern monfoons fet in, viz. in December^ January, and February, or when the winds blow from the north-weft, or between the north and weft, the currents fet to the fouth-eaft, or between the foutli and eafl. At Ceylon, from the middle of March to Odfober, the currents let to the fouthward, and in the other parts of the year to the northward : becaufe at this time the fouthern monfoons blow, and' at the other the northern. Between Cochin-China and Ma¬ lacca, when the weftern msnfoons blow, viz. from April to Auguft, the currents fet eaftward againft the general motion 3 but the reft of the year they fet weft ward, the monfoon confpiring with the general motion. They run fo ftrongly in thefe feas, that un¬ experienced failors miftake them for waves that beat upon the rocks, known uiually by the name of break¬ ers. So for fome months after the 15th of February, the currents fet from the Maldives towards India cm the eaft, againft the general motion of the fea. On the ffiore of China and Cambodia, in the months of Odto- ber, November, and December, the currents fet to the north-weft, and from January to the fouth-weft,. whsn they run with fuch rapidity about the ftioals of Parcel, that they feem fwifter than an arrow.. A t Pulo Ccn- dore, upon the coaft of Cambodia, though the mon¬ foons are fhiftmg, yet the currents fet ftrongly to¬ wards the eaft, even when they blow to a contrary point. Along the coafts of the bay of Bengal, as far as the Cape Romania, at the extreme point of Malacca* the current runs fouthward in November and December. When the monfoons blow from China to Malacca, the fea runs fwiftly from Pulo Cambi to Pulo Condore on the coaft of Cambodia. In the bay of Sans Bras, not far from the Cape of Good Hope, there is a current particularly remarkable, where the ffa runs from eaft to weft to the landward j and this more vehemently, as it is oppofed by winds from a contrary dire&ion. The caufe is undoubtedly owing to fome adjacent ftiore which is higher than this. In the ftraits of Gibraltar the currents almoft conftantly drive to the eaftward, and carry ftiips into the Medi¬ terranean 3 they are alfo found to drive the fame way into St George’s channel. The fetting or progreffive motion of the current may be either quite down to the bottom, or to a cer¬ tain determinate depth. As the knowledge of the di¬ rection and velocity of currents is a very material ar¬ ticle Current. CUR [2 tide in navigation, it is highly neceffary to difcover both, in order to afcertain the (hip’s fituation and courfe with as much accuracy as poffible. The moft fuccefsful method which has been hitherto pradifed by mariners for this purpofe, is as follows : A com¬ mon iron-pot, which may contain four or five gallons, is fufpended by a fmall rope, fattened to its ear or handles, fo as to hang diredly upright, as when pla¬ ced upon the fire. This rope, which may be from 70 to 100 fathoms in length, being prepared for the experiment, is coiled in the boat, which is hoifted out of the (hip at a proper opportunity, when there is little or no wind to ruffle the furface of the fea. The pot being then thrown overboard into the water, and immediately finking, the line is flackened till about 70 or 80 fathoms of the line are run out j after which the line is fattened to the boat’s ftern, by which (he^ is accordingly reftrained and rides at an anchor. I he velocity of the current is then eafily tried by the log and half-minute glafs, the ufual method of difcovering the rate of a (hip’s failing at fea. The courfe of the ftream is next obtained by the compafs provided for this operation. Having thus found the fetting and drift of the current, it next remains to apply this ex¬ periment to the purpofes of Navigation ; for which fee that article. Under- CUR BENTS, are dittintfl from the upper or ap¬ parent, and in different places fet or drive a contrary way. Dr Smith makes it highly probable, that in the Downs, in the (traits of Gibraltar, there, is an under current, whereby as much water is carried cut as is brought in by the upper currents. This he argues from the offing between the North and South Foreland, where it runs tide and half-tide, i. e. it is ebb or flood in that part of the Downs three hours before it is fo off at fea : a certain fign, that though the tide of flood runs aloft, yet the tide of ebb runs under-foot, i. e. clofe by the ground ; and (o at the tide of ebb it will flow under foot. This he confirms by an experiment in the Baltic found, communicated to him by an able feaman prefent at the making of it. Being there then with one of the king’s frigates, they went with their pinnace into the mid-itream, and were carried violently by the current. Soon after that, they funk a balket with a Large cannon bullet to a certain depth of water, which gave a check to the boat’s motion; and finking it ftill lower and lower, the boat was driven a-head to the windward againft the upper current, the current aloft not being above four or five fathom deep. He added, that the lower the baflcet was let down, the flronger the under-current was found. From this principle, it is eafy to account for that continual indraught of water out of the Atlantic into the Mediterranean through the (traits of Gibraltar, a paffage about 20 miles broad ; yet without any fen- fible rifing of the water along the coafts of Barbary, &c. or any overflowing of the land, which there lies very low.—Dr Halley, however, folves the currents fetting in at the (traits without.overflowing the banks, by the great evaporation, without fuppofing any under current. CURRICULUS, in our ancient writers, denotes the year or courfe of a year. ASium efl hoc annorum Dominicce incarnationis quater quinquagenis et quinqmes 1 ] CUR quinis lujlris, et tribus curriculis, i. e. In the year Curricuius 1028 ; for four times fifty make two hundred, and five 11 times two hundred make one thoufand ; five luflres areCg^najj^ twenty-five years, and three curriculi are three years. CURRIERS, thofe who drefs and colour leather after it comes from the tan-yard. See Ianning. CURRODREPANUS, (formed of currus, “cha¬ riot,” and dgeTrxyoii, “ fcythe” or “ fickle”), in anti¬ quity, a kind of chariot armed with fcythes. The driver of thefe chariots was obliged to ride on one of the horfes, as there was no other feat for him ; the ufual place for him being all armed with knives, as was likewife the hinder part of the chariot. There were no fcythes pointing down to the earth, either from the beam or axle-tree ; but thefe were fixed at the head of the axle-tree in fuch a manner as to be moveable by means of a rope, and thereby could be raifed or let down, and drawn forward or let fall back¬ ward, by relaxing the rope. CURRYING, the method of preparing leather with oil, tallow, &c. The chief bufinefs is to foften and fupple cow and calve-lkins, which make the upper leather and quar¬ ters of (hoes, covering of faddles, coaches, and other things which mutt keep out water. 1. i hefe (kins, after coming from the tanner’s yard, having many flefhy fibres on them, the currier foaks them fome time in common water. 2. He takes them out, and ftretches them on a very even wooden horfe ; then with a paring knife he fcrapes off all the fuperfluous fleffi, and puts them in to foak again. 3. He puts them wet on a hurdle, and tramples them with his heels till they begin to grow foft and pliant. 4. Hs foaks thereon train-oil, which by its un£luous quality is the beft liquor for this purpofe. 5. He fpreads them on large tables, and fattens them at the ends. I here, with the help of an inftrument called a pummel, which is a thick piece of wood, the under fide of which is full of furrows eroding each other, he folds, fquares, and moves them forwards and backwards feveral times-, under the teeth of this inftrument, which breaks their too great ftiffnefs. This is what is properly called currying. The order and number of thefe operations is varied by different curriers, but the material part is always the fame. 6. After the (kins are curried, there may be occafion to colour them. Ihe colours are black, white, red, yellow, green, &c.: the other co¬ lours are given by the (kinners, who differ from cur¬ riers in this, that they apply their colours on the flefti fide ; the curriers on the hair fide. In order to whiten (kins, they are rubbed with lumps of chalk or white lead, and afterwards with pumice-ftone. 7. When a (kin is to be made black, after having oiled and dried it, lie paffes over it a puff dipt in water impregnated with iron ; and after his firft wetting, he gives it ano¬ ther in water prepared with foot, vinegar, and gum- arabic. Thefe different dyes gradually turn the (kin black, and the operations are repeated till it be of a fhining black. The grain and wrinkles, which contri¬ bute to the fupplenefs of calves and cows leather, are made by the reiterated folds given to the (kin in every direflion, and by the care taken to ferape off all hard parts on the colour fide. CURSING and Swearing, an offence againft: God and religion, and a fin of all others the moft cx~ travagaat: G U R [2 Cm fin0f and travagant and unaccountable, as having no benefit or Swearing advantage attending it. By the laft ftatute againtt this Curlius cr’me> I9 George II. which repeals all former ones, l- ^_ every labourer, Tailor, or foldier, profanely curfing or fwearing, (hall forfeit is.; every other perfon under the rank of a gentleman, 2s. j and every gentleman or perfon of fuperior rank, 5s. to the poor of the pariih ; and, on a fecond conviction, double : and, for every fubfequent offence, treble the fum firft forfeited, with all charges of convidtion : and, in default of payment, fhall be fent to the houfe of correction for ten days. Any juitice of the peace may convidt upon his own hearing, or the teftimony of one witnefs ; and any conftable or peace officer, upon his own hearing, may fecure any offender, and carry him before a juflice, and there convidt him. If the juftice omits his duty, he for¬ feits 5I. and the conftable 40s. And the adt is to be read in all parifli churches, and public chapels, the Sunday after every quarter day, on pain of 5I. to be levied by warrant from any juflice. Befides this pu- nifhment for taking God’s name in vain in common difeourfe, it is enadted, by Hat. 3 Jac. I. c. 21. that if in any ftage-play, interlude, or fhow, the name of the Holy Trinity, or any of the perfons therein, be jeft- ingly or profanely ufed, the offender fhall forfeit 10I. one moiety to the king, and the other to the informer. CURSITOR, a clerk belonging to the court of chancery, whofe bufinefs it is to make out original writs. In the ftatute 18 Edw. III. they are called clerks of courfe, and are 24 in number, making a cor¬ poration of themfelves. To each of them is allowed a divifion of certain counties, into which they iffue out the original writs required by the fubjedl. CURTATE distance, in Ajlronomy, the diftance of a planet from the fun to that point where a perpen¬ dicular let fall from the planet meets with the e- cliptic. CURTATION, in Afronomy, is the interval be¬ tween a planet’s diftance from the fun and the curtate diftance. CQRTEYN, (Curtanaf was the name of Edward the Confeffor’s fword, which is the firft fword carried before the kings of England at their coronation ; and it is faid the point of it is broken as an emblem of mercy. CURTIN, Curtain, or Court in, in Fortification, is that part of the rampart of a place which is betwixt the flanks of two baftions, bordered with a parapet five feet high, behind which the foldiers ftand to fire upon the covered way and into the moat. CURTIUS, Marcus, a Roman youth, who de¬ voted himfelf to the gods manes for the fafety of his country, about 360 years before the Auguftan age. A wide gap had fuddenly opened in the forum, and the oracle had faid that it never would clofe before Rome threw into it whatever it had moft precious. Curtius immediately perceived that no lefs than a human fa- crifice was required. He armed himfelf, mounted his horfe, and folemnly threw himfelf into the gulf, which inftantly clofed over his head. Curtius, Quintus, a Latin hiftorian, who wrote the life of Alexander the Great in 10 books, of which the two firft are not indeed extant, but were fo well fupplied by Freinfhemius, that the lofs is fcarcely re¬ gretted. Where this writer was born, or even when ; 2 ] CUR he lived, are points no one pretends to know. By his ftyle he is fuppofed to have lived in or near the Au¬ guftan age j while fome are not wanting, who ima¬ gine the work to have been compofed in Italy about 300 years ago, and the name of Quintus Curtins to be fidlitioully added to it. Cardinal du Perron was fo great an admirer of this work, as to declare one page of it to be worth 30 of Tacitus j yet, M. le Clerc, at the end of his Art of Critieifm, has charged the writer with great ignorance and many contradidtions. Pie has neverthelefs many qualities as a writer, which will al¬ ways make him admired and applauded. CURVA1 URE of A Line, is the peculiar man¬ ner of its bending or flexure, by which it becomes a curve of any form and properties. Thus the nature of the curvature of a circle is fucb, as that every point in the periphery is equally diftant from a point within, called the centre ; and fo the curvature of the fame circle is everywhere the fame. But the curvature in all other curves is continually varying. CURVE, in Geometry, a line which running on continually in all diredtions, may be cut by one right line in more points than one. See Conic Sections and Fluxions. Curve of Equable Approach. Leibnitz firft propo- fed to find a curve, down which a body dei'cending by the force of gravity, fhall make equal approaches to the honzon in equal portions of time. This curve, as it has been found by Bernoulli and others, is the fecond cubical parabola placed with its vertex upper- moft, and which the defeending body muft enter with a certain determinate velocity. The queftion was ren¬ dered general by Varignon for any law of gravity, by which a body may approach towards a given point by equal fpaces in equal times. Maupertuis alfo refolved the problem in the cafe of a body defeending in a me¬ dium whofe refiftance is as the fquare of the velocity. Curves, Algebraical or Geometrical, are thofe in which the relation of the abfeiffes to the ordinates can be expreffed by a common algebraic equation. Curves, Tranfcendental, or Mechanical, are thofe which cannot be defined or expreffed by an algebraic equation. CURVE F, or Cor vet, in the manege, an air in which the horfe’s legs are raifed higher than in the demi-volt; being a kind of leap up, and a little for¬ wards, wherein the horfe raifes both his fore-legs at once, equally advanced, (when he is going ftraight forward, and not in a circle) 5 and as his fore-legs are falling, he immediately raifes his hind legs, equally ad¬ vanced, and not one before the other: fo that all his four legs are in the air at once j and as he fets them down, he marks but twice with them. CURVILINEAR, or Curvilineal, is faid of fi¬ gures bounded by curves or crooked lines. CURVIROSl RA. See Loxia, Ornithology Index. CURULE chair, in Roman antiquity, a chair adorned with ivory, wherein the great magiftrates of Rome had a right to fit and be carried. The curule magiftrates were the aediles, the pra¬ ters, cenfors, and confuls. The chair was fitted in a kind of chariot, whence it had its name. The fena- tors who had borne the offices of adiles, praters, &c. were carried to the fenate-houfe in this chair, as were alfo C U S [2 alio tliofe who triumphed, and fuch as went to admini- fter juftice, &c. See /H.DILE, &c. CURZOLA, an ifland in the gulf of Venice, lying on the coaft of Dalmatia. It is about 20 miles, long, and has a fmall town of the fame name, with a bifliop’s fee. It belongs to the Venetians. E. Long. 17. 15* N. Lat. 43. 6. CUSA, Nicholas de, a learned cardinal, born of mean parentage, and named from Cufa, the place of bis birth. He was made a cardinal in 1448 $ and be- ing appointed governor of Rome by Pope Pius II. du¬ ring his abfence at. Mantua, he was the chief concerter and manager of the war againft the Turks. Pie found¬ ed a church, and a noble library of Greek and Latin authors, at Cufa $ and left many excellent works be¬ hind him, which were colle&ed and publiihed in three volumes at Bafil in 1565. In there he has made no fcruple to deleft the lying traditions and fophiftries of the Roman church. CUSCO, a large and bandfome town of South A- merica in Peru, formerly the refidence of the Incas. It is feated at the foot of a mountain, and is built in a fquare form, in the middle of which there is the beft market in all America. Four large ftreets terminate in this fquare, which are all as ftraight as a line, and re¬ gard the four quarters of the world. I he Spaniards tell us wonderful things of the richnefs of the Inca’s palace, and of the temple of the fun 5 but more fober travellers, judging from what remains, think moft of them to be fabulous. At prefent it contains eight large parilhes, and five religious houfes, the beft of which belongs to the Jefuits j and the number of the inhabi¬ tants may be about 50,000, of which three-fourths are the original natives, Americans. From this town there is a very long road, which runs along the Cordilleras j and, at certain diftances, there , are fmall houfes for retting places, fome parts of which are fo artificially wrought, that it is furprifing how a people who had no iron tools could perform fuch workmanftiip.. There are ftreams of water run through the town, which are a great convenience in fo hot a country where it never rains. It is 375 miles eaft of Lima. W. Long. 71. 47. S. Lat. 13. o. CUSCUTA, Dodder ; a genus of plants belonging to the tetrandria clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking under thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany Index. CUSH, the eldeft fon of Ham, and father of Nim¬ rod j the other Tons of Cufti were Seba, Havilah, Sab- tah,’ Raamah, and Sabtecha, Gen. x. 6—8. Though we know of no other perfon in Scripture that is called - by this name, yet there are feveral countries that are called by it •, whether the fame man may have dwelt in them all at different times, or that there were fome other men of this name, we are ignorant. The Vulgate, Septuagint, and other interpreters, both ancient and modern, generally tranflate Cufh, Ethiopia : but there are many paffages wherein this tranflation cannot take place. Cush is the name of the country watered by the Araxes. They who, in tranfiating the fituation of Eden, have made Cup Ethiopia, gave rife to that unwarrantable opinion which Jofephus and leveral fflthers have entertained of the river Gihon’s being the 3 3 ] c u s Nile. In this place (Gen. ii. 13.) the LXX tranfla- tion renders the word Cup by the name of Ethiopia ; CufJn!an and, in this miftake, is not only here followed by our v--,^ Englifh verfion, but in the fame particular in feveral other places. Cuth is the fame as Culh. The Chaldees generally put the tau where the Hebrews ufe the fchin : they fay cuth, inftead of cup. See Cuth. But Ethiopia is frequently in the Hebrew called Cup; and Jofephus fays, that they called themfelves by this name, and that the fame name was given them by all Afia. St Jerome tells us that the Hebrews call the Ethiopians by the fame name, and the Septuagint give them no other. Jeremiah (xiii. 23.) fays, “ Can the Curtisean, or Ethiopian, change his colour ?” In Ezekiel (xxix. 10.) the Lord threatens to reduce “ Egypt to a defert, from the tower of Syene even unto the borders of Cufti, or Ethiopia and in Ifaiah, (xi. xr.) he fays, “ he will recover the remnant of his people, which (hall be left, from Affyria, and from Egypt, and Pathros, and from Cufti.” All thefe marks agree with Ethiopia properly fo called, which lies to the fouth of Egypt. Bochart has ftiown very clearly that there was a country called the “ land of Cup’1'1 in Arabia Petrsea, bordering upon Egypt; that this country extended itfelf principally upon the eaftern ftiore of the Red fea, and at its extremity to the point of the fea, inclining towards Egypt and Paleftine. Thus there are three countries of the name of Cufh, deferibed in Scripture, and all confounded by interpre¬ ters under the general name of Ethiopia. CUSHION, in engraving, is a bag of leather filled with fand, commonly about nine inches fquare, and three or four thick, ufed for fupporting the plate to be engraved. Cushion, in gilding, is made of leather, fattened to a fquare board, from 14 inches fquare to 10, with a handle. The vacuity between the leather and board is fluffed with fine tow or wool, fo that the outer fur- face may be flat and even. It is ufed for receiving the leaves of gold from the paper, in order to its being cut into proper fizes and figures. CUSI, in Natural Hijiory, a name given by the people of the Philippine iflands to a very fmall and very beautiful fpecies of parrot. CXJSV (cufpis), properly, denotes the point of a fpear or fword : but is ufed in aftronomy to exprefs the points or horns of the moon, or any other luminary. Cusp, in AJlrology, is ufed for the firft point of each of the 12 houfes, in a figure or fcheme of the heavens. See House. CUSPIDATED, in Botany, are fuch plants whofe leaves are pointed like a fpear. CUSPINIAN, John, a German, was born at Swein- furt in 1473, and died at Vienna in 1529. He was firft phyfician to the emperor Maximilian I. and em¬ ployed by that prince in feveral delicate negotiations. We have of his in Latin, I. A hiftory of the Roman emperors from Julius Caefar to the death of Maximi¬ lian I. Degory Wheare, in his Methodus Legendce Hiftorice, calls this “ luculentum fane opus, et omnium lee- tione dignijjimum.” 2. A hiftory of Auftria ; being a kind of continuation of the preceding. 3. A hiftory c u s fJufpinian of the origin of the Turks, and of their cruelties to- r ^ , wards Chriftians. Gerard Voflius calls Cufpinian map- Hablt?" ,Wm fUQ a’V° h^0ria: lumen' ^CUSSO, the name given by the natives to a tree which is indigenous to the high country of Abyflinia. It is particularly defcribed by Mr Bruce $ but as this celebrated traveller was totally unacquainted with the language of botany, it is impoflible to difcover to what clals, order, or genus, it belongs. It grows nearly to the height of 2o feet, and the feed is employed by the Abyffmians as a vermifuge. From the figure which Mr Bruce has given of this plant, it would appear to be moft nearly allied to the palms. CUSTOM, a very comprehenfive term, denoting the manners, ceremonies, and falhions of a people, which having turned into a habit, and paffed into ufe, obtain the force of laws; in which fenfe it implies liich ufages, as, though voluntary at firft, are yet by pra&ice become necelfary. Cuftom is hence, both by lawyers and civilians, de¬ fined lex non fcripta, “ a law or right not written,” eftablifhed by long ufage, and the confent of our an- ceftors : in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to the lex fcripta, or “ the written law.” See Law Index. Custom and Habit, in the human economy. The former is often confounded with the latter. By cu- fom we mean a frequent reiteration of the fame aft ; and by habit, the effeft that cuftom has on the mind or body. This curious fubjeft falls to be confidered firft in a moral, and fecondly in a phyfical, light. I. Influence of Cuflom and Habit on the Mind, &c. Cuftom hath fuch influence upon many of our feel- ings, by warping and varying them, that its operations demand the attention of all thofe who would be ac¬ quainted with human nature. The fubjeft, however, is intricate. Some pleafures are fortified by cuftom : Rcrnes's and yet cuftom begets familiarity, and confequently in- Elements o/difference: Criticifm. If all the year were playing holidays, To fport would be as tedious as to work : But when they feldom come, they wifh’d-for come, And nothing pleafeth but rare accidents. Shahefpeare. In many inftances, fatiety and difguft are the confe- quences of reiteration : again, though cuftom blunts the edge of diftrefs and of pain ; yet the want of any thing to which we have been long accuftomed is a fort of torture. A clue to guide us through all the intrica¬ cies of this labyrinth, would be an acceptable prefent. Whatever be the caufe, it is certain that we are rUuch influenced by cuftom : it hath an effeft upon our pleafures, upon our aftions, and even upon our thoughts and fentiments. Habit makes no figure du¬ ring the vivacity of youth : in middle age it gains ground; and in old age it governs without controul. In that period of life, generally fpeaking, we eat at a certain hour, take exercife at a ^certain hour, go to reft at a certain hour, all by the direftion of Habit; nay, a particular feat, table, bed, comes to be efien- tial ; and a habit in any of thefe cannot be controuled without uneafinefs. Any flight or moderate pleafure, frequently reite¬ rated for a long time, forms a peculiar connexion be¬ tween us and the thing that caufes the pleafure. This connexion, termed habit, has the effeft to awaken our .7' E 24 1 c u s defire or appetite for that thing when it returns not Cuftom and as ufual. . During the courfe of enjoyment, the plea- Habit, fure rifes infenfibly higher and higher till a habit be i-«— eftablilhed; at which time the pleafure is at its height* It continues not, however, ftationary: the fame cu- ftomary reiteration which carried it to its height, brings it down again by infenfible degrees, even lower than it was at firft; but of that*circumftance after¬ wards. What at prefent we have in view, is to prove by experiments, that thofe things which at firft are but^ moderately agreeable, are the apteft to become habitual. Spirituous liquors, at firft.fcarce agreeable, readily produce a habitual appetite ; and cuftom pre¬ vails fo far, as even to make us fond of things origi¬ nally difagreeable, fuch as coffee, affafoetida, *and to¬ bacco. A walk upon the quarter-deck, though intolerably confined, becomes however fo agreeable by cuftom, that a failor in his walk on ftiore confines himfelf com¬ monly within the fame bounds. The author knew a man who had relinquiftied the fea for a country life ; in the corner of his garden he reared an artificial mount with a level fummit, refembling moft accurately a quarter-deck, not only in Ihape, but in fize ; and here he generally walked. In Minorca, Governor Kane made an excellent road the whole length of the ifland : and yet the inhabitants adhere to the old road, though not only longer, but extremely bad. Play or gaming, at firft barely amufing, by the occupation it affords, becomes in time extremely agreeable ; and is frequently profecuted with avidity, as if it were the chief bufinefs of life. The fame obfervation is appli¬ cable to the pleafures of the internal fenfes, thofe of knowledge and virtue in particular : children have fcarce any fenfe of thefe pleafures ; and men very little who are in the ftate of nature without culture : our tafte for virtue and knowledge improves flowly : but is capable of growing ftronger than any other appetite in human nature. lo introduce an aftive habit, frequency of afts is not fufficient without length of time : the quickeft fuc- ceffion of afts in a fhort time is not fufficient; nor a flow fucceffion in the longeft time, The effeft muft be produced by a moderate foft aftion, and a long fe- ries of eafy touches, removed from each other by ffiort intervals. Nor are thefe fuflicient without regularity in the time, place, and other circumftances of the ac¬ tion ; the more uniform any operation is, the fooner it becomes habitual. And this holds equally in a paf- five habit; variety, in any remarkable degree, prevents the effeft ; thus any particular food will fcarce ever become habitual where the manner of dreffing is va¬ ried. The circumftances then requifite to augment a moderate pleafure, and at the long-run to form a ha¬ bit, are weak uniform afts, reiterated during a long courfe of time, without any confiderable interruption: every agreeable caufe that operates in this manner will grow habitual. fljfeBion and averfion, as diftinguiffied from paflion on the one hand, and on the other from original difpo- fition, are in reality habits refpefting particular ob- jefts, acquired in the manner above fet forth. The pleafure of focial intercourfe with any perfon muft: originally be faint, and frequently reiterated, in order to eftablifh the habit of affeftion. Affeftion thus ge¬ nerated. C U S r 25 ] c u s r.erated, whether it be friendfhip or love, feldom fwell aTid Habit, into any tumultuous or vigorous paffion 5 but it is how- ever the flrongeft cement that can bind together two individuals of the human fpecies. In like manner, a flight degree of difguft often reiterated with regularity, grows into the habit of averfion, which commonly fub- fifts for life. Objects of tafte that are delicious, far from tending to become habitual, are apt by indulgence to produce fatiety and difgufl : no man contrafts a habit of ufing fugar, honey, or fweetmeats, as he does tobacco. Thefe violent delights have violent ends, And in their triumphs die. The fweetefl: honey Is loathfome in its own delicioufnefs, And in the tafte confounds the appetite j Therefore love mod’rately, long love doth foj Too fvvift arrives as tardy as too flow. Romeo and Juliet, A£i ii. fc. 6. The fame obfefvation holds with refpedt to all objedfs which being extremely agreeable raife violent paflions : fuch paffions are incompatible with a habit of any kind : and in particular they never produce affeftion or aver- flon : a man who at firft fight falls violently in love, has a ftrong defire of enjoyment, but no affedlion for the woman (a) : a man who is furprifed with an un- expefled favour, burns for an opportunity to exert his gratitude, without having any affe&ion for his bene¬ factor : neither does defire of vengeance for an atroci¬ ous injury involve averfion. It is perhaps not eafy to fay why moderate plea- fures gather ftrength by cuftom : but two caufes con¬ cur to prevent that effeCt in the more intenfe plea* fares. Thefe, by an original law in our nature, in- creafe quickly to their full growth, and decay with no lefs precipitation : and cuftom is too flow in its ope¬ ration to overcome that law. The other caufe is not lefs powerful: exquifite pleafure is extremely fatiguing j occafioning, as a naturalift would fay, great expence of animal fpirits ; and of fuch the mind cannot bear fo frequent gratification, as to fuperinduce a habit: if the thing that raifes the pleafure return before the mind Vol. VII. Part I. have recovered its tone and relifli, difguft enfues inftead Ccftom of pleafure. and A habit never fails to admonilh us of the wonted 'v—•“* time of gratification, by raifing a pain for want of the objeCl, and a defire to have it. The pain of want is always firft felt ; the defire naturally follows ; and upon prefenting the object, both vanifti inftantaneoufly. Thus a man accuftomed to tobacco, feels, at the end of the utual interval, a confufed pain of want j which at firft points at nothing in particular, though it foon fettles upon its accuftomed objeft : and the fame may be obferved in perfons addi£ted to drinking, who are often in an uneafy reftlefs ftate before they think of the bottle. In pleafures indulged regularly, and at equal intervals, the appetite, remarkably obfequious to cuftom, returns regularly with the ufual time of gra¬ tification •, not fooner, even though the objeCl be pre- fented. This pain of want artfing from habit, feems direClly oppofite to that of fatiety ; and it muft appear fingular, that frequency of gratification fhould pro¬ duce effeCls fo oppofite, as are the pains of txcefs and of want. The appetites that refpeft the prefervation and pro¬ pagation of our fpecies, are attended with a pain of want fimilar to that occafioned by habit ; hunger and thirft are uneafy fenfations of want, which always pre¬ cede the defire of eating or drinking; and a pain for want of carnal enjoyment precedes the defire of an ob¬ ject. The pain being thus felt independent of an ob¬ ject, cannot be cured but by gratification. Very dif¬ ferent is an ordinary paffion, in which defire precedes the pain of want : fuch a paffion cannot exift but while the objedft is in view : and therefore, by removing the objedt out of thought, it vaniffieth with its dtfire and pain of want. The natural appetites above-mentioned, differ from habit in the following particular : they have an unde¬ termined diredlion toward all objedls of gratification in general ; whereas an habitual appetite is diredled to a particular objedt : the attachment we have by ha¬ bit to a particular woman, differs widely from the na¬ tural paffion which comprehends the whole fex j and D the (a) Violent love, without affedlion, is finely exemplified in the following ftory. When Conftantinople was taken by the Turks, Irene, a young Greek of an illuftrious family, fell into the hands of Mahomet II. who was at that time in the prime of youth and glory. His favage heart being fubdued by her charms, he fhut him- felf up with her, denying accefs even to his minifters. Love obtained fuch afcendant as to make him frequent¬ ly abandon the army, and fly to his Irene. War relaxed, for vidlory was no longer the monarch’s favourite paffion. The foldiers, accuftomed to booty, began to murmur, and the infedlion fpread even among the com¬ manders. The Baffia Muftapha, confulting the fidelity he owed his mafter, was the firft who durft acquaint him of the difcourfes held publicly to the prejudice of his glory. The fultan, after a gloomy filence, formed his refolution. He ordered Muftapha to affemble the troops next morning j and then with precipitation retired to Irene’s apartment. Never before did that princefs appear fo charming j never before did the prince beftow fo many warm careffes. To give a new luftre to her beauty, he exhorted her women next morning to beftow their utmoft art and care on her drefs. He took her by the hand, led her into the middle of the army, and pulling off her veil demanded of the baflias with a fierce look, whether they had ever beheld fuch a beauty ? After an awful paufe, Mahomet with one hand laying hold of the young Greek by her beautiful locks, and with the other pulling out his fcimitar, fevered the head from the body at one ftrnke. Then turning to his grandees, with eyes wild and furious, “ This fword (fays he), when it is my will, knows to cut the bands of love.” However ftrange it may appear, we leatn from experience, that defire of enjoyment may confift with the moft brutal averfion, directed both to the fame woman. Of this tve have a noted example in the firft book *jf Sully’s Memoirs } to which we refer the reader. c u s Cuftom the habitual relilh for a particular dilh, is far from be- and Hab't^ jng fame wJth a vague appetite for food. That W~vr"",; difference notwithftanding, it is ftill remarkable, that nature hath enforced the gratification of certain natu¬ ral appetites eflential to the fpecies, by a pain of the fame fort with that which habit produceth. i. he pain of habit is lefs under our power than any other pain that arifes from want of gratification: hunger and third: are more eafiiy endured, efpecially at firif, than an unufual intermiflion of any habitual pleafure : perfons are often heard declaring, they would forego deep or food, rather than tobacco. We muft not, however, conclude, that the gratification of an habi¬ tual appetite affords the fame delight with the gratifi¬ cation of one that is natural : far from it j the pain of want only is greater. The flow and reiterated a&s that produce a habit, ftrengthen the mind to enjoy the habitual pleafure in greater quantity and more frequency than originally j and by that means a habit of intemperate gratification is often formed : after unbounded afts of intemperance, the habitual relifli is foon reftored, and the pain for want of enjoyment returns with freffi vigour. The caufes of the prefent emotions hitherto in view, are either an individual, fiich as a companion, a cer¬ tain dwelling place, a certain amufement j. or a par¬ ticular fpecies, fueb as coffee, mutton, or any other food. But habit is not confined to fuch. A conftant train of trifling diverfions may form fuch a habit in the mind, that it cannot be eafy a moment without amufement : a variety in the objects prevents a habit as to any one in particular : but as the train is uniform with refpeft to araufement, the habit is formed aecord- ingly y and that fort of habit may be denominated a generic habit, in oppofition to the former, which is a fpecific habit. A habit of a town life, of country-fports, of folitude, of reading, or of bufinefs, where fufficient- ly varied, are inftances of generic habits. Every fpe- cific habit hath a mixture of the generic; for the ha¬ bit of any one fort of food makes the tafte agreeable, and we are fond of that tafle wherever found. Thus a man deprived of an habitual objedl, takes up with what moft refembles it; deprived of tobacco, any bit¬ ter herb will do rather than want; a habit of punch makes wine a good refource : accuftomed to the fweet fociety and comforts of matrimony, the man unhap¬ pily deprived of his beloved objeft, inclines the foon- er to a fecond. In general, when we are deprived of a habitual objeft, we are fond of its qualities in any other objedl. The reafons are affigned above, why the caufes of intenfe pleafure become not readily habitual : but now we difcover, that tbefe reafons conclude only againft fpecifie habits. In the cafe of a weak pleafure, a ha¬ bit is formed by frequency and uniformity of reitera¬ tion, which, in the cafe of an intenfe pleafure, pro¬ duceth fatiety and difguff. But it is remarkable, that fatiety and difguft have no effedt, except as to that thing fingly which occafions them ; a forfeit of honey produceth not a loathing of fugar ; and intemperance with one woman produceth no difrelilh of the fame pleafure with others. Hence it is eafy to account for a generic habit in any intenfe pleafure; the delight we had in the gratification of the appetite, .inflames the imagination, and makes us fearch, with aviditv, s whatever other objedl it Cuftom And thus uniform frequency in grati- and Habit, fying the fame paflion upon different objedts, produ- ceth at length a generic habit. In this manner one acquires an habitual delight in high and poignant fau¬ ces, rich drefs, fine equipages, crowds of company, and in whatever is commonly termed pleafure. There con¬ curs, at the fame time, to introduce this habit, a pe¬ culiarity obferved above, that reiteration of adls en¬ larges the capacity of the mind to admit a more plen¬ tiful gratification than originally, with regard to fre¬ quency, as well as quantity. Hence it appears, that though a fpecific habit can¬ not be formed but upon a moderate pleafure, a gene¬ ric habit may be formed upon any fort of pleafure, moderate or immoderate, that hath variety of obje'dls. The only difference is, that a weak pleafure runs na¬ turally into a fpecific habit ; whereas an intenfe plea¬ fure is altogether averfe to fuch a habit. In a word, it is only in Angular cafes that a moderate pleafure produces a generic habit : but an intenfe pleafure can¬ not produce any other habit. The appetites that refpedt the prefervation and pro¬ pagation of the fpecies, are formed into habit in a pe¬ culiar manner ; the time as well as meafure of their gratification is much under the power of cuflom; which, introducing a change upon the body, occafions a proportional change in the appetites. Thus, if the body be gradually formed to a certain quantity of food at ftated times, the appetite is regulated accordingly ; and the appetite is again changed, when a different habit of body is introduced by a different practice. Here it would feem, that the change is not made upon the mind, which is commonly the cafe in paflive ha¬ bits, but upon the body. When rich food is brought down by ingredients of a plainer tafte, the compofition is fufceptible of a fpe¬ cific habit. I hus the fweet tafte of iugar, rendered lefs poignant in a mixture, may, in courfe of time, produce a fpecific habit for fuch mixture. As mode¬ rate pleafures, by becoming more intenfe, tend to ge¬ neric habits ; fo intenfe pleafures, by becoming more moderate, tend to fpecifie habits. The beauty of the human figure, by a fpecial re¬ commendation of nature, appears to us fupreme, amid the great variety of beauteous forms beflowed upon animals. The various degrees in vrhich individuals enjoy that property, render it an objed fometimes of a moderate, fumetimes of an intenfe, paflion. The moderate paflion, admitting frequent reiteration with¬ out diminution, and occupying the mind without ex- haufting it, turns gradually ftronger till it become a habit. Nay, inftances are not wanting, of a face at firft difagrtcable, afterwards rendered indifferent by familiarity, and at length agreeable by cuftom. On the other hand, confummate beauty, at the very firft glance, fills the mind fo as to admit no increafe. En¬ joyment leffens the pleafure; and if often repeated, ends commonly in fatiety and difguff. The impref- fions made by confummate beauty, in a gradual fuc- ceffnm from lively to faint, conilitute a feries oppofite to that of faint impreflions waxing gradually more lively, till they produce a fpecific habit. But the mind when aecuflomed to beauty contrafls a relifli tor it in general, though often repelled from particular objeds by 26 ] c u for the fame gratification in can be found. C U S [ 4Jiiftom by tbe pain of fatiety ; and thus a generic habit is Sind Habit formed, of which inconilancy in love is the neceffary « confequence ; for a generic habit, comprehending every beautiful objeft, is an invincible obftrudtion to a fpeci- fic habit, which is confined to one. But a matter which is of great importance to the youth of both fexe.s, deferves more than a curfory view. Though the pleafant emotion of beauty differs widely from the corporeal appetite, yet when both are dire£ted to the fame objefi, they produce a very flrong complex paffion ; enjoyment in that cafe tnuft be exquifite ; and therefore more apt to produce fa¬ tiety than in any other cafe whatever. This is a ne¬ ver-failing effi £!, where confummate beauty in the one party, meets with a warm imagination and great fenfibility in the other. What we are here explaining, is true without exaggeration j and they muff be infen- iible upon whom it makes no impreffion : il deferves well to be pondered by the young and the amorous, who, in forming the matrimonial fociety, are too often blindly impelled by the animal pleafure merely, in¬ flamed by beauty. It may indeed happen, after the pleafure is gone, and go it muff with a fwift pace, that a new connexion is formed upon more dignified and more lading principles : but this is a dangerous experiment j for even fuppofing good fenfe, good tem¬ per, and internal merit of every fort, yet a new con¬ nexion upon fuch qualifications is rarely formed : it commonly, or rather always happens, that fuch qualifi¬ cations, the only folid foundation of an indiffoluble con¬ nexion, are rendered altogether invifible by fatiety of enjoyment creating difguft. One effeff of cuftom, different from any that have been explained, muff not be omitted, becaufe it makes a great figure in human nature : though cuftom aug¬ ments moderate pleafures, and leffens thofe that are intenfe, it has a different effed with refpeft to pain j for it blunts the edge of every fort of pain and diftrefs, faint or acute. Uninterrupted mifery, therefore, is at¬ tended with one good effedl: if its torments be incef- fant, cuftom hardens us to bear them. The changes made in forming habits are curious. Moderate pleafures are augmented gradually by reite¬ ration, till they become habitual ; and then are at their height : but they are not long ftationary : for from that point they gradually decay, till they vanifh altogether. The pain occafioned by want of gratifica¬ tion runs a different courfe : it increafes uniformly j and at laft becomes extreme, when the pleafure of gra¬ tification is reduced to nothing. It fo falls out, That what we have we prize not to the worth, While we enjoy it ; but being lack’d and loft, Why then we rack the value $ then we find The virtue that poffeffion would not {how us Whilft it was ours. Much ado about Nothing, A61 iv. fc. 2. The effect of cuftom with relation to a fpecific habit is difplayed through all its varieties in the ufe of to¬ bacco. The tafte of that plant is at firft extremely unpleafant : our difguft lelfens gradually till it vanifh altogether ; at which period the tafte is neither agree¬ able nor difagreeable : continuing the ufe of the plant, we begin to relifh it j and our relifh improves by ufe, 27 ] c u s till it arrive at perfection : from that period it gtadu- Cuftom ally decays, while the habit is in a ftate of increment, and Habit, and confequently the pain of want. The refult is, that 'v l"‘‘_ when the habit has acquired its greateft vigour, the relifh is gone ; and accordingly we often fmoke and take fnuff habitually, without fo much as being con- fcious of the operation. We muff expeCl gratification after the pain of want ; the pleafure of which gratifi¬ cation is the greateft when the habit is the moft: vi¬ gorous : it is of the fame kind with the pleafure one feels upon being delivered from the rack. This plea¬ fure, however, is but occafionally the efftCl of habit j and. however exquifite, is avoided as much as poffible becaufe of the pain that precedes it. With regard to the pain of want, we can difcover no difterence between a generic and fpecific habit; but thefe habits differ widely with refpeft to the pofi- tive pleafure. We have had occafion to obferve, that the pleafure of a fpecific habit decay- gradually till it turn imperceptible : the pleafure of a generic habit, on the contrary, being fupported by variety of gratifi¬ cation, fuffers little or no decay after it comes to its height. However it may be with other generic ha¬ bits, the obfervation certainly holds with refpedf to the p’eafures of virtue and knowledge : the pleafure of doing good has an unbounded fcope, and may be fo varioufly gratified that it can never decay : fcience is equally unbounded •, our appetite for knowledge ha¬ ving an ample range of gratification, where difcoveries are recommended by novelty, by variety, by utility, or by all of them. In this intricate inquiry, we have endeavoured, but without fuccefs, to difcover by what particular means it is that cuftom hath an influence upon us : and now nothing feems left, but to hold our nature to be fo fra¬ med as to be fufeeptible of fuch influence. And fup¬ pofing it purpofely fo framed, it will not be difficult to find out feveral important final caufes. That the power of cuftom is a happy contrivance for our good, cannot have efcaped any one who rtflefts, that bufinefs is our province, and pleafure our relaxation only. Now fa¬ tiety is neceflary to check exquifite pleafures, which otherwife would engrofs the mind, and unqualify us for bufinefs. On the other hand, as bufinefs is fome- times painful, and is never pleafant beyond modera¬ tion, the habitual increafe of moderate pleafure, and the converfion of pain into pleafure, are admirably contrived for difappointing the malice of fortune, and for reconciling us to whatever courfe of life may be our lot : How ufe doth breed a habit in a man ! This fhadowy defert, unfrequented woods, I better brook than flourilhing peopled towns. Here I can fit alone, unfeen of any, And to the nightingale’s complaining notes Tune my diftrefles, and record my woes. Two Gentlemen of Verona, Atl v. fc. 4. As the foregoing diftinflions between intenfe and moderate, hold in pleafure only, every degree of pain being foftened by time, cuftom is a catholicon for pain and diftrefs of every fort •, and of that regulation the final caufe requires no illuftration. Another final caufe of cuftom will be highly reliflied by every perfon of humanity, and yet has in a great D 2 jneafure C U S [28 uliom meafure been overlooked j which is, that cuflotn hath Habit, a greater influence than any other known caufe, to “v put the rich and the poor upon a level ; weak plea- fure-, the ihare of the latter, become fortunately fllonger by cultom ; while voluptuous pleafures, the fhare of the former, are continually L.fing ground by fatiety. Men of fortune, who poffefs palaces, fump- tuous gardens, rich lields, enjoy them lefs than paflen- gers do. '1 he goods of Fortune are not unequally diftnbuted •, the opulent poffefs what others enjoy. And indeed, if it be the effect of habit, to produce the pain of want in a high degree while there is little pleaiure in enjoyment, a voluptuous life is of all the lead: to be envied. Thole who are habituated to high feeding, eafy vehicles, rich furniture, a crowd of va- let^, much deference and flattery, enjoy but a fmall fhare of happinefs, while they are expofed to mani¬ fold diltreffes. i o fuch a man, enflaved by eafe and luxury, even the petty inconveniences in travelling, of a rough road, bad weather, or homely fare, are feri- ous t vils : he lofes his tone of mind, turns peevifli, and would wreak his refentment even upon the common accidents of life. Better far to ufe the goods of For¬ tune with moderation : a man who by temperance and activity hath acquired a hardy coniiitution, is, on the one hand, guarded againft external accidents ; and, on the other, is provided with great variety of enjoy¬ ment ever at command. We (hall clofe this branch of the fubjedf with an article more delicate than abftrufe, viz. what authority cuftom ought to have over our tafte in. the fine arts. One particular is certain, that we cheerfully abandon to the authority of cuitom things that nature hath left indifferent. It is cuftom, not nature, that hath efta- blillied a difference between the right hand and the left, fo as to make it awkward and difagreeable to ufe the left where the right is commonly ufed. The va¬ rious colours, though they affefl us differently, are all of them agreeable in their purity : but cullom has regulated that matter in another manner ; a black fkin upon a human being, is to us difagreeable j and a white fkin probably not lefs fo to a negro. Thus things, originally indifferent, become agreeable or dif¬ agreeable by the force of cuftom. Nor will this be furprifing after the difcovery made above, that the original agreeablenefs or difagreeablenefs of an objeft is, by the influence of cullom, often converted into the oppofite quality. Proceeding to matters of tafte, where there is natu¬ rally a preference of one thing before another ; it is certain, in the firft place, that our faint and more de¬ licate feelings are readily fufceptible of a bias from cuftom ; and therefore that it is no proof of a defec¬ tive tafte, to find thefe in fome meafure influenced by cuftom j drefs and the modes of external behavi¬ our are regulated by cuftom in every country ; the deep red or vermilion with which the ladies in France cover their cheeks, app*ars to them beautiful in fpite of nature*, and ftrangers cannot altogether be jufii- fied in condemning that practice, confidering the law¬ ful authority of cuftom, or of the fafhion, as it is call¬ ed : it is told of the people who inhabit the fkirts of the Alps facing the north, that the fuelling they uni- verlallv have in the neck is to them agreeable. So fer has tuftoxn power to change the nature of things, ? ■ ] CVS and to make an object originally difagreeable take on Cuftom an oppofite appearance. and Habit. But as to every particular that can be denominated v 1 proper or improper, right or wrong, cuftom has little authority, and ought to have none. I he principle of duty takes naturally place of every other ; and it ar¬ gues a fliameful weaknefs or degeneracy of mind, to find it in any cafe fo far fubdued as to fubmit to cuf¬ tom. II. KffcBs of Cuftom and Habit in the Animal Econo* my. Thefe may be reduced to five heads : i. On the Ample folids. 2. On the organs of fenfe. 3. On the moving power. 4. On the whole nervous power. 5. On the fyftem of blood veffels. 1. Ejfeffs on the Simple Solids. Cuftom determines- the degree of flexibility of which they are capable. By frequently repeated flexion, the feveral particles of which thefe folids confift are rendered more fupple and moveable on each other. A piece of catgut, e. g. when on the ftretch, and having a weight appended to its middle^ will be bended thereby perhaps half an inch ; afterwards, by frequent repetitions of the fame weight, or by increafing the weight, the flexibility will be rendered double. The degree of flexibility has a great effedt in determining the degree of ofcillation, provided that elafticity is not affefted 5 if it go beyond this, it produces flaccidity. Again, cuftom determines the degree of tenfion j for the fame elaftic chord that now ofcillates in a certain degree of tenfion, will, by frequent repetition of thefe ofcillations, be fo far re¬ laxed, that the extenfion muft be renewed in order to- produce the fame tenfion, and conlequently the fame vibrations, as at firft. This appears in many inftances in the animal economy, as when different mufcles con¬ cur to give a fixed point or tenfion to each other $ and thus a weakly child totters as it walks j but by giving it a weight to carry, and by thus increafing the tenfion of the fyftem, it walks more fteadily. In like manner, the fullnefs of the fyftem gives ftrength, by diftending the veffels every where, and fo giving ten¬ fion : hence a man, by good nourilhment, from being weak, acquires a great increafe of ftrenglh in a few days : and, on the other hand, evacuations weaken by taking off the tenfion. 2. EjfeRs on the Organs of Senfe. Repetition gives a greater degree of fenfibility, in fo far only as it ren¬ ders perception more accurate. Repetition alone gives lafting impreflion, and thus lays the foundation of me¬ mory ; for fingle impreflions are but retained for a ftiort time, and are foon forgot. Thus a perfon, who at prefent has little knowledge of cloths, will by fre¬ quently handling them, acquire a fkill of difeerning them, which to others feems almoft impoflible. Many are apt to miftake this for a nicer fenfibility, but they are much miftaken ; for it is an univerfal law, that the repetition of impreflion renders us lefs acute. This is well illuflrated by the operation of medicines *, for all medicines which a6I on the organs of fenfe mull, after fome time, be increafed in their dofe to produce the fame effefts as at firft. T his affords a rule in pratlice with regard to thefe medicines j. it becoming neceflary, after a certain time, to change one medicine even for a weaker of the fame nature. T hus medicines which even have no. great apparent force, are found, by long ufe, to dellroy the.fenfibility of the fyftem to otkes- C U S [ Cuftom other impreflions. But to this general rule, that, by and Habit, repetition, the force of impreflions is more and more » diminifhed, there are fome exceptions. I hus perfons, by a ftrong emetic, have had their ftomacbs rendered fo irritable, that one-twentieth of the firft dofe was fuf- ficient to produce the fame effe.61. This, however, oft- ener takes place when the vomit is repeated every day ; for if the fame vomit be given at pretty confidcrable intervals, the general rule is obferved to hold good. Thus two contrary effe£ls of habit are to be noted ; and it is proper to obferve, that the greater irritability is more readily produced when the firfl impreflion is great, as in the cafe firlt given of the ftrong emetic. This may be further illuftrated by the effeft of fear, which is commonly obferved to be diminiftied on repe¬ tition *, which can only be attributed to cuftom ; while, on the other hand, there are inftances of perfons, who, having once got a great fright, have for ever after continued {laves to fears excited by impreflions of the like kind, however flight •, which muft be imputed en¬ tirely to excels of the firft impreflion, as has been al¬ ready obferved. To this head alfo belongs the aflb- ciation of ideas, which is the foundation of memory and all our intelleftual faculties, and is entirely the effect of cuftom : with regard to the body alfo, thefe affociations often take place. And fometimes, in pro¬ ducing effe&s on the body, affociations feemingly op- pofite are formed, which, through cuftom, become ab- folutely neceffary; e. g. a perfon long accuftomed to fleep in the neighbourhood of a great noife, is fo far from being incommoded on that account, that after¬ wards fuch noife becomes neceffary to produce fleep. It will be of ufe to attend to this in medical pradlice ; for we ought to allow for, however oppofite it may feem at the time, whatever ufually attended the pur- pofe we defign to effeft. Thus, in the inftance of fleep, we muft not exclude noife when we want to pro¬ cure reft, or any caufe which may feem oppofite to fuch an effeft, provided cuftom has rendered them ne¬ ceffary. 3. KffeEis on the Moving Fibres. A certain degree of tenfion is neceffary to motion, which is to be deter¬ mined by cuftom ; e. g. a fencer, accuftomed to one foil, cannot have the fame fteadinefs or a&ivity with one heavier or lighter. It is neceflary alfo that every motion {hould be performed in the fame fituation, or pofture of the body, as the perfon has been accuftomed to employ in that motion. Thus, in any chirurgical operation, a certain pofture is recommended ; but if the operator has been accuftomed to another, fuch a one, however awkward, becomes neceffary afterwards to his right performance of that operation. Cuftom alfo determines the degree of ofcillation of which the moving fibres are capable. A perfon accuf¬ tomed to ftrong mufcular exertions is quite incapable of the more delicate. Thus writing is performed by fmall mufcular contraflions ; but if a perfon has been accuf¬ tomed to ftronger motions with thefe mufcles, he will write with much lefs fteadinefs. This fubjeft of tenfion, formerly attributed to the fimplefibres, is probably more ftri&ly applicable to the moving : for befides a tenfion from flexion, there is alfo a tenfion from irritation and fympathy *, e. g. the tenfion of the ftomach from food, gives tenfion to the whole body. Wioe and fpivituous liquors give tenfion; I 29 ] c. u s e. g. a perfon that is fo affe&ed with tremor as fcarcely — - r - Cuftom to hold a glafs of any of thefe liquors to his head, has and Habit; no fooner fwallowed it, than his whole body becomes ‘ v fteady •, and after the fyftem has been accuftomed to fuch ftimuli, if they are not applied at the ufual time, the whole body becomes flaccid, and of confequence un- fteady in its motions. Again, cuftom gives facility of motion. This feems to proceed from the diftenfion which the nervous power gives to the moving fibres themfelves. But in whatever manner it is occafioned, the effect is obvious j for any new or unufual motion is performed with great' difficulty. It is fuppofed that fenfation depends on a communi¬ cation with the fenforium commune, by means of or¬ gans fufficiently diftended with nervous influence. We have found, that fenfibility is diminiftied by repetition. And we have now to obferve, that in lome cafes it may be increafed by repetition, owing to the nervous power itfelf flowing more eafily into the part on account of cuftom. Attention to a particular objeft may alfo de¬ termine a greater influx into any particular part, and thus the fenfibility and irritability of that particular part may be increafed. But with regard to facility of motion, the nervous power, no doubt, flows moft eafily into thofe parts to which it has been accuftomed: yet facility of motion does not entirely depend on this, but in part alfo on the concurrence of the aftion of a great many mufcles j e. g. Winflow has obferved, that in performing any motion, a number of mufcles concur to give a fixed point to thofe intended chiefly to a6f, as well as to others that are to vary and modify their a£tion. This, however, is aflifted by repetition and the freer influx j as by experience we know the proper attitude for giv¬ ing a fixed point in order to perform any adion with facility and fleadinefs. Cuftom gives a fpontaneous motion alfo, which feems to recur at ftated periods, even when the exciting caufes are removed. Thus, if the ftomach has been accuf¬ tomed to vomit from a particular medicine, it will re¬ quire a much fmaller dofe than at firft, nay, even the very fight or remembrance of it will be fufficient to produce the effed : and there are not wanting inftances of habitual vomiting, from the injudicious adminiftra- tion of emetics. It is on this account that all fpafmodic affedions fo eafily become habitual, and are fo difficult of cure ; as we muft not only avoid all the exciting caufes, even in the fmalleft degree, but alfo their affo¬ ciations. Cuftom alfo gives ftrength of motion $ ftrength de¬ pends on ftrong ofcillations, a free and copious influx of the nervous power, and on denfe folids. But in what manner all thefe circumftances have been brought about by repetition, has been already explained. I he effed of cuftom in producing ftrength, may be thus illuftra¬ ted : a man that begins with lifting a calf, by continu¬ ing the fame pradice every day, will be able to lift it • when grown to the. full fize of a bull. All this is of confiderable importance in the pradice of phyfic, though but too little regarded ; for the re¬ covery of weak people, in a great meafure, depends on the ufe of exercife fuited to their ftrength, or rather within it, frequently repeated and gradually increafed. Farther, it is neceffary to obferve, that cuftom re.gu- latfig 3 c u s Cuftom lates tlie particular celerity with which each motion is ?mi Habit t() be performed : for a perfon accullomed, for a con- ^ fiderable time to one degree of celerity, becomes inca¬ pable^ of a greater j e. g. a man accuftomed to flow walking will be out of breath before he can run 20 paces. Phe train or order in which our motions are to be performed is alfo eftabliflred by cuftom ; for if a man hath repeated motions, for a certain time, in any particular order, he cannot afterwards perform them in any other. Cuftom alfo very frequently aflociates motions and fenfations j thus, if a perfon has been in ufe of aflbeiating certain ideas with the ordinary fti- mulus which in health excites urine, without thefe ideas the ufual inclination will fcarce excite that ex¬ cretion ; and, when thefe occur, will require it even in the abfence of the primary exciting caufe: e. g. it is very ordinary for a perfon to make urine when go¬ ing to bed; and if he has been for any length of time accuftomed to do fo, he will ever afterwards make urine at that time, though otherwife he would often have no fuch inclination : by this means fome fecre- tions become in a manner fubjed to the will. The fame may be faid of going to ftool j and this affords us a good rule in the cafe of coftivenefs j for by en¬ deavouring to fix a ftated time for this evacuation, it will afterwards, at fuch a time, more readily return. It is farther remarkable, that motions are infeparably af- fociated with other motions ; this, perhaps, very often proceeds from the neceflary degree of tenfion 5 but it alfo often depends merely on cuftom, an inftance of ■which we have in the uniform motions of our eyes. 4. EJfeSis on the whole Nervous Power. We have found, that, by cuftom, the nervous influence may be determined more eafily into one part than another 5 and therefore, as all the parts of the fyftem are ftrong- ly conneded, the fenfibility, irritability, and ftrength of any particular part may be thus increafed. Cu¬ ftom alio has the power of altering the natural tem¬ perament, and of inducing a new one. It is alfo in the power of cuftom to render motions periodical, and periodically fpontaneous. An inftance of this we have in fleep, which is commonly faid to be owing to the nervous power being exhaufted, the neceflary confe- quence of which is fleep, e. g. a reft of the voluntary motions to favour the recruit of that power ; but if this were the cafe, the return of fleep fliould be at dif¬ ferent times, according as the caufes which diminifh the nervous influence operate more or lefs powerfully ; whereas the cafe is quite otherwife, thefe returns of fleep being quite regular. This is no lefs remarkable in the appetites, that return at particular periods, in¬ dependent of every caufe but cuftom. Hunger, e. g. is an extremely uneafy fenfation j but goes off of it- felf, if the perfon did not take food at the ufual time. .I he excretions are farther proofs of this, e. g. going to ftool, which, if it depended on any particular irri¬ tation, fliould be at longer or ftiorter intervals, accord¬ ing to the nature of the aliment. There are many other inftances of this difpofition of the nervous influ¬ ence to periodical motions, as the ftory of the idiot of Stafford, recorded by Dr Plot (Spectator, N° 447.), who, being accuftomed to tell the hours of the church clock as it ftruck, told them as exa&ly when it did not ftrike by its being out of order. Montaigne tells us of fome oxen that were employed in a machine for 4/ / f 3° ] c u s drawing water, who, after making 300 turns, which Cuftom was the ufual number, could be ftimulated by no whip and Habit, or goad to proceed farther. Infants alfo cry for and *—v~->- exped the breaft at thofe times in which the nurfe has been accuftomed to give it. Hence it would appear, that the human economy is fubjed to periodical revolutions, and that thefe hap¬ pen not oftener may be imputed to variety j and this feems to be the reafon why they happen oftener in the body than mind, becaufe that is fubjed to greater va¬ riety. We fee frequent inftances of this in diitales, and in their crifes ; intermitting fevers, epilepfies, afth- mas, &c. are examples of periodical affedions $ and that critical days are not fo ftrongly marked in this country as in Greece, and fome others, may be im¬ puted to the variety and inftability of our climate ; but perhaps ftill more to the lefs fenfibility and irritability of our fyftem j for the exhibition of medicine has little effed in difturbing the crifes, though it be commonly afligned as a caufe. We are likewife fubjed to many habits independent of ourfelves, as from the revolutions of the celeftial bodies, particularly the fun, which determines the bo¬ dy, perhaps, to other daily revolutions befides fleeping and waking. There are alfo certain habits depeading on the feafons. Our connedions, likewife, with re- fped to mankind, are means of inducing habits. Thus regularity from affociating in bufinefs induces regular habits both of mind and body. There are many difeafes which, though they arofe at firft from particular caufes, at laft continue merely through cuftom or habit. Thefe are chiefly of the nervous fyftem. We ftrould therefore ftudy to coun- terad fuch habits •, and accordingly Hippocrates, among other things for the cure of epilepfy, orders an entire change of the manner of life. We likewife imitate this in the chincough ; which often refifts all remedies, till the air, diet, and ordinary train of life, are changed. 5. EffeBs on the B/ood-ve/Jels. From what has been faid on the nervous power, the diftribution of the fluids muft neceffarily be varioufly affeded by cuftom, and with that the diftribution of the different excretions 5 for though we make an eftimate of the proportion of the excretions to one another, according to the climate and feafons, they muft certainly be very much varied by cuftom. On this head we may obferve, that blood letting has a manifeft tendency to increafe the quantity of the blood ; and if this evacuation be repeated at ftated times, fuch fymptoms of repletion, and fuch motions, are excited at the returning periods, as render the ope¬ ration neceflary. I he fame has been obferved in fome fpontaneous hemorrhagies. Thefe, indeed, at firft, may have fome exciting caufes, but afterwards they feem to depend chiefly on cuftom. The beft proof of this is with regard to the menftrual evacuation. There is certainly fomething originally in females, that deter¬ mines that evacuation to the monthly periods. Con- ftant repetition of this comes to fix it, independent of ftrong caufes, either favouring or preventing repletion ; e. g. blood-letting will not impede it, nor filling the body induce it : and, indeed, fo much is this evacua¬ tion connefted with periodical motions, that it is little in our power to produce any effeft by medicines but . at G U S Cuftom thofe particular times. Thus if we would relax the and Habit, uterine fyftem, and bring back this evacuation when Cuftoms. fuppreflfed, our attempts would be vain and fruitlefs, v unlefs given at that time when the menfes (hould have naturally returned. CUSTOMS, in political economy, or the duties, toll, tribute, or tariff, payable to the king upon merchandife exported and imported, form a branch of the perpetual taxes. See Tax. The confiderations upon which this revenue (or the more ancient part of it, which arofe only from exports) was inverted in the king, were faid to be two: I. Be- caufe he gave the fubjedt leave to depart the kingdom, and to carry his goods along with him. 2. Becaufe the king was bound of common right to maintain and keep up the port and havens, and to protedl the merchant from nirates. Some have imagined they are called with us cujioms, becaufe they were the inheritance of the king by immemorial ufage and the common law, and not granted him by any ftatute : but Sir Edward Coke hath clearly fhown, that the king’s firft claim to them was by grant of parliament 3 Edw. I. though the re¬ cord thereof is not now extant. And indeed this is in exprefs words conffffed by ftatute 25 Edw. I. c. 7. wherein the king promifes to take no cuftoms from merchants, without the common affent of the realm, “ faving to us and our heirs the cuftoms on wool, fkins, and leather, formerly granted to us by the commonalty aforefaid.” Thefe were formerly called hereditary cuftoms of the crown $ and were due on the exportation only of the faid three commodities, and of none other : which were ftyled the Jlaple commodi¬ ties of the kingdom, becaufe they were obliged to be brought to thofe ports where the king’s ftaple was eftablilhed, in order to be there firft rated, and then exported. They were denominated in the barbarous Latin of our ancient records, cuftuma (an appellation which feems to be derived from the French word cou- Jlum or coutum, which fignifies toll or tribute, and owes its own etymology to the word couji, which fig¬ nifies price, charge, or, as we have adopted it in Eng- lifti, cofl) ; not confuetudines, which is the language of our law whenever it means merely ufages. The du¬ ties on wool, theep-lkins or woolfells, and leather ex¬ ported, were called cujluma antiqua Jive magna, and were payable by every merchant, as well native as. ftranger : with this difference, that merchant-ftran- gers paid an additional toll, viz. half as much again as was paid by natives. The cuftuma parva et nova were an impoft of 3d. in the pound, due from merchant- ftrangers only, for all commodities as well imported as exported ; which was ufually called the aliens duty, and was firft granted in 31 Edw. I. But thefe ancient hereditary cuftoms, efpecially thofe on wool and wool- fells, came to be of little account, when the nation be¬ came fenfible of the advantages of a home manufacture, and prohibited the exportation of wool by ftatute 11 Edw. III. c. I. Other cuftoms payable upon exports and imports were diftinguilhed into fubfidies, tonnage, poundage, and other imports. Subfidies were fuch as were im- pofed bv parliament upon any of the ftaple commodi¬ ties before mentioned, over and above the cujluma antiqua et magna: tonnage was a duty upon all wines imported, over and above the prifage and butlerage c u s aforefaid : poundage was a duty impofed ad valorem, Cuftotns. at the rate of I2d. in the pound, on all other merchan- dife whatfoever : and the other imports were fuch as were occafionally laid on by parliament, as circum- ftances and times required. Thefe diftinClions are now in a manner forgotten, except by the officers immediate¬ ly concerned in this department j their produce being in effeCl all blended together, under the one denomina¬ tion of the cujioms. By thefe we underftand, at prefent, a duty or fub- fidy paid by the merchants at the quay upon all ported as well as exported commodities, by authority of parliament; unlefs where, for particular national reafons, certain rewards, bounties or drawbacks, are allowed for particular exports or imports. The cuf¬ toms thus impofed by parliament are chiefly contain¬ ed in two books of rates, fet forth by parliamentary authority ; one figned by Sir Harbottle Grimefton, fpeaker of the houfe of commons in Charles ll.’s time ; and the other an additional one, figned by Sir Spencer Compton, fpeaker in the reign of George I. to which alfo fubfequent additions have been made. Aliens pay a larger proportion than natural fubjeCts, which is what is now generally underftood by the aliens duty; to be exempted from which is one principal caufe of the frequent applications to parliament for afts of naturalization. Thefe cuftoms are then, we fee, a tax immediate¬ ly paid by the merchant, although ultimately by the confumer. And yet thefe are the duties felt leaft by the people: and if prudently managed, the people hardly confider that they pay them at all. For the merchant is eafy, being fenfible he does not pay them for himfelf; and the confumer, who really pays them, confounds them with the price of the commodity ; in the fame manner as Tacitus obferves, that the em¬ peror Nero gained the reputation of abolifhing the tax of the fale of flaves, though he only transferred it from the buyer to the feller : fo that it was, as he ex- preffes it, remijfum magis fpecie, quam vi: quia cutn venditor pendere juberetur, in partem pretii emptoribus accrefcebat. But this inconvenience attends it on the other hand, that thefe imports, if too heavy, are a check and cramp upon trade ; and efpecially when the value of the commodity bears little or no proportion to the quantity of the duty impofed. This in confe- quence gives rife alfo to Smuggling, which then be¬ comes a very lucrative employment: and it* natural and moft reafonable puniffiment, viz. confifcation of the commodity, is in fuch cafes quite ineffectual ; the intrinfic value of the goods, which is all that the fmuggler has paid, and therefore all that he can lofe, being very inconfiderable when compared with his profpeCt of advantage in evading the duty. Recourfe muft therefore be had to extraordinary puniffiments to prevent it ; perhaps even to capital ones : which deftroys all proportion of punilhment, and puts murderers upon an equal footing with fuch as are really guilty of no natural, but merely a pofitive of¬ fence. There is alfo another ill confequence attending high imports on merchandife, not frequently confidered, but ind.fputably certain ; that the earlier any tax is laid on a commodity, the heavier it falls upon the confumer in the end j for every trader, through whofe [ 31 ] CUT [ 32 ] CUT Cuftoms whofe hands it pafles, muft have a profit, not only up- may not come too fuddenly to the breadth of the thin II on the^raw materials and his own labour and time in which would retard it, -C 'U' _ preparing it, but alfo upon the very tax itfelf, which CUTANEOUS, in general, an appellation given be advances to the government j otherwife he lofes the to whatever belongs to the cutis or fkin. Thus, we fay, ufe and intereft of the money which he fo advances. cutaneous eruptions : the itch is a cutaneous difeafe* To inftance in the article for foreign paper. The CUTH, or Cuthah, in Ancient Geography, a pro- merchant pays a duty upon importation, which he does vince of AlTyria, which, as fome lay, lies up'm the A« tiot receive again till he fells the commodity, perhaps raxes, and is the fame with Culh j but others take it at the end ot three months. He is therefore equally to be the fame with the country which the Greeks call entitled to a profit upon that duty which he pays at the Sufiana, and which to this very day, fays Dr Wells is cuftomhoufe, as to a profit upon the original price by the inhabitants called Chufeflan* F. Calmet is* of which he pays to the manufacturer abroad j and con- opinion that Cuthah and Scythia are the fame place, fiders it accordingly in the price he demands of the and that the Cuthites who were removed into Samaria ftationer. When the ftationer fells it again, he re- by Salmanefer (2 Kings xvii. 24.) came from Culh, or quires a profit of the printer or bookfeller upon the Cuth, mentioned in Gen. ii. 23. See the article Cush* whole fum advanced by him to the merchants : and The Cuthites worlhipped the idol Nergal, Id. ibid. 30. the bookfeller does not fail to charge the full propor- Thefe people were tranfplanted into Samaria in the tion to the fludent or ultimate confumer ; who there- room of the Iraelites, who before inhabited it. Calmet fore does not only pay the original duty, but the pro- is of opinion, they came from the land of Culh, or fits of thefe three intermediate traders who have fuc- Cuthah, upon the Araxes ; and that their firft fettle- celfively advanced it for him. This might be carried ment was in the cities of the Medes, fubdued by Sal- much farther in any mechanical, or more complicated, manefer and the kings of Aflyria his predecefibrs. The branch of trade. Scripture obferves, that the Cuthites, upon their ar- CUSTOM-Houfe, an office eftablilhed by the king’s rival in this new country, continued to worlhip the authority in the maritime cities, or port towns, for the gods formerly adored by them beyond the Euphrates, receipt and management of the cuftoms and duties of Efarhaddon king of Aflyria, who fucceeded Senache- importation and exportation, impofed on merchandifes, rib, appointed an Ifraelitilh priefl to go thither, and in- and regulated by books of rates. ftruft them in the religion of the Hebrews. But thele GUSTOS BREVIUM, the principal clerk belonging people thought they might reconcile their old fuper- to the court of common pleas, whofe bufinefs it is to fiition with the worffiip of the true God. They there- receive and keep all the writs made returnable in that fore framed particular gods for themfelves, which they court, filing every return by itfelf; and, at the end of placed in the feveral cities where they dwelt. The each term, to receive of the prothonotaries all the re- Cuthites then worffiipped both the Lord and their falfe cords of the nifi prius, called the pojleas. gods together, and chofe the lowefl of the people to CUSTOS-Rotulorum, an officer who has the cuftom of make priefts of them in the high places; and they tbe rolls and records of the feffion of peace, and alfo of continued this pratflice for a long time. But after- the commiffion of the peace itfelf. Wards they forfook the worffiip of idols, and adhered He ufually is fome perfon of quality, and always a only to the law of Mofes, as the Samaritans, who are 'juflice of the peace, of the quorum, in the county where defcended from the Cuthites, do at this day. he is appointed. ■ > CUTICLE, the Scarf Skin. See Anatomy/«**> Custos Spintuahum, he that -exercifes the fpirituai CU IICULAR, the fame with Cutaneous. jurifdiaion of a diocefe, during the vacancy of any fee, CUTIS, the Skin. See Anatomy Index. which by the canon law, belongs to the dean and chap- CUTTER, a fmall velfel, commonly navigated m ter ; but at prefent, in England, to the archbiffiop of the channel of England. It is furniffied with one mad the province by prefcription. and rigged as a floop. Many of thefe veffiels are ufed’ Custos Temporohum, was the perfon to whom a va- in an illicit trade, and others are employed by govern- cant fee or abbey was given by the king, as fupreme ment to take them ; the latter of which are either un- lord. His office was, as Reward of the goods and pro- der the dire6tion of the admiralty or cuftom-houfe. See fits, to give an account to the efcheator, who did the a reprefentation of a cutter of this fort in the plate re¬ like to the exchequer. ferred to in the article Vessel. CUI'-FEATHER, in the lea-language. If a (hip has Cutter, is alfo a fmall boat ufed by (hips of war. too broad a bow, it is common to fay, Jhe will not cut CUTTER of the Tallies, an officer of the exchequer a feather} that is, ffie will not pafs through the Water whofe bufinefs is to provide wood for the tallies, to cut fo ^V|ft as to make it foam or froth, or notch the fum paid upon them ; and then to call them LUT-Furfe, in Law ; it any perfon clam et fecrete, into court, to be written upon. See Tally. and without the knowledge of another, cut his purfe or CUTTING, a term ufed in various fenfes and va- pick his pocket, and fteal from thence above the value rious arts; in the general it implies a divifion or fepa- «f twelve pence, it is felony excluded clergy. ration. r CuT-purfes, or faccularii, were more feverely puniffi- Cutting is particularly ufed in heraldry where the ed than common thieves by the Roman and Athenian ffiield is divided into two equal parts, from right to left, * r , , , - parallel to the horizon, or in the feffe-way. CUT-Water, the ffiarp part of the head of a (hip be- The word is alfo applied to the honourable ordina- low the beak. It is lo called, becaufe it cuts or di- nes, and even to animals and moveables whentheyare rides the water before it comes to the bow, that it divided equally the fame way ; fo, however, as that one Ctt Cutting. ; CUT [ 33 ] CUT Oittlng. one moiety Is colour, the other metal. The ordinaries “—v""~* are faid to be cut, couped, when they do not come full to the extremities of the thield. Cutting, in Surgery, denotes the operation of ex- tradting the Hone out of the bladder by fe&ion. See Lithotomy, Surgery Index. Cutting, in coinage. When the laminae or plates of the metal, be it gold, filver, or copper, are brought to the thicknefs of the fpecies to be coined, pieces are cut out, of the thicknefs, and nearly of the weight, of the intended coin j which are now called planchets, till the king’s image hath been ftamped on them. The in- ftaument wherewith they cut, confifts of trvo pieces of fieel, very (harp, and placed over one another j the lower a little hollow, reprefenting a mortar, the other a pelile. The metal put between the two, is cut out in the manner defcribed under Coinage. Note. Medallions, where the relievo is to be great, are not cut, but caft or moulded. Cutting, in the manege, is when the horfe’s feet interfere ; or when with the Ihoe of one foot he beats off the Ikin from the paltern joint of another foot. This is more frequent in the hind feet than the fore : the caufes are either wearinefs, weaknefs in the reins, not knowing how to go, or ill (hoeing. Cutting, in painting, the laying one ftrong lively colour over another, without any (hade or foltening. The cutting of colours has always a difagreeable tfferi. CUTTING in wood, a particular kind of fculpture or engraving j denominated from the matter wherein it is employed. It is ufed for various purpofes \ as for figured letters 5 head and tail pieces of books j and even for fchemes and other figures, to fave the expences of engraving on copper ; and the prints and llamps for paper, callieoes, linens, &c. The invention of cutting in wood, as well as that in copper, is afcribed to a goldfmith of Florence ; but it is to Albert Durer and Lucas they are both in¬ debted for their perfeftion. See Engraving and Printing. One Hugo de Carpi invented a manner of cutting in wood, by means whereof the prints appeared as if painted in clair-obfcure. In order to this, he made three kinds of damps for the fame defign } which were drawn one after another through the prefs for the fame print ; they were fo conduced, as that one ferved for the grand lights, a fecond for the demi- teints, and a third for the outlines and the deep Ihadows. The art of cutting in wood was certainly carried to a very great pitch above two hundred years ago j and might even vie, for beauty and juftnefs, with that of engraving in copper. At prefent it is in a low con¬ dition, as having been long negleried, and the appli¬ cation of artifts wholly employed on copper, as the more eafy and promifing province ; not but that wood¬ en cuts have the advantage of thofe in copper on many accounts *, chiefly for figures and devices in books ; as being printed at the fame time and in the fame prefs as the letters ; whereas for the other there is required a particular impreffion. In the reprefentation of plants and flowers, and in defigns for paper-hangings, where $he outline only is wanted to be printed in *a bold VOL. VII. Part I. full manner, this method will be found cheaper and Cutting', more effectual than the ufe of copperplates. 1 The cutters in wood begin with preparing a plank or block of the fize and thicknefs required, and very even and fmooth on the fide to be cut : for this, they ufually take beech, pear-tree, or box ; though the lat¬ ter is the beft, as being the clufeft, and leaft liable to be worm-eaten. The wood being cut into a proper form and fize, (hould be planed as even and truly as poffible : it is then fit to receive the drawing or chalk¬ ing of the defign to be engraved. But the effe6l may¬ be made more apparent, and the ink, if any be ufed in drawing, be prevented from running, by fpreading thinly on the furface of the wood white lead tempered with water, by grinding with a brulh pencil, and after¬ wards rubbing it well with a fine linen rag whilft it is wet : and when it is dry, bruflring off any loofe or powdery part with a foft pencil. On this block they draw their defign with a pen or pencil, juft as they would have it printed. Thofe who cannot draw their own defign, as there are many who cannot, make ufe of a defign furniftred them by another ; faftening it upon the block with pafte made of flour and water, with a little vinegar or gum tragacanth j the ftrokes or lines turned towards the wood. When the paper is dry, they wafti it gently over with a fponge dipped in water 5 which done, they take off the paper by little and little, ftill rubbing it a little firft with the tip of the finger j till at length there be nothing left on the block but the ftrokes of ink that form the defign, which mark out fo much of the block as is to be fpared or left ftanding. Figures are fometimes cut out of prints, by taking away all the white part or blank paper, and cemented with gum- water to the furface of the wood. The reft they cut off, and take away very curioufly with the points of very (harp knives, or little chifels or gravers, according to the bignefs or delicacy of the Work : for they need no other inftruments. It differs from engraving in copper, becaufe in the former the impreffion comes from the prominent parts or ftrokes left uncut $ whereas in the latter, it comes from the channels cut in the metal. The manner of printing with wooden prints is much more expeditious and eafy than that of copper-plate : becaufe they require only to be dipt in the printing- ink, and imprefled on the objeft in the fame manner and with the fame apparatus as the letter-printing is managed : and for purpofes that do not require great correrinefs, the impreflion is made by the hand 6nly, a proper handle being fixed to the middle of the print, by which it is firft: dipped in the ink, fpread by means of a bruftr on a block of proportionable fize covered with leather ; and then lifted up inftantly, and dropped with fome little force on the paper which is to receive the impreffion. Moft of our readers are probably not ignorant that the art of engraving on wood has been revived of late years, and has been carried to great perfeftion by Meffrs Bewick of Newcaftle, and other ingenious artifts. Of this number we may mention Meffrs Nef- bit and Anderfon of London. The Natural Hiftory of Quadrupeds, in one volume 8vo, and the Natural E Hiftorv CUT [ 34 ] C Y A Cutting Hiftory of Britifli Birds, in two volumes, publifhed I! with engravings cut in wood by Meffrs Bewick, are t'uUs' , excellent fpecimensof the degree of perfeflion at which '* "" this art has arrived. Cuttings, or flips, in Gardenings the branches or fprigs of trees or plants, cut or flipped off to fet again $ which is done in any moift fine earth. I he beft feafon is from Auguft to April j but care is to be taken, when it is done, the fap be not too much in the top, left the cut die before that part in the earth have root enough to fupport it : nor yet muft it be too dry or fcanty 5 the fap in the branches aflifting it to take root. In providing the cuttings, fuch branches as have joints, knots, or burrs, are to be cut off two or three inches beneath them, and the leaves to be ftripped off fo far as they are fet in the earth. Small top branches, of two or three years growth, are fitteft for this opera¬ tion. CUT1 LE-fish. See Sepia. The bone of the cuttle-fifti is hard on one fide, but foft and yielding on the other; fo as readily to receive pretty neat impref- fions from medals, &c. and afterwards to ferve as a mould for carting metals, which thus takes the figure ©f the. original 5 the bone is likewife frequently em¬ ployed for cleaning or polifliing filver. This fifli con¬ tains in a certain diftintt veffel a fluid as black as ink \ which it is faid to emit when purfued, and thus to conceal itfelf by difcolouring the water. The parti¬ cular qualities of this liquor are not yet determined. Dr Leigh fays, he faw a letter which had been written with it ten years before, and which ftijl continued. Some report that the ancients made their ink from it; and others, that it is the bafts of China or Indian ink •, but both thefe accounts appear to have little founda¬ tion. Pliny, fpeaking of the inks made ufe of in his time, after obferving that the cuttle-fifti is in this re- fpeft of a wonderful nature, adds exprefsly, that ink was not made, from it. CUTTS, John Lord, a foldier of moft hardy bravery in King William’s wars, was fon of Richard Cults, Efq. of Matching in Effex ; where the family were fettled about the time of Henry VI. and had a great eftate. He entered early into the fervice of the duke of Monmouth, was aid-de-camp to the duke of Lorrain in Hungary, and fignalized himfelf in a very extraordinary manner at the taking of Buda by the Imperialifts in 1686 j which important place had been for near a century and a half in the hands of the Turks. Mr Addifon, in a Latin poem, worthy of the Auguftan age, plainly hints at Mr Cutts’s diftinguifli- ed bravery at that fiege. Returning to England at the revolution, he had a regiment of foot; was creat¬ ed baron of Gowran in Ireland, Dec. 6. 1690 ; ap¬ pointed governor of the ifle of Wight, April 14. 1693 ; was made a major-general 5 and when the affaflina- tion project was difcovered, in 1695-6, was captain of the king’s guard. In 1698 he was complimented by Mr John Hopkins, as one to whom “ a double crown ■was due,” as a hero and a poet. He was colonel of the Coldftream, or fecond regiment of guards, in 1701 j when Mr Steele, who was indebted to his intereft for a military commiflion, infcribed to him his firft work “ The Chriftjan Hero.” On the acceflion of Queen Anne, he was made a lieutenant-general of the forces • ' ' 7 in Holland ; commander in chief of the forces in Ire- cutts land, under the duke of Ormond, March 23. 1704-5 j |j and afterwards one of the lords juftices of that king- Cyaxares. dom, to keep him out of the way of aftion j a circum- ftance which broke his heart. He died at Dublin, Jan. 26. 1706-7, and is buried there in the cathedral of Chrift church. He wrote a poem on the death of Queen Mary ; and publiftied, in 1687, “ Poetical Ex- ercifes, written upon feveral occafions, and dedicated to her Royal highnefs Mary princefs of Orange.” It contains, befides the dedication figned J. Cutts, verfes to that princefs j a poem on Wifdom ; another to Mr Waller on his recommending it j feven more copies of verfes (one of them called La Mufe Cava/ier, which had been afcribed to Lord Peterborough, and as fuch men¬ tioned by Mr Walpole in the lift of that nobleman’s writings), and 11 fongs $ the whole compofing but a very thin volume 3 which is by no means fo fcarce as Mr Walpole fuppofes it to be. A fpecimen of his poetry (of which the five firft lines are quoted by Steele in his fifth Taller) is here added : Only tell her that I love, Leave the reft to her and fate 5 Some kind planet from above May perhaps her pity move 3 Lovers on their ftars muft wait 5 Only tell her that I love. Why, oh, why fliould I defpair ? Mercy’s pidtur’d in her eye 3 If fhe once vouchfafe to hear, Welcome hope, and welcome fear. She’s too good to let me die 3 Why, oh, why Ihould 1 defpair ? CUVETTE, or Cunette, in Fortification, is a ditch within a ditch, being a pretty deep trench, about four fathoms broad, funk, and running along the middle of the great dry ditch, to hold water 3 ferving both to keep off the enemy, and prevent him from mining. CYANITE, a fpecies of mineral. See Minera¬ logy Index. CYATHUS, Kvctiof (from the verb to pour out), was a common meafure among the Greeks and Romans, both of the liquid and dry kind. It was equal to an ounce, or the twelfth part of a pint. The cyathus was made with a handle like our punch-ladle. The Roman topers ufed to drink as many cyathi as there were mufes, i. e. nine 3 alfo as many as there were letters in the patron’s name. Thus, they had modes of drinking fimilar to the modern health-drinking or toaft- ing. The cyathus of the Greeks weighed 10 drachms 3 but Galen fays that a cyathus contains 12 drachms of oil, 13 drachms and one foruple of wine, water, or vi¬ negar, and 18 drachms of honey 3 and he adds that among the Veterinarii the cyathus contained two ounces. CYAXARES, fon of Phraortes, was king of Me¬ dia and Perfia. He bravely defended his kingdom, which the Scythians had invaded. He. made war againft Alyattes king of Lydia 3 and fubjeiRed to his power all Afia beyond the river Halys. He died after a reign of 40 years, in the year of Rome 160. Cyaxares IF. is fuppofed by fome to be the fame as Darius the Mede. He was fon of Aftyages king of Media. He added feven provinces to his father’s dominions.,, CYC [ 35 1 CYC Cyaxares dominions, and made war againft the Affyrians, whom II Cyrus favoured. Cycas. CYBEBE, a name of Cybele, from wfafaiv, becaufe in the celebration of her feftivals men were driven to madnefs. CYBELE, in Pagan mythology, the daughter of Coelus and Terra, and wife of Saturn. She is fup- poi'ed to be the fame as Ceres, Rhea, Ops, Vefta, Bo¬ na Mater, Magna Mater, Berecynthia, Dindymene, &c. According to Diodorus, ihe was the daughter of a Lydian prince, and as foon as fhe was born Hie was expofed on a mountain. She was preferved by fucking fome of the wild beads of the foreft, and re¬ ceived the name of Cybele from the mountain where her life had been preferved. When Ihe returned to her father’s court, die had an intrigue with Atys, a beautiful youth, whom her father mutilated, &c. All the mythologifts are unanimous in mentioning the amours of Atys and Cybele. In Phrygia the fellivals of Cybele were obierved with the greated; folemnity. Her prieds, called Corybantes, Galli, &c. were not ad¬ mitted in the fervice of the goddefs without a previous mutilation. In the celebration of the fedivals, they imitated the manners of madmen, and filled the air with Ihrieks and bowlings mixed with the confufed noife of drums, tabrets, bucklers, and fpears. This was in com¬ memoration of the furrow of Cybele for the lofs of her favourite Atys. Cybele was generally reprefented as a robuft woman far advanced in her pregnancy, to intimate the fecundity of the earth. She held keys in her hand, and her head was crowned with rifing tur¬ rets, and fometimes with the leaves of an oak. She fometimes appears riding in a chariot drawn by two tame lions: Atys follows by her fide, carrying a ball in his hand, and fupporting himfelf upon a fir-tree which is facred to the goddefs. Sometimes fhe is re¬ prefented with a fceptre in her hand, with her head covered with a tower. She is alfo feen with many breads, to (how that the earth gives aliments to all li¬ ving creatures ; and fhe generally carries two lions un¬ der her arms. From Phrygia the worfhip of Cybele pafied into Greece, and was folemnly eftablifhed at Eleufis under the name of the Eleujinian myjleries of Ceres. The Romans, by order of the Sibylline books, brought the ftatue of the goddefs from Pefilnus into Italy ; and when the fhip which carried it had run on a fhallow bank of the Tiber, the virtue and innocence of Claudia were vindicated in removing it with her girdle. It is fuppofed that the myfteries of Cybele were firft known about 257 years before the Trojan war, or 1580 years before the Auguftan age. The Romans were particularly fuperflitious in wafhing every year, on the 6th of the kalends of April, the fhrine of this goddefs in the waters of the river Almon. There prevailed many obfcenities in the obfervation of the feflivals; and the priefts themfelves were the mod eager to ufe indecent expreffions, and to fhow their unbounded licentioufnefs by the impurity of their actions. CYBELLICUM MARMOR, a name given by the ancients to a fpecies of marble dug in a mountain of that name in Phrygia. It was of an extremely bright white, with broad veins of bluifh black. CYCAS, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order, Palnue. See Botany Index. This is a valuable tree to the inhabitants of India, as Cycas it not only furnifhes a confiderable part of their conitant 1! bread, but alfo fupplies them with a large article of Cyclades. trade. The pith confids of a farinaceous fubdance, * which is extracted from it and made into bread in this manner: they faw the body into fmall pieces, and after beating them in a mortar, pour water upon the mafs ; this is left for fome hours to fettle. When fit, it is drained through a cloth, and the finer particles of the mealy fubdance running through with the wa¬ ter, the grofs ones are left behind and thrown away. After the farinaceous part is fufficiently fubfided, the water is poured off, and the meal being properly dried, is occafionally made into cakes and baked. Thefe cakes are faid to eat nearly as well as wheaten bread, and are the fupport of the inhabitants for three or four months in the year. The fame meal more finely pulverized, and reduced into granules, is what is called /ago, which is fent into all parts of Europe, and fold in the (hops as a great drengthener and redorative. There is a fort of fago made in the Wed Indies, and fent to Europe in the fame manner as that from the Ead $ but the Wed India fago is far inferior in quality to the other. It is fuppofed to be made from the pith of the areca oleracea. See Areca. The brood boom (or bread-tree) of the Hotten¬ tots, a plant dilcovered by Profeffor Thunberg, is defcribed as a new fpecies of this genus, by the name of cycas Caffra, in the Nova Adla Reg. Soc. Scient. VpJ. vol. iii. p. 283. Table V. The pith, or medulla, which abounds in the trunk of this little palm, Mr Sparrman informs us, is colle&ed and tied up in drelfed calf or fheep-fkins, and then buried in the earth for the fpace of feveral weeks, till it becomes fufficiently mellow and tender to be kneaded up with water into a pade, of which they afterwards make fmall loaves or cakes, and bake them under the affies. Other Hot¬ tentots, not quite fo nice, nor endued with patience enough to wait this tedious method of preparing it, are faid to dry and road the pith or marrow, and after¬ wards make a kind of frumenty of it. CYCEON, from xoKxuy, “ to mix j” a name given by the ancient poets and phyficians to a mixture of meal and water, and fometimes of other ingredients. Thefe condituted the two kinds of cyceon j the coarfer being of water and meal alone; the richer and more delicate compofed of wine, honey, flour, water, and cheefe. Homer, in the nth Iliad, talks of cy¬ ceon made with cheefe and the meal of barley mixed with wine, but without any mention either of honey or water ; and Ovid, defending the draught of cyceon given by the old woman of Athens to Ceres, mentions only flower and water. Diofcorides underdood the word in both thefe fenfes ; but extolled it mod in the coarfe and fimple kind : he fays, when prepared with water alone, it refrigerates and nouriffies greatly. CYCINNIS, a Grecian dance, fo called from the name of its inventor, one of the fatyrs belonging to Bacchus. It confided of a combination of grave and gay movements. CYCLADES INSULAE : ifiands anciently fo called, as Pliny informs us, from the cyclus or orb in which they lie; beginning from the promontory Geraeftum of Euboea, and lying round the ifiand Delos, (Pliny). E 2 Where CYC t 3<5 ] C Y D Cyclades Where they are, and what their number, is hbt fo II generally agreed. Strabo fays, they were at firft Cycloid, reckoned 12, but that many others were added: yet moft of them lie to the fouth of Delos, and but few to the north ; fo that the middle or centre afcribed to Delos, is to be taken in a loofe, not a geometrical, lenfe. Strabo recites them after Artemidorus, as fol¬ lows : Helena, Ceos, Cynthus, Seriphus, Melus, Si- phus, Cimolus, Prepefinthus, Olearus, Naxus, Parus, Syrus, Myconus, Tenus, Andrus, Gyarus : but he excludes from the number Prepefinthus, Olearus, and Gyarus. CYCLAMEN, Sowbread 5 a genus of plants, belonging to the pentandria clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking under the 21ft order, Precis. See Botany Index. CYCLE, in Chronology, a certain period or feries of numbers, which regularly proceed from the firft to the laft, and then return again to the firft, and fo cir¬ culate perpetually. See CHRONOLOGY, N° 26. CYCLE of IndiRion, is a feries of 15 years, return¬ ing conftantly around, like the other cycles, and com¬ menced from the third year before Chrift 5 whence it happens, that if 3 be added to any given year of Chrift, and the fum be divided by 13, what remains is the year of the indidlion. CYCLE of IndiRton, a period of 15 years, in ufe a- mong the Romans. It has no connexion with the celeftial motion, but was inftituted, according to Ba¬ ronins, by Conftantine } who having reduced the time which the Romans were obliged to ferve to 13 years, he was confequently obliged every 13 years to impofe, or indicere according to the Latin expreflion, an extra¬ ordinary tax for the payment of thofe who were dif- charged $ and hence arofe this cycle, which, from the Latin word indicere, was ftyled indiRion. CYCLE of the Moon, called alfo the golden number, and the Metonic cycle, from its inventor Melon the Athenian, is a period of 19 years, which when they are completed, the new moons and full moons return on the fame days of the month, fo that on whatever days the new and full moons fall this year, 19 years hence they will happen on the very fame days of the month, though not at the fame hour, as Melon and the fathers of the primitive church thought j and therefore, at the time of the council of Nice, when the method of finding the time for obferving the feaft of Eafter was eftablifhed, the numbers of the lunar cycle were inferted in the kalendar, which, upon the ac¬ count of their excellent ufe, were fet in golden letters, and the year of the cycle called the golden number of that year. Cycle of the Sun, a revolution of 28 years, which being elapfed, the dominical or Sunday letters return to their former place, and proceed in the fame order as before, according to the Julian kalendar. CYCLISUS, in Surgery, an inftrument in the form of a half moon, ufed in fcraping the fkull, in cafe of fra&ures on that part. CYCLOID, a curve on which the do&rine of pen¬ dulums, and time-meafuring inftruments, in a great meafure depends, Mr Huygens demonftrated, that from whatever point or height, a heavy body, ofcillating on a fixed centre, begins to defcend, while it continues to move in a cycloid, the time of its falls or ofcillations will be equal to each other. It is likewife demonftra- ble, that it is the curve of quickeft defcent, i. e. a body falling in it from any given point above, to ano¬ ther not exaftly under it, will come to this point in a lefs time than in any other curve pafling through thofe two points. This curve is thus generated : fuppofe a wheel or circle to roll along a tiraight line till it has completed juft one revolution ; a nail or point in that part of the circumference of the circle, which at the beginning of the motion touches the ftraight line, will; at the end of the revolution, have defcribed a cycloid on a vertical plane. CYCLOPAEDIA, or Encyclopaedia, denotes the circle or compafs of arts and fciences. A cyclo¬ paedia, fay the authors of the French Encyclopedic, ought to explain as much as poflible the order and connexion ot human knowledge. See Encyclopae¬ dia. CYCLOPS, in fabulous hiftory, the funs of Nep¬ tune and Amphitrite ; the principal of whom were Brontes, Steropes, and Peracmon j but their whole number amounted to above a hundred. Jupiter threw them into Tartarus as foon as they were born ; but they were delivered at the interceflion of Tellus, and became the aftiftants of Vulcan. They were of pro¬ digious ftature, and had each only one eye, which was placed in the middle of their foreheads. Some mythologifts fay, that the Cyclops fignify the vapours raifed in the air, which occafion thunder and lightning : on which account they are reprefented as forging the thunderbolts of Jupiter. Others repre- lent them as the firft inhabitants of Sicily, who were cruel, of a gigantic form, and dwelt round Mount AEtna. CYCLOPTERUS, the Sucker, a genus of fiflies belonging to the order of amphibia nantes. See Ichv THYOLOGY Index. CYDER, or ClDER, an excellent drink made of the juice of apples, efpecially of the more curious ta¬ ble kinds j the juice of thefe being efteemed more cordial and pleafant than that of the wild or harfti kinds. In making this drink, it hath long been thought neceflary, in every part of England, to lay the harder cyder! fruits in heaps for fome time before breaking their pulps p but the Devonfhire people have much impro¬ ved this pradtice. In other countries the method is to make thefe heaps of apples in a houfe, or under fome covering inclofed on every fide. This method hath been found deftdtive, becaufe, by excluding the free air, the heat foon became too violent, and a great perfpiration enfued, by which in a ftiort time the lofs of juice was fo great, as to reduce the fruit to half their former weight, attended with a general rot- tennels, rancid fmell, and difagreeable tafte. In the South-hams, a middle way has been purfued, to avoid the inconveniences and lofs attending the above. They make their heaps of apples in an open part of an or¬ chard, where, by the means of a free air and lefs per¬ fpiration, the defired maturity is brought about, with an inconfiderable wafte of the juices and decay of the fruit entirely free of ranknefs ; and though fome ap¬ ples rot even in this manner, they are very few, and are ftill fit for ufe ; all continue plump and full of juices, and very much heighten the colour of cyders, without ill tafte or fmell. In C Y D [ 37 ] C Y D In purfuing the Devonfhire method it is to be ob- ' ferved, I. That all the promifcuous kinds of apples that have dropped from the trees, from time to time, are to be gathered up and laid in a heap by them- felves, and to be made into cyder after having fo lain about ten days. 2. Such apples as are gathered from the trees, having already acquired feme degree of ma¬ turity, are likewife to be laid in a heap by themfelves for about a fortnight. 3. The later hard fruit, which are to be left on the trees till the approach of froft is apprehended, are to be laid in a feparate heap, where they are to remain a month or fix weeks, by which, notwithftanding froft, rain, &c. their juices will re¬ ceive fuch a maturation, as will prepare them for a kindly fermentation, and which they could not have attained on the trees by means of the coldnefs of the feafon. It is obfervable, that the riper and mellower the fruits are at the time of collefling them into heaps, the fhorter fhould be their continuance there ; and on the contrary, the hardier, immaturer, and harder they are, the longer they fhould reft. Thefe heaps ftiould be made in an even and open part of an orchard, without any regard to covering from rain, dew, or what elfe may happen during the apples flaying there j and whether they be carried in and broke in wet or dry weather, the thing is all the fame. If it may be objected, that during their having lain together in the heap, they may have imbibed great humidity, as well from the air as from the ground, rain, dews, &c. which are mixed with their juices ; the anfwer is, this will have no other efiTed than a kindly diluting, na¬ tural to the fruit, by which means a fpeedier fermen¬ tation enfues, and all heterogeneous humid particles are thrown off. The apples are then ground, and the pummice is received in a large open-mouthed veffel, capable of containing as much thereof as is fufficient for one ma¬ king, or one cheefe. Though it has been a cuftom to let the pummice remain fome hours in the veffel appro¬ priated to contain it, yet this practice is by no means commendable 5 for if the fruits did not come ripe from the trees, or otherwife matured, the pummice remain¬ ing in the vat too long will acquire fuch ftiarpnefs and coarfenefs, from the {kins, as is never to be got rid of-, and if the pummice is of well ripened fruit, the con¬ tinuing too long there will occafion it to contra61 a fharpnefs that very often is followed with want of fpi- rit and pricking: nay, fometimes it even becomes vi¬ negar, or always continues of a wheyifh colour ; all which proceeds from the heat of fermentation that it almoft inftantly falls into on lying together j the pum- mice therefore ftiould remain no longer in the vat than until there may be enough broke from one prefting, or that all be made into cheefe, and preffed the fame day it is broken. See farther on this fubjeft Agri¬ culture Index. In Plate CLXVIII. is a perfpesftive view of the cy¬ der prefs and apple-mill. A, B, the bottom or lower- beam ; C, D, the upper beam 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, the rights ; 4, 4, e, e, fpurs ; Z, 2, 12, braces, or crofs- pieces; a, 6. capitals; X, blocks;^, the ferew; E, the back or receiver ; F, the cheefe or cake of pummice, placed on the ftage or bafon ; G, the ftage or bafon ; 10, 10, beams that fupport the pieces of which the bafon is compofed; 11, perpendicular pieces for fup- Cyder porting thefe beams ; H, the buckler ; R, S, Q, a cir- I! cular trough of the apple-mill; T, L, V, compart-, cy^on*a- ments or divifions, for difterent forts of apples; M, the mill-ftone ; L, M, axis of the mill-ftone; N, the fpring-tree bar. CTDEB-Sfiirit, a fpirituous liquor drawn from cyder by diftillation, in the fame manner as brandy from wine. The particular flavour of this fpirit is not the moft agreeable, but it may with care be divefted wholly of it, and rendered a perfe£lly pure and infipid fpirit upon redtification. The traders in fpirituous liquors are well enough acquainted with the value of fuch a fpirit as this : they can give it the flavour of fome other kinds, and fell it under their names, or mix it in large proportion with the foreign brandy, rum and ar¬ rack, in the fale, without any danger of a difeovery of the cheat. CTDER-Wine. See AGRICULTURE Index. CYDERKIN. See Agriculture Index. CYDIAS, a painter who made a painting of the Argonauts in the 11th Olympiad. This celebrated piece was bought by the orator Hortenfius for 164 talents. CYDNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Cili¬ cia ; rifing in Mount Taurus, to the north of Tarfus, through whofe middle it ran, in a very clear and cold ftream, which had almoft proved fatal to Alexander on bathing in it; falling into the fea at a place called Rhegma, a breach, the fea breaking in there, and af¬ fording the people of Tarfus a ftation or port for their fhips. The water of the Cydnus is commended by Strabo, as of fervice in nervous diforders and the gout. CYDON, in Ancient Geography, one of the three moft illuftrious cities of Crete, fituated in the north-weft of the ifland, with a locked port, or walled round. The eircumftances of the founding of Cydon are uncertain. Stephen of Byzantium fays, that it was at firft named Apollonia from Cydon the fon of Apol¬ lo. Paufanias aferibes the founding of it to Cydon the fon of Tegetus, who travelled into Crete. Hero¬ dotus affirms, that it was founded by- the Samians, and that its temples were erected by them. Alexander, in the firft book of the Cretans, informs us, that it received its name from Cydon the fon of Mercury. Cydon was the largeft city in the ifland ; and was enabled to hold the balance between her contending neighbours. She fuftained fome famous fieges. Pha- leucus, general of the Phocians, making an expedi¬ tion into Crete with a fleet and a numerous army, in- vefted Canea both by fea and land, but loft his army and his life before its walls. In fucceeding times when Metellus fubdued the ifland, he afiailed Cydon with all his forces ; and after combating an obftinate refiftance fubje&ed it to the power of Rome. Cydon occupied the prefent fituation of Canea ; only extend¬ ing half a league farther towards St OJero; where on the fta-ffiore the remains are ftill to be feen of fome an¬ cient walls which appear to have been of a very folid conftruftion. See Canea. CYDONIA, the Quince ; fo called from Cydon, a town of Crete, famous for its abounding with this fruit. Linnaeus has joined this genus to the apple and pear; but as there is fuch a remarkable difference be¬ tween C Y M [ 38 ] C Y N Cvdonia ' li Cymbal. tween the fruits, Mr Miller treats the quince as a genus by itfelf. The fpecies are, r. The oblonga, with an oblong fruit, lengthened at the bafe. 2. The mali- forma, with oval leaves, woolly on their upper fide, with fome other varieties. The Portugal quince is the mod; valuable : its pulp turns to a fine purple when dewed or baked, and becomes much fofter and lefs audere than the others ; fo is much fitter for making marmalade. The trees are all eafily propagated, ei¬ ther by layers, fuckers, or cuttings*, which mud be planted in a moid foil. Thofe raifed from fuckers are feldom fo well rooted as thofe which are obtained from cuttings or layers, and are fubjeft to produce fuckers again in greater plenty ; which is not fo proper for fruit-bearing trees. Thefe trees require very little pruning : the chief thing to be obferved is, to keep their dems clear from fuckers, and cut off fueh branches as crofs each other: likewife all upright luxuriant (hoots from the middle of the tree Ihould be taken off, that the head may not be too much crowded with wood, which is of ill confequence to all fruit-trees. Thefe forts .may alfo be propagated by budding or grafting upon docks raifed by cuttings 5 fo that the bed forts may be cultivated this way in greater plenty than by any other method. Thefe are alfo in great edeem to bud or graft pears upon $ which for dimmer or autumn fruits are a great improvement to them, efpeeially thofe defigned for walls and efpaliers; for the trees upon thefe docks do not (hoot fo vigoroufly as thofe upon free docks, and therefore may be kept in lefs compafs, and fooner produce fruit : but hard winter fruits do not fucceed fo well upon thefe dock?, their fruit being fubjeft to crack, and are commonly dony, efpecially all the breaking pears: therefore thefe docks are only fit for melting pears and a moid foil. CYGNUS,the Swan. See Anas, Ornithology Index. Cygnus, the Swan, in AJlronomij, a condellation of the northern hemifphere, between Lyra and Cepheus. The dars in the condellation Cygnus, in Ptolemy’s ca¬ talogue, are 19; in Tycho’s 18 j in Hevelius’s 475 in the Britannic catalogue 81. CYLINDER, in Geometry, a folid body fuppofed to be generated by the rotation of a parallelogram. Rolling or Loaded CTLJNDEB, a cylinder which rolls up an inclined plane ; the phenomena of which are explained under Mechanics. CYLINDROID, in Geometry, a folid body ap¬ proaching to the figure of a cylinder, but differing from it in fome refpeds, as having the bafes elliptical, but parallel and equal. CYL1NDRUS, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a genus of (hell-fifh, of which there are many elegant and precious fpecies. CYMA, in Botany, the tender dalks which herbs fend forth in the beginning of the fpring, particularly thofe of the cabbage kind. Cyma, or Cymatium, in ArchiteBure, a member or moulding of the corniche, the profile of which is waved, that is, concave at top, and convex at bottom. CYMBAL, a mufical indrument in ufe among the ancients. The cymbal was made of brafs, like our kettle-drums, and, as fome think, in their form, but fmaller, and of different ufe. Ovid gives cymbals 3 the epithet of gemalia, becaufe they were ufed at wed- Cymbal dings and other diverfions. Cadiodorus and Ifidore call this indrument acetabu- Cynsegirus. lum, the name of a cup or cavity of a bone wherein an- other is articulated ; and Xenophon compares it to a horfe’s hoof; whence it mud have been hollow ; which appears, too, from the figure of feveral other things de¬ nominated from it ; as a bafin, caldron, goblet, ca(k, and even a dfoe, fuch as thofe of Empedocles, which were of brafs. In reality, the ancient cymbals appear to have been very different from our kettle-drums, and their ufe of another kind : to their exterior cavity was fadened a handle ; whence Pliny compares them to the upper part of the thigh, and Rabanus to phials. They were druck againd one another in cadence, and made a very acute found. Their invention was attributed to Cybeie ; whence then ufe in leads and facrifices : fetting afide this occafion, they were feldom ufed but by diffolute and effeminate people. M. Lampe, who has written exprefsiy on the fubjedl, attributes the invention to the Curetes, or inhabitants of Mount Ida in Crete 5 it is certain thefe, as well as the Corybantes or guards of the kings of Crete, and thofe of Rb des and Samothraeia, were reputed to excel in the mufic of the cymbal. The Jews had their cymbals, or at lead indruments which tranllators render cymbals j but as to their mat¬ ter and form, critics are dill in the dark. The mo¬ dern cymbal is a mean indrument, chiefly in ufe among vagrants, gyplies, &c. It confifts of Heel wire in a triangular form, whereon are paffed five rings, which are touched and (hifted along the triangle with an iron rod held in the left hand, while it is fupported in the right by a ring, to give it the freer motion. Durandus fays, that the monks ufed the word cymbal for the cloif- ter bell, ufed to call them to the refedtory. CYME, in Ancient Geography, a city built by Pe- lops on his return from Greece. Cyme the Amazon gave it name, on expelling the inhabitants, according to Mela. Latin authors, as Nepos, Livy, Mela, Pliny, Tacitus, retain the appellation Cyme, after the Greek manner. It dood in YEolia, between Myrina and Phocaea, (Ptolemy) : and long after, in Peutinger’s map, is fet down nine miles didant from Myrina.— From this place was the Sibylla Cumaea, called Ery- thrcea, from Erythra, “ a neighbouring place.” It was the country of Ephorus. Heiiod was a Cumean origi¬ nally (Stephanus) j his father coming to fettle at Afcra in Boeotia. CYMENE, in Botany, a name given by the ancient Greeks to a plant with which they ufed to dye woollen duffs yellow, and with which the women of thofe times ufed alfo to tinge the hair yellow, which was then the favourite colour. The cymene of the Greeks is evi¬ dently the fame plant with the lutea herba of the La¬ tins j or what is now called dyers weed. See Reseda, Botany Index. CYNiEGIRUS, an Athenian, celebrated for his extraordinary courage. Fie was brother to the poet JEfchylus. After the battle of Marathon he purfued the flying Perfians to their (hips, and feized one of their veffels with his right hand, which was imme¬ diately fevered by the enemy. Upon this he feized the 7 C Y N [ 39 ] C Y N Cynscgirus the veflel with his left hand, and when he had loft that || alfo, he {li!l kept his hold with his teeth. Cynics. CYNANCHE, in Medicine, a difeafe, in which the w * ~ throat is inflamed and fvvelled to fuch a degree as fome- times to threaten fuft'ocation. See MEDICINE Index. CYNANCHUM, Bastard Dogsbane ; a genus of plants, belonging to the pentandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking under the 30th order, Con- tortce. See Botany Index. CYNARA, the Artichoke ; a genus of plants belonging to the fyngenefia clafs. See Botany Index. The varieties of the artichoke are propagated by flips or fuckers, arifing annually from the ftool or root of the old plants in fpring, which are to be taken from good plants of any prefent plantation in March or the beginning of April, and planted in the open quarter of the kitchen garden, in rows five feet afunder : and they will produce artichokes the fame year in autumn. It fhould, however, be remarked, that though artichokes are of many years duration, the an¬ nual produce of their fruit will gradually leflen in the fize of the eatable parts after the third or fourth year, fo that a freih plantation fliould be made every three or four years. The cardoon is a very hardy plant, and profpers in the open quarters of the kitchen garden. It is propagated by feed fown annually in the full ground in March ; either in a bed for tranfplantation, or in the place where they are defigned to remain. The plants are very large, fo muft ftand at confiderable diftances from one another. By this means you may have fome fmall temporary crops between the rows, as of lettuce, fpinach, endive, cabbage, favoy, or broco- li plants. In the latter end of September, or in Oc¬ tober, the cardoons will be grown very large, and their footftalks have acquired a thick fubftance ; you muft then tie up the leaves of each plant, to admit of earthing them clofely all round for blanching, which will take up fix or eight weeks; and thus the plants will come in for ufe in November and December, and continue all winter. CYNEUS, of Theffaly, the fcholar of Demofthenes, flouriftied 275 years before Chrift. Pyrrhus had fo high an efteem for him; that he lent him to Rome to folicit a peace ; and fo vaft was his memory, that the day after his arrival, he faluted all the fenators and knights by name. Pyrrhus and he wrote a Treatife of War, quoted by Tully. CYNICS, a fecvQ«<;, crooked; a kind of torture or punifhment in ufe among the an¬ cients. The learned are at a lofs to determine what it was. Some will have it to be that mentioned by Jerome in his Life of Paul the Hermit, chap. 2. which con- Med in fmearing the body over with honey, and thus expofing the perfon, with his hands tied, to the warm fun, to invite the flies and other vermin to perfecute him. CYFRALA, or Cowrie, a genus of fhells belong- Cyprasa ing to the order of vermes tellacea. See CoNCHOLOGY jj Index. Cypnanus, This genus is called cypreen and venerea from its being peculiarly dedicated to Venus, who is laid to have en¬ dowed a fhcli of this genus with the powers of a remora, fo as to impede the courfe of the fhip which was fent by Periander tyrant of Corinth, with orders to emaleulate the young nobility of Corcyra, CYPRESS. See Cupressus, Botany Index. CYPRIANUS, Thascius Caxilius, a principal father of the Chriftian church, was born at Carthage in Africa, at the latter end of the fecond 01 beginning of the third century. We know nothing more of his parents than that they were Heathens ; and he himfelf continued fuch till the laft 12 years of his life. He applied himfelf early to the ftudy of oratory ; and fome of the ancients, particularly La&antius, inform us, that he taught rhetoric in Carthage with the high- eft applaufe. Cyprian’s converiion is fixed by Pear- fon to the year 2465 and was at Carthage, where, as St Jerome obferves, he had often employed his rhe¬ toric in the defence of Paganifm. It was brought about by one Caecilius, a prieft of the church of Car¬ thage, whofe name Cyprian afterwards took ; and between whom there ever after fubfifted fo clofe a friendfiiip, that Caecilius at his death committed to Cy¬ prian the care of his family. Cyprian was alfo a married man himfelf 5 but as foon as he was convert¬ ed to the faith, he refolved upon a ftate of continence, which was thought a high degree of piety, as not be¬ ing yet become general. Being now a Chriftian, he was to give the ufual proof of the fincerity of his eon* verfion $ and that was by writing againft Paganifm and in defence of Chriftianity. With this view he compofed his piece De Gratia Dei, or “ concerning the grace of God,” which he addreffed to Donatus. It is a work of the fame nature with the Apologetic of Tertullian, and the Oftavius of Minutius Felix. He next compofed a piece De Idolorum Vanitatc, or “ up¬ on the vanity of idols.” Cyprian’s behaviour, both before and after his baptifm, was fo highly pleafing to the biftiop of Carthage, that he ordained him a prieft a few months after. It was rather irregular to ordain a man thus in his very noviciate ; but Cyprian w'as fo extraordinary a perfon, and thought capable of doing fuch Angular fervice to the church, that it ftemed allowable in this cafe to difpenfe a little with the form and difeipline of it. For befides his known talents as a fecular man, he had acquired a high re¬ putation of fandlity fince his converfion ; having not only feparated himfelf from his wife, as we have ob- ferved before, which in thofe days was thought an ex¬ traordinary adt of piety, but alfo configned over all his goods to the poor, and given himfelf up entirely to the things of God. It was on this account no doubt, too, that when the bilhop of Carthage died the year- after, that is, in the year 248, none was judged fo proper to fucceed him as Cyprian. The quiet and re- pofe which the Chriftians had enjoyed during the laft 40 years, had, it feems, greatly corrupted their man¬ ners ; and therefore Cyprian’s firft care, after his ad¬ vancement to the bilhopric, was to corredl diforders and reform abufes. Luxury was prevalent among them j and many of their women were not fo ftriiS a? 7 C Y P [ ©yprianus as ^iey Hiould be, efpecially in tlie article of drefs. U This occafioned him to draw up his piece De habitu Cyprus, virginum, “ concerning the drefs of young women j” * in which, befides what be fays on that particular head, he inculcates many leflhns of modefty and fo- briety. In the year 249, the emperor Decius be¬ gan to iflue out very fevere edicts againft the Chrifti- ans, which particularly affedted thofe upon the coalt ef Africa •, and in the beginning of 250, the Heathens in the circus and amphitheatre of Carthage, infilled loudly upon Cyprian’s being thrown to the lions : a common method of deftroying the primitive Chrifti- ans. Cyprian upon this withdrew from the church at Carthage, and fled into retirement, to avoid the fury ef the perfecutions. He wrote, in the place of his re¬ treat, pious and inftruflive letters to thofe who had been his hearers j and alfo to the hbellatici, a name by which thofe pufillanimous Chriftians were called, who procured certificates of the Heathen magiftrates, to (how that they had complied with the emperor’s or¬ ders in facrificing to idols. At his return to Carthage, he held feveral councils on the repentance of thofe who had fallen during this perfecution, and other points of difcipline \ he oppofed the fchemes of Novatus and Novatianus •, and contended for the rebaptizing of thofe w7ho had been baptized by heretics. At laid he died a martyr in the perfecution of Valerian and Gallienus, in 258. Cyprian wrote 81 letters, and feveral treatifes. The belt editions of his works are thofe of Pamelius in 1568 j of Rigaltius in 1648 ; and of Oxford in 1682. 'His works have all been tranflated into Englilh by Dr Marfhal. CYPRINUS, a genus of fifhes, belonging to the order of abdominales. See Ichthyology Index. CYPRIPEDIUM, the Lady’s Slipper ; a genus of plants belonging to the gynandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the 7th order, Orchidece. See Botany Index. CYPRUS, an ifiand fituated in the Levant, or mod eafterly part of the Mediterranean fea, between 33 and 36 degrees of eaft longitude, and 30 and 34 of north latitude. In ancient times this ifiand was known by the names of Acamis, Ceraftis, Afpalia, Amathus, Macaria, Cryptos, Colinia, Sphecia, Paphia, Salaminia, /Erofa, and Cyprus, The etymologies of thefe names are neither very eafily found, nor are they of much importance. The name by which it was mod gene¬ rally known is that of Cyprus, faid 10 be derived from cypros, the name of a dirub or tree with which the ifland abounds } fuppofed to be the cyprefs. Cyprus, according to Eratodhenes, was fird difco- vered by the Phoenicians, two or three generations be¬ fore the days of Aderius and Minos, kings of Crete ; that is, according to Sir Ifaac Newton’s computation, 2006 years before the Chriftian era. ItTvas at that time fo full of wood that it could not be tilled, and the Phoenicians fird cut down that wood for melting copper, with which the ifland abounded } and after¬ wards, when they began to fail without fear on the Mediterranean, that is, after the Trojan war, they built great navies of the wood produced on this ifland. Jo- fephus, however, informs us, that the defcendants of Cittim, the fon of Javan, and grandfon of Japhet, were the original inhabitants of Cyprus. According to his •account, Cittim, feeing his brother Tarfhifh fettled in Vcl. VII. Part I, 41 1 C Y P Cilicia, where he built the city of Tarfus, fettled with Cyimn, his followers in this oppofite ifland ; and either be or —— his defcendants laid the foundation of the city of Cittim, which according to Ptolemy, was the "mod ancient in the ifland. As Cyprus was too narrow to contain the great numbers who attended him, be left'here as mat y as might ferve to people the country, and with the reft paffed over to Macedon. The ifland of Cyprus was divided among feveral petty kings till the time of Cyrus the Grtat. He fub- dued them all j but left each in poff< flion of his kn g- dom, obliging them only to pay him an annual tribute* and to fend fupplies of men, money, and fliips when required. The Cyprian princes lived thus fubjeU to the Perfians till the reign of Darius Hyflafpes, when they attempted to (hake off the yoke, but with bad fuc- cefs ; their forces being entirely defeated, and them- lelves agam obliged to fubmit. They made another more fuccefsful attempt about the year before Chrid 357 } but, however, could never totally free them- felves from their fubjeiffion. It is very probable that they fubmitted to Alexander the Great, though hido- rians are filent as to that event. On the death of the Macedonian conqueror, the dominion of Cyprus was difputed by Antigonus and Ptolemy the fon of Lsgus. At lad Antigonus prevailed, and the whole ifland fub¬ mitted to him about 304 years before Chrifl. He and his fon Demetrius kept poffeffion of it for 11 years, when it was recovered by Ptolemy, and quietly pof- feffed by him and his defcendants till 38 years before Chrifl, when it was mdfl unjuflly feized by the Ro¬ mans. In the time of Augudus, it began to be rank¬ ed among the proconfular provinces, and to be govern¬ ed by magidrates fent thither by the fenate. In the year 648 it was conquered by the Saracens } but reco¬ vered by the Romans in 957. They held it, however, but for a very diort time, and the barbarian^ kept pof¬ feffion of it till the time of the croifades. It was then reduced by the croifaders *, and Richard I. of England gave it to the princes of the Lufignan family, who held it till the year 1370. They divided it into 12 provinces, in each of which was a capital city from which the province was denominated. So confider- able was the ifland at this time, that befides the cities above mentioned, and others of lefs note, it contained 800 villages. In 1570 it was taken by the Turks, and though it hath ever fince continued under their tyran¬ nical yoke, is (till To confiderable as to be governed by a beglerbeg, and feven fangiacs under him. The air in this ifland is for the moft part very un- wholefome, on account of the many fens and marflies with which the country abounds. The foil is an ex¬ cellent fertile clay 5 and would produce all the necef- faries of life in abundance, if properly cultivated. There are but few fprings or rivers in this ifland ; fo that when the rains do not fall plentifully at the ufual feafons, the inhabitants are much diftreffed by the fcarcity of water. By reafon of the uncultivated Hate of the country, they are alfo greatly infelled with poi- fonous reptiles of various kinds. The people are ex¬ tremely ignorant and lafcivious, as indeed they are re¬ marked to have been from the remoteft antiquity. An* ciently the worffiip of Venus was eftablifhed in this ifland, whence her title among the poets of the Cyprian queen; and fuch an inclination had the inhabitants to E become C Y R [ 42 ] € Y R Cyprus become t-Ke votaries of this goddefs, both in theory and A:- that the young women ufed to profiitute i.. J'rfc““'"a‘. themfelves in her temple in order to raife themfelves portions. Nor are their fucceflors faid to be much bet¬ ter at this day. The exports of the ifland are filks, oil, cotton, wine, fait, and turpentine : the imports are French and Venetian broad cloths 5 and fometimes a few bales of Englilb manufacture, cutlery wares, fu- gar, tin, lead, &c. Knights of CTPHUS, an order inftituted by Guy de Lufignan, titular king of Jerufalem, to whom Richard I. of England, after conquering this ifland, made over his right. C\ RAlNiO, Bergerac, a French author, born in Gaicony, about the year 1620. He firft entered into the army, where his natural courage engaged him fre¬ quently in duels in the quality of a lecond ; which, with other rath actions, procured him the title of the Intrepid. But the little profpeCt he faw of prefer¬ ment made him renounce the trade of war for the exercife of wit. His comic hittories of the Rates and empires in the fun and moon, thow him well acquaint¬ ed with the Cartefian philofophy, and to have a lively imagination. Our Lord Orrery claffes him with Swift for his turn of humour, which he fays the latter adopt¬ ed and purfiied. CYRENAICA, an ancient kingdom of Africa, cor- refponding to the prefent kingdom and defert of Barca and J I'ipoli. It was originally inhabited by a number of barbarous nations, differing little from great gangs of robbers. Afterwards fome colonies from Greece fet¬ tled here, and Cyrenaica became fo powerful a ftate, that it waged war with Egypt and Carthage, often with fuccefs. In the time of Darius Hyftafpes, Arce- filaus, the reigning prince in Cyrenaica, was driven from the throne : on which his mother Pheretima ap¬ plied for afliftance to the king of Cyprus. Her fon af¬ terwards returning to Barca, the chief city of Gyrene, was there affaflinated, together with his father-in-law. Pheretima finding herfelf difappointed by the king of Cyprus, applied to Darius Hyftafpes, and by the aftift- ance of the Perfians reduced Barca. Here (he beha¬ ved .with the utmoft cruelty, caufing all thofe who had been concerned in her fon’s death to be impaled, and the breads of their wives to be cut off and affixed near them. She is faid to have been afterwards devour¬ ed by worms ; which was looked upon as a divine judg¬ ment for her excefllve cruelty. The prifoners in the mean time were fent to Darius, who fettled them in a diftrift of Baftria, from them called Barca. Cyre¬ naica, however, feems to have remained free till the time of Alexander the Great, who conquered it along with Egypt. Soon after his death the inhabitants recovered their liberty ; but were in a ftiort time redu¬ ced by Ptolemy king of Egypt. Under thefe kings it remained till Ptolemy Phyfcon made it over to his baftard fon Apian, who in the 658th year of Rome left it by vvill to the Romans. The fenate permitted all the cities to be governed by their own laws j and this immediately filled the country with tyrants, thofe who were moft potent in every city or diftrift endeavour¬ ing to affume the fovereignty of it. Thus the kingdom was thrown into great confufion : but Lucullus in a good meafure reftored the public tranquillity on his coming thither during the firft Mithridatie war, It was • ? found impoflible, however, totally to fupprefs thefe Cyrenaica difturbances till the country was reduced to the form |) of a Roman province, which happened about 20 years tyrih after the death of Apian, and 76 before Chrift. Upon ' a revolt, the city,of Gyrene was ruined by the Romans; but they afterwards rebuilt it.. In procefs of time it fell to the Arabs, and then to the Turks, who are the prefent mafters of it. CYRENAICS, a fe6l of ancient philofoph ers, fo called from their founder Ariftippus of Gyrene, a dif- ciple of Socrates. The great principle of their doftrine was, that the fupreme good of man in this life is pleafure ; whereby, they not only meant a privation of pain, and a tran¬ quillity of mind, but an affemblage of all mental and fenfual pleafures, particularly the laft. Cicero makes frequent mention of Ariftippus’s fchool, and fpeaks of it as yielding debauchees.. Three difciples of Ariftippus, after his death, divided the fed! into three branches; under which divifion it languilhed and funk^. the firft called the Hegejiac fchool ; the fecond the Klnnicerian; and the third the Theodoran; from the names of their authors. GYRENE, in Ancient Geography, the capital of Cyrenaica, and one of the cities called Pentapolis, di» ftant from Apollonia, its fea-port, 10. miles, fituated on a plain, of the form of a table, according to Stra¬ bo : A colony of the Thereans. Though they were defcendants of the Lacedcemonians, yet they differed from them in their turn of mind or difpofition, apply¬ ing themfelves to philofophy ; and hence arofe the Cy- renaic fedl, at the head of which was Ariftippus, who placed all happinefs in pkafure.. The Cyreneans were a people much given to aurigation, or the ufe of the chariot, from their excellent breed of horfes, (Pindar, Ephorus, Strabo). CYRIL, St, biftiop of Jerufalem, fucceeded Maxi¬ mus in 350. He was afterwards depofed for the crime of expofing to fale the treafures of the church, and ap¬ plying the money to the fupport of the poor during a great famine. Under Julian he was reftored to his fee, and was firmly eftablilhed. in all his old honours and dignities under Theodofius ; in which he continued un- molefted to his death in 386'. The remains of this father confift only of 23 catechefts, and one letter to the emperor Conftantius. Cyrie, St, patriarch of Alexandria, fucceeded Theophilus, his uncle, 10412. Scarce was he inftal- led, when he began to exert his authority with great rigour; he drove the Novatians and Jews from Alex¬ andria, permitting their wealth and iynagogues to be taken from them. This proceeding highly difpleafed Oreftes, the governor of the city, who law that if the bilhop’s authority was not foon fuppreffed, it might grow too ftrong for that of the magiftrate. Upon which a kind of civil war broke out between Oreftes and the biftiop ;; many , tumults were railed, and fome battles fought in the very ftreets of Alexandria. St Cyril alfo diftinguiftied himfelf by his zeal againfi Neftorius bi- fhop of Conftantinople, who in fome of his homilies, had afferted that the Virgin Mary ought not to be cal¬ led the mother of God. T he difpute at firft- proved unfavourable to Cyril, whofe opinion was not only condemned, but himfelf deprived of his biftiopric and thrown into prilon. But he was fhon after releafed, and C Y K ^yrjl( and gained a complete viftory over Neftorius, Avho in Cyrus. 431 was depofed from his fee of Conftantinople. Cyril v returned to his fee at Conftantinople, where he died in 444. St Cyril alfo wrote agalnft Theodoras of Mopfuefta, Diodorus of Tarfus, and Julian the apo- ftate. He compofed commentaries on St John’s gof- pel, and wrote feveral other books. His works were publiftied in Greek and Latin in 1638, in fix volumes folio. CYRUS, the fon of Cambyfes the Perfian, by Man- dane the daughter of Aftyages king of the Medes. The two chief hiftorians, who have written the life of Cyrus, are Herodotus and Xenophon } but their ac¬ counts of him are different, in as much as the latter makes his father a king of Perfia, and the former a meaner man. The account of Herodotus, as Dr Pri- deaux obferves, indeed contains narratives that are much more ftrange and furprifing, and confequently more diverting and agreeable to the reader : and for this reafon more have chofen to follow him than Xeno¬ phon. Herodotus informs us, that Aftyages king of the Medes dreamed that a vine fprung from the womb of his daughter Mandane, the branches whereof over- fhadowed all Afia; whereupon having confulted the foothfayers, he was told that his dream portended the future power and greatnefs of a child who ftiould be born of his daughter : and further that the lame child fhould deprive him of his kingdom. Aftyages, to pre¬ vent the accomplilhment of this prediction, inftead of marrying his daughter to fome powerful prince, gave her to Cambyfes, a Perlian of mean condition, and one who had no great capacity for forming any important delign, nor for fupporting the ambition of his fon by his own riches and authority. Nor did Aftyages Hop here : the apprehenlions he was under left Mandane’s Nfon might perhaps find that afliftance in his own cou¬ rage, or fome lucky circumftance which his family was not able to fupply him with, induced him to take a refolution of defpatching the child, if there Ihould be any. As foon, therefore, as he underftood his daugh¬ ter was with child, he commanded one of his officers whofe name was Harpagus, to deftroy the infant as foon as it came into the world. Harpagus, fearing the refentment of Mandane, put the child into the hands of one who was the king’s (hepherd, in order to expofe him. The fhepherd’s wife was fo extremely touched with the beauty of Cyrus, that fhe defired her hufband rather to expofe her own fon, who was born fome time before, and preferve the young prince. Af¬ ter this manner Cyrus was preferved, and brought up among the king’s fhepherds. One day, as the neighbouring children were at play together, Cyrus was chofen king; and having punifh- ed one of his little playfellows with fome feverity, for -difobeying his commands, the child’s parent complain¬ ed of Cyrus to Aftyages. This prince fent for young Cyrus, and obferving fomething great in his air, his manner and behaviour, together with a great refem- blance of his daughter Mandane, he made particular inquiry into the matter, and difcovered that, in reality, Cyrus was no other than his grandfon. Harpagus, who was the inftrument of preferving him, was punifh- •«d with the death of his own fon : however, Aftyages believing that the .royalty which the foothfayers had 0 Y Ft promifed to the young prince, was only that which he Cyrus, had lately exercifed among the fhepherds children, ——y— troubled himfelf no more about it. Cyrus being grown up, Harpagus diielofed the whole fecret of his birth to him, together with the manner wherein he bad deliver¬ ed him from the cruel refolution of his grandfather. He encouraged him to come into Media, and promifed to furnifti him with forces, in order to make him ma¬ iler of the country, and depole Aftyages. Cyrus heark¬ ened to thefe propofitions, engaged the Perfians to take up arms againft the Medes, marched at the head of them to meet Aftyages, defeated him, and poflefled himfelf of Media. He carried on many other wars j and at length fat down before Babylon, which after a long fiege he took. The relation of Cyrus’s life from Xenophon is as follows: Aflyages king of Media married his daugh¬ ter Mandane to Cambyles king of Perfia, fon to Achge- menes king of the fame nation. Cyrus was born at his father’s court, and was educated with all the care his birth required. When he was about the age of 12 years, his grandfather Aftyages fent for him to Media, together with his mother Mandane. Some time after, the king of Affyria’s fon having invaded Media, Aftyages, with his fon Cyaxares and his grand¬ fon Cyrus, marched againft him. Cyrus diftinguifh- ed himfelf in this war, and defeated the Affyrians. Cambyfes afterwards recalled him, that he might have him near his own perfon ; and Aftyages dying, his fon Cyaxares, uncle by the mother’s fide to Cyrus, fue- ceeded him in the kingdom of Media. Cyrus, at the age of 30 years, was, by his father Cambyfes, made general of the Perfian troops j and fent at the head of 30,000 men to the affiftance of his uncle Cyaxares, whom the king of Babylon, with his allies the Cappadocians, Carians, Phrygians, Cilicians, and Paphlagonians were preparing to attack. Cyax¬ ares and Cyrus prevented them, by falling upon them and difperfing them. Cyrus advanced as far as Baby¬ lon, and fpread terror throughout the country. From this expedition he retired to his uncle, towards the frontiers ef Armenia and Affyria, and was received by Cyaxares in the tent of the Aflyrian king whom he had defeated. After this Cyrus carried the war into tfie countries beyond the river Halys, entered Cappadocia, and fub- dued it entirely. From thence he marched againft; Crcefus king of Lydia, beat him in the firft battle ; then befieged him in Sardis his capital •, and after a fiege of fourteen days obliged him to furrender. See Croesus. After this, Cyrus having reduced almoft all Afia, repaffed the Euphrates, and made war upon the Affyrians. He marched direftly to Babylon, took it, and there prepared a palace for his uncle Cyaxares, whither he might retire, if at any time he had an in¬ clination to come to Babylon $ for he was not then in the army. After all thefe expeditions, Cyrus return¬ ed to his father and mother into Perfia, where they were ftill living : and going fome time after to his uncle Cyaxares into Media, he married his coufin the only daughter and heirefs of all Cyaxares’s dominions, and went with her to Babylon, from whence he fent men of the firft rank and quality to govern all the fe¬ veral nations which he had conquered. He engaged again in feveral wars, and lubdued all the nations F 2 which t 43 1 c Y R r 44 ] C Y S {#,-119. whicfi lie between Syria and the Red Tea. He died .Wp-y——the age of 70 years, after a reign of 30 : but au¬ thors differ very much concerning the manner of his death. Herodotus, Juftin, and Valerius Maximus re¬ late, that he died in the war againft the Scythians ; and that tailing into an ambulh which Queen Tomyris bad laid for him, fhe ordered his head to be cut off, and call into a veffel full of blood, faying, “ Thou haft always thirlfed after human blood, now glut thyfelf with it.” Diodorus the Sicilian fays, that he was taken in an engagement and hanged. Ctefias affures us, that he died of a wound which he received in his thigh : but by Xenophon’s account he died peaceably in his bed, armdft his friends and his fervants $ and certain it b, that in Alexander’s time his monument was fhown at Pafagarda in Perfia. From all this it is eafy to conclude, that we are but imperfectly acquainted with the hiftory of this great prmce, the founder of the Perfian, and deft rover of the Chaldean, empire. We learn fewer particulars of it from Scripture, but then they are more certain than any that we have produced. Daniel (viii. 3—20.) in the famous vifion wherein God fhovved him the ruin of feveral great emperors, which were to precede the birth of the Mefliah, reprefents Cyrus to us under the idea of “ a ram, which had two horns ; and the two horns were high, but the one was higher than the other, and the higher came up laft. This ram pufhed welt ward, and northward, and fouthvvard, fo that no beads might Hand before him ; neither was there any that could deliver out of his hand, but he did ac¬ cording to his will, and became great.” The ram’s two. horns fignify the two empires which Cyrus re¬ united in his perfon $ that of the Medes, and that of the Perfians. The lalt was greater and more power¬ ful than the empire of the Medes ; or otherwife, thefe two horns fignify the two branches of Cyrus’s fuccef- f’ors. His fon Cambyfes dying, the empire was tranf- ferred to Darius the fqn of Hyftafpes, and was conti¬ nued down to Darius" Codomannus, who, as Calmet thinks, is the great horn which the he-goat, that de¬ notes Alexander, run againft. In chap. vii. 5. Daniel compares Cyrus to a bear, with three ribs in the mouth of it, to which it was faid, “ Arife, devour much flefh.” Cyrus fucceeded his father Cambyfes in the kingdom of Perfia, and Darias the Mede, by Xeno- ph on called Cyaxares, and Aftyages in the apocryphal chapter (xiii. 1.) of Daniel,, in the kingdom of the Medes and empire of Babylon. He was monarch of all the eaft j or as he fpeaks (2 Chr. xxxvi. 22, 23. and Ezr. i, 1, 2.) “ of all the earth,” when he per¬ mitted the Jews to return to their own country, in the year of the world 3466, before Jefus Chrift 538. The enemies of the Hebrews, making ufe of this prince’s affection to his own religion, prevailed with him to put a flop by his orders to the building of the temple at Jerufalem ; (Ezra iv. 5*). The pro¬ phets frequently foretold the coming of Cyrus ; and Ifaiah (xiiv. 28.) has been fo particular as to declare his name 200 years before he was born. Jofephus (i\.ntiq. lib. ii. c. 2.) fays, that the Jews of Babylon fhowed this ; adage of the prophet to Cyrus •, and that this prince, in the editft which he granted them for their return, acknowledged that he received the empire «f the world from the God of Ifrapl; and that the ' ? lame God had dtferibed him by name in the writings Cynr of the prophets, and foretold that he Ihould build a Cyft. temple to him at Jerufalem. Cyrus is pointed out in v v Scripture under the name of the righteous man and the ftiepherd of Ifrael, (Ifaiah xli. 2. 10. xliv. 28.) and xlvi. 11. Notwithftanding this, God fays of him (Ifaiah xlv. 5.) “ I girded thee, though thou haft not known me.” And Jeremiah calls Cyrus and his peo¬ ple who overthrew the Babylonifti empire, thieves and robbers. The taking of Babylon by Cyrus is clearly fet down by the prophets, and may be feen under the the articles Babylon and Belshazzar. Archbilhop Ufher fixes the birth of Cyrus to the year of the world* 3405 ; his firft year at Babylon to 3466, and his- death to 3475. The eaftern people will have it, that Cyrus by his mother’s fide was defeended from fome of the Hebrew prophets : as alfo that his wife was a Jew, which is the reafon (fay they) that this prince fo attached himfelf to the Jews, to whom he was fo near¬ ly allied. Cyrus II. was the younger fon of Darius Noth us, and the brother of Artaxerxes. He was fent by his father at the age of 16 to aflift the Lacedaemonians againft Athens. Artaxerxes fucceeded to the throne at the death of Nothus ; and Cyrus, who was of an afpiring foul, attempted to affaffinate him. He was. difeovered, and had been puniflied with death, had not his mother Paryfatis faved him from the hands of the- executioner by her tears and entreaties. This circum- ftanee did not in the leaft check the ambition of Cy¬ rus j he was appointed over Lydia and the fea coafts, where he fecretly fomented rebellion and levied troops under various pretences. At laft he took the field with an army of 100,000 barbarians, and 13,000 Greeks under the command of Clearchus. Artaxer¬ xes met him with 900,000 men near Cunaxa. The battle was long and bloody j and Cyrus might have- perhaps obtained the viflory, had not his uncommon raftinefs proved his ruin. It is faid that the two royal brothers met in perfon, and their engagement ended in the death of Cyrus, 401 years before the Auguftan age. Artaxerxes was fo anxious of its being univerfal- ly reported that his brother bad fallen by his hand, that he put to death two of his fubje&s for boafting that they had killed Cyrus. I he Greeks, who were engaged in this expedition, obtained much glory in the battle ; and after the death of Cyrus they remained vi&orious in the field without a commander. They were not difeouraged though at the diftance of above 6ao leagues from their country, and furrounded on every fide by a powerful enemy. They unanimoufly united in the eledfion of commanders, and traverfed all Afia, in fpite of the continual attacks of the Perfians • and nothing is more truly celebrated in ancient hiftory than the bold retreat of the ten thoufand. The jour¬ ney that they made from the time of their firft embar¬ kation till their return, has been calculated at lice league:, performed in the fpaie of 15 months, including all the time which was devoted to take rtft and re- frefhmf nt. Tl his retreat has been celebrated by Xe¬ nophon, who was one of their leaders, and among the friends and fupporters of Cyrus. CYST, the bag or tunic including all eneyfted tu¬ mors, as the feirrhus, atheroma, fteatoma, meliceres qlc, ’ CYSTIC c Z A [ 45 J C Z E €yftic I! Czar. CYSTIC, in Anatomy, a name given to two arte¬ ries and two veins. Cl's TIC Du6i. See Anatomy Index. CYTHERA, -orum, in Ancient Geography, an ifland oppofite to Mallea, a promontory, and to Boiae a town of Laconia ; with a cognomina! town, which has an excellent port called Scandea. The ifland was facred to Venus, with a very ancient temple of that goddefs exhibited in armour at Cythera, as in Cyprus : now Ctrigo. CYTHEREA, in Mythology, the furname of Ve¬ nus, fo called from Cythera an ifland, where fire had a temple efteemed the moft ancient in Greece, and on the flrores of which ihe was believed to be borne by the Zephyrs, furrounded by the Loves, the Tritons, and Nereids, reclining in a languifliing poflure in a fea- fhell. They give the name of Cytheriades to the Graces which attended her on the Ihore without quitting her, except on thofe occafions when ihe rather chofe to be waited upon by the Pleafures. CYTINUS, a genus of plants belonging to the gynandria clafs j and in the natural method ranking under the nth order, Sarmentacece. See Botany Index. CYTISUS, Tree Trefoil, a genus of plants be- longing to the diadelphia clafs, and in the natural me¬ thod ranking under the 32d order, Papilionacece. See Botany Index. CYZICENS, Cyzicena, among the ancient Greeks, were a fort of magnificent banqueting houfes, always looking toward the north, and ufually opening upon gardens. They had their name from Cyzicus, a city very con- fiderable for the grandeur of its buildings j fituated in an ifland of Myfia, bearing the fame name. CYZICUM, or Cyzicus, in Ancient Geography, one of the noblefi: cities of the hither Afia *, fituated in a cognominal ifland of the Propontis, on the coaft of My¬ fia j joined to the continent by two bridges (Strabo) 5 the firfl by Alexander j the city, a colony of the Mi- lefians (Pliny). Rendered famous by the fiege of Mi- thridates, which was raifed by Lucullus.—The inhabi¬ tants were made a free people by the Romans, but for¬ feited their freedom under Tiberius. It was adorned with a citadel and walls round it j had a port and marble towers ; and three magazines, one for arms, another for warlike engines, and a third for corn. Cyziceni, the people ; noted by the ancients for their timidity and effeminacy : hence the proverb in Zeno- dotus and others, Tintfura Cijzenica, applied to perfons guilty of an indecency through fear j but Stateres Cy- %iceni, nummi Cyxiceni, denote things executed to per- feiRion. CZACKTHURN, a ftrong town of Germany, in Auftria, and near the frontiers of Hungary. It is feated between the rivers Drave and Muhir, in E. Long. 17. 19. N. Lat. 46. 24. CZAR, a title of honour, affumed by the grand dukes, or, as they are now ftyled, emperors of Ruflia. The natives pronounce it tear, or -zaar; and this, by corruption (it has been fancied), from Cafar, “ em- peror,” from fome imagined relation to the Roman emperors. But this etvmology does not feem corre£E When the czar Peter formerly required of the Euro¬ pean courts an acknowledgement of his imperial titles, i, and that the appellation of Emperor tt\ould never be omitted, there was great difficulty made about it, elpecially at the court of Vienna ; which occafioned him to produce the famous letter, written in the Ger¬ man tongue, from Maximilian I. emperor of Germany, to Vaffili Ivanovitch, confirming a treaty of alliance offenfive and defenfive againft Sigifmund king of Po¬ land. In this difpatch, which is dated Auguft the 4th, 1514, and is ratified with the feal of the golden bull, Maximilian addreffts Vaffili by calling him Kayfer and Herrfcher aller Rujfen, “ emperor and ruler of all the Ruffias.” But independently of this document, there could be no doubt that the foreign courts, in their intercourfe with that of Mofcow, ftyled the fove- reigns indilcriminately Great Duke, Czar, and Em¬ peror. With refpeft to England in particular, it is certain that in Chancellor’s Account of Ruffia, fo early as the middle of the 16th century, Ivan Vaffilie- vitch II. is called Lord and Emperor of all Ruf/ia ; and in the Englith difpatches, from the reign of Elizabeth to that of Anne, he is generally addreffed under the fame appellation. When the European powers, how¬ ever, ftyled the czar Emperor of Mufcovy, they by no means intended to give him a title fimilar to that which was peculiar to the emperor of Germany j bufc they beftowed upon him that appellation as upon an Afiatic fovereign, in the fame manner as we now fay the emperors of China and Japan. When Peter, therefore, determined to affume the title of em¬ peror, he found no difficulty in proving that it had been conferred upon his predeceffors by moft of the European powers j yet when he was delirous of affix¬ ing to the term the European fenfe, it was confidered as an innovation, and was produftive of more negotia¬ tions than would have been requifite for the termina¬ tion of the moft important ftate affair. At the fame time it occafioned a curious controverfy among the learned, concerning the rife and pmgrefs of the titles by which the monarchs of this country have been di- ftinguiffied. From their refearches it appeared, that the early fovereigns of Ruffia were called great dukes, and that Vaffili Ivanovitch was probably the firft who ftyled himfelf tear, an expreffion which in the Sclavo- nian language fignifies ; and that his fucceffbrs continued to bear within their own dominions that title as the moft honourable appellation, until Peter the Great firft took that of Povelitel, or emperor. After many delays and objedtions, the principal courts of Europe confented, about the year 1722, to addrefs the fovereign of Ruffia with the title of Emperor ; without prejudice, neverthelefs, to the other crowned heads of Europe. CZASLAU, a town of Bohemia, and capital of a circle of the fame name. The principal church has the higheft tower in Bohemia *, and near this place the king of Pruffia gained a vidlory over the Aultrians in 1742. It is feated on the river Crudenka, in E. Long. 15. 33. N. Lat. 49. 50. CZENS TOKOW, a town of Poland in the pala¬ tinate of Cracovia, with a fort, in which they keep a rich trealure called “ the treafure of the Virgin Maiy.’* The pilgrims flock hither fo much for the fake of a convent near it, that it is called the Loretto of Poland. The town is fituated on the river Warte. E. Long. 19. 15. N. Lat. 50. 48. Czar CZERNIC,, D A C [ 46 ] D A C Czernic, CZERNIC, a town of Carniola, in Auftria, fituated Czernikon. in E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 46. 12. Ii L remarkable for its lake ; for a particular defcription of which fee the article CiRCHNITZER. CZERNIKOU, a confiderable town of Mufcovy, and capital of a duchy of the fame name, with a caftle. It is feated on the river Dezna, in E. Long. 32. 13. Czernikou. N. Lat. 51. 20, (Jzongrodt. CZONGRODT, a town of Upper Hungary, and capital of a territory of the fame name, at the conflu¬ ence of the rivers Teifle and Keres, E. Long. 20. 37. N. Lat. 46. 50. TA THE fourth letter of the alphabet, and the II 5 third confonant. Dacca. Grammarians generally reckon D among the lingual —-y-' ■■» letters, as fuppofing the tongue to have the principal (hare in the pronunciation thereof j though the Abbot de Dangeau feems to have reafon in making it a palate letter. The letter D is the fourth in the Hebrew, Chaldee, Samaritan, Syriac, Greek, and Latin alpha¬ bets ; in the five firft of which languages it has the fame name, though fomewhat differently fpoke, e. g. in Hebrew, Samaritan, and Chaldee, Da/eth, in Syriac Do/eth, and in Greek Delta. The form of our D is the fame with that of the Latins, as appears from all the ancient medals and in- fcriptions, and the Latin D is no other than the Greek A. rounded a little, by making it quicker and at two ftrokes. The A of the Greeks, again, is borrowed from the ancient charafter of the Hebrew Daleth : which form it ftill retains, as is (hown by the Jefuit Souciet, in his differtation on the Samaritan Medals. D is alfo a numerical letter, fignifyingyfw hundred, which arifes hence, that in the Gothic charafters, the D is half the M, which fignifies a thoufand, hence the verfe, Litera D vclut A quingentos Jignificabit. A daffi added a-top o, denotes it to ftand for Jive thoufand. Ufed as an abbreviation, it has various fignifications: thus D ftands for Doctor j as, M. D. for Doctor of Medicine; D. T. Doftor of Theology; D. D. im¬ plies Dodtor of Divinity, or “ dono deditD. D. D. is ufed for “ dat, dicat, dedicatand D. D. D. D. for “ dignum Deo donum dedit.” DAB, the Engliffi name of a fpecies of Peeuro- NECTES. See ICHTHYOLOGY Index. DABUL, a town of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, on the coaff of Malabar, and to the foutb of the gulf of Cambaye, on a navigable river. It was formerly very flouriffiing, but is now much decayed. It belongs to the Portuguefe, and its trade confiffs principally in pepper and fait. E. Long. 72. 50. N. Lat. 17. 30. DACCA, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Ben¬ gal in the Eaft Indies, fituated in E. Long. 86. 10. N. Lat. 24. o.—The advantages of the fituation of this place, and the fertility of the foil round it, have long fince made it the centre of an extenfive commerce. The courts of Delhi and Muxadavad are furniflied from thence with the cottons wanted for their own con- fumption. They each of them maintain an agent on Dacss the fpot to fuperintend the manufadlure of them ; and Dace, he has an authority, independent of the magiftrate,—v—— over the brokers, weavers, embroiderers, and all of the workmen whole bufinefs has any relation to the objeft of his commiflion. Thefe unhappy people are forbid¬ den, under pecuniary and corporeal penalties, to fell, to any perfon whatever, a piece exceeding the value of three guineas: nor can they, but by dint of money, re¬ lieve themfelves from this oppreflion. In this, as in all the other markets, the Europeans treat with the Moorifti brokers fettled upon the fpot, and appointed by the government. They likewife lend their name to the individuals of their own nation, as well as to Indians and Armenians living in their fettle- ments, who, without this precaution, would infallibly be plundered. The Moors themfelves, in their private tranfaflions, fometimes avail themfelves of the fame pretence, that they may pay only two, inftead of five per cent. A diftin&ion is obferved, in their contrails, between the cottons that are befpoke and thofe w hich the weaver ventures, in feme places, to manutailure on his own account. The length, the number of threads, and the price, of the former are fixed : nothing further than the commiffion for the latter is ftipulated, becaufe it is impoflible to enter into the fame detail. Thefe nations that make a point of having fine goods, take proper meafures that they may be enabled to advance money to their workmen at the beginning of the year. The weavers, who in general have but little employ¬ ment at that time, perform their work with lefs hurry than in the months of Oilober, November, and De¬ cember, when the demand is prefling. Some of the cottons are delivered unbleached, and others half bleached. It were to be wilhed that this cuftom might be altered. It is very common to fee cottons that look very beautiful to go off in the bleach- ing. Perhaps the manufaflurers and brokers forefee how they will turn out ; but the Europeans have not fo exquifite a touch, nor fuch an experienced eye, to difcern this. It is a circumftance peculiar to India, that cottons, of what kind foever they are, can never be well bleached and prepared bul in the place where they are manufadlured. If they have the mbforlune to get damage before they are flopped for Europe, they muft be fent back to the places from whence they came. DACE, a fpecies of Cyprinus. See Ichthyology .Index. This D A C [ 47 ] D A C ^,ace This fi(h is extremely common in our rivers, and ~U gives the expert angler great diverfion. The dace will Dacier. bite at any fly 5 but he is more than ordinarily fond of -—v~~ the ftone caddis, or May fly,, which is plentiful in the latter end of April and the whole month of May. Great quantities of thefe may be gathered among the reeds or fedges by the water-iide, and on the hawthorn bullies near the waters. Thefe are a large and hand- fome bait ; but as they only laid a fmall part of the year in feafon, recourfe is to be had to the ant-fly. Of thefe the black, ones found in large mole-hills or ant-hills- are the beft. Thefe may be kept alive a long time in a bottle, with a little of the earth of the hill, and fome roots of grafs y and they are in feafon throughout the months of June, July, Auguft, and September. The beft feafon of all is when they fwarm, which is in the end of July or beginning of Auguft j and they may be kept many months in a veffel walhed out with a fo- lution of honey in water, even longer than with the earth and grafs-roots in the vial •, though that is the mold convenient method with a fmall parcel taken for. one day’s fiftiing. In warm weather this fifti very fel- dom refufes a fly at the top of the water ; but at other times he muft have the bait funk to within three inches of the bottom. The winter ffthing for dace requires a very different bait : this is a white maggot with a reddifti head, which is the produce of the eggs of the beetle, and is turned up with the plough in great abundance. A parcel of thefe put in any veffel, with the earth they were taken in, will keep many months, and are an excellent bait. Small dace may be put into a glafs jar with frefli water ; and there pre- ferved alive fora long time, if the water is properly changed. They have been obferved to eat nothing but the animalcula of the water. They will grow very tame by degrees. DACHAW, a town of Bavaria in Germany. It is pretty large, well built, and feated on a mountain near the river Amber, io miles N. W. of Munich. Here the elefdor has a palace and fine gardens. E. Long. 11. 30. N. Lat. 48. 20. DACIA, in Ancient Geography, a country which Traj an, who reduced it to a province, joined to Moefia by an admirable bridge. This country lies extended be¬ tween the Danube and Carpathian mountains, from the river Tibifcus, quite to the north bend of the Danube j fo as to extend thence in a direft line to the mouth of the Danube and to the Euxine j on the north fide, next the Carpates, terminated by the river Hierafus, now the Pruth ; on the weft by the Tibifcus or Teifsj comprifing a part of Upper Hungary, all Tranfylvania and Wallachia, and a part of Moldavia. Daci, the people j a name which Strabo takes to be the fame with the Davi of comedies; neighbours, on the weft, to the Getce, an appellation common alfo in come¬ dies. Jofephus mentions a fet of religious men among the Daci, whom he calls Plifti, and compares with the Effeni : of thefe Plifti no other author makes any men¬ tion. Dacicus, the epithet affumed by fome empe¬ rors (Juvenal). There was a Dacia Aureliana, a part of Illyricum, which was divided into the eaftern and weftern 5 Sirmium being the capital of the latter, and Sardica of the former. But this belongs to the lower age. DACIER, Andrew, born at Caftres in Upper Languedoc, 1651, had a great genius and inclination for learning, and ftudied at Saumur under Tannegui le Fevre, then engaged in the inftruftion of his daugh¬ ter, who proved afterwards an honour to her fex. This gave rife to that mutual tenderneis which a marriage of 40 years could never weaken in them. The duke of Montaufier hearing of his merit, put him in the lift of commentators for the ufe of the Dauphin, and engaged him in an edition of Pompeius Feltus, which he pu- bliftied in 1681. His edition of Horace, printed at Paris in ten vols 12mo, and his other works, raifed him a great reputation. He was made a mejuber of the academy of infcriptions in 1695. When the hif- tory of Louis XIV. by medals was finiftied, he was- chofen to prefent it to his majefty $ who being inform¬ ed of the pains which he had taken in it, fettled upon him a penfion of 2000 livres, and appointed him keep¬ er of the books of the king’s clolet in the Louvre, When that poft was united to that of library keeper to the king, he was not only continued in the privilege of his place during life, but the furvivance was granted to his wife ; a favour of which there had been no inftance before. But the death of Madame Dacier in 1720, ren¬ dered this grant, which was fo honourable to her, in- effeflual. He died September 18. 1722, of an ulcer in the throat. In his manners, fentiments, and the whole of his condufl, he was a complete model of that ancient philofophy of which he was fo great an ad¬ mirer, and which he improved by the rules and princi¬ ples of Chriftianity. Dacier, Anne, daughter of Tannegui le Fevre, profeffor of Greek at Saumur in France. She early {bowed a fine genius, which her father cultivated with great care and fatisfaftion. After her father’s death ftie went to Paris, whither her fame had already reach¬ ed j (he was then preparing an edition of Callimachus, which fhe publiftied in 1674. Having fhown fome {beets of it to M. Huet, preceptor to the dauphin, and to feveral other men of learning at the court, the work was fo highly admired, that the duke of Montaufier made a propofal to her of publiftiing feveral Latin au¬ thors for the ufe of the dauphin. She rejedled this pro¬ pofal at firft, as a talk to which ihe was not equal.—=■ But the duke infifted upon it j fo that at laft he gained her confent ; upon which {he undertook an edition of Florus, publithed in 1674. Her reputation being now fpread over all Europe, Chriftina, queen of Swe¬ den, ordered Count Konigfmark to make her a compli¬ ment in her name : upon which Madamoifelle le Fevre lent the queen a Latin letter with her edition of Flo¬ rus 5 to which her majefty wrote an obliging anfwer, and not long after fent her another letter, to perfuade her to abandon the Proteftant religion, and made her confiderable offers to fettle at her court. In 1683 the marred Mr Dacier j and foon after declared her defign to the duke of Montaufier and the biftiop of Meaux of reconciling herfelf to the church of Rome, which (he had entertained for fome time : but as Mr Dacier was not yet convinced of the reafonablenefs of fuch a change, they retired to Caftres in 1684, where they had a fmall eftate, in order to examine the points of controverfy between the Proteftants and the Roman Catholics. They at laft determined in favour of the latter, and made the public abjuration in 1685. Af¬ ter this, the king gave both hufband and wife marks 4 »£ -DAG [ 48 ] DAD 'Bader of Ins favour. In 1693, ^le applied herfelf to tbe cdu- II cation of her fon and daughter, who made a prodigi- I)a^yh‘ ous progrefs: the fon died in 1694, and the daughter became a nun in the abbey of Longehamp. She had another daughter, who had united in her all the vir¬ tues and accomplifhments that could adorn the fex ; but fhe died at 18. Her mother has immortalized her me¬ mory in the preface to her tranflation of the Iliad. Madame Dacier was in a very infirm Hate of health the two laft years of her life ; and died, after a very pain¬ ful ficknefs, Auguft 17. 1720, aged 69. She was re¬ markable for her firmnefs, generofity, equality of tem¬ per, and piety. D ACTYL,(daElyIus), a font in the Latin and Greek poetry, confifting of a long fyllable, followed by two ftiort ones ; as cantiine. Some fay it is derived from “ a finger,” becaufe it is divided into three joints, the firft of which is longer than the other two. The dadtyl is faid to have been the invention of Dionyfius or Bacchus, who delivered oracles in this meafure at Delphos, before Apollo. The Greeks call it TTiXiriKaf. The daftyl and fpondee are the molt confiderable of the poetical feet ; as being the mea- fures ufed in heroic verfe by Homer, Virgil, &c. Thefe two are of equal time, but not equal^ motion. The fpondee has an even, flrong, and fteady pace, like a trot: the da6fy Irefembles the nimbler ftrokes of a gallop. DACIYLI ID^EI ; the Fingers of Mount Ida. Concerning thefe, Pagan theology and fable give very different accounts. The Cretans paid divine worfhip to them, as thofe who had nurfed and brought up the god Jupiter ; whence it appears that they were the fame as the Corybantes and Curetes. Neverthelefs Strabo makes them different ; and fays, that the tradi¬ tion in Phrygia was, that “ the Curetes and Corybantes were defcended from the Daftyli Idaei : that there were originally an hundred men in the ifland, who were cal¬ led Da&y/i hleci; from whom fprang nine Curetes, and each of thefe nine produced ten men, as many as the fingers of a man’s two hands; and that this gave the name to the anceftors of the Haftyli Idaei.” He re¬ lates another opinion, which is, that there were but five Daffyli Idasi 5 who, according to Sophocles, were the inventors of iron : that thefe five brothers had five fillers, and that from this number they took the name of Fingers of Mount A/a, becaufe they were in number ten : and that they worked at the foot of this moun¬ tain. Diodorus Siculus reports the matter a little dif¬ ferently. He fays, “ the firft inhabitants of the ifiand of Crete were the Da£lyli Idcei, who had their refi- dence on Mount Ida : that fome faid they were an hundred j others only five in number, equal to the fin¬ gers of a man’s hand, whence they had the name of DaByli: that they were magicians, and addicted to myftical ceremonies : that Orpheus was their difciple, and carried their mylleries into Greece: that the Dac- tyli invented the ufe of iron and fire, and that they had been recompenfed with divine honours.” Diomedes the grammarian fays, the Dadtyli Idgei Were priefts of the goddefs Cybele : called Idcei, be¬ caufe that goddefs was chiefly worlhipped on Mount Ida in Phrygia; and DaBy/i, ‘becaufe that, to prevent Saturn from hearing the cries of infant Jupiter, whom Cybele had committed to their cullody, they ufed to fing certain verfes of their own invention, in the Dac- Daflyli tylic meafure. See Curetes and Corybantes. |j ^ 1 f°mething that has a relation to Dad“chi. Anciently there were daflylic as well as fpondaic flutes, tibice daByiicce. The dafiylic flutes confifted of unequal intervals $ as the dadylic foot does of unequal meafures. DaC'TTLIC Verfes are hexameter verfes, ending in a da61yl inftead of a fpondee; as fpondaic verfes are thofe which have a fpondee in the fifth foot inftead of a dadlyl. An inftance of a dactylic verfe we have in Virgil ; Bis patrice cecidere manus ; quin protinus omnia Per/egerent ocu/is.— AEn. vi. 33. DACI YLIOMANCY, (DaBy/iomantia), a fort of divination performed by means of a ring. The word is compofed of the Greek cltcKTvXios, “ ring,” of Writes, “ a finger,” and feamne, “ divination.” Dattyliomancy confifted principally in holding a ring, fufpended by a fine thread over a round table, on the edge whereof were made divers marks with the twenty-four letters of the alphabet. The ring in (bak¬ ing, or vibrating over the table, flopped over certain of the letters, which, being joined together, compofed the anfwer required. But the operation was preceded and accompanied by feveral fuperftitious ceremonies: for firft the ring was to be confecrated with a great deal of myftery ; the perfon who held it was to be clad in linen garments to the very Ihoes; his head was to be lhaved all round ; and in his hand he was to hold ver¬ vain. And before he proceeded, the gods were firft; to. be appealed by a formulary of prayers, &c. Ara- mianus Marcellinus gives the procefs at large in his 29th book. n^CJ ^LIS, Cock’s foot Grass, a genus of plants belonging to the triandria clafs ; and in the na¬ tural method ranking under the 4th order, Grarnina. See Botany Index. DACTYLS, the fruit of the palm-tree, moreufuallv called dates. DAC1YLUS, a fort of dance among the ancient Greeks, chiefly performed, Hefychius obferves, by the athletae. Dactylus, a name given by Pliny to a fpecies of Pholas. See Pholuas, Conchology Index. DADUCHI, in antiquity, priefts of Ceres. That goddefs having loft her daughter Proferpine, fay my- fhologifts, began to make fearch for her at the begin¬ ning of the night. In order to do this in the dark, fire lighted a torch, and thus fet forth on her travels throughout the world : for which reafon it is that Ihe is always feen reprefented with a lighted torch in her hand. On this account, and in commemoration of this pretended exploit, it became a cuftom for the priefts, at the feafts and facrifices of this goddefs, to run about in the temple, with torches after this man¬ ner ; one of them took a lighted torch from off the altar, and holding it with his hand, ran with it to a cer¬ tain part of the temple where he gave it to another, faying to him, Tibi trado: this fecond ran after the like manner to another part of the temple, and gave it to the third, and fo of the reft. From this cere¬ mony .the priefts became denominated daduchi, q> d. DAE [ 49 1 ^ A E Da^uchl, d- 3edaius. nous wood, as pine, fir,” Sec. whereof the ancients ta‘"—■V——' made torches j and “ I have, I hold.”—The A- thenians alfo gave the name daduchus to the high-prieft of Hercules. DAEDAL A, a mountain and city of Lycia, where Dmdalus was buried, according to Pliny.—illfo two feltivals in Boeotia, fo called j one of them obferved at Alalcomenos by the Plataeans in a large grove, where they expofed in the open air pieces of boiled flefli, and carefully obferved whither the crows that came to prey upon them direfted their flight. All the trees upon which any of thefe birds alighted were im¬ mediately cut down, and with them ftatues were made, called D&dala, in honour of Daedalus. The other fef- tival was of a more folemn kind. It was celebrated every 60 years by all the cities of Boeotia, as a com- penfation for the intermiflion of the fmaller feftivals, for that number of years, during the exile of the Pla- taeans. Fourteen of the flatues called Dcedala were diftributed by lot among the Plataeans, Lebadaeans, Coroneans, Orchomenians, Thefpians, Thebans, Ta- nagrseans, and Chaeroneans, becaufe they had effedled a reconciliation among the Plataeans, and caufed them to be recalled from exile about the time that Thebes was reflored by Caffander the fon of Antipater. Du¬ ring this feftival a woman in the habit of a bridemaid accompanied a ftatue which was drefled in female gar¬ ments, on the banks of the Eurotas. This proceflion was attended to the top of Mount Cithseron by many of the Boeotians, who had places afligned them by lot. Here an altar of fquare pieces of wood cemented to¬ gether like (tones was erected, and upon it were thrown large quantities of combuflible materials. Afterwards a bull was facrificed to Jupiter, and an ox or heifer to Juno, by every one of the cities of Boeotia, and by the moft; opulent that attended. The poorer citizens offered fmall cattle ; and all thefe oblations, together ■with the Daedala, were thrown into the common heap and fet on fire, and totally reduced to afhes. They originated in this : When Juno, after a quarrel with Jupiter, had retired to Euboea, and refufed to return to his bed, the god, anxious for her return, went to confult Cithceron king of Plataca, to find fome effc6!ual meafure to break her obftinacy. Cithaeron advifed him to drefs a ftatue in woman’s apparel, and carry it in a chariot, and publicly to report it was Plataea the daughter of Afopus, whom he was going to marry. The advice was followed ; and Juno, informed of her hulband’s future marriage, repaired in hafte to meet the chariot, and was eafily united to him, when (lie difeovered the artful meafures he made ufe of to effedt a reconciliation. DJEDALUS, an Athenian, fon of Eupalamus, de- feended from Erichtheus king of Athens. He was the moft ingenious artift of his age ; and to him we are indebted for the invention of the wedge and many other mechanical inftruments, and the fails of (hips. He made ftatues which moved of themfelves, and feem- ed to be endowed with life. Talus his fifler’s fon promifed to be a.- great as himfelf by the ingenuity of his inventions j and therefore from envy he threw him down from a window and killed him. After the murder of this youth, Daedalus, with his fon Icarus, fled from Athens to Crete, where Minos king of the . Vol. VII. Part I. country gave him a cordial reception. Daedalus made a famous labyrinth (or Minos, and aftifted Pafipbae the queen to gratify her unnatural paflxon (or a bull. For this aftion Dtedalus incurred the difpleafure of Minos, who ordered him to be confined in the laby¬ rinth which he had conftrii&ed. Here he made him¬ felf wings with leathers and wax, and carefully fitted them to his body and that of his fon, who was the companion of his confinement. They took their flight in the air from Crete : but the heat of the fun melted the wax on the wings of Icarus, whofe flight was too high, and he fell into that part of the ocean which from him has been called the Icanan fea. ihe lather, by a proper management of his wings, alighted at Cumae, where he built a temple to Apollo, and thence dire&ed his courfe to Sicily, where he was kindly re¬ ceived by Cocalus, who reigned over part of the coun¬ try. He left many monuments of his ingenuity ill Sicily, which flill exifted in the age of Diodorus Si¬ culus. He was defpatched by Cocaius, who was afraid of the power of Minos, who had declared war againft him becaufe he had given an afylum to Daedalus. L he flight of Daedalus from Crete with wings is explained by obferving that he was the inventor of fails, which in his age might pafs at a diflance for wings. He lived 1400 years before the Chriftian era. There were two ftatuaries of the fame name $ one of Sicyon, fon of Pa- troclus ; the other a native of Bithynia. DiEMON, a name given by the ancients to certain fpirits or genii, which they fay appeared to men, either to do them fervice or to hurt them. The Greek word 'ba.ip.uv is derived (according to Plato, in his Cratylus, p. 398, ed Servant, vol. i.) from dxt/twv, “ knowing or intelligent 5” but according to others from Scttopxt, “ to diftribute,” (fee the Scholiaft on Homer, II. 1. ver. 222.). Either of thefe deriva¬ tions agrees with the office aferibed to daemons by the ancient heathens, as the fpirit intruded with the in- fpeftion and government of mankind. For, accor¬ ding to the philofophers, daemons held a middle rank betrveen the celeftial gods, and men on earth, and car¬ ried on all intercourfe between them ; conveying the addreffes of all men to the gods, and the divine benefits to men. It was the opinion of many, that the ce¬ leftial divinities did not themfelves interpofe in hu¬ man affairs, but committed the entire adminiftration of the government of this lower world to thefe fubal- tern deities : Neque enitn pro majeftate dcum ccdeJHum fuerit, hcec curare ; (Apuleius da deo Socratts, p. 677.). Cun&u cceleJHutn voluntate, numine, et autiioritate, fed daemonum obfequio, ct opera et miwjierio fieri arbitran- dum ef;) Id. p. 675.). Hence they became the ob- jeft of divine worlhip. “ If idols are nothing,” fays Celfus Qapud Origen. cont. Celf. lib. viii. p. 393.) “ what harm can there be to join in the public feftivals ? If they are daemons, then it is certain that they are gods, in whom we are to confide, and to whom we ftiould offer facrifices and prayers to render them propitious.” Several of the heathen philofophers held that there were different kinds of daemons ; that fome of them were fpiritual fubftances of a more noble origin than the human race, and that others had once been men. But thofe daemons who rvere the more immediate objects of the eftabliftied worftrip among the ancient G nations Dardali'i?, Daemon. DAE [ 50 ] DAE Daemon, nations were human fpirits, fuch as were believed to become daemons or deities after their departure from their bodies. Plutarch teaches (Vit. Romul. p. 36. ed. Parts), “ that according to a divine nature and ju- ftice, the fouls of virtuous men are advanced to the rank of daemons j and that from daemons, if they are properly purified, they are exalted into gods, not by any political inftitution, but according to right reafon.” The fame author fays in another place (r/e I/l et. OJir. p. 361.), “ that Ifis and Ofiris were, for their virtue, changed from good daemons into gods, as were Her¬ cules and Bacchus afterwards, receiving the united ho¬ nours botli of gods and daemons.” Hefiod and other poets, who have recorded the ancient hiftory or tradi¬ tions on which the public faith and worthip were found¬ ed, affert, that the men of the golden age, who were fuppofed to be very good, became daemons after death, and difpenfers of good things to mankind. Though deemon is often ufed in a general fenfe as equivalent to a deity, and is accordingly applied to fate or fortune, or whatever elfe was regarded as a god j yet thofe daemons who were the more immediate ob¬ jects of divine worfhip amongft the heathens, were hu¬ man fpirits ; as is thovvn in Farmer on Miracles, chap, iii. feft. 2. The word daemon is ufed indifferently in a good and a bad fenfe. In the former fenfe, it was very com¬ monly ufed among the ancient heathens. “ We muft not [fays Menander) think any daemon to be evil, hurtful to' a good life, but every god to be good.” Neverthelefs, thofe are certainly miftaken who affirm, that deemon never fignifies an evil being till after the times of Chrift. Pythagoras held daemons who fent difeafes to men and cattle (Diog. Laert. Fit. Pyt/ia- gor. p. 514. ed. Atnflel.). Zaleucus, in his preface to his Laws {apud Stobceum, Serm. 42.) fuppofes that an evil daemon might be prefer^ with a man, to influence him to injuftice. The daemons of Empedocles were evil fpirits, and exiles from heaven •, '(Plutarch rsf ptYiSeiv ^ccm^urdctd). And in his life of Dion (p. 958.), he fays, “ It was the opinion of the ancients that evil and mifehievous daemons, out of envy and hatred to good men, oppofe whatever they do.” Scarce did any opinion more generally prevail in ancient times than this, viz. that as the departed fouls of good men became good daemons, fo the departed fouls of bad men became evil daemons. It has been generally thought, that by daemons we are to underftand devils, in the Septuagint verfion of the Old Teftament. Others think the word is in that verfion certainly applied to the ghufts of fuch dead men as the heathens deified, in Deut. xxxii. 17. Pf. cvi. 37. That daemon often bears the fame meaning in the New Teftament, and particularly in Adts xvii. 18. 1 Cor. x. 21. 1 Tim. iv. 1. Rev. ix. 13. is ffiown at large by Mr Jofeph Mede (Works, p. 623, etfeqd). That the word is applied always to human fpirits in the New Teftament, Mr Farmer has attempted to ffiow in his Eflay on daemoniacs, p. 208, et feq. As to the mean¬ ing of the word daemon in the fathers of the Chriftian church, it is ufed by them in the fame fenfe as it was by the heathen philofophers, efpecially the latter Pla- tonifts •, that is, fometimes for departed human fpirits, and at other times for fuch fpirits as had never inha¬ bited human bodies, . In the fathers, indeed, the word is more commonly taken in an evil fenfe, than in the Dremon ancient philofophers. Befides the two forementioned Dxmoniae. kinds of daemons, the fathers, as well as the ancient ~v—J philofophers, held a third, viz. fuch as fprang from the congrefs of fuperior beings with the daughters of men. In the theology of the fathers, thefe were the worfl: kind of daemons. Different orders of daemons had different ftations and employments affigned them by the ancients. Good daemons were conlidered as the authors of good to mankind \ evil daemons brought innumerable evils both upon men and beafts. Amongft evil daemons there urns a great diftinefion with rtfpedl to the offices affigned them ; fome compelled men to wickednefs, others fti- mulated them to madnefs. See DjEMONIAC. Much has been faid concerning the daemon of So¬ crates. Fie pretended to his friends and difciples, and even declared to the world, that a friendly fpirit, whom he called his deemon, directed him how to a£t on every important occafion in his life, and reftrained him from imprudence of conduct. In contemplating the chara&er of this great philo- fopher, while we admire him as the nobleft pattern of virtue and moral wifdom that appeared in the hea¬ then world, we are naturally led to inquire, whether what he gave out concerning his daemon were a trick of impofture, or the reverie of a heated imagination, or a fober and true account of a favour which heaven de- figned to confer on fo extraordinary a man. To afeertain in this cafe the objedt of .our inqui¬ ries, is by no means fe eafy as the fuperficial thinker may be apt to imagine. When we confider the dig¬ nity of fentiment and fimplicity of manners which So¬ crates difplayed through the general tenor of his life, we cannot readily bring ourfelves to think that he could be capable of fuch a trick of impofture. No¬ thing of the wfildnefs of an enthufiaft appears in his character 5 the modefty of his pretenfions, and the refpedt which in his converfation and condudl he uni¬ formly teftified for the ordinary duties of focial life, fufficiently prove that he was free from the influence of blind enthufiafm : we cannot infer, therefore, that, like the aftronomer in Rafelas, he was deceived Avith refpedt to his daemon by an overheated imagination. It is no lefs difficult to believe, that God would di- ftinguiffi a heathen in fo eminent a manner, and yet leave him uninftrudted in the principles of true reli¬ gion. Surely, if ever fcepticifm be reafonable, it muft be in fuch matters as the prefent. Yet, if it be ftill infifted, that fome one of thefe three notions concerning the daemon of Socrates muft be more probable than the others $ we would rather efteem Socrates an enthufiaft in this inftance, than degrade him to the bafe character of an impoftor, or fuppofe that a fpiritual being adtually revealed himfelf to the philofopher, and condefcended to become his conftant attendant and counfellor. People are often under the influence of an overheated imagination with regard to fome one thing, and cool and fober as to every thing elfe. DiEMONIAC deemon), a human being whofe Definition* volition and other mental faculties are overpowered and reftrained, and his body poffeffed and adtuated, by fome created fpiritual being of fuperior power. Such feems to be the determinate fenfe of the word *, but DAE [ S tisemoniac. but it is difputed whether any of mankind ever were v—' in this unfortunate condition. « It is generally agreed, that neither good nor evil Difpute ^ fpjrJts are known to exert fuch authority at prefent isemoniacs. over the human race : but in the ancient heathen world, and among the Jews, particularly in the days of our Saviour, evil fpirits at leaft are thought by many to 3 have been more troublefome. Notions of The Greeks and Romans imagined that their dei- the Greeks tjes? t0 reveal future events, frequently entered into and Ro- ^ pr0piiet or prophetefs who was confulted, over- powered their faculties, and uttered refponfes with poffeflion. their organs of fpeech. Apollo was believed to enter into the Pythonefs, and to diflate the prophetic an- fwers received by thofe who confulted her. Other oracles befide that of Delphi were fuppofed to unfold futurity by the fame machinery. And in various other cafes either malignant daemons or benevolent deities were thought to enter into and to adluate human affairs. The Lymphatic^ the Cerriti, the Larvati, of the Romans, were all of this defcription } and the Greeks, by the ufe of the word Sxiponfyicsm, fhow that they referred to this caufe the origin of madnefs. Among the an¬ cient heathens, therefore, it appears to have been a ge¬ nerally received opinion, that fuperior beings entered occafionally into men, overpowered the faculties of their minds, and aftuated their bodily organs. They might imagine that this happened in inftances in which the effedts were owing to the operation of different caufes j but an opinion fo generally prevalent had furely fome 4 plaufible foundation. Of the The Jews, too, if we may truft the facred writings Jews. an(l Jofephus, appear to have believed in daemoniacal poffeffion. The cafe of Saul may be recolledled as one among many in which fuperior created beings were believed by the Jews to exert in this manner their in¬ fluence over human life. The general tenor of their hiftory and language, and their dodtrines concerning good and evil fpirits, prove the opinion of demoniacal poffeffion to have been well known and generally re- g ceived among them. Of mankind In the days of our Saviour, it would appear that in fhe da^s ^8emon*acal poffeffion was very frequent among the of our Sa-5 Jews and the neighbouring nations. Many were the viour. evil fpirits whom Jefus is related in the gofpels to have ejedted from patients that were brought unto him as poffeffed and tormented by thofe malevolent daemons. His apoftles too, and the firft Chriftians, who were moft adlive and fuccefsful in the propagation of Chri- ftianity, appear to have often exerted the miraculous powers with which they were endowed on fimilar oc- cafions. The daemons difplayed a degree of know¬ ledge and malevolence which fufficiently diftinguiffied them from human beings : and the language in which the daemoniacs are mentioned, and the adlions and fen- timents afcribed to them in the New Teftament, fhow that our Saviour and his apoftles did not confider the idea of daemoniacal poffeffion as being.merely a vulgar error concerning the origin of a difeafe or difeafes pro¬ duced by natural caufes. The more enlightened cannot always avoid the ufe of metaphorical modes of expreffion j which, though founded upon error, have yet been fo eftablifhed in language by the influence of cuftom, that they cannot be fuddenly difmiffed. When we read in the book of ; ] DAE Joffiua, that the fun on a certain occafion flood ftill, Demoniac, to allow that hero time to complete a vidlory ; we eafily find an excufe for the conduit of the facred hi- fi orian, in accommodating his narrative to the popular ideas of the Jews concerning the relative motions of the heavenly bodies. In all fimilar inftances, we do not complain much of the ufe of a fingle phrafe, ori¬ ginally introduced by the prevalence of fome ground- lefs opinion, the falfity of which is well known to the writer. But in defcriplions of characters, in the narration of faCts, and in the laying down of fyftems of doCtrine, we require different rules to be obferved. Should any perfon, in compliance with popular opinions, talk in ferious language of the exiftence, difpofitions, declara¬ tions, and aCtions of a race of beings whom he knew to be abfolutely fabulous, we furely could not praife him for candid integrity : we muft fuppofe him to be either exulting in irony over the weak credulity of thofe around him, or taking advantage of their weak- nefs, with the diftioneft and the felfifh views of an impoftor. And if he himfelf ftiould pretend to any connexion with this imaginary fyftem of beings, and ftiould claim, in confequence of his connexion with them, particular honours from his contemporaries j whatever might be the dignity of his character in all other refpeCts, nobody could hefitate even for a mo¬ ment to brand him as an impoftor of the bafeft charac- ter. ^ Precifely in this light muft we regard the conduCt jefus of our Saviour and his apoftles, if the ideas of daemo- chrift and niacal poffeffion were to be confidered merely as a vul- his apoftles gar error. They talked and aCted as if they believed e that evil fpirits had aCtually entered into thofe ™hod£Emonia_ were brought to them as poffeffed with devils, and Cal poflef- as if thofe fpirits were aCtually expelled by their au-hontoba thority out of the unhappy perfons whom they kadre£fi* poffeffed. They expeCted, they demanded too, to have their profeffion and declarations believed, in con¬ fequence of their performing fuch mighty works, and to be honoured as having thus triumphed over the powers of hell. The reality of dsemoniacal poffeffion Hands upon the fame evidence with the gofpel fyftem in general. Neither is there any thing abfurd or unreafonable in neafon_ this doCtrine. It does not appear to contradiCl thofe abiCnefs of ideas which the general appearance of nature and the this doc- feries of events fuggeft concerning the benevolencetrme* and wifdom of the Deity, and the councils by which he regulates the affairs of the univerfe. We often fancy ourfelves able to comprehend things to which our underftanding is wholly inadequate : we perfuade ourfelves, at times, that the whole extent of the works of the Deity muft: be well known to us, and that his defigns mull always be fuch as we can fathom. We are then ready, whenever any difficulty arifes to us, in confidering the conduCt of Providence, to model things according to our own ideas j to deny that the Deity can poffibly be the author of things which we cannot reconcile $ and to affert, that he muft a<5l on every oc¬ cafion in a manner confiftent with our narrow views. This is the pride of reafon ; and it feems to have fug- gefted the ftrongeft objedlions that have been at any time urged againft the reality of dsemoniacal poffef¬ fion. But the Deity may furely conned one order of G 2 his DAE Daemoniac. his creatures with another. We perceive mutual re- *’“l v lations and a beautiful connexion to prevail through all that part of nature which falls within the f’phere of our obfervation. The inferior animals are con- nefled with mankind, and fubje&ed to their autho¬ rity, not only in inftances in which it is exerted for their advantage, but even where it is tyrannically abufed to their deftrudlion. Among the evils to which mankind have been fubje<5ted, why might not their being liable to dsemoniacal poffeflion be one ? While the Supreme Being retains the fovereignty of the univerfe, he may employ whatever agents he thinks proper in the execution of his purpofes j he may either commiflion an angel or let loofe a devil 5 as well as bend the human will, or communicate any particular impulfe to matter. All that revelation makes known, all that human reafon can conjeflure, concerning the exiftence of va¬ rious orders of fpiritual beings, good and bad, is perfe&ly confident with, and even favourable to, the doftrine of dsemoniacal pofieffion. It was generally believed through the ancient heathen world ; it was equally well known to the Jews, and equally refpedled by them ; it is mentioned in the New Teftament in luch language, and fuch narratives are related concern¬ ing it, that the gofpels cannot well be regarded in any other light than as pieces of impofture, and Jefus Chrift mud be eonfidered as a man who dilhoneftly took advantage of the weaknefs and ignorance of his contemporaries, if this dodlrine be nothing but a vulgar error : it teaches nothing inconfifient with the general condu£t of Providence 5 it is not the caution of philo- fophy, but the pride of reafon, that fuggelts objedlions {; againfi: this dodtrine. Arguments Thofe, again, who are unwilling to allow that angels of the Anti-or devils have ever intermeddled fo much with the smomlts. COTlcerns 0f human life, urge a number of fpecious ar- 9 guments in oppofition to thefc. The cafes The Greeks and Romans of old, fay they, did be- the'cteeks ^ reality demoniacal pofieffion. They IndRomans^PP0^ t5iat fpi”tual beings did at times enter into fuppofed ^ fons or daughters of men, and diftinguiffi them- daemoniacal felves in that fituation by capricious freaks, deeds of pofTeffion, wanton mifchief, or prophetic enunciations. But in inftances of .the *n which they fuppofed this to happen, it xnadnefs, *s evident that no fuch thing took place. Their ac- &c. counts of the ftate and condufl of thofe perfons whom they believed to be poffefled in this fupernatural man¬ ner, (how plainly that what they aferibed to the in¬ fluence of daemons were merely the effefts of natural difeafes. Whatever they relate concerning the larvati, the cerriti, and the hjmphattci, fhows that thefe were merely people difordered in mind, in the fame unfor¬ tunate fituation with thofe madmen and idiots and melancholy perfons whom we have among ourfelves. Feftus defcribes the Larvati as being furiofi et mente nidi. Horace fays, Hellade percuffa, Marius cum praxipitat fs, Cerritus fuit ? Jhe J™6 Plat0>In h5s Timceus, fays, tvnvs ftctilatn tVedsmo- iv6‘0'”c’ Lucian defcribes daemoniacs as lunatic, niacs of the and as faring with their eyes, foaming at the mouth, New Tef* and being fpeechlefs. tamest. It appears ftill more evidently, that all the perfons 7 D A E fpoken of as pofliffed ivith devils in the New Tef- DasmoniTC tament, were either mad or epileptic, and precifely • •••••• j- 1 t in the fame condition with the madmen and epileptics ol modern times. The Jews, among other reproaches which they threw out again,ft our Saviour, faid, He hath a devil, and is mad: vcluj hear ije him ? The ex- preffions, he hath a devil, and is mad, were certainly ufed on this occafion as fynonymous. With all their vi¬ rulence, they would not furely afcnbe to him at once two things that were ineonfiftent and contradi&ory. 1 hofe who thought more favourably of the charafter of Jefus, aflerted concerning his difcourfes, in reply to his adverfaries, 2 hefe are not the words of him that hath a dcemon ; meaning, no doubt, that he Ipoke in a more ra¬ tional manner than a madman could be expe&ed to fpeak. The Jews appear to have aferibed to the influence of daemons, not only that fpecies of madnefs in which the patient is raving and furious, but alfo melancholy mad- nels. Of John, wno lecluded himfelf from intercourfe with the world, and was diftinguilined for abilinence and ads of mortification, they faid, He hath a dcemon. The youth,_ whofe father applied to Jefus to free him from an evil fpirit, dtferibing his unhappy condition in thefe words, Have mercy on my fan, for he is lunatic and fore vexed with a dcemon ; for oft times he fillet It into the fire, and oft into the water, was plainly epileptic. Every thing indeed that is related in the New Tefta¬ ment concerning dmmoniacs, proves that they w'ere people affefled with fuch natural difeafes as are far from being uncommon among mankind in the prefent age. When the fymptoms of the diforders cured by our Saviour and his apoliies as cafes of dcernoniacal jpofifeffion, correspond fo exactly with thofe of difeafes well known as natural in the prefent age, it would be abfurd to impute them to a iupernatural caufe. It is much more confiftent with common fenfe and found philofophy to fuppofe, that our Saviour and his apol- tles wifely, and with that condefcenfion to the weak¬ ness and prejudices of thofe with whom they converfed, which fo eminently diftinguilhed the character of the Author of our holy religion, and mult always be a pro¬ minent feature in the chara&er of the true Chnftian, adopted the vulgar language in [peaking of thofe un¬ fortunate perfons who were groundlefsly imagined to be poffefied of daemons, though they well knew the notions which had given rife to fuch modes of ex- preffion to be ill-founded j than to imagine that dif¬ eafes, which arife at prefent from natural caufes, were produced in days of old by the intervention of dae¬ mons^ or that evil fpirits flill continue to enter into mankind in all cafes ol madnels, melancholy, or epi- lepfy. 1 Befides, it is by no means a fufficient reafon for receiving any dodrine as true, that it has been ge¬ nerally received through the world. Error, like an epi¬ demical difeafe, is communicated from one to another. In certain circumftances, too, the influence of imagi- nation predominates, and reftrains the exertions of reafon. Many falfe opinions have extended their in¬ fluence through a very wide circle, and maintained it long.. On every fuch.occafion as the prefent, there- foie, it becomes us to inquire, not fo much how gene¬ rally any opinion has been received, or how long it has prevailed, as from, what caufes it has originated, and on what evidence it refts. [ 52 1 When DAG Dsemoniac When we contemplate the frame of nature, we behold || a grand and beautiful fimplicity prevailing through Dagon. the whole: Notwithftanding its immenfe extent, and though it contains fuch numberlefs diverlities of being •, Inference yet 'tlie firnPlert machine conflrufted by human art fromdie does not difplay eafier fimplicity, or an happier connec- analogy of tion of parts. We may therefore venture to draw an nature. inference by analogy, from what is obfervable of the order of nature in general to the prefent cafe. To permit evil fpirits to intermeddle with the concerns of human life, would be to break, through that order which the Deity appears to have eftablilbed through' his works } it would be to introduce a degree of confufion unworthy of the wifdom of Divine Provi¬ dence. Such are the moft rational arguments that have been urged on both fides in this controverfy. Perhaps the dsemonianifts have the ftronger probabilities on their fide ; but we will not prefume to take upon ourfelves the office of arbitrators in the difpute. D/EMONI ACS, in church hiftory, a branch of the Anabaptifts; whofe diftinguiffiing tenet is, that the de¬ vils (hall be faved at the end of the world. DAFFODIL. See Narcissus, Botany Index. DAGELET, an ifiand on the coaft of Corea, dif- covered by La Peroufe in the year 1787. It is about three leagues in circumference, and is encircled with fleep rocks, excepting a few fandy creeks, which form convenient landing places. The ifiand is covered with fine trees 5 and at the time the French navigator vifited it, feme boats were found on the flocks of a Chinefe conftruflion. The workmen, who were fup- pofed to be Corean carpenters, were employed upon them, but fled to the w’oods on the approach of the fhips. La Peroufe fuppofes that the ifiand is unin¬ habited, and that thefe people go from Corea, and live there only during the fummer, for the purpofe of building boats. The north-eafl point of this ifiand is in N. Lat. 33. 15. E. Long. 129. 2. from Paris. DAGHESTAN, a country of Afia, bounded by Circaffia on the north, by the Cafpian fea on the eafl, by Chirvein a province of Perfia on the fouth, and by Georgia on the well. Its chief towns are Tarku and Derbent, both fituated on the Cafpian fea. DAGNO, a towm of Turkey in Europe, in Albania, with a biffiop’s fee. It is the capital of the diflrifl of Ducagini, and is feated on the rivers Drino, and Nero, near their confluence. It is 1 ^ miles fouth-eaft of Scu¬ tari, and 15 north-eafl of Aleffio. E. Long. 19. 48. N. Lat. 42. o. DAGO, or Dagho, an ifiand in the Baltic fea, on the coaft of Livonia, between the gulf of Finland and Riga. It is of a triangular figure, and is about 20 miles in circumference. It has nothing confidera- ble but two caftles, called Dagger-wort and Padcn. E. Long. 22. 30. N. Lat, 38. 48. •See x Sam. DAGON, the faffe god of Aflidod or as the chap. v. Greeks tall it Axotus. He is commonly reprefented as a monfler, half man and half fifh; whence moft learned men derive his name from the Hebrew’ dag, which fig- nifies “ fiffi.” Thofe who make him to have been the inventor of bread corn, derive his name from the He¬ brew Dagon, which fignifies frumentum ; whence Philo Biblius calls him Zev? Agctkuos, Jupiter Aratriuu This deity continued to have a temple at Aflidod D A H during all the ages of idolatry to the time of the Mac- Dagon cabees $ for the author of the firlt book of Maccabees il tells us, that “ Jonathan, one of the Maccabees, having , a ,umy' beaten the army of Apollonius, Demetrius’s general, they fled to Azotus, and entered into Bethdagon (the temple of their idol): but that Jonathan fet fire to Azotus, and burnt the temple of Dagon and all thofe who had fled into it.” Dagon, according to fome, was the fame with Ju¬ piter, according to others Saturn, according to others, Venus, and according to moft, Neptune. DAHALAC is the largeft ifland in the Red fea, and is placed by Mr Bruce, who has given a minute defeription of it, between 15. 27. and 15. 54. N. Lat. It is a low, flat ifland, with a fandy foil, mixed with fhells, and in fummer deftitute of every kind of herb¬ age, excepting a fmall quantity of bent grafs, which is barely fufficient to feed a few antelopes and goats. In many places the ifland is covered with extenfive plan¬ tations of acacia trees, which rarely exceed eight feet in height, fpreading wide, and turning flat at top, probably from the influence of the wind, which blow’s from the fea. No rain falls in Dahalac from the end of March to the beginning of Oftober; but in the in¬ termediate months there are heavy fliowers, during which the water is collected in a great number of ar¬ tificial eifterns, to ferve the inhabitants during the en- fuing fummer. Of thefe cifterns, which are laid to be the work of the Perfians, or, as fome fuppofe, of the firft Ptolemies, 370 yet remain, cut out of the folid rock. The inhabitants of Dahalac are a fimple, fearful, and inoffenfive people. It is the only part of Arabia ■where no one is furniflied with arms of any kind. Af¬ ter the rains fall, the grafs fprings up with great luxu¬ riance, and then the goats give the inhabitants a copi¬ ous fupply of milk, which in winter is the principal part of their fubfiflence. The poorer fort live entirely on ffiell and other fiffi. The foie employment of the inhabitants is to work the veffels which trade to the different parts of the coatt. Dahalac contains 12 vil¬ lages or towns, each of which is furrounded with a plantation of doom trees. Of the leaves of this tree, which are of a glofiy white when dried, the inhabitants make balkets of great beauty and neatnefs. '1 his fee ms to be the only thing like manufa&ure in the ifland. Dahalac, as well as the other iflands of the Red fea, is dependent upon Mafuah. Each of the 12 villages fumiffies a goat monthly to the governor, and every veffel putting in there for Mafuah, pays him a pound of coffee, and every one from Arabia a dollar. Thefe are his principal revenues. In the. time of the Ptolemies, the pearl fifhery in the vicinity of Daha¬ lac flouriffied greatly, as well as another valuable fifliery, namely, that of tortoifes. DA HOMY, or Dauma, a powerful kingdom of Africa, on the coaft of Guinea. Aberny, the modern capital, lies in N. Eat. 7. 59. This kingdom occurs in its true pofition, in the maps of Sanuto, Plancius, and Mercator, where Dawhee, the ancient capital, is denominated Dauitia. In J 700, it was erafed from the maps of Africa, and the exiftence of the ancient nation of Dauma denied, till 1727, when it emerged from obfeurity, and became known by the conquefts of the maritime ftates of Whidah and Ardra. Between Dauma [ 53 1 D A H [ 54 ] DAI Dahomy. Dauina and Gago the lake Sigefmes, or Guards, —”v~—J (which extends about loo leagues from ealt to weft, and 50 from north to fouth, which lies about 370 miles N. N. E. of Arada, and is reprefented as the lource of various large rivers, which defcend into the gulf of Guinea) is placed by Barbot and Snelgrave, who de¬ rived their authority from the native traders. It nei¬ ther occurs in Edrili nor Leo, though it is found in the maps to Rufcelli’s edition of Ptolemy, in 1561. Dahomy is a fertile cultivated country $ the foil is a deep rich reddilh clay, intermixed with fand, fcarcely containing a ftone of the fize of an egg in the whole country. It is extremely productive of maize, millet, beans, yams, potatoes, caffada, plantain, and the ba¬ nana ; indigo, cotton, tobacco, palm-oil, and fugar, are railed, as well as a fpecies of black pepper. Bread, and a fpecies of liquor, or rather diluted gruel, are formed of the lotus-berry. Animals, both wild and tame, are numerous, and the lakes abound in filh. The maritime diftri&s of Whidah and Ardra, before they were ruined by the Dahomans, were highly cultivated and beautiful. The charaCler of the Daumanefe, or Dahomans, is original and ftrongly marked j they have retained pe¬ culiar manners, and have had little intercourfe with either Europeans or Moors. They exhibit the germ of peculiar inftitutions and modifications of manners, that have appeared incredible to modern nations, when they perufed the ancient records of the Egyptians, Hindus, and Lacedaemonians. Like the Lacedaemo¬ nians, they difplay a lingular mixture of ferocity and politenefs, of generofity and cruelty. Their conduCt towards ftrangers is hofpitable, without any mixture of rudenefs or infult. Their appearance is manly, and their perfons ftrong and a&ive j and though they are lefs addicted to the pradice of tatowing than their neighbours, their countenance rather difplays ferocity than courage. Their government is the pureft defpo- tifm ; every fubjeCt is a Have ; and every Have impli¬ citly admits the right of the fovereign to difpofe of his property and of his perfon. “ I think of my king,” faid a Dahoman to Mr Norris, “ and then I dare en¬ gage five of the enemy rnyfelf. My head belongs to the king, not to myfelf: if he pleafe to fend for it, I am ready to i-efign it ; or if it be Ihot through in bat¬ tle, I am fatisfied—if it be in his fervice.” This at¬ tachment continues unlhaken, even when their neareft relations become the victims of the avarice or caprice of the king, and his enormities are always attributed to their own indifcretions. With this devoted fpirit, the Dahoman rulhes fearlefs into battle, and fights as long as he can wield his fabre. The modern hiftory of the Dahomans realizes all that hiftory has recorded of ancient Lacedaemon, and of thofe Lacedaemonians of the north, the in¬ habitants of Jomlburgh, who were forbidden to men¬ tion the name of Fear, even in the moft imminent dangers, and whp proudly declared that they would fight their enemies, though they were ftronger than the gods. Saxo relates, that when Frotho king of Denmark, was taken prifoner in battle, he obftinately refufed to accept of life, declaring, that the reftoration of his kingdom and treafures could never reftore his honour, but that future ages would always fay, Frotho has been taken by his enemy. The palace of the king of Dahomy is an extenfive Dahon-,yr building of bamboo and mud-walled huts, furrounded faille. by a mud-wall about 20 feet high, inclofing a quadrangu- ' v—- lar fpace of about a mile fquare. The entrance to the king’s apartment is paved with human fculls, the late¬ ral walls adorned with human jaw-bones, with a few bloody heads intermixed at intervals. The whole building refembles a number of farm-yards, with lorn* thatched barns and (beds for cattle, interfeCled with low mud-walls. On the thatched roofs, numerous hu¬ man fculls are ranged at intervals, on fmall wooden flakes. In allufion to thefe, when the king iffues or¬ ders for war, he only announces to his general, that his houfe wants thatch. In this palace, or large houfe, as it is termed by the Dahomans, above 3000-female3 are commonly immured, and about 500 are appropri¬ ated by each of the principal officers. From this inju¬ rious and deteftable praClice, originate many flagrant abufesj the population is diminiffied, the fources of private happinefs deftroyed, and the belt feelings of human nature being outraged, the energies of paflion are converted into bitternefs and ferocity. The religion of Dahomy is vague and uncertain in its principles, and rather confifts in the performance of feme traditionary ceremonies, than in any fixed fyflem of belief, or of moral condudt. They believe more firmly in their amulets and fetiches, than in the deity ; their national fetiche is the Tiger; and their habita¬ tions are decorated with ugly images, tinged with blood, ftuek with feathers, befmeared with palm-oil, and bedaubed with eggs. As their ideas of deity do not coincide with thofe of Europeans, they imagine that their tutelary gods are different. “ Perhaps,” faid a Dahoman chief to Snelgrave, “ that god may be yours, who has communicated fo many extraordinary things to white men 5 but as that god has not been pleafed to make himfelf known to us, we muft be fa¬ tisfied with this we worfhip.” The Dahomans manu- fafture and dye cotton-cloth, and form a fpecies of cloth of palm-leaves. They are tolerably Ikilful in ivorking in metals. The bards, who celebrate the ex¬ ploits of the king and his generals, are likewife the hi- ftorians of the country. DAILLE, John, a Proteftant minifter near Paris, was one of the moft learned divines of the 17th centu¬ ry, and was the moft efteemed by the Catholics of all the controverfial writers among the Proteftants. He was tutor to two of the grandfons of the illuftrious M. Du Pleflis Mornai. M. Daille having lived 14 years with fo excellent a mafter, travelled into Italy with his two pupils ; one of them died abroad ; with the other he faw Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Flanders, Hol¬ land, and England, and returned in 1621. He was received minifter in 1623, and exercifed his office in the family of M. Du Pleffis Mornai j but this did noUaft long, for that lord died foon after. The me¬ moirs of this great man employed M. Daille the fol¬ lowing year. In 1625 he was appointed minifter of the church of Saumur, and in 1626 removed to Paris. He fpent all the reft of his life in the fervice of this laft church, and compofed feveral works. His firft piece was his mafterpiece, and an excellent work, Of the Ufe of the Fathers, printed 1631. It is a ftrong chain of reafoning, which forms a moral demonftration againft thofe who would have religious disputes decid¬ ed ? Bailie li Dalaca. DAL [ ed by the authority of the fathers. He died in l6’]0} aged 77. . DA1RI, or Dairo, in the hiftory of Japan, is the fovertign pontiff of the Japanefe j or, according to Ksempfer, the hereditary ecclefiaftical monarch of Ja¬ pan. In etfe£f, the empire of Japan is at prefent un¬ der two fovereigns, viz. an ecclefiallical one called the dairo, and a fecular one who bears the title of k'ubo. The laft is the; emperor, and the former the oracle of the religion of the country. DAIRY, in rural affairs, a place appropriated for the management of milk, and the making of butter, cheefe, &c. See Agriculture Index. The dairy-houfe thould always be kept in the neateft order, and fo fituated as that the windows or lattices never front the fouth, fouth-eafl, or fouth-weff. Lat¬ tices are alfo to be preferred to windows, as they ad¬ mit a more free circulation of the air than glazed lights poflibly can do. It has been obje&ed, that they admit cold air in winter and the fun in fummtr j but the remedy is eafily obtained, by making a frame the (ize of or fomewhat larger than the lattice, and cofiftruft- ing it fo as to Aide backward and forward at pleafure. Packthread {trained acrofs this frame, and oiled cap- paper palled thereon, will admit the light, and keep out the fun and wind. It is hardly poffible in the fummer to keep a dairy- houfe too cool j on which account none fhould be fitu¬ ated far from a good fpring or current of water. They fhould be neatly paved either with red brick or fmooth hard done •, and laid with a proper defcent, fo that no water may lodge. This pavement fhould be well waflied in the fummer every day, and all the utenfils belonging to the dairy fhould be kept perfeftly clean. Nor fhould we ever fuffer the churns to be fcalded in the dairy, as the fleam that aiifes from hot water will injure the milk. Nor fhould cheefe be kept therein, nor rennet for making cheefe, nor a cheefe-prefs be fixed in a dairy, as the whey and curd will diffufe their acidity throughout the room. The proper receptacles for milk are earthen pans, or wooden vats or trundles $ but none of thefie fhould be lined with lead, as that mineral certainly contains a poifonous quality, and may in fome degree affedt >he milk : but if people are fo obflinate as to per fill in ufing them, they fhould never forget to fcald them, fcrub them well with fait and water, and to dry them thorough¬ ly, before they depofit the milk therein. Indeed all the utenfils fhould be cleaned in like manner before they are ufed ; and if after this, they in the leaft de¬ gree fmell four, they muft undergo a fecond fcrubbing before they are fit for ufe. DAIS, a genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs j and in the natural method ranking under the 31ft order, Vepreculce. See Botany Index. DAISY. See Bellis, Botany Index. DAKIR, in our ftatutes, is ufed for the twentieth part of a laft of hides. According to the ftalute of 51 Hen. III. De compojitione pondernm et menfurarum, a laft of hides confifts of twenty dakirs, and every da- kir of ten hides. But by 1 Jac. cap. 33. one laft of hides or fkins is twelve dozen. See Dicker. DALACA, an ifland of the Red fea, which is faid to be very fertile, populous, and remarkable for a 55 1 DAL pearl fifhery. It is probably the fame with DAHALAC, Dalaea which fee. _ n 1 ^ • DALBERGIA, a genus of plants belonging to the Dalmatia. diadelphia clafs. Bee Botany Index. DALE A, a province of Sweden, bounded on the weft by Dalecarlia, on the eaft by the Wermeland and the lake Wener, on the fouth by Gothland, and on the north by Norway and the fea. DALEBURG, a town of Sweden, and capital of the province of Dalea, ieated on the weftern bank of the lake Wener, 50 miles north of Gottenburg. E, Long. 13. O. N. Lat. 59. o. DALECARLIA, a province of Sweden, fo called from a river of the lame name, on which it lies, near Norway. It is divided into three parts, which they call valleys ; and is about 175 miles in length and ico in breadth. It is full of mountains, which abound in mines of copper and iron, fome of which are of a pro¬ digious depth. The towns are very fmall, and Idra is the capital. The inhabitants are rough, robuft, and warlike : and all the great revolutions in Sweden had their rife in this province. T he river rifes in the Dof- rine mountains, and running fouth-eaft through the province, falls into the gulf of Bothnia. DALECHAMP, James, a phyfician, was born at Caen in Normandy, in 1513. He was diftinguifhed for his induftry in botany, as well as in other branches of literature. He wrote notes on Pliny’s Natural Hif- torv, and tranflated Athenaeus into Latin. He added 30 plates of rare plants to the Diofcorides of Ruellius, printed in 1552. After his death appeared his “ Hif~ toria generalis Plantarum in xviii. libros digejla” Lugd. 1387, two vols folio. In this work, which is faid to have been the labour of 30 years, the author propofed to include all the botanical difcoveries previous to his own time, as well as thole which he had made himfelf in the vicinity of Lyons and the Alps. He alfo pub- lifhtd editions of Paul us iEgineta and Ctelius Aure- lianus, with notes j a work on furgery, and another De Pijle, lib. iii. He pradlifed pbyfic at Lyons from 1552 to 1558, when he died, aged 75. DALECHAMPi A, a genus of plants belonging to the moncecia clafs 5 and in the natural method rank¬ ing under the 38th order, Tricoccce. See Botany Index. DALEM, a town of the united provinces of Hol¬ land, and capital of a diftridt of the fame name. It was taken by the French in 1672, who demolifhed the fortifications. It is feated on the river Bervine, five miles north-eaft of Liege. E. Long. 3. 59* ■^,a^ 50. 40. D’ALEMBERT. See Alembert. DALKEI TH, a town of Scotland, in Mid-Lothian, fix miles fouth-eaft of Edinburgh j W. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. ^5. 50. It is the principal refidence of the duke of Buccleugh, who has here a noble houfe and extenfive parks. In this houfe, which at the time was the head quarters of General Monk, the reftoration of Charles II. was planned.—The duke’s eldeft fon has the title of Earl of Dalkeith. Here is a zonfider- able corn market weekly on Thurfdays, which fupplies in part both Edinburgh and Glafgow. DALMATIA, a province in Europe, bounded on the DAL [ Dalmatia, the north by Bofnia, on the fouth by the gulf of Ve- Dair) mple. nice, on the eaft by Servia, and on the weft by Mor- v lachia. Spalatro is the capital of that part belonging to the Venetians ; and Raguza, of a republic of that name; the lurks have a third, whofe capital is Her¬ zegovina. The air is wholefom'e, and the foil fruitful ; and it abounds in wine, corn, and oil. DALRYMPLE, Sir David, a Scottilh lawyer and judge, was born in Edinburgh, on the 28th G A M Damaik There is alfo a fluff in France called the zaffart-da- by him in a fmall town near Ypres : “ If I return to Damieas. 1) mafk, made in imitation of the true damaik, having France—Yes, I will return, I will die there, and the ——w— Damiens. woof 0f JiaJrj coarfe filk, thread, wool, or cotton. Some greateft man on earth (hall die likewife, and you ihall * have the warp of filk and the woof of thread j others hear news of me.” Thefe expreflions were uttered in all thread or all wool. the month of Auguft 1756-, and it is probable that Damask, is alfo a kind of wrought linen, made in Flanders •, fo called, becaufie its large flowers referable thofe of damalks. It is chiefly ufed for tables 5 a ta¬ ble-cloth and a dozen of napkins are called a damafk- fervlce. Damask is alfo applied to a very fine fteel, in fome parts of the Levant, chiefly at Damafcus in Syria : whence its name. It is ufed for fvvord and cutlafs blades, and is finely tempered. DAMASKEENING, or Damasking, the art or operation of beautifying iron, fleel, &c. by making rncifions therein, and filling them up with gold or filver wire ; chiefly ufed for adorning fword-blades, guards tnd gripes, locks of piftols, &c. Damalkeening partakes of the mofaic, of engraving, and of carving: like the mofaic, it has inlaid work ; like engraving, it cuts the metal, reprefenting divers figures ; and, as in chafing, gold and filver are wrought in relievo. There are two ways of damalking : the one, which is the fineff, is when the metal is cut deep with proper inflruments, and inlaid with gold and filver wire : the other is fuperficial only. DAMELOPRE, a kind of bilander, ufed in Hol¬ land for conveying merchandife. from one canal to ano¬ ther ; being very commodious for palling under the bridges. DAMIANISTS, in church hiftory, a branch of the ancient acephali-Everifae. They agreed with the catholics in admitting the fixth council, but difowned any diftin61ion of perfons in the Godhead ; and pro- fieffed one Angle nature, incapable of any difference : yet they called God “ the Father, Son, and Holy k Ghoft.” D/VMIENS, Robert Francais, an affaflin by whom Louis XV. of France was wounded in the year 1757. He was born in the fuburbs of Arras, in the year 1714 j and feems rather to have been aftuated by frenzy or infanity in the perpetration of the horrid deeds of which he was guilty, than by any of the mo¬ tives to which they have been afcribed. This fpirit appeared in the early period of his life ; and fuch were the extravagance and violence, of his conduiff, that he was diftinguitbed, while a boy, by the appellation of Robert the Devil. When he grew up he entered into the army, ferved as a feldter at the fiege of Philiplb irgh, and was pre- fent at feveral engagements. He returned afterwards to France, and became a domeftic fervant in the col¬ lege of Jefuits at Paris. He married in 1738, which rendered it neceffary for him to refign this fervice. He was then employed in the fame capacity by differ¬ ent mafters, one of whom, it is faid, he poifoned ; and having robbed another, he was obliged to abfcond to efcape the punifhment due to his crimes. During a period of five months after the difcoverv of the rob¬ bery, he lurked in the neighbourhood of St Omer, Dunkirk, and B ruffe Is ; and was obferved to exprefs himfelf in an abfurd and incoherent manner concern¬ ing fome difputes which at this time prevailed in France. The following foliloquy is faid to Jbave been uttered they were regarded at the time only as the ravings of a madman. He fpoke indeed in a fimilar drain in the December following, at the houfe of a relation, at Falefque near Arras, faying, “ That the kingdom, his wife, and daughter, were all ruined !” It was about this time that he fet out for Paris, and arrived there on the 31ft of December. He Avas feen at Ver- failles, on the firft day of January 1757. To blunt his feeling*, and to prepare himfelf for the perpetration of the horrid adl:, it is faid that he fwallowed opium for feveral days. But the ftate of mind in which Damiens is defcribed to have been for fome time before, feemed to render fuch auxiliaries unneceffary. It was on the 5th of January, between five and fix in the evening, that Louis XV. Avas Avounded by the hand of this frantic affaflin. He llruck Avith a knife the right fide of the king, while he Avas iurrounded Avith his courtiers, and juft as he Avas entering his car¬ riage to go to Trianon. Damiens Avas inftantly feized, examined at Verfailles, and afterwards fent to P ris and confined in the tower of Montgomeri, in an a- partment prepared for him, near to that Avhich Avas for¬ merly occupied by Ravaillac the murderer of Hen¬ ry IV. The great court of parliament Avas charged by the king to inftitute his procefs; and although he was fubjefted to the moft cruel tortures, Avhich he bore with unexampled fortitude, no confeffion or acknow¬ ledgment could be extorted which afforded the fmallefl: ground for fufpicion that he had a Angle accomplice. When it Avas found that the torture failed of the pur- pofe for which it was inflicted, he Avas condemned to die by the fame puniftiment Avhich Ravaillac fufftred. The 28th of March following Avas fixed as the day of his execution. On that day he was brought to the Place de Greve, Avhere the apparatus and inflruments of his deftru6tion Avere prepared. All thefe he beheld with an undifmayed countenance and a tearlefs eye, although he muft have knoAvn well that nerv and more dreadful tortures yet arvaited him. His punifhment commenced Avith burning his right hand ; his flefh was then torn Avith red-hot pincers; and the Avounds Avere filled with melted wax, pitch, and lead. In attempt¬ ing to quarter his body, the four horfes Avhich were employed pulled in vain for 50 minutes. All their efforts feemed to be ineffe&ual, till the executioners cut with knives the ligaments Avith Avhich the limbs are attached to the body. Even after the legs Avere cut he was ftill alive, and it Avas only after the arms were treated in the fame Avay that he eeafed to breathe, and his body was difmembered. The period of his pu¬ nifhment, from the time he Avas put upon the fcaffold till his death, Avas not lefs than an hour and a half; during the greater part of it he feemed to retain his recolle&ion ; for he raifed his head many times, and caft hi* eyes on his mangled and burned limbs, and on the horfes which Avere then exerting their whole force to tear his body afunder. And even during the fe- vereft of his tortures, the firmnefs of his mind was fo little fhaken, that he affe&ed fome degree of jocula¬ rity. Thus Damiens, Damietta. DAM [ Thus perUhed this unfortunate aflafiin, the hiftory . of whofe life, confidered in itfelf, is fearcely worthy ’ of a place even for the fhorteft Iketch j and indeed we ftiould probably not have introduced it here, were it not for the purpofe of rectifying the miftaken views of feme of his biographers. While we are told that he was an infane a Baffin, he is charged with the fame de¬ gree of guilt, as if he had been all his life in full pof- ieffion of every rational faculty. But the events of his life leave no doubt of his infanity ; and the laft horrid deed which he perpetrated ftrongly confirms it. He was not actuated by either public or private revenge j he had no accomplices ; and it does not appear that he had any purpofe whatever to ferve by taking away the life of the monarch, even if he had fucceeded and ef- caped. In the niidlt of his molt cruel tortures, he ob- flinately perfifted that it was not his intention to kill the king. According to his own fanatical language, he wiffied that God would touch his heart to induce him to give peace to his kingdom. Our readers will probably anticipate us in remarking the needlefs excefs of lingering puniffiment which was infli£ted on the in¬ fane Damiens ; and fome of them will perhaps be fur- prifed to be told that the execution was attended by fome of the ladies of the court. Many of them too will naturally compare this event with what has happened more lately in our own country ; and recoiled, that a Nicholfun and a Hadfield, influenced by a fimilar frenzy which urged them to a fimilar attempt, have been on¬ ly doomed to perpetual confinement, not as a puniffi¬ ment, but merely to preclude the poffibility of perpe¬ trating fuch deeds j becaufe in fuch a ftate of mind they are not recognized by our milder and more equi¬ table laws as rational beings j and therefore they are improper objeds of puniffiment. DAMIETTA, a port-town of Egypt, fituated on the eatlern mouth of the river Nile, four miles from the fea, and too miles north of Grand Cairo. E. Long. 32. and N. Lat. 31. The prefent town Hands upon a different fite from the ancient Damietta, fo repeated¬ ly attacked by the European princes. The latter, ac¬ cording to Abulfeda, was “ a town furrounded by walls, and fituated at the mouth of the eaftern branch of the Nile.” Stephen of Byzantium informs us, that it was called Thamiatis under the government of the Greeks of the lower empire, but that it was then very mconfiderable. It increafed in importance every day, in proportion as Pelufium, which was frequently plun¬ dered, loll its power. The total ruin of that ancient town occafioned the commerce of the eaftern parts of the Delta to be transferred to Damietta. It was, how¬ ever, no longer a place of ftrength, when, towards the year 238 of the Hegira, the emperors of Conftantino- ple took poffeffion of it a fecond time. The import¬ ance of a harbour fo favourably fituated opened the eyes of the caliphs. In the year 244 of the Hegira, Elmetouakkel furrounded it with ftrong walls. This obftacle did not prevent Roger king of Sicily from ta¬ king it from the Mahometans in the year 550 of the Hegira. He did not, however, long enjoy his con- queft. Sal ah Eddin, who about that period mounted the throne of Egypt, expelled the Europeans from Da¬ mietta. Fifteen years after they returned to befiege it_; but this able fultan baffled all their efforts. Not- Tidthftanding their land army was fupported by a fleet 3 60 ] DA M of 1200 fail, they were obliged to make a difgraceful retreat. It was the fate of this place to be conftantly be- fieged. In the year 615 of the Hegira, under the reign of Eladel, the crufaders attacked it with a very conliderable force. They landed on the weftern fflore of the Nile j and their firft care was to furround their camp with a ditch and pallifado. The mouth of the river was defended by two towers, furniffied with nu¬ merous garrifons. An enormous iron chain, ftretch- ing from one fide to the other, hindered the approach of veffels. The crufaders carried by ftorm the tower on the fame fide with their camp, broke the chain, and opened the entrance of the river for their fleet. Nejm Eddin, the fultan’s fon, who was encamped near Damietta, covered it with an army. To flop the ene¬ mies veffels he threw a bridge over the Nile. The Franks overturned it, and the prince adopted the mea- fure of choking up the mouth of the river, which he almoft rendered impaffable by feveral large boats he funk there. After alternate and various fucceffes, many bloody battles, and a liege of 17 months, the Chriftian princes took Damietta by ftorm. They did not, how¬ ever, long enjoy the fruit of fo much blood fpilt, and of an armament which had coft immenfe firms. Completely invefted near the canal of Achmoun, by the waters of the Nile and by the Egyptian army, they purchafed their lives and their liberty by the facrifice of their csnqueft. . One-and-thirty years after this defeat St Louis car¬ ried Damietta without ftriking a ftroke. The Arabs, however, foon recovered it : but tired of keeping a place which continually drew upon them the moft wai nke nations of Europe, they totally deftroyed it, and rebuilt it further up in the country. This modern Damietta, firft called MencAie, as Abulfeda tells us, has preferved the memory of its origin in a fquare ftill called by that name. Writers in general have con¬ founded thefe two towns, afcribing to the one the at¬ tributes of the other. The modern Damietta is round¬ ed in a femicircle on the eaftern bank of the Nile, two leagues and a half from the mouth of it. The eye placed at one of the extremities of the crefcent, takes in its whole extent. It is reckoned to contain 80,000 fouls. It has feveral fquares, the moft confiderable of which has retained the name of Menchie. The bazars are filled with merchants. Spacious okals or khans colleamg under their porticoes the fluffs of India, the Inks of Mount Lebanon, fal ammoniac, and pyramids of rice, proclaim that it is a commercial town. The houfes, thofe in particular which are on the banks of the river, are very lofty. They have in general hand- lorae faloons built on the top of their terraces, which are cheerful belvideres, open to every wind, where the . u^.k’ «ffeminately reclining on a fopha, paffes his life in imoking, in looking on the fea, which bounds the horizon on one fide, on the great lake that extends it- lel on the other, and on the Nile, which, running between them, traverfes a rich country. Several large mofques, adorned with lofty minarets, are difperfed over the town The public baths, lined with marble, are diftnbuted in the fame manner as thofe of Grand Cairo I he linen you are ferved with is clean, and he water very pure. The heat and the treatment in them, fo far from injuring the health, ferve to ftrength- en, nay even to improve it, if ufed with moderation. This DAM . t 61 ] DAM Damietta. Tins cuftom, founded on experience, is general in Egypt. The port of Damietta is continually filled with a multitude of boats and fmall veffels. Thofe called fcherm ferve to convey the merchandife on board the {hips in the road, and to unload them j the other car¬ ry on the coafting trade. This town carries on a great trade with Syria, with Cyprus, and Marfeilles. The rice called meze/aoni, of the fineft quality there is in Egypt, is cultivated in the neighbouring plains. The exports of it amount annually to about fix millions of livres. The other articles of the produce of the coun¬ try are linens, fal ammoniac, corn, &c. A ruinous policy for the country prohibits the exportation of this laft article ; but the law is evaded, and it paffes under the name of rice. The Chriftians of Aleppo and Damafcus, fettled in this town, have for feveral ages carried on its principal commerce. Turkifh indolence, content with extort¬ ing from them from time to time, fuffers them to be¬ come rich. The exportation of rice to foreign coun¬ tries is prohibited ; but by means of fome douceurs to the cuftomhoufe-officers, the people of Provence load annually feveral ffiips with it. The Bogaz preventing them from entering the Nile, their cargoes are con¬ veyed on board by the boats of the country. This in¬ convenience is the fource of endlefs vexation and abu- fes. The boat, which is loaded in the evening with rice of the firft quality, is frequently not that which arrives at the ffiip; an inferior quality is fubftituted for it during the night. The Marfeilles captains, aware of thefe rogueries, without being able to prevent them, endeavour to play off trick againft trick, fo that this commerce has become a general fcene of knavery. But the badnefs of the port is (till more detrimental to Da¬ mietta. The road where the veffels lie being expofed to every wind, the flighteft gale obliges the captains to cut their cables and take ffielter at Cyprus, or to ftand off to fea. It would be eafy, by cutting a canal only of half a league, to open a paffage for ffiips into the. Nile, where there is deep water. This work, which might be executed at very little expence, would render Damietta a noble harbour ; but defpotifm, in- fenfible to the intereft of the people, is always fur- rounded by deftru&ion in its progrefs, and wants both the will and the power to create. The tongue of land on which Damietta is fituated, ftraitened on one fide by the river, and on the other by the weftern extremity of Lake Menza/e, is only from two to fix miles wide from eaft to weft. It is inter¬ fered by innumerable rivulets in every direftion, which render it the moft fertile fpot in Egypt. The foil there produces, communibus annis, 80 buffiels of rice for one.. The other produce is in the fame proportion. It is there that nature, laviffiing profufely her pomp and riches, prefents flowers, fruits, and harvefts, at every feafon of the year. Winter never deprives it of thefe advantages j its beauties are never impaired by fummer. Deflru6Hve heats, as well as chilling colds, are equally unknown in that happy fpot. The ther- niometer varies only from 9 to 24 degrees above the freezing point. Damietta is indebted for this charm¬ ing temperature to the immenfe quantity of water with which it is furrounded. The verdure is no¬ where fo freffi j the trees are nowhere covered with fuch quantities of fruit. The rivulets around the Damiett* fields of rice are lined with feveral kinds of reeds, H fome of which rife to a great height. The reed ca/a- Damon. mus is here found in abundance, which is made ufe 0f for writing by the orientals. Its flender ftalks bear long narrow leaves, which hang gracefully, and fpread- ing branches covered with white flowers. Here alfo are to be feen forefts of papyrus, of which the ancient Egyptians made their paper. Strabo, who calls it bibhus, gives an accurate defeription of it. It is here alfo that the /otus, of which the Arabs have preferved the primitive name of nuphar, exalts its lofty ftalk above the waters. Its large calyx blows either of an azure blue or of a brilliant white, and it appears with the ma- jefty of the king of the aquatic plants. The marffies and the canals in the interior parts of the country are filled with this fuperb flower, which diffufes a moft agreeable odour. There are a great many villages around Damietta, in moft of which are manufactures where the moft beautiful linens of the country are fabricated. The fineft napkins in particular are made there, fringed with filk. You are ferved at table with them, but efpecially on ceremonial vifits, when the flave prefents you with one to wipe your mouth with, after you have drank your ftierbet, or eaten the fweatmeats, which are carried round on a filver plate to all the company. Thefe fmall towns, generally furrounded with little woods, or trees promifcuoufly planted, form a whim- fical and piClurefque affcmblage. By the fide of the fycamore and the melancholy tamarind, one fees the elegant caffia-tree, with its clufters of yellow flowers, like thofe of the cytifus. The top of the date-tree, loaded with enormous bunches, rifes above the grove. The caffia, with its fweet-fcented flower, grows under its {hade. The orange and lemon trees cover the la¬ bourer’s cabin with their golden fruit. The banana- tree with its long leaves, the pomegranate with its fcarlet flower, and the fig-tree with its fugary fruit, through a vaft variety into thefe landfcapes. DAMNII, anciently a people of Britain ; fituated between the Selgovae to the fouth and the Caledonii to the north. Now Clydefdale. DAMNONII. See Danmonii. DAMOCLES, one of the flatterers of Dionyfius the Elder of Sicily. He admired the tyrant’s wealth, and pronounced him the happieft man on earth. Dio¬ nyfius prevailed upon him to undertake for a while the charge of royalty, and be convinced of the happinefs which a fovereign enjoyed. Damocles afcended the throne, and while he gazed upon the wealth and fplen- dour that furrounded him, be perceived a fword hang¬ ing over his head by a horfe hair. This fo terrified him that all his imaginary felicity vaniffied at once, and he begged Dionyfius to remove him from a fituation which expofed his life to fuch fears and dangers. DAMON, the name of feveral illuftrious ancients, particularly of a Pythagorean philofopher very inti¬ mate with Pythias. When he had been condemned to death by Dionyfius, he obtained from the tyrant leave to go and fettle his domeftic affairs, on promife of re¬ turning at a ftated hour to the place of execution. Pythias pledged himfelf to undergo the puniffiment which was to be infli&ed on Damon, ffionld he not re¬ turn in time, and he confequently delivered himfelf in. DAM r 62 ] DAM Damon to hands of the tyrant. Damon returned at the ap- |) pointed moment, and Dionyfius was fo ftruck with the Dampier. fidelity of thefe two friends, that he remitted the pu- ■—"Y—nilhment, and entreated them to permit him to ihare their friendlbip and enjoy their confidence. DAMPIER, William, an Englith navigator, was born at Eaft Coker in SomerfetQiire, about the year 1652. His parents died while he was young, and ha¬ ving thus become an orphan, he was removed from the Latin fchool, and placed with the mafter of a (hip at Weymouth. In this (hip he made a voyage to New¬ foundland ; but, on his return, he left his mafler, with the refolution, as he himfelf obferves, of never again expofing himfelf to the pinching cold of that northern climate. As the acquifition of experience in the art of navigation was ever his great objedl, he engaged bimfelf as a common failor in a voyage to the Eaft Indies. He ferved in the Dutch war under Sir Ed¬ ward Sprague, and was prefent at two engagements. The declining date of his health would not permit him to remain on board the fleet 5 he therefore came on (hore, and removed to the country, where he remained fome time. The year following he accepted an offer of employment in Jamaica as an under manager of an eftate: but he only continued a (hort time in that fitu- ation ; after which he engaged in a coafting trader, and thus acquired an accurate knowledge of all the ports and bays of that ifland. Soon after he entered on board a veffel bound to the bay of Campeachy, and returning a fecond time to the fame coaft, he remained with the log-wood-cutters, and engaged himfelf as a common workman. During his (lay in this country he collefted the materials for the minute and intereft- ing account which he has given of the laborious life of thefe people, as well as of the geographical de- fcription and the natural hiftory of the trail which they occupy. Satisfied with the knowledge which he had obtained of the nature of the trade and country, he returned to Jamaica, and from thence to England, where he ar¬ rived in 1678. About the beginning of the year fol¬ lowing he went out to Jamaica as a paffenger, with the intention of revifiting the bay of Campeachy j but he wTas perfuaded to .affociate himfelf with a body of privateers, as they were called, who were then lying in feveral veffels in a bay of that ifland. Thefe peo¬ ple who were called privateers, were pirates, who, having no commiflion whatever from a iy government, undertook a predatory warfare on the commerce and fettlements of the Spaniards. This body of plunderers was compofed of Englifti, Dutch, and French. In this expedition Dampier croffed the ifthnms of Darien with his affociates, and fpent the year 1680 on the Pe¬ ruvian coaft, and was occafionally fuccefsful in plun¬ dering the towns. The following year, in confequenee of a diffenfion which arofe among them, Dampier, and the minority with whom he had joined, recroffed the ifthmus, and entered with another fleet of privateers, which was then ftationed on the SpanHh main ; and, having fpent another year among the Weft India iflands, he, with fome others, proceeded to Virginia in a (ingle (hip to difpofe of their prize goods. Here he remained for .a year ; and afterwards engaged with a Captain Cook, who, with about 70 men, undertook an expedition againft the Spaniards in the South feas. They failed in 1683 In the month of Auguft, touched Dampier. at the cuaft of Guinea, and then proceeded round Cape —-v—— Horn into the Pacific ocean. Having fallen in with a ihip from London, which had failed on a fimilar ex¬ pedition, they joined company $ and, having touched at the ifland of Juan Fernandez, they made the coaft of South America, cruiling along Chili and Peru. They took fome prizes, and with them they proceeded to the Mexican coaft, which they fell in with near Cape Blanco. While they lay here Captain Cook died, and the command devolved on Captain Davis. Having feparated from the London (hip, they were joined by another commanded by Captain Swan. An attempt to plunder the town of Guaiaquil was unfuc- cefstul, but at the mouth of the river they took fome veffels which had about 100c (laves on board. With tbefe negroes Dampier propofed to work the gold mines in the neighbourhood of Santa Maria on the ifthmus of Darien, from which the Spaniards had been driven away by fome privateers. But this plan was not attempted. The next object of plunder was the Spanilh fleet having on board the treafure of the Peru¬ vian mines j but the Englilli being ill fupported by fome French (hips which had joined them, the fleet, after a running fight, got fafe into Panama. The Englith (hips afterwards eruifing along the coaft of Mexico, landed, took the town of Puebla Nova, and burnt two others. Dampier leaving Davis, went on board of Swan’s (hip, and proceeded with him along the northern parts of Mexico, as far as the fouthern part of California. During this expedition they frequently landed for the. purpofe of plunder, but particularly when they were in want of provifions. Returning from the plunder of one place, 50 of the party were killed by the Spaniards. This difafler fo difeouraged them that they relinquiflied all farther at¬ tempts on thefe coafts. Swan then prqpofed to run acrofs the Pacific ocean, and return by the Eaft Indies j and in hopes of a fucceisful cruife off the Manillas the crew were perfuaded, with a very (lender provifion, to rilk this long paffage. On the lad day of March 1686, they took their departure from Cape Corrientes, and-on the ^2d day reached Guam, one of the Ladrone iflands. About this time the crew talked of killing and eating Swan and the officers, in cafe their (lock of provifion (hould be exhaufled before it could be fupplied. From Guam they proceeded to Mindanao. While the (hip lay here a mutiny arofe among the crew, and the majority carried her off, Swan and fame of his people being left on the ifland. Among the farmer was Dampier, although it is faid that he had no concern in the mutiny. After cruizing fome time off Manilla, and having careened their veffel at Pulo Condore, in 1687 they were driven to the Chinefe coaft, made the circuit of Luzonia and Mindanao, paffed through the group of Spice iflands, and reached the coaft of New Holland in the beginning of 1688. They left this in March, and having paffed along the weft coaft of Sumatra, they arrived at the Nicobar i(lands, where Dampier, at his own requeft, and two other Englifhmen, a Portuguefe, and fome Malays, were fot on (bore. Dam pier’s objea was to eftablifti a trade in ambergris. Attempting to navigate a canoe to Acheen in Sumatra, they were overtaken by a fe- vere ftorm, in which they experienced great hardftiips. They BAM t 73ampler. They at lad reached Sumatra; but the fatigues and di- y——. ftrefs of tlie voyage proved fatal tofeveral of them, who were carried off by a fever. Dampier himfelf was fcarcely recovered at the end of a twelvemonth. After making feveral voyages to different places of the Eaft Indies, he afted for fbme time as gunner at the Englilh fort of Bencoolen. In 1691, wilhing to revifit his na¬ tive country, he embarked on board a flop for England, where he arrived in September. At this time he brought with him a native of Meangis, one of the Spice itlands, who was fuppofed to be the fon of a chief, and after being exhibited as a fight, died of the fmallpox at Oxford. It is not known in what manner Dampier was em¬ ployed for feme years after this period. It appears, however, that he was at laft engaged in the king’s fervice. He had the command of the Roebuck, a Hoop of 12 guns and 50 men. This veffel, it is fuppo¬ fed, was fitted out for fome voyage of difeovery, for fhe had 20 months provifions on board.. He failed from Britain in 1699, touched at the coalt of Brafil, and then ran acrofs to the coaft of New Holland, and arrived there on the id of Auguft, about latitude 26°. He proceeded northwards along the coaft, exploring the country in different places where he landed. To procure refreffiments he found it neceffary to direft his courfe towards Timor y and from this he failed to the coaft of New Guinea, where he arrived on the 3d of December. By failing along to its eafternmoft ex¬ tremity, he difeovered that it was terminated by an ifland, which he circumnavigated, and named New Britain. Here it would appear from his own journal that he encountered confiderable difficulties from the fmall number of his men* and their eager defire to haften home. On account of thefe difficulties he was pre¬ vented from profecuting his difeoveries. In May he returned to Timor, and from thence proceeded home¬ ward by Batavia and the Cape of Good Hope. In Fe¬ bruary 1701 he arrived off the ifland of Afcenfion, when the veffel fprung a leak and foundered j and it was with mucb difficulty that the crew reached the ifland. They remained at Afcenfion till they were taken away by an Eaft India (hip, and conveyed to England. This clofes the account of Dampier’s life and adventures, as it is detailed by himfelf. It appears, however, from the preface to the third volume, that he was preparing in 1703 for another voyage. It is men¬ tioned alfo in Woodes Rogers’ Voyage round the World, that Dampier had the command of a ffiip in the South feas about the year 1705, along with Captain Strad- ling, whofe veflel foundered at fea. Dampier accom¬ panied Woodes Rogers in his voyage round the world, in the years 1708, 1709, «7IQ, and 1711 ; but only in the capacity of pilot, which is fuppofed to be owing to fomething faulty in his conduiR. During this expe¬ dition Guaiaquil was taken, and Dampier had the com¬ mand of the artillery. Nothing farther is known of the life of Dampier ; and we are equally ignorant of the place and time of his death. The works of Dampier are- well known, and Have been often reprinted. They confift of, I. A Voyage round the world, 3 vols o6tavo. 2. A Supplement to it, defcribing the countries of Tonquin, Malacca, &c. 3.. Two Voyages to Campeachy. 4. A Dif- 63 ] DAM courfe of Trade-winds, Seafons, Tides, &c. in the Tor- rid Zone. 5. A Voyage to New Holland. His obfer- Damps.’ vations are curious and important, and conveyed in a —v—• plain manly ftile. His nautical remarks difeover a great deal of profeffional knowledge. His knowledge in na¬ tural hiftory is not fcientific j but it appears to be accu¬ rate, and has been frequently quoted. DAMPS, m Natural Hifiory, (from the Saxon word dampt fignifying vapour or exhalation), are certain noxious exhalations iffuing from fome parts of the earth, and which prove almoft inftantly fatal to thofe who breathe them. Thefe damps are chiefly obferved in mines and coal¬ pits 5 though vapours of the fame kind often iffue from old lavas of burning mountains, and, in thofe countries where volcanoes are common, it is faid that they fill the houfes, and deftroy people fuddenly without the lead warning of their approach. In mines and coal-pits they are chiefly of two kinds, called by the miners and col¬ liers the choke and fire damps ^ and both go under one general name of foul air. The choke-damps, known in modern chemiftry by the name offxed air, or carbonic acid gas, ufually infefts thofe places which have been formerly worked, but long negledled, and are called by the miners ivafes. No place, however, can be reckoned fafe from this kind of damps, except where there is a due circulation of air $. and the procuring of this is the only proper means of preventing accidents from damps of all kinds. The choke-damp fuffocates the miners fuddenly,, with all the Appearances found in thofe that are fuffocated by fixed air. Being heavy, it defeends towards the loweft parts of the workings, and thus is dangerous to the miners, who can fcarce avoid breathing it. The fire-damp, which is inflamma¬ ble air, Injdrogen gas, rifes to the roof of the work¬ ings, as being fpecifically lighter than the common atmofphere j and hence, though it will fuffbeate as well as the other, it feldom proves fo dangerous in this way as by its inflammable property, by which it often takes fire at the candles, and explodes with ex¬ treme violence. In the Phil. Tranf. N° 119. there is an account of fome explofions by damps of this kind, on which we have the following obfervations. 1. Thofe who are in the place where the vapour is fired fuddenly find themfelves furrounded with flames, hut hear little or no noife ; though thofe who are in places adjacent, or above ground, hear a very great one. 2. Thofe who are furrounded by the inflamed vapour feel themfelves fcorched or burnt, but are not moved out of their places, though fuch as unhappily ftand in the way of it are commonly killed by the violence of the ffiock, and often thrown with great force out at the mouth of the pit; nor are the heavieft machines found able to re¬ fill: the impetuofity ofthe blaft. 3. No fmell is perceived before the fire, but a very ftrong one of brimflone is after¬ wards perceptible. 4. The vapour lies towards the roof, and is not perceived if the candles are held low, but when .thefe are held higher, the damp defeends like a black mill, and catches hold of the flame, lengthening it to two or three handfuls ; and this appearance ceafes when the candles are held nearer the ground. 5. The flame continues in the vault for feveral minutes after the. crack. 6i Its colour is blue, fomething inclining to green, and very bright. 7. On the explofion of the vapour^, DAM [ 64 Damps, vapour, a dark fmoke like that proceeding from fired ——V—gunpowder is perceived. 8. Damps are generally ob- ferved to come about the latter end of May, and to continue during the heat of fummer. They return fe- veral times during the fummer feafon, but obferve no certain rule. Befides thefe kinds of damps, which are very com¬ mon, we find others deferibed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, concerning the nature of which we can fay nothing. Indeed the account feems fomewhat fuf- picious. They are given by Mr Jeffop, from whom we have the foregoing obfervations concerning the fire¬ damp, and who had thefe from the miners in Derby- fhire. After defcribing the common damp, which confifls of fixed air, “ They call the fecond fort (fays he) the peafe-bloom damp, becaufe, as they fay, it fmells like peafe-bloom. They tell me it always comes in the fummer time j and thofe grooves are not free which are never troubled with any other fort of damps. I never heard that it was mortal j the fcent, perhaps freeing them from the danger of a furprife : but by reafon of it many good grooves lie idle at the belt and moft profitable time of the year, when the fubterrane- ous waters are the lowefl. They fancy it proceeds from the multitude of red trefoil flowers, by them called ho- neyfuchles, with which the limeftone meadows in the Peake do much abound. The third is the ftrangeft and moft peftilential of any j if all be true which is faid con¬ cerning it. Thofe who pretend to have feen it (for it is vifible) defcribe it thus: In the higheft part of the roof of thofe paflages which branch out from the main groove, they often fee a round thing hanging, about the bignefs of a foot-ball, covered with a fldn of the thicknefs and colour of a cobweb. This, they fay, if it is broke by any accident, as the fplinter of a ftone, or the like, difperfeth itfelf immediately, and fuffocates all the company. Therefore, to prevent cafualties, as foon as they have efpied it, they have a way, by the help of a ftick and long rope, of breaking it at a di- ftance j which done, they purify the place well with fire, before they dare enter it again. I dare not a- vouch the truth of this ftory in all its circumftances, becaufe the proof of it feems impoflible, fince they fay it kills all that are likely to bear witnefs to the parti¬ culars : neither do I deny but fuch a thing may have been feen hanging on the roof, fince I have heard many affirm it.”—Some damps, feemingly of the fame nature with thofe laft mentioned, are noticed by the author of the Chemical Diflionary, under the word Damps. “ Amongft the noxious mineral exhalations (fays he), we may place thofe which are found in the mines of fal gem in Poland. Thefe frequently appear in form of light flocks, threads, and fpiders webs. They are remarkable for their property of fuddenly catching fire at the lamps of the miners with a terrible noife and explofion. They inftantly kill thofe whom they touch. Similar vapours are found in fome mines of foffil coal.” With regard to the formation of damps we have as yet no certain theory ; nor, though the experiments of aerologifts are abundantly able to (how the compo- fition and manner of forming thefe noxious airs arti¬ ficially, have they yet thrown much light on the me¬ thod by which nature prepares them on a large fcale. There are two general ways in which we may fuppofe ] BAM this to be done : one by the ftagnation of atmofpheri- canlr,s cal air in old wafte places of mines in coal-pits, and y-—. its converfion into thefe mephitic exhalations ; the other by their original formation from the phlogiftic or other materials found in the earth, without any in¬ terference of the atmofphere. In favour of the for¬ mer opinion it may be urged, that old waftes are ne¬ ver free from damps, efpecially thofe of the kind re- fembling fixed air j nor are they always deficient in the inflammable kind. The fame is alfo true of old wells, or even cellars, and in fliort every place where the air ftagnates for any confiderable time. But, on the other hand, we have many inftances of fixed air coming out of the earth, and that in vaft quanti¬ ties, where no confiderable ftagnation of the atmo¬ fphere could be fufpe£led j as for inftance, in the grot¬ to del Cani in Italy, where a continual ftream of it has iffued from time immemorial. The fame feems to be the cafe with the tops of fome high mountains, parti¬ cularly Mont Blanc, the higheft in Europe ; on the top of which M. Sauflure found the atmofphere fo much impregnated with fixed air, that lime water ex- pofed to it very quickly gathered a cruft on its furface. Sir William Hamilton, in his account of the eruptions of Vefuvius, informs us, that the inhabitants in the neighbourhood of that mountain are infefted with a kind ef peftilential vapours named by them tnnfetes, which iflue from the old lava thrown out by the vol¬ cano. Thefe are of the nature of the damps in our mines or coal-pits, and iflue forth in fuch quantity as either to infedl the atmofphere for a very confiderable way round, or to do mifchief by being carried from place to place by the atmofpherical currents, which are not ftrong enough to diffipate them for fome time. From fome late accounts the famiel (or fcorching winds, as they have been reprefented) in the eaftern countries, feem to be no other than ftreams of fixed air of confiderable extent, which exert their ufual and fatal effe&s on thofe who breathe them. A ftrong ar¬ gument in favour of this opinion is, that thefe winds cannot crofs a river, it being the nature of water to abforb fixed air, and thus deftroy them. Hence it is rendered probable that thefe mephitic vapours are often to be met with in the open atmo¬ fphere, and confequently cannot always be the eflfeft of ftagnation 5 nor indeed does it at all appear that mere ftagnation can affefl the quality of the atmo¬ fphere either one way or other. This fluid cannot have its properties altered but by fomething immerfed in it upon which it can aft, and by means of which aftion its component parts may be changed or fepa- rated. While this procefs is going on, there is gene¬ rally, if not always, an abforption of air, accompanied indeed frequently with an emiffion of fome aerial fluid equal in quantity to that which is abforbed. Mr Scheele, in his Effay on Fire, has ftiown by a number of experiments the eflfeft of expofing certain fubftan- ces to the aftion of air, both on the fubftances them- felves and on the aerial fluid. The refult of all thefe is no other than what we might expeft from a very flow combuftion, and which perhaps may on inquiry be found to be the only way by which air can be decom- pofed. If the fubftance expofed to the air was capa¬ ble of abforbing that part of the fluid which had un- dergone a change, there was always an evident dimi¬ nution DAM r ■©ampv nation, but not otherwife. Thus, on inclofing fome —cauftic fixed alkali in a phial of atmofpheric air, a con- fiderable diminution took place j and the. alkali, by be¬ coming faturated with fixed air, (bowed that a decom- pofition had taken place, and that the dephlogifticated patt of the air had feparated from the other, attached itfelf to the fixed alkali, and become fixed air by uni¬ ting with a certain proportion of phlogiftic matter. Kence we may conceive, that in any place where the a'ir was confined over a raft quantity of cauftic alkaline felt, it would foon become unfit for the purpofes of animal life, and we might fay that a damp would be formed. But this would be a damp of a very different kind from that ufilally met with in mines j for here the dephlogifticated part of the atmofphere being con¬ verted into fixed air, and abforbed by the felt, only the azotic gas, or, as it has been called, phlogijiicated air, would remain, fo that no fixed air could ever be fepa¬ rated from it. Let us now fuppofe, that inftead of the alkaline fait a quantity of burning charcoal is confined in a place where there is not a proper circulation of air, and we (ball foon fee that a damp of the very fame kind with that called by miners the chohe-damp will be formed. But this takes place by reafon of the dif- fipation of the charcoal by heat, and its union with the pure part of the atmofphere, or oxygen gas, which always conftitutes fixed air. In this cafe, however, the damp muft be bat of (bort continuance, and will foon be diflipated after the charcoal is extinguiftied $ but if, inftead of the charcoal, we fubftitute a large quantity of fermenting liquor, from whence the fixed air is naturally emitted, a damp will be formed much more difficult to be diffipated than the former, becaufe it renews itfelf in a very (bort time ; and, unlefs there is a very conftant circulation of air, it will be danger¬ ous to enter the place where it is. From the laft example we may form an idea of the manner in which thefe damps, confiding chiefly, of fixed air, are formed. We know not indeed thorough¬ ly the nature of fermentation ; but we are affured, that it is always accompanied by an internal heat ; which, in fome cafes, is raifed to the utmoft height, infomuch that large quantities of moift vegetable fub- ftances, packed tog-ether, will fometimes burft out into flame. It is not, however, at all times neceffary for the extrication of fixed air, that the heat ffiould come to this extremity. The example of fermenting liquors (hows, that in feme cafes a very moderate heat is fuf- ficient for the purpofe. Now, though the compari- fen may feem femewhat inadequate between the felid fubftance of the earth and a fermenting liquid, yet we know that a gentle beat conftantly takes place in the bowels of the earth ; and that almoft all terreftrial fubftances will emit fixed air on being expofed to heat. It is not at all improbable, therefore, that, on the large feale of nature, the quantity of materials may compenfate for the weaknefs of the heat, and thus oc- cafion a conftant emiffion of fixed air ; which, though flow in comparifen of what is effected in our experi¬ ments by a violent artificial heat, may yet accumu¬ late in the narrow fpaces of mines in fuch a manner as to be very troublefeme. In volcanic countries, where the heat of the earth is much greater, the emif¬ fion of fixed air is in proportion: and thus we may ‘VOL. VII. Part I. 65 ] DA M account for that continued dream of it, which iffues omp*. from the grotto del Cani, and perhaps other places. ——v— The mtfetes, which are faid to proceed from old lavas, can only be accounted for by fuppofing the heat, which originally took place in them, to be in feme meafure renewed ; or that they have been again, by feme means or other, difpofed to take fire as formerly i but this we offer merely as a conjedture j there not be¬ ing as yet fufficient data to determine any thing pofi- tively upon the fubjeft. It may be objected to the hypothefis juft now laid down, that, if there is a continual difpofition in the earth to produce fixed air, the whole furface of it muft; pour out fuch a quantity as would deftroy every living creafffre upon it. This indeed might be granted, w'ere the furface of the earth quite bare, and deftitute of vegetation : but there is no abfurdity, in fuppofing that the fixed air may be continually decompoled by the vegetables which grow all over the furface of the earth j and the atmofphere not only thus preferved from any taint from it, but fupplied with a quantity of pure air, which it is certain vegetables give out. It is alfo certain, that wherever the atmofphere is fuflered to be in contact with the bare furface of the ground for feme time, a confiderable quantity of fixed air will be produced, unlefs there is a conftant circulation of atmofpherical air to carry off the former before it has time to produce any fenfible effect. Hence we may account for the damps in wells, cellars, and even in the confined places of old caftles and ruinous build¬ ings, where the air is not in contact with the furface of the ground itfelf, but with mere heaps of rubbith and old walls. With regard to what is called the fire-damp, the cafe feems to be more plain. In the Phil. Tranf. N0 136. we have the following account of one of this kind, which feemed evidently to iffue from the earth : “ This work is upon a coal of five yards in thicknefs, and hath been begun upon about fix or eight and thirty years ago. When it was firft found, it was extremely full of water, fe that it could not bs wrought down to the bottom of the coal : but a wit- chet, or cave, was driven out of the middle of it, upon a level, for gaining room to work, and drawing down the fpring of water that lies in the coal to the eye of the pit. In driving of which witchet, after they had gone a confiderable way under ground, and were fcant- ed of wind, the fire-damps began by little and little to breed, and to appear in crevices and flits of the coal, where water had lain before the opening of the coal, with a fmall bluiffi flame, working and moving conti¬ nually *, but not out of its firft feat, unlefs the work¬ men held their candles to it ; and then being weak, the blaze of the candle would drive it out with a fed- den fizz away to another crevice, where it would feon after appear blazing and moving as formerly. This was the firft knowledge of it in this work, which the workmen made but a (port of, and fo partly neglefted, till it bad gotten feme ftrength; and then upon a morning the firft collier that went down, going for¬ wards in the witchet with his candle in his hand, the damp prefently darted out fe violently at his candle, that it (buck the man clear down, finged all his hair and clothes, and difabled him from working for a while after. Some other fmall warnings it gave them, infe- I much BAM [ 66 ] BAN Damps, much that they refolved to employ a man on purpofe “"“v ' that was more refolute than the reft, to go down a while before them every morning, to chafe it from place to place, and fo to weaken it. His ufual man¬ ner was to put on the worft rags he had, and to wet them all in water, and when he came within the dan¬ ger of it, then he fell down grovelling upon his belly, and fo went forward, holding in one hand a long wand or pole, at the head whereof he tied candles burning, and reached them by degrees towards !t; then the damp would fly at them, and, if it miffed of putting them out, would quench itfelf with a blaft, and leave an ill-fcented fmoke behind. Thus they dealt with it till they had wrought the coal down to the bottom, and the water following, and not remaining as before in the body of it, among fulphureous and braffy metal that is in lome veins of the coal, the fire-damp was not feen nor heard of till the latter end of the year 1675, which happened as followeth : “ After long working of this coal, it was found upon the rifing grounds that there lay another roach of coal at the depth of 14 yards under it, which proved to be 3-J yards thick, and fomething more fulphure¬ ous. Ihis encouraged us to fink in one of the pits we had formerly ufed on the five-yards coal. As we funk the lower part of it, w7e had many appearances of the fire-damp in the watery crevices of the rocks rve funk through, flafhing and darting from fide to fide of the pit, and Ihowing rainbow-like colours upon the furface of the water in the bottom } but upon drawing up of the water with buckets, which ftirred the air in the pit, it would leave burning, till the colliers at work, with their breath and fw'eat, and the fmoke of their candles, thickened the air in the pit, and then it would appear again ; they lighted their candles at it fometimes when they went out; and fo in this pit it did no farther harm.” In another pit, however, it foon appeared, and at laft produced a moft terrible explofion. This was oc- eafioned by one of the workmen going imprudently down with a lighted candle, after a ceffation of work for fome days, and the force exerted by it feemed equal to that of gunpowder. The formation of inflammable air in mines is to be afcribed, according to the dodtrines of modern chemi- ftry, to the decompofition of water, a procefs which is conftantly going on in places where metallic fub- ftances are expofed to its adtion. As the metals are oxidated by their combination with the oxygen, one of the component parts of water, the hydrogen, its other component part, is fet at liberty, and accumu¬ lates in thofe places where it is generated. A much more important confideration than the for¬ mation of damps, however, is the proper method of avoiding their pernicious effedls. The inflammability of one kind affords an eafy method of preventing it from accumulating, viz. by fetting fire to it. This may be done with fafety, unlefs it has been fuffered to go too far before the experiment is made ; for the in¬ flammable air being much lighter than any other kind will naturally rife to the top ; fo that a man, ly¬ ing flat on the ground to avoid the force of the ex¬ plofion, and holding up a lighted candle fixed upon a pole, may at once free the mine from fuch a trouble- vome gueft. But where it has been allowed to accu- 2 mulate in too great quantity, fo that this method jyamps. cannot be ufed, or in the other kind, which is not in- || P flammable, the method commonly pra&ifed is to pro- Dan. duce a conilant circulation of air as much as poflible through all parts of the mine. To procure this, they make a perpendicular opening, which they call ayZ>fl«£, or Jhaft, fo that the mine may have two or more open¬ ings : and thus by reafon of the difference of tempera¬ ture between the open atmofphere and that in the mine, there is a continual draught of air through them both. This current will always be ftronger in proportion to the difference between the external at¬ mofphere and that of the mine ; and likewife in pro¬ portion to the difference between the depth of the two ftiafts. But as the temperature of the atmofphere is- variable, it happens at certain feafons of the year, that there is not a fufficient difference between that of the atmofphere and in the mine to produce the ne- ceffary circulation. This happens principally in the fpring and autumn ; at which feafons it is neceffary to light fires in the {hafts, which are always efficacious for the purpofe defired. Among the other ufes to which dephlogifticated air might be applied, Mr Cavallo reckons that of fecuring people from the dangerous effedls of damps in mines, and other fubterraneous places. “ If a large bladder,” fays he, “ into which a folution of lime in water is in¬ troduced, be filled with dephlogiftieated air, and a fmali wooden cr glafs pipe be adapted to its neck, a man may hold that pipe in his mouth, and may breathe the dephlogifticated air ; and thus equipped, he may- enter into thefe fubterranean places, amidft the van- ous elaftic fluids contained in them. A large bladder of dephlogifticated air will ferve for above a quarter of an hour, which is a length of time fulficient for vari¬ ous purpofes; befides, if longer time is required to be {pent in thefe places, a perfon may have two or more bladders of dephlogifticated air along with him, and may fliift as foon as the air of one is contaminated. Without the neceflity of any more complicated appa¬ ratus, the bladders full of dephiogifticated air may be kept flopped by putting corks into the glafs or wooden pipes that are tied to their necks. This air might alfa be ufed for diving-bells.” DAMSEL, from the French dumoifel or damoifeau^ an appellation anciently given to all young people of either lex, that were of noble or genteel extraction, as the fons and daughters of princes, knights, and barons ; thus we read of Damfel Pepin, Damfel Louis le Gros^ Damfel Richard Prince of Wales. From the fons of kings this appellation firft paffed to thofe of great lords and barons, and at length to thofe of gentlemen who were not yet knights. At piefent damlel is applied to all maids or girls not married, provided they be not of the vulgar. DAjV, or Jor-dan, which laft literally denotes the rLer Dan j fo named from the people where it has its fource, which is a lake called Phiala, from its round figure, to the north of its apparent rifing from the mountain Panium or Paneum, as was difcovered by Philip, tetrarch of Irachonitesj for on throwing ligfit bodifes into the Phiala, he found them to emerge again at Paneum (Jofephus). From Paneum it runs in a di- reCt courfe to a lake called Samachonites, as far as which it is called Jordan the Lefs; and thence to the lake BAN [ 67 ] BAN Yiati ^ke Genefaretb, or of Tiberias, where it comes in- (| creafed by the lake Samachonites and its fprings, and iDanaides js called the Greater Jordan; continuing its diredl "y courfe fouthwards, till it fall into the Afphaltites. Dan, in Ancient Geography, a town to the weft of the fource of the Jordan j formerly called Lais (Jolhua, Judges, Jofephus). This was the north, as Beertheba was the fouth, boundary of the Ifraelitesj as appears from the common expreflion in Scripture, from Dan to Beerjheba. At Dan Jeroboam erected one of the gold¬ en calves (l Kings xii). Dan, the tribe, extended itfelf weftward of Judah, and was terminated by Azotas and Dora on the Medi¬ terranean (Jofephus.) DANAE, in antiquity, a coin fomewhat more than an obolus, ufed to be put into the mouths of the dead, to pay their paffage over the river Acheron. Danae, in fabulous hiftory, was the daughter of Acrifius king of Argos, by Eurydice. She was con¬ fined in a brazen tower by her father, who had been told by an oracle that his daughter’s fon would put him to death. His endeavours to prevent Danae from becoming a mother proved fruitlefs j and Jupiter, who was enamoured of her, introduced himfelf into her bed by changing himfelf into a golden fhower. From his embraces Danae had a fon, with whom ftie was ex- pofed on the fea by her father. The wind drove the bark which carried her to the coafts of the ifland of Se- riphus, where Ihe was faved by fome fifliermen, and carried to Polydeftes king of the place, whofe bro¬ ther, called DiBys, educated the child called Per/eus, and tenderly treated the mother. Polydedtes fell in love with her •, but as he was afraid of her fon, he fent him to conquer the Gorgons, pretending that he wifh- ed Medufa’s head to adorn the nuptials which he was going to celebrate with Hippodamia the daughter of Oenomaus. When Perfeus had vidlorioufly finilhed his expedition, he retired to Argos with Danae to the houfe of Acrifius, whom he inadvertently killed. Some fuppofe that it was Proetus the brother of Acrifius who introduced himfelf to Danae in the brazen tower j and inftead of a golden fliower, it was maintained that the keepers of Danae were bribed by the gold of her feducer. Virgil mentions that Danae came to Italy with fome fugitives of Argos, and that (lie founded a city called Ardea. DANAIDES, in fabulous hiftory, the fifty daugh¬ ters of Danaus king of Argos. When their uncle I&- gyptus came from Egypt with his fifty fons, they were promifed in marriage to their coufms ; and before the celebration of their nuptials, Danaus, who had been informed by an oracle that he was to be killed by the hands of one of his fons-in-lavv, made his daughters fo- lemnly promife that they would deftroy their'hufbands. They were provided with daggers bv their father j and all except Hypermneftra ftained their hands with the blood of their coufins the fiift night of their nuptials ; . and, as a pledge of their obedience to their father’s in- jundtions, they prefented him each with the head of the murdered fons ot iEgyptus. Hypermneflra was fummoned to appear before her father, and anfwer for her difobedience in fuffering her hulband Lynceus to efcape j but the unanimous voice of the people declared her innocent, and (he dedicated a temple to the o0d- d'efs of Perfuafion. The fifters were purified of this murder by Mercury and Minerva by order of Jupiter'; DanaiJis but according to the more received opinion, they were jj condemned to fevere puniihment in hell, and were com- Dance, pelled to fill with water a veflel full of holes, fo that *“*** the water ran out as foon as poured into it j and there¬ fore their labour was infinite, and their punilhment eternal. The heads of the fons of j^Egyptus were bu¬ ried at Argos; but their bodies were left at Lerna^ where the murder had been committed. DANAUS, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Belus and Anchinoe, who, after his father’s death, reigned con¬ jointly with his brother iEgyptus on the throne of E- gypt. Some time after, a difference arofe between the brothers, and Danaus fet fail with his fifty daughters in queft of a fettlement. He vifited Rhodes, where he confecrated a ftatue to Minerva, and arrived fafe on the coaft of Peloponnefus, where he was hofpitably received by Gelanor king of Argos, Gelanor had late¬ ly afeended the throne, and the firft years of his reign were marked with diffenfions with his fubje&s. Da¬ naus took advantage of Gelanor’s unpopularity, and obliged him to leave the crown. In Gelanor, the race of the Inachidae was extinguilhed, and the Bolides be¬ gan to reign at Argos in Danaus. Some authors fay, that Gelanor voluntarily refigned the crown to Danaus, on account of the wrath of Neptune, who had dried up all the waters of Argolis, to punifti the impiety of Inachus. The fuccefs of Danaus invited the fifty fons of iEgyptus to embark for Greece. They w’ere kind¬ ly received by their uncle ; who, either apprehenfive of their number, or terrified by an oracle which threat¬ ened his ruin by one of his fons-in law, caufed his daugh¬ ters, to whom they were promifed in marriage, to mur¬ der them the firft night of their nuptials. His order ufas executed. Hypermneftra alone fpared the life of Lynceus: (See Danaides). Danaus at firft perfe- cuted Lynceus with unremitted fury ; but he was af¬ terwards reconciled to him, and he acknowledged him for his fon-in-law and fucceffor after a reign of 50 years. He began his reign about 1586 years before the Chri- ftian era; and after death he was honoured with a fplendid monument in the town of Argos, which ftill exifted in the age of Paufanias. According to IPS- chylus, Danaus left Egypt, not to be prefent at the marriage of his daughters with the fons of his bro¬ ther j a connexion which he deemed unlawful and im¬ pious. DANCE, or Dancing, as at prefent praSifed, may be defined “ an agreeable motion of the body, adjufted by art to the meafures or tone of inftruments, or of the voice.”—But, according to what fome reckon more agreeable to the true genius of the art, dancing is “ the art of expreffing the fentiments of the mind, or the paf- fions, by meafured fteps or bounds that are made in ca¬ dence, by regulated motions of the body, and by grace¬ ful geftures j all performed to the found of mufical in¬ ftruments or of the voice.” i here is no account of the origin of the pra&ice of dancing among mankind. It is found to exift among all nations whatever, even the moft rude and barbarous ; and, indeed, however much the afliftance of art may be neceffary to make any one perfedl in the pradlice, the foundation mull certainly lie in the mechanifm of the human body itfelf. The connexion that there is between certain founds I 2 and DAN [68] DAN Dance, and thofe motions of the human body called dancing, —“v—~ hath feldom or never been inquired into by philofo- phers, though it is certainly a very curious fpeculation. ’I'he power of certain founds not only over the human fpecies, but even over the inanimate creation, is indeed very fufprifing. It is well known, that the mo ft folid walls, nay the ground itielf, will be found to fhake at fome particular notes in mufic. This ftrongly indi¬ cates the prefence of fome univerfally diftufed and ex¬ ceedingly elaftie fluid, which is thrown into vibrations by the concuflions of the atmofphere upon it, produced by the motion of the founding body.—If thefe con¬ cuflions are fo ftrong as to make the large quantity of elaftic fluid vibrate that is difperfed through a ftone wall or a confiderable portion of earth, it is no won¬ der they fhould have the fame effeft upon that invifi- ble and exceedingly fubtle matter that pervades and feems to rtfide in our nerves. Some there are that have their nerves conflru&ed in fuch a manner, that they cannot be afftfled by the founds which affe£l others, and fome fcarce with any ; while others have fuch an irritability of the nerves in this cafe, that they cannot, without the greateft diffi¬ culty, fit or ftand ftill when they hear a favourite piece of mufie played. It is conie&ured by very eminent philofopbers, that all the fenfations and paffions to which we are fubjefl, do immediately depend upon the vibrations excited in the nervous fluid above mentioned. Hence, mufical founds have the greateft power over thofe people who are of a delicate fenfible frame, and who have ftrong paffions. If it be true, therefore, that every paffion in the human nature immediately depends upon a cer¬ tain affeiflion of the nervous fyftem, or a certain mo¬ tion or vibration in the nervous fluid, we ftiall immedi¬ ately fee the origin of the different dances among dif¬ ferent nations. One kind of vibration, for inftance, raifes the paffions of anger, pride, &c. which are in- difpenfably neceffary in warlike nations. The founds, for fuch there are, capable of exciting a fimilar vi¬ bration, would naturally conftitute the martial mufic among fuch nations, and dances conformable to it would be inftituted. This appears to be the cafe par¬ ticularly among barbarous nations, as we fliall prefent- ly have occafion to remark. Other vibrations of the nervous fluid produce the paffions of joy, love, &c. •, and founds capable of exciting thefe particular vibra¬ tions will immediately be formed into mufic for dan¬ cers of another kind. As barbarous people are obferved to have the ftrong- eft paffions, fo they are alfo obferved to be the moft tafily affe&ed by founds, and the moft addi&ed to dan¬ cing. Sounds to us the moft difagreeable, the drum¬ ming of fticks upon an empty cafk, or the nolle made by blowing into reeds incapable of yielding one mufi¬ cal note tolerable to us, is agreeable mufic to them. Much more are they affefted by the found^ of inftra- ments which have any thing agreeable in them. Mr Gallini informs us, that “ The fpirit of dancing pre¬ vails almoft beyond imagination among both men and women in moft parts of Africa. It is even more than inftimft, it is a rage, in fome countries of that part of the globe.—Upon the Gold coaft efpecially the inha¬ bitants are fo paffionately fond of it, that in the midft tf their hardeft labour, if they hear a perfon fing, or any mufical inftrument played, they cannot refrain from Dancer dancing.—There are even well attefted ftories of fome *—y— negroes flinging themfelves at the feet of an European playing on a fiddle, entreating him to defift, unlefs he had a mind to tire them to death $ it being impoffibla for them to Ceafe dancing while he continued playing.” The fame thing is found to take place in America, though, as the inhabitants of that continent are found to be of a more fierce and barbarous nature than the African nations, their dances are ftill more uncouth and barbarous than thofe of the negroes. “In Mexi¬ co, fays Gallini, they have alfo their dances and mu¬ fic, but in the moft uncouth and barbarous ftyle. For their fymphony they have wooden drums, fome thing in form of a kettle-drum, with a kind of pipe or fla¬ geolet, made of a hollow cane or reed, but very gra¬ ting to an European ear. It is obferved they love every thing that makes a noife, how difagreeable fo- ever the found is. They will alfo hum over fomething like a tune when they dance 30 or 40 in a circle,, ftretching cut their hands, and laying them on each others fhoulders. They ftamp and jump, and ufe the moft antic geftures for feveral hours, till they are hear¬ tily weary. And one or two of the company fome- times ftep out of the rings to make fport for the reft, by fhowing feats of a&ivity, throwing their lances up into the air, catching them again, bending backwards, and fpringing forwards with great agility.” The origin of dancing among the Greeks w'as moft certainly the fame as among all other nations •, but as they proceeded a certain length in civilization, their dances were of confequence more regular and agree¬ able than thofe of the more barbarous nations. They reduced dancing into a kind of regular fyftem j and had dances proper for exciting, by means of the fympathy above mentioned, any paflion whatever in the minds of the beholders. In this way they are faid to have pro¬ ceeded very great lengths, to us abfolutely incredible. At Athens it is faid, that the dance of the Eumeni- des or Furies on the theatre had fo expreffive a cha- rafter as to ftrike the fpe&ators with irrefiftible terror: men grown old in the profeffion of arms trembled; the multitude ran out j women with child mifearried j people imagined they faw in earneft thofe terrible dei¬ ties commiffioned with the vengeance of heaven topur- fue and punifti crimes upon earth. The Greeks had martial dances, which they reckon¬ ed to be very ufeful for keeping up the warlike fpirit of their youth ; but the Romans, though equally war¬ like with the Greeks, never had any thing of the kind. This probably may be owing to the want of that ro¬ mantic turn for which the Greeks were fo remarkable. 1 he Romans had no heroes among them, fuch as Her¬ cules, Achilles, or Ajax ; nor does the whole Roman, hiftory furnifh an example of a general that made war after the manner of Alexander the Great. Though their foldiers were as valiant as ever the Greeks could pretend to be, the objeff with them was the honour of the republic, and not their own perfonal praife. Hence there was lefs fury, and much more cool deliberate va¬ lour, exercifed by the Romans than any other nation whatever. 1 he paffions of pride, refentment, obftinacy, &c. w'ere excited in them, not by the mechanical means of mufic and dancing, but by being taught that it w’as their chief honour to fight for the republic. It dees- no- _ Dance. DAN [ 69 ] DAN not however appear, that the Romans were at all lefs capable of being affe£led in this mechanical manner than the Greeks. When dancing was once introduced, it had the very fame efFefts at Rome as at Athens. Among the Jews, dancing feems to have made a part of the religions vvoriliip on fome occafions, as we learn from fome paffages in the Pfalms, though we do not find either that or tinging pofitively enjoined as a divine precept. In the Chriflian churches mentioned in the New Teftament, there is no account of dancing being introduced as an aft of worfliip, though it is cer¬ tain that it was ufed as fuch in after ages. Mr Gal- lini tells us, that “ at Limoges, not long ago, the people ufed to dance the round in the choir of the church which is undej- the invocation of their patron faint ; and at the end of each pfalm, inftead of the Gloria Patri, they fung as follows: St Marcel, pray for us, and we will dance in honour of youl"—Though dancing would now be looked upon as the higheft de¬ gree of profanation in a religious aflembly, yet it is certain, that dancing, confidered as an expreflion of ioy, is no more a profanation than finging, or than fimple fpeaking-, nor can it be thought in the lead; more abfurd, that a Chriftian (hould dance for joy that Jefus Chrift is rifen from the dead, than that David danced before the ark when it was returned to him after a long abfence. Plato reduces the dances of the ancients to three claffes. 1. The military dances, which tended to make the body rebuff, aftive, and well difpofed for all the exercifes of war. 2. The domeftic dances, which had for their objeft an agreeable and innocent relaxation and amufement. 3. The mediatorial dances, which ■were in ufe in expiations and facrifices.—Of military dances there were two forts : the gymnopedique dance, or the dance of children •, and the enoplian, or armed dance. The Spartans had invented the firfl for an early excitation of the courage of their children, and to lead them on infenfibly to the exercife of the armed dance. This children’s dance ufed to be executed in the public place. It was compofed of two choirs j the one of grown men, the other of children : whence, be¬ ing chiefly defigned for the latter, it took its name. They w'ere both of them in a flate of nudity. The choir of the children regulated their motions by thofe of the men, and all danced at the fame time, finging the poems of Thales, Aleman, and Dionyfodotus.— The enoplian or pyrrhic wras danced by young men armed cap-a-pee, who executed, to the found of the flute, all the proper movements either for attack or for defence. It was compofed of four parts.—The firtl the padiftn or footing 5 which confifted in a quick fhifting motion of the feet, fuch as was neceffary for overtaking a flying enemy, or for getting away from him when an overmatch.—The fecond part was the xiphifm : this was a kind of mock fight, in which the dancers imitated all the motions of combatants ; aim¬ ing a ilroke, darting a javelin, or dexteroufly dodging, parrying, or avoiding a blow or thruft. The third part, called the homos, confifted in very high leaps or vaultings, which the dancers frequently repeated for the better ufing themfelves occafionally to leap over a ditch, or fpring over a wall. The tetracomos was the fourth and laft part : this was a fquare figure, execu¬ ted. by flow and majeftic movements j but it is uncer¬ tain whether this was everywhere executed in the fame Dance, manner. < Of all the Greeks, the Spartans were thofe who moft cultivated the Pyrrhic dance. Athenaeus relates, that they had a law by which they Avere obliged to exercife their children at it from the age of five years. This warlike people conftantly retained the cuftom of accom¬ panying their dances Avith hymns and fongs. The following Avas fung for the dance called tnehona, faid to be inftituted by Lycurgus, and which had its name from its being compofed of three choirs, one of children, another of young men, and the third of old. The old men opened the dance, faying, “ In time paft Ave were valiant.” The young men anfwered, “ We are fo at prefent.” “ We (hall ftill be more fo whea our time comes,” replied the chorus of children. The Spartans never danced but Avith real arms. In procefs of time, however, other nations came to ufe only Avea- pons of wood on fuch occafions. Nay, it Avas only fo late as the days of Athenseus, Avho lived in the fecond century, that the dancers of the Pyrrhic, inftead of arms, carried only ftafks, ivy-bound Avands (thyrfus) or reeds. But even in Ariftotle’s days, they had be¬ gun to ufe thyrfufes inftead of pikes, and lighted tor¬ ches in lieu of javelins and fvvords. With thefe torches they executed a dance called the conflagration of the world. Of the dances for amufement and recreation, foras were but (imply gambols, or fport*iAre exercifes, Avhicl» had no charafter of imitation, and of Avhich the greater part exift to this day. The others Avere more complex, more agreeable, figured, and were always accompanied. Avith finging. Among the firft or fimple ones aaas the afcoliafmus ; which confifted in jumping, Avith one foot only, on bladders filled with air or Avine, and rub¬ bed on the outfide Avith oil. The dypodium was jumped Avith both feet clofe. The hybejlefs Avas what is called in this country the fomerfet.— Of the fecond kind Avas that called the wine-prefs, of which there is a defeription in Longinus, and the Ionian dances : thefe laft, in the. original of their inftitution, had nothing but what was decent and modeft j but, in time, their movements came to be fo depraved, as to be employed in expref- fing nothing but voluptuoufnefs, and even the groffeft obfeenity. Among the ancients there Avere no feftivals nor reli¬ gious aflemblies but Avhat were accompanied Avith fongs and dances It Avas not held poflible to celebrate any myftery, or to be initiated, Avithout the intervention of thefe' two arts. In (hort, they Avere looked upon to be fo effential in thefe kinds of ceremonies, that to exprefs the crime of fuch as A\?ere guilty of revealing the facred inyfteries, they employed the word hheifee, “ to be out of the dance.” The moft ancient of thefe religious dances is the Bacchic ; which Avas not only confecrated to Bacchus, but to all the deities Avhofe feftival Avas ce¬ lebrated Avith a kind of enthufiafm. The moft grave and majeftic Avas the hyporchematic; it was executed to the lyre, and accompanied with the voice. At his re¬ turn from Crete, Thefeus inftituted a dance at Avhich he himfelf aflifted at the head of a numerous and fplen- did band of youths, round the altar of Apollo. The dance Avas compofed of three parts: ihzjlrophe, the an* tiftrophe, and the fationary. In the ftrophe, the move¬ ments were from the right to the left} in the antifiro- phe,_ BAN Bance. phe, from the left to the right. In the flationary, they — danced before the altar j fo that the ftationary did not mean an abfolute paufe or reft, but only a more flow or grave movement. Plutarch is perfuaded, that in this dance there is a profound myftery. He thinks, that by the ftrophe is indicated the motion of the world from eaft to weft 5 by the antiftrophe, the motion of the pla¬ nets from the weft to the eaft ; and by the ftationary, the liability of the earth. To this dance Thefeus gave the name of geranos, or “ the crane j” becaufe the fi¬ gures which charafterifed it bore a refemblance to thofe defcribed by cranes in their flight. With regard to the modern praflrce of dancing as an art, there are few diredtions that can be of much fer- vice. The following is extracted from Mr Gallini’s defcription of the feveral fteps or movements. “ rhe dancing (fays he) is generally on a theatre, or in a faloon or room. At the theatre there are four parts to be confidered. 1. The neareft front to the fpe&ators. 2, and 3. The two fides or wings. 4. The fartheft front from the fpedlators. “ a faloon or room, the place in which are the fpedlators decides the appellation refpedlively to them of right and left. The dancer Ihould place himfelf in as advantageous a point of view to them as poflible. “ In the dance itfelf, there are to be dillinguilhed, the attitude of the body, the figure, the pofition, the bends, the rifings or leaps, the fteps, the cabriole, the fallings, the Hides, the turns of the body, the ca¬ dences. 1 he attitude of the body requires the prefenting one’s felf in the moft graceful manner to the com¬ pany. “ Thenar* is to follow the track prefcribed to the fteps in the dance. “ pofition is that of the varied attitudes, which muft be at once ftriking and eafy, as alfo of the diffe¬ rent exertions offthe legs and feet in dancing. “ The bends are inflexions of the knees, of the body, of the head, of the arms. “ The rifings are the contrail to the bends, the ex¬ tension of the knee. One of thefe two motions hecef. farily precedes the other. “ The fiep is the motion by the foot or feet from one place to another. . ** The leap is executed by fpringing up in the air 5 it begins with a bend, and proceeds with a quick ex- tenfion of the legs, fo that both feet quit the ground. “ The cabriole is the crofling, or cutting of capers, during the leap, before the return of the feet to the ground. “ falling is the return of the feet to the ground by the natural gravitation of the body. The Jlide is the aXion of moving the foot along the ground without quitting it. v The turn is the motion of the body towards either fide, or quite round. The cadence is the knowledge of the different mea- fures, and of the times of movement the moft marked in the mufic. “ The track is the line marked by the dance : it may be either ftraight or curve, and ft fufceptible of all the inflexions correfpondent to the various defigns of the compofer. There are the right, the diametral line, the circular line, and the oblique line. The right t 70 ] DAN line is that which goes lengthwife, reckoning frotn one end of the room towards the other. The diametral line is acrofs the room, from one fide to the other. The circular line is waving, or undulatory, from one place to another. 1 he oblique line proceeds obliquely from one quarter of the room towards another.—-Each of thefe lines may direXly or feparately form the dancer’s track, diverfified with fteps and pofitions. “ The regular figure is when two or more dancers move in contrary direXions ; that is to fay, that when one moves towards the right, the other moves to the left. The irregular line is when the couples figuring together are both on the fame fide. “ Commonly the man gives the right hand to the lady in the beginning or ending of the dance, as we fee in the minuet, louvre, &e. “ When a great number of dancers figure together, they are to execute the figure agreeably to the coropo- fition of the dance, with fpecial attention to keep an eye conftantly on the partner. When, in any given dance, the dancers have danced for fome time in the fame place, the track is only to be confidered as the conduXor of \.befieps, but not of the figure ; but when the dance continues, without being confined to the fame place, then the track muft be confidered as the conduXor both of the fteps and of the figure. “ Now, to obferve the figure, the dancer muft have placed himfelf at the beginning of the track upon which he is to dance, and comprehend the figure before he himfelf begins it. He is to remark and conceive whether the figure is right, diametrical, circular, or ob¬ lique ; if it is progreflive or retrogreflive, or towards the right or left. He ftiould have the air played or fung to him, to underftand the movement.—Where the tracks crofs one another, the fteps of each of the couples muft leave a fufficient diftance between them not to confufe the figure. . “ There are commonly reckoned ten kinds of pofi¬ tions, which are divided into true and fa/fe, five each.—* There are three principal parts of the foot to be obfer- ved ; the toes, the heel, and the ancle. “ The true pofitions are when the two feet are in a certain uniform regularity, the toes turned equally out¬ ward's.—The falfe are divided into regular and irregu¬ lar. They differ from the true, in that the toes are either both turned inwards; or if the toes of one foot are turned outwards, the others are turned inwards. In the firft of the true pofitions, the heels of the two feet are clofe together, fo that they touch : the toes being turned out. In the fecond, the two feet are open m the fame line, fo that the diftance between the two heels is precifely the length of one foot. In the third, the heel of one foot is brought to the ancle o; the otfher’ or feeI«s to lock in with it. In the fourth the two feet are the one before the other a foot’s length diftance between the two heels, which are on the fame, line. In the fifth, the two feet are acrofs, the one be¬ fore the other j fo that the heel of one foot is direXly oppolite to the toes of the other. J “ In the firfl of the falfe pofitions, the toes of both feet are turned inwards fo that they touch, the heels being open. 1 he fecond is, when the teet are afunder at a foot s diftance between the toes of each, which are turned inward, the heels being on a line. The third is when the toes of one foot are turned outwards, the other Banes, DAN [ Dance, other inwards, fo that the two feet form a parallel. — The fourth is, when the toes of the two feet are turn¬ ed inwards j but the toes of one foot are brought near¬ er the ancle of the other. The fifth is, when the toes of the two feet are turned inwards, but the heel of one foot is oppofite to the toes of the other. “ There are mixed pofitions, compofed of the true and falfe in combination j which admit of fuch infinite variety, and are in their nature fo unfufceptible of de- fcription by words, that it is only the fight of the per¬ formance that can give any tolerable idea of them. “ Of the bends of the knee there are two kinds j the one Jimple, the other/orm/. The fimple bend is an infledHon of the knees without moving the heel, and is executed with the foot flat on the ground. The forced bend is made on the toes with more force and lower. “ Much is to be obferved on the head of Jfeps. Firft, not to make any movement before having put the body in an upright pofture, firm on the haunches. “ Begin with the infle&ion of the knee and thigh ; advance one leg foremoft, with the whole foot on the ground, laying the ftrefs of the body on the advanced leg. “ There are fome who begin the ftep by the point of the toes 5 but that has an air of theatrical afifedfa- tion. Nothing can be more noble than a graceful eafe and dignity of flep. The quantity of fteps ufed in dancing are almoft innumerable ; they are neverthelefs -reducible under five denominations, which may ferve well enough to give a general idea of the different movements that may be made by the leg; viz. the di- rea ftep, the open ftep, the circular ftep, the twifttd ftep, and the cut ftep. i he direEl ftep is when the foot goes upon a n’oht line, either forwards or backwards. “ The open ftep is when the legs open. Of this ftep there are three kinds j one when they open outwards • another, when, defcribing a kind of circle, they form an in-knee’d figure ; a third, when they open fidewife : this is a fort of right ftep, becaufe the figure is in a right line. “ The round is when the foot, in its motion, makes a circular figure, either inwards or outwards. . “ Ti,e twifted ^, or pas torti//e, is when the foot in its motion turns in and out. There are three kinds of this ftep; one forwards, another backwards, and the third fidelong. n ■! ftep is when one leg or foot comes to ftnke againft the other. There are alfo three forts of this ftep ; backwards, and fidelong. The fteps may be accompanied with bendings rilings, leaps, cabrioles, fallings, Hidings, the foot in the air, the tip-toe, the reft on the heel, quarter turns, halt-turns, three-quarter turns, and whole turns. “ There may be pratfifed three kinds of bends, or mkmgs, in the fteps ; viz. bending before the ftep proceeds, in the aft of ftepping, and at the laft of the Heps. “ The beginning or initial fink-pace is at the firft letting oft, on advancing the leg. “ i he bend in the aft of ftepping continues the march or walk. “ The final fink-pace clofes the march. 71 ] ban “ The rifing is juft the reverfe of the bend, or fink- TWe pace, which fhall have preceded it. - ^ ’3 “ Sumti great mafters in the art of dancing, having obferved that mufic, which is infeparabie from it, was capable of being preferved and conveyed bv the mufi- cal charaiters, imagined by analogy, that the like ad¬ vantage could be procured to the compofiiion of dan¬ cers. Upon this plan they attempt what is called the chorography, an art which they fuppoie was either utterly unknown to the ancients, or not tranfmitted to us from them. “ It may indeed be eafily allowed, that the track or figure ot a dance may be determined by writing or en¬ graved lines; but thefe lines will neceffarily appear fa- perplexing, fo intricate, fo difficult, if not impoffible to ieize in their various relations, that they are only fit to difguft and difcoutage, without the poflibility of their conveying a fatisfadory or retainable inftru&ion hence it is, that the article Chorography in the r rench Encyclopedic is univerfally exploded as unintel¬ ligible and ufelefs: though nothing more than an ele¬ mentary indication of the art; and an explanation, luch as it is, of fome of the technical terms of it.” Stage-DANCES. I'he Greeks were the firft who uni¬ ted the dance to their tragedies and comedies ; not in¬ deed as making part of thofe fpedfacles, but merely as an accefiary. J The Romans, as ufual, copied after the Greeks: but in the reign of Auguftus they left their inftruaors far behind them, d wo very extraordinary men made their appearance at that time : they invented a new fpecies of entertainment, and carried it to an aftoniffi- ing degree of perfe&ion. Nothing was then talked of brut *1fJwonderful tale»ts and amazing performances of i vlades and Bathylus, who were the firft to in¬ troduce among the Romans what the French call the ballet d'aflion, wherein the performer is both aflor and dancer. Pylades undertook the hard talk of reprefentino- with the affiftance of the dance alone, ftrong and pa¬ thetic fituations. He fucceeded perhaps beyond his own expe(Ration, and may be called the father of that ftyle ot dancing which is known to us by the name of grave or ferious pantomime. Bathylus, an Alexandrian and a Freedman of Me- cenas, took upon himfelf to reprefent fuch fubje